Compare the impact of plague, warfare and fire on British towns between 1349 and 1700

British towns between 1349 and 1700 undertook, a large period of urban growth, particularly in its metropolis, London, whose population in 1642 was nearly 400,000, which in national terms, was nearly twenty times larger than any other city. This development leads to many social and economic problems. Disease became rife, including plagues re-occurring throughout this time frame, due to the large gathering of people and little sanitation preparation. London had epidemics throughout 1603, 1625 and 1636. The growth of London leads to poverty, both within and outside of London. The large accumulation of people in British towns made, them more susceptible to natural disasters, like fires, and this threat was further heightened by warfare. For essence of time and space, this essay will look to compare, the major impacting plagues, warfare and fire on British towns, analysing the severity of their impact, and their similarities and differences. The events this essay will highlight specifically are the 14th Century Black Death, the 17th Century fires of London and Oxford. As well as the 17th Century English Civil War. During, early 14th Century, specifically the year 1300, the population of London is estimated to be around 80-100,000. Smaller towns, in the urban hierarchy had less, for example Norwich, is approximated to have around 17,000 inhabitants in 1311, and 25,000 in 13331. Historian Richard Britnell suggests that we use the town of Winchester as an estimation of population around the 14 th Century by assessing those towns with taxable value in 1334. Winchester had a population of 10,000. Britnell goes on to estimate that around 15 towns, including London were likely to have had 10,000 or more people living in them around the 1300s, around 10 per cent of Englands population, while still not taking into account small market towns2. Naturally with any large accumulation of people the chance of illness and disease spreading is increased, and the urban development of towns heightened this. Britnell, states that nothing in English towns previous history compares with the Black Death, in the suddenness, or severity of its impact. The biggest impact that the Black Death had on towns was obviously the mortality rate. In the countries central metropolis, London, a single churchyard, was reported to have received more than 50,000 bodies in the year 1371 alone, while some 22 years earlier during the Black Death peak, an average of 200 people were buried every day for around 2 months3. In London, 1348, was as high as, 100, 000, theres likely over 50,000 deaths in the city as a whole. Within the first 6 months of 1349, approximately 57,000 people in Norwich had died. The population of Norwich had fell from around 25,000 in 1333 to 7,500 in 1337. Amounting to over half the citys

1 2

Richard Britnell, The Black Death in English Towns, Urban History, 21 (2009), p.195. Britnell, The Black Death in English Towns, p.195. 3 Britnell, The Black Death in English Towns, p.198-199.

population, this was also the case nationwide. The method of attaining this information comes from wills around 1349, meaning the figures cannot be in any way exact or precise, but we can gather enough information from them to understand the total severity and destruction that the plague caused. Another way in which, the Black Death, Plague impacted British towns were through clerical organizations. In Winchester, 6 Parish Churches were abandoned, as a direct result of the plague, while 4 in Norwich suffering the same fate4. Any church restoration had ceased due to the plague. The main factor that differs The Black Death from other epidemics was that fact that it was nationwide, there was little difference between town and country, it was impact was universal, this differs, for example with fires within Britain, because fires, while severe, and occurring across many towns, were contained within these towns. Similarly, when looking at war, the effect it had on towns in retained was subjective to towns themselves. 14th century plague, however, was total destruction. Urban authorities had difficulty dealing with the problem because there were very little health and safety regulations and by the time, the plague hit, there was no time to implement any, as the damage was done. In general body disposal was no handled by any form of government, but instead by churches and individuals, significantly straining resources. A large impact was had on towns, due to death of administrative officers, or governmental officials, as Britnell points out. Many duties were suspended. However, despite this, towns were not in total disarray and still remained orderly to an extent, Britnell points out that almost a third of all burials were in a coffin5 , while trenches were orderly dug and organized. One consequence that the plague of the 14th century had was that towns became more oligarchic. Many wealthy craftsmen would buy property that had been abandoned, through death, or an attempt to escape towns, this led to more power and property being in less in hands within Britain. The development of urban towns, also added to the development of accidental fires. The fires, which impacted British towns, the most occurred during the 17th century when town population was large, examples of these fires, include as Stephen Porter points out., Bury St Edmunds, in 1608, Tiverton in 1612, Dorchester in 1613 and 1623, Stratford-upon-Avon in 1614 and 1641, Wymondham in 1615, Banbury in 1628 and at Yeovil in 16406. Not forgetting, the three most documents fires of Oxford in 1644, London in 1666 and Warwick in 1694. The main cause of fires, throughout this period was building structures being made of combustible materials, namely timber and thatch. Partnered with inadequate chimney systems and large stock piles of flammable substances like fuel or hay. As well as, there simply being large congestions of buildings due to urban growth, which could easily spread fire throughout a town.

4 5

Britnell, The Black Death in English Towns, p.201. Britnell, The Black Death in English Towns, p.205. 6 Stephen Porter, The Oxford Fire of 1644, Oxoniensa, 49 (1984), p.289.

Unlike, with the many plague epidemics, there were preventative measures that town officials could enforce, such as roofs being made of slate or tile, and chimneys being swept, at least 4 times a year 7. Fines and penalties were given if houses were not in compliance. These measures were attempted through legislation like The Common Councils Acts and Ordinances, issued in 1582. However, such measures were never effectively enforced, for example, it was difficult to force reroofing amongst poor house holders, as the price of slate or tile was overwhelming. Further attempts to restrict damage came through the implementation of fire trucks in the 1630, as well as fire buckets, and ladders, to be kept exclusively for use in a fire. Similarly to the plague, many people saw, the spread of fires as an act of divine intervention. The Plague epidemic in 1665, that had killed roughly one fifth of Londoners, was seen as divine punishment, was seen as an act of a vengeful god, and puritans like Thomas Reeve, Daniel Baker, and Quaker Humphrey Smith, and anticipated further action8. Differing, from the likes of plague, mortality rates were not the most damaging impact on towns throughout the 17th Century fires. Referring to the London fire of 1666, Clergyman Thomas Vincent stated, The Firecame on so slowly that most of the inhabitants of London had time to remove themselves9. Only six people were reported killed as a result of the London fire10. The main impact the fire had on British towns, was lost of building and wealth. According, to Porter, at least 65,000 and perhaps almost 80,000 Londoners were made homeless; for many of them the destruction of their homes was a shattering blow11. Bulky goods, like oil, timber and coal were lost. Severely damaging the economy in London, the hub of the country. The value of buildings, trade and household good destroyed, according to Porter is almost 8 million, approximating to 900 million pounds in todays standards. However, while affecting the economy, the fire of London only affected 1/5th of London. It could be said that Fires, had a less direct impact on Britain as a whole, comparatively to plague and warfare. The act of warfare that impacted British towns the most was the English Civil War between the periods of 1642-1651. Not only did the civil war directly impact British towns, it was also the catalyst for many of the aforementioned fires that were devastating to the economy. In towns like Oxford, accommodating soldiers were considerable. In 1664, townspeople in Oxford complained that because of billeting of officers and soldiers, they could not be rehoused12. Overcrowded conditions meant that chances of fire were increased. For example, fires were lit in rooms that were not suitable 13. Dissatisfaction with soldiers can be seen in the Oxford fire, where it was reported that the fire was

7 8

Porter, The Oxford Fire, p.289. Stephen Porter, The Great Fire of London, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. (2007) 9 Porter, The Great Fire of London 10 Porter, The Great Fire of London 11 Porter, The Great Fire of London 12 Porter, The Oxford Fire, p.291. 13 Porter, The Oxford Fire, p.291.

caused by a Soldier roasting a stolen pig without proper care, although the real causes were most likely unknown14. The increase of people due to soldiers occupying towns meant that for townspeople there was an increase in demand for food and drink, which also meant an increase in activity for bakers and brewers. In some regards, this could lead to an improvement in the economy, as it meant more work. However, these increased stocks of fuel and corn in such towns, which lead to fire hazards, and any wealth gained, was often lost through subsequent fires. Nevertheless, there was still some scope for success throughout the civil war period, in London, particularly. London was only ever held by one side during the Civil War and never besieged. This meant that it was an attractive proposition for those who wished to find a safe haven, and refuge from their towns. As Porter points out City merchants in London could use their business acumen to make advantage of the growing demands of the army through avenue like purchasing cloth and equipment to cloth the armies as well as employing armourers, leatherworker, shoemakers, clothiers, cutlers, gun makers, blacksmiths, carpenters and other traders15 Before continuing that London tradesmen received orders worth a minimum of 500,000 between 1642 and 164616 However, the positive effects of trade were outshot by the negative. Crucial to economic development were apprentices, whose absence had a disruptive effect and an unwillingness to serve despite attempts by government to close shops so that tradesmen who had gone with the army wouldnt lose out to rival businesses, however, this just worsened trade as a whole. Reduced labour meant reduced supply of food cloth and labour, impacting towns heavily17 and causing food shortages in London as early as 164318 In Newcastle, only 3000 tons of coal was left in 1644 against a pre-war figure of 450,000 tons a year19. As well as industrial decline, there was also a service sector decline, for example, the legal profession was suffering from a loss of business because fewer courts were open20. It is often thought that the majority of towns were sympathetic to the parliamentary cause. This was not necessarily the case however. Roger Howell, argues that the pattern in which towns responded to crisis was far from simple21 Another impact that the civil war had on citizens was a political difference, while some supported the parliamentary cause, others, disagreed. Newcastle upon Tyne for example was an establishment of tight oligarchy, where royalist and crown ideas were accepted.
14 15

Porter, The Oxford Fire, p.293. Stephen Porter, The Economical and Social Impact of the Civil War upon London in Porter, London and the Civil War. (London, 1996), p.178. 16 Porter, The Economical and Social Impact of the Civil War, p.178. 17 Porter, The Economical and Social Impact of the Civil War, p.182. 18 Porter, The Economical and Social Impact of the Civil War, p.184. 19 Barry Coward, London and the English Civil War Lecture Given at Birbeck College, (2007) 20 Porter, The Economical and Social Impact of the Civil War, p.188. 21 Roger Howell, Neutralism, Conservatism and Political Alignment in the English Revolution, in Morrill, Reactions to the English Civil War. (London, 1982)p.71.

Whereas in the less monopolized cities like Norwich, had a completely different political outlook22. In many regards, the civil war impacted Britain by creating a country divided, both politically and religiously, between to different groups of protestants. Protestant unity splintered during the civil war, some separate from the parochial structure, some seeing diversity within a national ecclesiastical structure, a divide with would far later on lead to denominations like Baptists and independents23. To conclude, Plague, Fire and Warfare, all had significantly negative impact on British towns throughout the period of 1349-1700. Plague consistently hit British towns, throughout this time period. In 1563, 17,404 out of 20,372 burials were directly attributed to plague24. However, the 14th Century Black Death had the biggest impact, attributing to the death of half of the nations population. Unlike many cases of fire, the impact of plague was nationwide and mortality was central. Fires were more regions based, and thus easier to analyse. Cynthia Wall writes that the fire of London heightened a larger sense of cultural, religious, and political insecurity25. This was perhaps because unlike, the plague, Fire was at least somewhat preventable however, it was not effectively managed. Fire led to the homelessness of the population, and alongside the Civil War, significantly, worsened the economy, while making many towns more oligarchic. The War lead to a breakdown of government functioning, destroyed many houses, and extra taxes further lead to a breakdown of the economy26. Political and religious strains and divisions opened up. Trade and industry became unsure, and many people took a fatalist attitude and accepted the economic slump, like they had previously accepted plague or fire27. Armed men forced entry into peoples homes without necessarily paying, while wrecking the house and using up resources, further leading to poverty within the country28. The Civil War also furthered the development of fires. All three of these catastrophes, share similarities, like a divergence of religious and politically ideology. However, more apparent is the fact each of them bring an separate way to negatively impact British Towns, which collectively worsened the lives of British people between 1349-1770.

22

Roger Howell, Neutralism, Conservatism and Political Alignment in the English Revolution, in Morrill, Reactions to the English Civil War. (London, 1982)p.69. 23 Coward, London and the English Civil War 24 Paul Slack, Metropolitan Government in Crisis: The Response to Plague, in Beier & Finlay, London. (London, 1986), p.62. 25 Cynthia Wall, The Cultural Spaces of Restoration London. (Cambridge, 1998), p.4. 26 Howell, Political Alignment in the English Revolution., p.78. 27 Donald Pennington, The War and the People, in in Morrill, Reactions to the English Civil War. (London, 1982)p.114. 28 Pennington, The War and the People, p.188.

Bibliography 1. Appleby, B. Andrew. The Disappearance of Plague: A Continuing Puzzle. The Economic History Review. 33(1980): 161-173. 2. Britnell, Richard. The Black Death in English Towns. Urban History. 21(2009): 195-210. 3. Coward, Barry. London and The English Civil War. A lecture given at Birkbeck College. 2007. 4. Howell, Jr.Roger. Neutralism, Conservatism and Political Alignment in the English Revolution: The Case of the Towns, 1642-9,chp.3 in Morrill, Reactions to the English Civil War 1642-1649. London, 1982. 5. Howell, Jr. Roger. The Structure of Urban Politics in the English Civil War. Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 11(1979): 111-127. 6. Pennington, Donald. The War and the People, chp.5 in Morrill, Reactions to the English Civil War 1642-1649. London, 1982. 7. Porter, Stephen. Property Destruction in the English Civil Wars History Today. 36(1986) Online edn. Accessed, 27/11/2010. 8. Porter, Stephen. The Economic and Social Impact of the Civil War upon London, chp.7 in Porter, London and The Civil War. London, 1996. 9. Porter Stephen. The Great Fire of London. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Online edn. Oxford University Press, 2007. Accessed, 27/11/2010. 10. Porter, Stephen. The Oxford Fire of 1644 Oxoniensa. 49(1984): 291-300. 11. Slack, Paul. Metropolitan Government in Crisis: The Response to Plague, in Beier & Finlay, London. London, 1986. 12. Sutherland, Ian. When was the Great Plague? Mortality in London 1563-1665, in Glass & Revelle (eds.), Population & Social Change. London, 1972. 13. Wall, Cynthia. The Literary and Cultural Spaces of Restoration London. Cambridge, 1998.