Power Quality Implications of Overcompensated System

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Power Quality Implications of Overcompensated System
1001683
Power Quality Implications of Overcompensated Systems

1001683
Technical Update, February 2003
EPRI Project Manager A. Sundaram
EPRI 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 USA 800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM: (A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT, INCLUDING MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTY'S INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS DOCUMENT IS SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USER'S CIRCUMSTANCE; OR (B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT. ORGANIZATION THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT EPRI PEAC Corporation
This is an EPRI Technical Update report. A Technical Update report is intended as an informal report of continuing research, a meeting, or a topical study. It is not a final EPRI technical report.
ORDERING INFORMATION
Requests for copies of this report should be directed to EPRI Orders and Conferences, 1355 Willow Way, Suite 278, Concord, CA 94520, (800) 313-3774, press 2 or internally x5379, (925) 609-9169, (925) 609-1310 (fax). Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. EPRI. ELECTRIFY THE WORLD is a service mark of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. Copyright 2003 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
CITATIONS
This report was prepared by EPRI PEAC Corporation 942 Corridor Park Blvd. Knoxville, TN 37932 Principal Investigator W. Grady B. Johnson C. Perry A. Mansoor This report describes research sponsored by EPRI. The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner: Power Quality Implications of Overcompensated Systems, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2003. 1001683.
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REPORT SUMMARY
Background Electric utility companies are under pressure to correct feeder power factors, to minimize losses, and improve voltage regulation. These objectives cannot be met for end-use customers using only substation capacitors. Rather, switched capacitors and line-regulating transformers must be distributed along the feeder, correcting power factors and voltages at locations as close to the loads as possible. But power-factor correction, loss minimization, and voltage regulation are not the only considerations in reactive power compensation. Switched capacitors cause ringing transients that can trip adjustable-speed drives. Once energized, a capacitor bank may interact with the inductive components of the power system to form a tuned circuit that resonates at an unfortunate frequency. This may cause voltage distortions when nonlinear loads inject harmonic currents at the tuned frequency. A second consideration is that of the propagation of capacitor switching transients when more and larger capacitor banks are present on feeders. There are many cases of capacitor-switching problems documented in the literature. Furthermore, there has been speculation that system damping will be reduced with overcompensation, allowing ringing transients to propagate greater distances and affect a larger number of sensitive loads such as adjustable-speed drives (ASDs). Objective To identify the potential benefits of using high levels of capacitive shunt compensation in a distribution system To investigate detrimental effects that are related to high levels of shunt compensation, particularly those relating to power quality To demonstrate the capabilities of selected analytical tool that can be used to study these problems To describe the capabilities and limitations of other engineering tools that can be used to design and analyze distribution compensation
Approach The report begins by indicating some of the benefits of capacitive shunt compensation and why connecting capacitors to the distribution system can be particularly advantageous. It then discusses the potential problems related to increased levels of compensation. A variety of analytical methods and software packages are available for analyzing distribution systems with capacitors. The report gives a brief overview of some of these methods. The report also considers several analytical techniques that may be used to select the best locations and sizes for distribution-system capacitor banks. v
Results For several reasons, the level of capacitive shunt compensation in distribution systems may be increased significantly in the coming decades. The inductive components of the power system impedance may interact with a capacitor bank during normal operation to form a tuned circuit. If the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit coincides with the frequency of the harmonic current injected into the system, the normally sinusoidal voltage waveforms may be distorted. In most situations, third-harmonic currents produced by single-phase loads and transformer magnetizing pose no threat because feeders are not resonant near the third harmonic. However, high levels of capacitive compensation may move the resonant point to the third harmonic, giving cause for concern. Feeders with distributed capacitor banks have many resonant frequencies, and their frequency responses depend on voltage class and load level. In the simulations performed using actual test systems, it appears that average voltage distortion levels on feeders pass through several peaks and valleys as the power factor is corrected from 0.90 to 1.00 and then on to 0.95 leading. The frequency at which the impedance reaches a minimum may be as important as the resonant peak. Many devices that produce harmonic currents also have filters that are designed to shunt the harmonic currents to ground. If the system impedance at characteristic harmonics is low, the harmonic currents may enter the system instead of being shunted to ground by the filters. Simulations indicate that as the total amount of shunt capacitance increases, the overshoot due to switching in each additional identical bank is relatively unchanged, but the ringing frequency is lowered, and the transient takes longer to decay. Also, more switching operations will probably be required with increased levels of compensation. Because the voltage transients will be more frequent and last longer, it is likely that increased levels of capacitive compensation will aggravate the power quality problems related to capacitor switching. EPRI Perspective By providing utilities with a clear assessment of using more shunt-connected capacitor banks in the distribution system, EPRI enables utilities to evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of increasing the level of load compensation. Increased use of capacitive compensation that is strategically located may benefit utilities and their customers by increasing the power-transfer and improving power quality. Keywords Capacitors Distribution Power quality Overcompensation Placement Harmonics
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EPRI Licensed Material
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1-1 The Benefits of Adding Shunt Compensation in the Distribution System.......................................1-1 Adding Capacitors to the Distribution System Instead of the Transmission System ........................1-2 Limitations on Shunt Compensation ..........................................................................................1-3 Report Organization .................................................................................................................1-4 2 IMPACT OF OVERCOMPENSATION ON CAPACITOR SWITCHING TRANSIENTS .......2-1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................2-1 Simulation Software and Methodology ......................................................................................2-1 Description of the Test System ..................................................................................................2-1 Simulation Results ...................................................................................................................2-4 3 IMPACT OF OVERCOMPENSATION ON HARMONIC RESONANCE AND VOLTAGE DISTORTION .........................................................................................................3-1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................3-1 Simulation Software and Methodology ......................................................................................3-2 Description of the Test Cases ....................................................................................................3-6 Simulation Results ...................................................................................................................3-8 Results of Type A Simulations ..................................................................................................3-9 Results of Type B Simulations ................................................................................................3-10 4 INCORPORATING PQ SCREENING CRITERIA IN DISTRIBUTION CAPACITOR PLACEMENT ALGORITHMS ..................................................................................................4-1 Optimization of Capacitor Placement Using Distribution Feeder Analysis Software .......................4-1 Overview of Available Applications ..........................................................................................4-5 Example Using Advantica Stoners SynerGEE ...........................................................................4-5 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................5-1 The Move to Higher Levels of Shunt Compensation on Distribution Feeders .................................5-1
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Power Quality and Other Problems That May Be Caused by High Levels of Shunt Compensation .........................................................................................................................5-2 Tools and Techniques for Analyzing Systems With High Levels of Shunt Compensation ...............5-5 6 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................6-1
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Test System for Studying the Impact of Overcompensation on Capacitor Switching Transients ............................................................................................................................2-3 Figure 2-2 300kVAr Capacitor Switched at Customer 4 (With 300kVAr On-Line at Each of the Other Three Customer Busses) ...............................................................................................2-6 Figure 2-3 Zoom-In of Figure 2-2 ...............................................................................................2-7 Figure 2-4 300kVAr Capacitor Switched at Customer 1 (With 300kVAr On-Line at Each of the Other Three Customer Busses) ...............................................................................................2-7 Figure 2-5 1200kVAr Capacitor Switched at Customer 4 (With 1200kVAr On-Line at Each of the Other Three Customer Busses)..........................................................................................2-8 Figure 2-6 1200kVAr Capacitor Switched at Customer 1(With 1200kVAr On-Line at Each of the Other Three Customer Busses)..........................................................................................2-8 Figure 2-7 1800kVAr Capacitor Switched at Customer 4 (With 1800kVAr On-Line at Each of the Other Three Customer Busses)..........................................................................................2-9 Figure 2-8 1800kVAr Capacitor Switched at Customer 1 (With 1800kVAr On-Line at Each of the Other Three Customer Busses)..........................................................................................2-9 Figure 3-1 Resonance Brought About by Shunt Capacitors ...............................................................3-1 Figure 3-2 Interface Screen for PCFLO ..........................................................................................3-4 Figure 3-3 Figure Modified Interface Screen for PCFLO ..................................................................3-5 Figure 3-4 Diversified Current Injection Current Waveform for Six-Pulse Current-Source ASD ..........3-7 Figure 3-5 Diversified Current Injection Current Waveform for Single-Phase Electronic Load Through GY-GY Transformers ..............................................................................................3-7 Figure 3-6 Diversified Current Injection Current Waveform for Single-Phase Electronic Load Through D-GY Transformers ........................................................................................3-8 Figure 3-7 Type A Simulations Showing Variation of THDV With Corrected Load Power Factor for the SKI, CHL, and OIL Systems .......................................................................................3-9 Figure 3-8 Type A Simulations Showing Variation of Fundamental Voltage Magnitude With Corrected Load Power Factor for the SKI, CHL, and OIL Systems ..........................................3-10 Figure 3-9 Type B Simulations Showing Variation of THDV With Corrected Load Power Factor for the SKI System..............................................................................................................3-11 Figure 3-10 Type B Simulations Showing Variation of THDV With Corrected Load Power Factor for the WAT System ...........................................................................................................3-11 Figure 3-11 Type B Simulations Showing Variation of THDV With Corrected Load Power Factor for the FND System ............................................................................................................3-12 Figure 3-12 Type B Simulations Showing Variation of THDV With Corrected Load Power Factor for the HAY System............................................................................................................3-12
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Figure 3-13 Type B Simulations Showing Variation of THDV With Corrected Load Power Factor for the TV System...............................................................................................................3-13 Figure 3-14 Type B Simulations Showing Variation of Fundamental Voltage Magnitudes With Corrected Load Power Factor for the WAT, FND, HAY, TV Systems .....................................3-14 Figure 4-1 Capacitor Location and Rating for Minimum Losses on a Uniformly Loaded Feeder ..........4-2 Figure 4-2 Example Distribution Feeder With Capacitor Locations Shown (A=900 kvar, B=1200 kvar, C=1200 kvar) ...............................................................................................................4-6 Figure 4-3 Results of Harmonic Analysis for Feeder With No Capacitors ..........................................4-7 Figure 4-4 Harmonic Analysis for Feeder With 900-kvar Capacitor at Location A ..............................4-9 Figure 4-5 Harmonic Analysis for Feeder With 900-kvar Capacitor at Location A and a 1200kvar Capacitor at Location B ...............................................................................................4-10 Figure 4-6 Harmonic Analysis for Feeder With 900-kvar Capacitor at Location A, a 1200-kvar Capacitor at Location B, and a 1200-kvar at Location C .........................................................4-11 Figure 4-7 Harmonic Analysis for Location A With All Recommended Capacitors in Service ...........4-12 Figure 4-8 Harmonic Analysis for Location B With All Recommended Capacitors in Service ...........4-12 Figure 4-9 Harmonic Analysis for Location C With All Recommended Capacitors in Service ...........4-13
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Corrected Power Factors Versus kVAr for the Test System................................................2-5 Table 2-2 Comparison of Feeder KV-Milliseconds Above Normal for the Capacitor Switching Cases ...................................................................................................................................2-6 Table 3-1 Seven Test Cases for Harmonics .....................................................................................3-6 Table 4-1 Capabilities of Various Capacitor-Placement Methods ......................................................4-4 Table 4-2 Distribution Feeder Analysis Software Reviewed for This Report ......................................4-5 Table 4-3 Results of Capacitor-Placement Analysis Showing Sizes of Recommended Capacitor Banks ..................................................................................................................................4-7 Table 4-4 Results of Capacitor Placement Analysis Showing Recommended Locations ......................4-8
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1
INTRODUCTION
The Benefits of Adding Shunt Compensation in the Distribution System
Before deregulation of the power industry, utilities could build new transmission lines with the near certainty that they would be compensated for their efforts. The utility rates were regulated to guarantee a reasonable rate of return on any investment that was deemed to be prudent. Those days are gone. The rules governing electric utilities are still evolving. At this point it is still not clear how, or if, a builder of new transmission will be compensated for its investment. Also, it is becoming more and more difficult to build new transmission and distribution lines. This is true because the parties that may be adversely impacted by new lines are increasingly well organized and financed. This is not just the NIMBY (not in my back yard) folks who have historically opposed new transmission lines. Transmission bottlenecks often benefit some independent power producers because they face less competition from generators on the other side of the bottleneck. They thus have a strong financial incentive to see that new transmission that might relieve the bottleneck does not get built. As a result, very little new transmission is now being built. Because very little new transmission is likely to be built in the near term, there is an increasing need to maximize the amount of power that can be transferred over the existing circuits. Powertransfer capability can be limited by low steady-state voltage, thermal overloads, rotor-angle instability, or voltage instability. Shunt capacitors can be used in moderation to address each of these problems and thus to increase the transfer capability of the bulk power system as well as the distribution system. In most cases, the most advantageous location for the shunt capacitors is close to the load (in the distribution system). Power transfer may be limited because voltage would be too low with additional power transfer. Shunt capacitors can be used to increase the voltage in the bulk power system as well as in the distribution system. The series impedance of transmission lines is mostly inductive, the impedance of distribution lines also includes a significant inductive component, and the leakage impedance of transformers is mostly inductive. The voltage drop in an inductive circuit is due mostly to the reactive current flow. Shunt capacitors in strategic locations can decrease the reactive power flow and thus raise the voltage. The best place for the capacitors is usually near the reactive load because the capacitor will then reduce the reactive power flow all the way to the generator from the load. Line and transformer losses raise the temperature of these devices and waste costly energy. Thermal overloading of transmission or distribution circuits can damage equipment, so the
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EPRI Licensed Material Introduction
power transfer capability must be limited. Electrical, I R losses are proportional to the square of the current flow through the equipment. The sinusoidal current has two components: 1. A component that is in phase with the sinusoidal voltage; this is the component that does useful work. 2. A component that is 90 degrees out of phase with the sinusoidal voltage; this component does no useful work but still contributes to electrical losses. A shunt capacitor can be used to supply the second component of current locally, so it does not have to flow through the distribution and transmission systems and add to the losses. Up to a point, adding shunt capacitors will decrease the reactive current flow in the network; more inphase current can then flow without overloading the circuits. Because useable power is equal to the product of the in-phase components of current and voltage, increasing the in-phase component of current will increase the amount of useable power that can be delivered. But there is a bonus; because the voltage drop is less with no reactive current flow, the voltage will also be higher at the load. Both the voltage and the usable current can be higher, so the increase in power-delivery capacity is multiplied. The rotor-angle stability of the bulk power system is marginally better if shunt capacitors are added to compensate the reactive power load in a power-importing area. Adding capacitors close to the generation in power-exporting areas may, however, actually decrease the system stability.
Adding Capacitors to the Distribution System Instead of the Transmission System

As indicated in the previous section, shunt capacitors can be used to increase the transfer capability, improve the voltage profile, and reduce losses. If they are added in the distribution system, they can often provide these benefits both for the distribution system and for the transmission network. Capacitors connected at the transmission level will not significantly reduce the voltage drop and losses in the distribution system. In addition to compensating the reactive power requirements of the load, it may be desirable to also apply capacitors to compensate for some of the reactive power losses in the power system. It is usually less expensive per kvar to install capacitors at the distribution level than at the transmission level because the voltage rating does not need to be as high. It is also often less expensive to connect shunt capacitors to a 13.8-kV tertiary winding of an autotransformer in the bulk power system. However, when communications have to be provided to monitor and switch each bank, a large number of small units connected to the distribution system may sometimes be more expensive than a large bank connected to the transmission system. There are several problems associated with shunt capacitors that can occur during outages or after certain switching operations: Very high voltage may result if due to a switching operation, a large capacitor bank remains connected at the open end of a line.
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For certain switching operations, capacitors may also form a ferroresonant circuit with the magnetizing reactance of a transformer. This can result in very high damaging voltage spikes. A small generator that remains connected to a relatively large capacitor bank will self-excite if the pair disconnect from the network and load.
Such problems are almost never severe if a significant amount of load remains connected near the capacitors. They are thus much less likely to occur if the shunt capacitors are located in the distribution system, close to the load. For all of the reasons listed above, there is a drive to add more shunt capacitors at the distribution level. Most utilities do not presently install enough shunt capacitors in their distribution systems to compensate for the entire reactive power load. Compensation to unity power factor is, however, used in some cases. To help support the transmission system, it may be desirable to even overcompensate the reactive power load (that is, to connect more capacitors to a distribution circuit than are required to cancel the reactive load). The extra compensation can be used to make up for the reactive power losses in the network. Some utilities are designed so the operators can switch distribution capacitors on during transmission system emergencies even though these capacitors would normally be off without the emergency.
Limitations on Shunt Compensation

It is, of course, possible to have too much of a good thing. The voltage magnitude may get too high if too many shunt capacitors are connected at a particular location or region. The magnitude of the reactive current flow, and losses, will increase again if the reactive current supplied by the shunt capacitors exceeds the amount of reactive current required by the load. Capacitor banks are incremental in size, whereas the load varies more or less continuously. It is therefore usually not possible to precisely balance the reactive load and the shunt capacitance at every location. Some reactive power flow and voltage variation across the system therefore needs to be tolerated. The need to have a reasonable bank size and the need to have reasonable voltages and losses therefore need to be balanced. When the load is heavy, more shunt capacitors than can be tolerated during light load may be needed. Shunt capacitors may therefore be switched to remove the surplus during light load periods. The switching operation itself can produce additional problems if the system is not carefully designed. Ringing voltage transients may result if the switching is not done on the zero crossings of the fundamental voltage waveform. These may cause problems such as the tripping of adjustable-speed drives. If too much capacitance is switched at one time, the jump in the steady-state voltage magnitude before and after the switching operation may also be excessive. If back-to-back capacitor banks are switched, the current inrush from one bank to another may be excessive. The current inrush for nearby system faults may also be excessive. The inductive components of the power system impedance may also interact with a capacitor bank during normal operation to form a tuned circuit with a resonance or anti-resonance at an unfortunate frequency. Magnetic saturation, rectification, and other nonlinear processes generate harmonic currents at characteristic frequencies, which are a multiple of the fundamental 1-3
frequency, 60 Hz. If the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit coincides with the frequency of the harmonic current injected into the system, the normally sinusoidal voltage waveforms may be distorted. The harmonic current may also be rerouted or magnified so that the current flowing at some network locations exceeds that injected by the nonlinear device. Common power quality problems caused by harmonic interactions include harmonic current flows, stray neutral-earth voltage, and capacitor-switching transients. The switching transients may cause equipment such as adjustable-speed drives to malfunction or trip. The neutral-to-earth voltage can result in electric shocks. Zero-sequence harmonic current flows are particularly objectionable because they flow in the neutral circuit and may be easily coupled magnetically to other electrical circuits. Harmonic current flows: Can cause telephone interference. Can cause electronic equipment to malfunction. Can increase system losses and thermal overloads. Can cause earth-fault relays to malfunction.
Other common power quality problems related to shunt capacitor banks include overvoltage and flicker. All of these potential problems need to be considered when designing shunt compensation. A recent utility survey [1] indicated that the most common problem with distribution capacitors is that a fuse blows when the bank is not faulted. The report indicates that the out-rush current, due to nearby faults, may be a major cause. Another common problem is that the controller does not switch the capacitors on or off when it should. Other problems that were noted with moderate frequency include steady-state overvoltage, harmonic interference, and switching impacts on customers.
Report Organization
Some of the ramifications of connecting more capacitive shunt compensation to distribution feeders are considered in this report. The effects of overcompensating the distribution feeder load are of particular interest. A variety of analytical methods and software packages are available for analyzing distribution systems with capacitors. The report gives a brief overview of some of these methods and provides examples that show how selected methods can be applied. The voltage transient that can result when a capacitor bank is connected to the system is analyzed in Section 2. The results of EMTP simulations modeling several capacitor-switching events are shown and discussed in that section. Section 3 considers harmonic resonance with distributionsystem capacitors. Simulation results showing the resonant frequency shift with various levels of capacitive compensation are shown and discussed in that section. Section 4 considers some of the techniques that are available to select the best locations and sizes for distribution-system capacitor banks. These techniques typically consider the capacitor costs and how the capacitor affects the system losses and voltage profile. Section 4 also discusses how harmonic effects might be factored into the analysis. Section 5 summarizes the results and conclusions.
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2
IMPACT OF OVERCOMPENSATION ON CAPACITOR SWITCHING TRANSIENTS
Introduction
When an uncharged capacitor is suddenly switched on, it momentarily pulls the feeder voltage to zero at its location. Almost immediately, a ringing voltage transient is induced whose first peak is approximately twice the peak voltage on the feeder. The ringing transient is the result of energy oscillation between the capacitor and the net inductance of the system. Since maximum stored capacitor energy is proportional to capacitor size, large capacitors tend to produce strong transients that propagate further. There are many documented cases where ASDs have been tripped off line due to sudden increases in their DC bus voltages caused by capacitor switching transient overvoltages. Since overcompensation will require more capacitors, and probably larger capacitors, there is a concern that overcompensation will reduce the quality of power provided to ASDs and other sensitive loads.
Simulation Software and Methodology

EMTP-ATP [2], ATPDRAW [3], and TOP [4] are chosen to perform the analysis. These three powerful programs are widely used and are available royalty-free. Unlike the harmonics cases, where actual systems were analyzed, the strategy for studying the capacitor switching problem is to construct a fictitious feeder using actual data, vary switched capacitor sizes and locations, and make general observations based upon the simulation results.
Description of the Test System

A one-line diagram of the test system is shown in Figure 2-1. The impedance of the transmission system is assumed to be small enough to be ignored for our study purposes. The feeder has a 36-MVA substation transformer, with Z = 4% on the transformer base and an X/R ratio of 10. Converted to a system base of 100 MVA, 13.8 kV, the transformer impedance becomes
+ Z trans = 0.01 + j 0.11 pu
Eq. 2-1
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EPRI Licensed Material Impact of Overcompensation on Capacitor Switching Transients
13.8 2 = 1.9044 , the transformer impedance can then be Using the system base ohms of 100 represented in ATP as
Rtrans = 0.02, Ltrans = 0.56mH
Eq. 2-2
2-2
Voltage and current probes to confirm base case conditions
Time-controlled switch switch on at voltage peak

Feeder Cust 3 Feeder Cust 4
Sub&Tran 7967Vrms
Feeder Cust 1
Feeder Cust 2
300kVAr
300kVAr
300kVAr
300kVAr
Run for 0.1s, using integration step size of 1s

Figure 2-1 Test System for Studying the Impact of Overcompensation on Capacitor Switching Transients
2-3
The symmetrical fault current at the load point is known to be 9400 A, which (assuming an X/R ratio of 3) yields an impedance at the load point of
+ Z loadpt = 0.14 + j 0.42 pu
Eq. 2-3
Thus, the impedance of the feeder segment between the transformer and the load point is the difference,
Z+ feeder = (0.14 + j 0.42) (0.01 + j 0.11) = 0.13 + j 0.31 pu
Eq. 2-4
Converting to basic units for ATP use yields

R feeder = 0.25, L feeder = 1.57 mH
Eq. 2-5
The customer load is P = 2.5 MW @ pf = 0.90, thus having reactive power load Q = 1.2 MVAr. To model the load P in ATP as a shunt resistor (per phase), the load P is converted to Rload = 76
Eq. 2-6
The reactive power component of the load model is ignored because studies have shown it to have little effect in ATP as far as capacitor switching transients are concerned. As a starting point, 300 kVAr of power factor correction capacitance is chosen for each of the four load busses. Converting to basic units, this becomes 4.18 F per phase in a grounded-wye configuration. Finally, to approximate an actual feeder, three identical feeder segments and customers are then represented to the right of the first customer, spaced at equal distances apart.
Simulation Results
The simulations are performed with 300 kVAr, 1200 kVAr,and 1800 kVAr at each load bus. The corresponding corrected power factors are shown in Table 2-1.
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EPRI Licensed Material Impact of Overcompensation on Capacitor Switching Transients Table 2-1 Corrected Power Factors Versus kVAr for the Test System Shunt kVAr (at Each Load Bus) 0 300 1200 1800 Net pf 0.90 (lagging) 0.94 (lagging) 1.00 -0.97 (leading)
The simulations begin by switching on the 300-kVAr capacitor at the Customer 4 bus (i.e., Cust 4), while the 300-kVAr capacitors at each of the other load busses are already on-line. The results are shown in Figure 2-2, with a zoom-in shown in Figure 2-3. Next, the 300-kVAr switching event is repeated, but this time at the Customer 1 bus instead of Customer 4 bus. The results are shown in Figure 2-4. Comparing Figure 2-4 with 2-3 shows that switching the Customer 1 capacitor yields a higher overshoot voltage and a higher ringing frequency (because for frequency, the system inductance is lower at Customer 1). The switching experiment is repeated in Figures 2-5, 2-6, and 2-7, 2-8 for 1200 kVAr and 1800 kVAr, respectively. It is obvious in these figures that as shunt capacitance increases, the overshoot is relatively unchanged, the ringing frequency is lowered, and the transient takes longer to decay. In addition to comparing peak voltage overshoot and frequency, a meaningful way to compare the significance of these switching transients is to numerically determine the time integral of voltage above normal sinusoidal voltage and then add the integrals for all four load busses plus the substation 13.8-kV bus. This sum gives a relative basis for comparing the additional energy that might be expected to flow into a capacitive-filtered, rectified load during the disturbance. Performing the calculation yields Table 2-2.
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EPRI Licensed Material Impact of Overcompensation on Capacitor Switching Transients Table 2-2 Comparison of Feeder KV-Milliseconds Above Normal for the Capacitor Switching Cases Switching Event 300 kVAr at Customer 4 300 kVAr at Customer 1 1200 kVAr at Customer 4 1200 kVAr at Customer 1 1800 kVAr at Customer 4 1800 kVAr at Customer 1 kV-Milliseconds Above Normal 3.0 3.1 8.5 8.6 10.6 10.5
As seen in Table 2-2, there is a strong correlation between the amount of kVAr switched and the subsequent kV-milliseconds.
Q_COMP>XX0003(Type 4)
Q_COMP>XX0003(Type 4) Q_COMP>XX0005(Type 4) Q_COMP>XX0017(Type 4) Q_COMP>XX0009(Type 4) Q_COMP>XX0013(Type 4)
15000
10000
V o lt a g e ( V )
5000
-5000
-10000
-15000 0 20 40 Time (ms) 60 80 100
Figure 2-2 300kVAr Capacitor Switched at Customer 4 (With 300kVAr On-Line at Each of the Other Three Customer Busses)
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Q_COMP>XX0003(Type 4)
Q_COMP>XX0003(Type 4) 20000 Q_COMP>XX0013(Type 4) Q_COMP>XX0005(Type 4) Q_COMP>XX0017(Type 4) Q_COMP>XX0009(Type 4)
Customer 1
15000 V o lt a g e ( V )
Customer 4
10000
5000
0 49 50 51 Time (ms) 52 53 54
Figure 2-3 Zoom-In of Figure 2-2
NONAME>XX0003(Type 4)
NONAME>XX0003(Type 4) 20000 NONAME>XX0013(Type 4) NONAME>XX0005(Type 4) NONAME>XX0017(Type 4) NONAME>XX0009(Type 4)
Customer 1 Customer 4
15000 V o lt a g e ( V )
10000
5000
0 49 50 51 Time (ms) 52 53 54
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Customer 1
15000 V o lt a g e ( V )
Customer 4
10000
5000
0 49 50 51 Time (ms) 52 53 54
15000 V o lt a g e ( V )
10000
5000
0 49 50 51 Time (ms) 52 53 54
Figure 2-6 1200kVAr Capacitor Switched at Customer 1(With 1200kVAr On-Line at Each of the Other Three Customer Busses)
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15000 V o lt a g e ( V )
10000
5000
0 49 50 51 Time (ms) 52 53 54
Customer 1
15000 V o lt a g e ( V )
Customer 4
10000
5000
0 49 50 51 Time (ms) 52 53 54
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3
IMPACT OF OVERCOMPENSATION ON HARMONIC RESONANCE AND VOLTAGE DISTORTION
Introduction
Resonance is produced by series and parallel combinations of inductors and capacitors. For distribution feeders with several shunt capacitor banks, many series and parallel resonances occur. However, for illustration purposes, it is helpful to consider the simplest practical situation, as shown in Figure 3-1.
Watch out for 3rd harmonic resonance as more caps are added. Every transformer is a source of 3rd harmonic, especially as the fundamental voltage rises. Single phase electronic loads may also become an issue. Is 0.95 PF Correction coming?
Figure 3-1 Resonance Brought About by Shunt Capacitors
In Figure 3-1, a dedicated feeder serves one large customer, and the reactive power load of the customer is corrected by shunt capacitor Q. The graph shows the frequency scan at the customer bus, which is a plot of impedance magnitude seen at that bus as frequency is varied. When Q is zero (i.e., no pf correction), then the impedance magnitude increases more-or-less linearly with frequency because feeder inductance dominates. As shunt capacitance (i.e., Q) is added, a resonant peak develops and moves toward the left because of
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EPRI Licensed Material Impact of Overcompensation On Harmonic Resonance and Voltage Distortion
f resonant =
1 2 LC
Eq. 3-1
In Figure 3-1, pf correction of 0.95 places the resonant peak in the 5th 7th harmonic range. This observation helps to explain why most harmonic problems are associated with the 5th and 7th harmonics. However, resonance does not by itself produce voltage distortion. In fact, all feeders with shunt capacitors have resonant frequencies. Serious voltage distortion (i.e., 5 10%) occurs only when harmonic injection currents have significant enough magnitudes to stimulate these natural resonant frequencies. Thus, a voltage distortion problem develops when both of the following two ingredients are present: 1. Feeder resonance (which nearly always exists) 2. Significant harmonic currents injected by nonlinear loads such as adjustable-speed drives, single-phase electronic loads, transformer magnetizing, and so forth
rd In most situations, 3 harmonic currents produced by single-phase loads and transformer magnetizing pose no threat because feeders are not resonant near the 3rd harmonic. However, as can be seen in Figure 1-1, pf compensation values of 1.0 or higher will likely tune feeders in the rd vicinity of the 3 harmonic, giving cause for concern.
Thus, the underlying principles of resonance and distortion lead us to believe that overcompensation may aggravate voltage distortion levels. However, unlike widely documented th th rd 5 and 7 harmonic cases, there are very few 3 harmonic problems published in the literature. Thus, at this point, simulations must be relied upon to perform the investigation. In the future, it would be helpful to perform actual experiments to confirm the results.
Simulation Software and Methodology

PCFLO [5] is chosen as the harmonics analysis tool for this study, largely because the executable version is available royalty-free. The interface screen is shown in Figure 3-2. To facilitate the repetitive simulations required in this study, the PCFLO interface source code and screen were modified, as shown in Figure 3-3, to permit the user to: 1. Automatically remove existing nonlinear loads and then specify global levels of six-pulse current-source ASDs and single-phase electronic loads as a percent of load at each bus. 2. Remove existing power factor correction capacitors and specify desired pf correction level at each bus. Then, have PCFLO automatically add capacitors according to bus load to achieve the desired power factor. 3. View average fundamental bus voltage, average voltage distortion, worst offending harmonic multiple, location, and magnitude.
3-2
With the first modification, the user has the ability to replace the actual nonlinear loads in an existing test case with globally distributed nonlinear loads, distributed in proportion to bus load. This feature permits more generalized conclusions than do studies made with present-day nonlinear load placement.
3-3
Figure 3-2 Interface Screen for PCFLO
3-4
PCFLO modifications for Q compensation study
Figure 3-3 Figure Modified Interface Screen for PCFLO
3-5
For this study, the following three types of injection currents are employed: 1. Six-pulse current-source ASDs to represent the industrial sector 2. Single-phase electronic loads, connected through grounded-wye to grounded-wye (GY-GY) transformers, to represent residential PCs, televisions, etc 3. Same as item 2 but connected through delta-to -grounded-wye (D-GY) transformers to represent the commercial sector. The corresponding PCFLO current injection waveforms are shown in Figures 3-4, 3-5, and 3-6, rd respectively. The single-phase, GY-GY electronic load current has a strong 3 harmonic component, but the other two currents have no 3rd harmonic because of their inherently delta connections.
Description of the Test Cases

Seven test cases are analyzed in this report. Each case was previously studied to resolve or predict the likelihood of a specific harmonics-related or power quality problem. A summary of the cases is given in Table 1-1. All have multiple feeders.
Table 3-1 Seven Test Cases for Harmonics Case SKI Description 12.5-kV and 25-kV predominantly underground system with ski areas interconnected by overhead sub-transmission. Total 15MW of ASDs. 25-kV, lightly loaded underground system with 5000HP ASD chiller motor. * 12.5kV overhead system with 2000-HP ASD oil pipeline pump. * 35-kV overhead system with water pumping station 12.5-kV overhead system with large foundry arc furnace load 12.5-kV overhead rural system with large hay cubing machine 12.5-kV and 25-kV overhead system with TV transmitter No. of Busses 454 System Power (MW) 64
CHL
33
10
OIL
18
10
WAT FND
49 162
9 8
HAY
84
TV
111
18
* Because zero-sequence data were not available, 3rd harmonic studies were not performed on the CHL and OIL cases
3-6
The first three cases (SKI, CHL, and OIL) were extensively studied and well documented in the past, and field measurements confirmed the simulation results.
Figure 3-4 Diversified Current Injection Current Waveform for Six-Pulse Current-Source ASD
Figure 3-5 Diversified Current Injection Current Waveform for Single-Phase Electronic Load Through GY-GY Transformers
3-7
Figure 3-6 Diversified Current Injection Current Waveform for Single-Phase Electronic Load Through D-GY Transformers
The remaining four cases (WAT, FND, HAY, and TV) had actual or potential harmonics or other power quality problems that required less extensive analyses to resolve, and no confirming field measurements were available. The TV case had what appeared to be a third harmonic problem brought about by upgrades from 12.5 kV to 25 kV and subsequent replacement of D-GY service transformers with GY-GY service transformers.
Simulation Results
The following two types of simulations (i.e., A and B) were performed: Type A simulations are for the first three cases (SKI, CHL, and OIL), where the existing nonlinear loads (i.e., six-pulse, current-source ASDs) are left as is. Triple harmonics are not produced or modeled. The procedure is as follows:
Existing power factor correction capacitors are removed. Power factor correction is globally made at each bus.
Type B simulations are for the five cases with zero-sequence data (SKI, WAT, FND, HAY, and TV), where:
Existing nonlinear loads (if any) are removed. A load percentage was either:
20% current-source ASDs or 10% GY-GY single-phase electronic loads plus 10% D-GY single-phase electronic loads are globally assigned to each bus.
3-8
Existing power factor correction capacitors are removed. Power factor correction is globally made at each bus.
Transformer magnetizing current harmonics are ignored in all Type A and Type B simulations.
Results of Type A Simulations

Type A simulations were performed on the three highest-confidence cases where field measurements confirmed, or partially confirmed, the original base case condition. The first graph, Figure 3-7, shows the variation of average total harmonic voltage distortion (THDV) versus power factor correction level. Only the lightly loaded CHL system shows high sensitivity to compensation level. In addition to THDV, the highest offending harmonic in the system is shown. The general trend is for the highest offending harmonic to move lower as shunt capacitors are added. The second graph, Figure 3-8, shows the sensitivity of average fundamental voltage magnitude versus power factor correction level. The heavily loaded SKI system, which has a high concentration of ASDs, shows double the sensitivity of fundamental voltage when compared to the other two cases.
Strong resonant peak at light load condition

25
Harmonic with largest voltage identified
20 15 10 5 0
7 5
13
SKI CHL OIL
7 5
pf = 0.90
pf = 1.00
pf = 0.95
Figure 3-7 Type A Simulations Showing Variation of THDV With Corrected Load Power Factor for the SKI, CHL, and OIL Systems
3-9
Overcompensation can lead to undesirably high voltages

110
105 SKI 100 CHL OIL 95
90
pf = 0.90
pf = 1.00
pf = 0.95
Figure 3-8 Type A Simulations Showing Variation of Fundamental Voltage Magnitude With Corrected Load Power Factor for the SKI, CHL, and OIL Systems
Results of Type B Simulations

As explained previously, Type B simulations are made under the assumption that 20% of the connected load at each bus is nonlinear. The two situations are either 1) 20% ASDs or 2) 10% single-phase GY-GY plus 10% single-phase D-GY. The ASD cases have no 3rd harmonic or its odd multiples (i.e., 9, 15), but the single-phase cases include these so-called triplen harmonics. The simulation results are shown in Figures 3-9 through 3-13. Specific comments follow:
3-10
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Problem switches to 3rd harmonic

5 3
ASD 1P
pf = 0.90
pf = 1.00
pf = 0.95
Figure 3-9 Type B Simulations Showing Variation of THDV With Corrected Load Power Factor for the SKI System
Figure 3-9 (SKI). 100% power factor compensation will cause intolerable resonance for the 3rd harmonic. The voltage distortion will rise as feeder linear load decreases.
Resonant frequency shifts to lower harmonics as more capacitors are added
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
15 9 13 11 7 5
ASD 1P
pf = 0.90
pf = 1.00
pf = 0.95
Figure 3-10 Type B Simulations Showing Variation of THDV With Corrected Load Power Factor for the WAT System
3-11
Figure 3-10 (WAT). High concentrations of single-phase distorting loads will cause high triplen harmonic voltages at light load (as exists in this case, considering the 35-kV base voltage). This problem is not related to overcompensation.
5 4 3 2 1 0
5
ASD 1P
11 3
pf = 0.90
pf = 1.00
pf = 0.95
Figure 3-11 Type B Simulations Showing Variation of THDV With Corrected Load Power Factor for the FND System
Figure 3-11 (FND). This harmonic distortion of this system appears to be relatively immune to overcompensation.
5 4 3 2 1
11
7 5
ASD 1P
11
0
pf = 0.90
pf = 1.00
pf = 0.95
Figure 3-12 Type B Simulations Showing Variation of THDV With Corrected Load Power Factor for the HAY System
3-12
Figure 3-12 (HAY). Same conclusion as Figure 3-11.

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 ASD 1P
pf = 0.90
pf = 1.00
pf = 0.95
Figure 3-13 Type B Simulations Showing Variation of THDV With Corrected Load Power Factor for the TV System
Figure 3-13 (TV). This system demonstrates severe sensitivity to the 3rd harmonic. The reason for this unusual sensitivity has not been identified. However, the motivation for the original rd study was a 3 harmonic problem that manifested itself at a television broadcast station whose constant-voltage transformer resonated when the system was upgraded to 25 kV and the station 12.5-kV D-GY transformer was replaced with a 25-kV GY-GY transformer. The transformer resonance caused the broadcast picture to fluctuate in an annoying manner. The problem was resolved by quickly replacing the D-GY transformer with a GY-GY transformer, thus isolating rd the transformer from the 3 harmonic equivalent circuit of the feeder.
3-13
110
105 WAT FND HAY TV 95
100
90
pf = 0.90
pf = 1.00
pf = 0.95
Figure 3-14 Type B Simulations Showing Variation of Fundamental Voltage Magnitudes With Corrected Load Power Factor for the WAT, FND, HAY, TV Systems
Figure 3-14. The fundamental voltage magnitude of the TV system is unusually sensitive to power factor correction level.
3-14
4
INCORPORATING PQ SCREENING CRITERIA IN DISTRIBUTION CAPACITOR PLACEMENT ALGORITHMS
Optimization of Capacitor Placement Using Distribution Feeder Analysis Software

There are many analytical techniques and computer programs that are designed specifically to optimize the placement of capacitor banks on distribution feeders. A general-purpose program, such as an optimal power flow (OPF) or a security constrained power flow, in the hands of an experienced user, can also be used for this purpose. These applications may consider the voltage profile on the feeder, the change in voltage due to switching, reduction of feeder losses, the desired power factor range, available capacitor bank sizes, the available locations, and economics to determine the optimal capacitor bank sizes and locations. Each method of analysis has its advantages and disadvantages. Numerous approaches and algorithms have been proposed for selecting distribution capacitor locations. Forty-one references describing various approaches are listed in reference [6]. Reference 5 separates the approaches into four different categories: 1. Analytical methods 2. Numerical programming methods 3. Heuristic methods 4. Artificial intelligence techniques The so-called analytical methods are simplified, back-of-the-envelope approaches that do not require the heavy number-crunching capability of a computer. They may be particularly useful for sanity-checking the results of more sophisticated techniques. The 2/3 rule for minimizing feeder losses is an example [1]. It states that for uniformly distributed feeder load, the optimal location for a single capacitor bank is two-thirds of the way down the feeder, and the optimal kVA rating is two-thirds of the total feeders reactive power loading. Similar rules are available for connecting more than one capacitor and for other regular load distributions along the feeder (such as continuously increasing the load along the feeder).
4-1
EPRI Licensed Material Incorporating PQ Screening Criteria in Distribution Capacitor Placement Algorithms
Uniform load2/3s rule for placing one capacitor Without capacitors
reactive line ow Mvar
0 Substation Feeder end
reactive line ow Mvar
2-Mvar bank
Figure 4-1 Capacitor Location and Rating for Minimum Losses on a Uniformly Loaded Feeder
Note that if a feeder with a uniformly distributed load is fully, 100%, compensated using only one capacitor bank, the losses and voltage profile will be significantly worse than they are with 2/3 compensation. However, a higher level of compensation can be effectively applied if several small capacitor banks are applied. If the uniformly distributed load could be compensated by a uniformly distributed capacitance, the optimal level of compensation would be 100%. This is not possible, of course, because real capacitor banks come in incremental sizes, but then again, so does real load. There is a tradeoff between the increased costs per kvar of smaller capacitor banks and the reduced losses and better voltage profile that the smaller banks can provide. Smaller banks will often be needed to effectively apply higher levels of shunt compensation. Some of the simplifying assumptions that are used by the analytical methods to make the problem manageable can be eliminated if a computer is used to do repetitive work, such as solving large systems of equations or iterative procedures. Numerical programming methods such as OPF and the security constrained power flow can be formulated to address the capacitorplacement problem. These techniques essentially find a capacitor-placement solution that minimizes cost while obeying voltage, power flow, and/or other specified constraints. The minimized cost may include the costs of losses (both energy and capacity costs may be factored in), the costs of the capacitors themselves, as well as penalties for unacceptable voltages or undesirable capacitor-placement patterns such as locating capacitors in too many places. Reference [6] defines heuristic methods as being rules of thumb that are developed through intuition, experience, and judgment. The artificial intelligence techniques used for capacitor placement include genetic algorithms, expert systems, artificial neural networks, fuzzy set theory, and simulated annealing.
4-2
Common assumptions implicit in various methodologies that may or may not be appropriate depending upon the application include:
The feeder has no branches, or the feeder is radial. The load is uniformly distributed along the feeder. Capacitor banks are not switched. Capacitors can be added anywhere on the feeder. Capacitor banks can be any size. The amount of load is constant. No credit is given for the capacity savings made possible by loss reduction. The annual losses can be estimated based upon the losses at one or two levels of loading.
The tradeoff is often between ease of application and detail of representation. Simplifying assumptions need to be made for every type of analysis. The key question may be how reasonable are the assumptions for the questions being considered. Multiple applications of a simple approach can sometimes be used instead of one application of an all-encompassing approach. For instance, with some approaches the feeder may be represented with a heavy system load for one calculation and represented again at light load for another calculation. A manually driven iterative procedure may be necessary using such individual calculations to arrive at a solution that will work for all levels of loading. On the other hand, an all-encompassing approach or a computer-driven iterative procedure may simultaneously consider the impact of capacitor additions at more than one level of loading. The appropriate analytical tool for a particular problem will often depend upon:
The type of information that is readily available The presumed accuracy of the available information The required accuracy for the analysis The purpose of the analysis (for example, planning or operations) The tool(s) that the engineer doing the analysis has access to and is most familiar with
Table 4-1 taken from [6] indicates the capabilities of various methodologies. The techniques are described in detail in the references given in that paper.
4-3
EPRI Licensed Material Incorporating PQ Screening Criteria in Distribution Capacitor Placement Algorithms Table 4-1 Capabilities of Various Capacitor-Placement Methods
The quality of the result will often depend more upon the ability of the engineer doing the analysis than upon the tool being used. In many cases, there may be no single right answer. Several answers may be almost equally good, and the differences between them may be dwarfed by the impact of unavoidable uncertainties. Key elements that affect the results of the analysis and that cannot be known exactly include:
The future load location and amount, including yearly load duration curves and minimum and maximum levels The future cost of energy The future value of deferred capacity The future strength of the transmission system to which the feeder is attached
Other information about the feeder may be obtainable but only with a great deal of effort, which may not be justified, particularly given the other uncertainties. Automated capacitor-placement programs typically do not include harmonic resonance as one of the placement criteria. Switching transients and step changes in fundamental frequency voltage may also not be considered. These, however, can often be analyzed separately using tools that are included in the same program package that is used to do capacitor placement. Harmonic analysis may be used to identify the locations on the feeder where capacitors of a specific size should not be located. Short-circuit programs can be used to find the maximum unit size that can 4-4
be switched at various locations without producing unacceptable jumps in voltage. A switching surge program or EMTP type of analysis may also be used to help define the maximum bank size that can be used at various locations. This information may then be used to limit the options for capacitor placement until feeder locations and bank sizes are found that are in all ways acceptable. A future generation of programs may automatically consider these other factors when choosing capacitor locations and sizes.
Overview of Available Applications

There are many software applications available that provide the tools required by a distribution engineer for proper planning and design of distribution facilities. While the capabilities of these applications vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, all of those reviewed for this discussion include the following: load flow, short-circuit analysis, motor-start analysis, and capacitor placement.
Table 4-2 Distribution Feeder Analysis Software Reviewed for This Report Vendor ABB Advantica Stoner Cooper Power Systems CYME International Milsoft Utility Solutions FEEDERALL SynerGEE V-CAP CYMDIST WindMil Application
The capacitor-placement applications in these packages can optimize the use of capacitor banks based on feeder loss reduction, voltage-profile improvement, power-factor correction, and economics. They usually operate based on a set of user-defined limits for voltage, leading and lagging power factor, and total number of capacitor banks allowed on the feeder. These applications contain some form of harmonic-analysis capability, either in the base product or in an add-on module. The capability of this module is usually limited to a frequency scan of the circuit impedance at a particular point on the feeder. The harmonic analysis is not included in the capacitor-placement optimization routine. Therefore, it is possible for the software to recommend capacitor locations that would cause an undesirable harmonic resonance.
Example Using Advantica Stoners SynerGEE

A distribution feeder (Figure 4-2) was modeled in SynerGEE to illustrate how a capacitoroptimization application works and to show the possible harmonic ramifications of adding capacitors. The feeder originally had no capacitor banks installed.
4-5
Figure 4-2 Example Distribution Feeder With Capacitor Locations Shown (A=900 kvar, B=1200 kvar, C=1200 kvar)
The first step was to perform a harmonic analysis on a section of the feeder. The first section outside of the distribution station (upper right-hand corner of Figure 4-2) was selected for this analysis. The positive-sequence, driving-point impedance measured at this point before adding any capacitors is shown in Figure 4-3. The frequency response of the driving-point impedance is linear with no resonant points.
4-6
Figure 4-3 Results of Harmonic Analysis for Feeder With No Capacitors
The next step was to run the capacitor-placement application on the same feeder. The application preferences were set to allow no more than a 0.90 leading power factor, place no more than eight capacitor banks, and to optimize feeder losses. The results are shown in Table 4-3 and Table 4-4.
Table 4-3 Results of Capacitor-Placement Analysis Showing Sizes of Recommended Capacitor Banks Capacitor Size (kvar) 1200 900 600 450 300 50 2 1 None None None None Number Placed
4-7
EPRI Licensed Material Incorporating PQ Screening Criteria in Distribution Capacitor Placement Algorithms Table 4-4 Results of Capacitor Placement Analysis Showing Recommended Locations Section Name Feeder New Liberty 00159 00296 00233 900 1200 1200 956 1275 1270 Nominal Total Added kvar Actual
The analysis recommends the installation of three capacitor banks on this feeder: 900 kvar on section 159 (location A), 1200 kvar on section 233 (location B), and 1200 kvar on section 296 (location C) in Figure 4-2. The next step was to add the capacitors to the model, one at a time, and to perform a harmonic analysis each time. First, the 900-kvar capacitor was added at location A in Figure 4-2. The driving-point impedance measured at the first feeder section outside the distribution substation is shown in Figure 4-4. There are now two resonant points: one at 7.5th harmonic and one at the 11.75th harmonic. Any loads that create harmonic currents at or near these frequencies could cause objectionable harmonic voltages in this section. The frequency at which the impedance reaches a minimum may in some cases be equally important. Many devices that produce harmonic currents also have filters. These filters have a low impedance to ground for critical harmonic currents. They are designed to ground these harmonic currents locally so that they do not propagate through the system. However, if the system impedance is very low at characteristic harmonics, the harmonic currents will enter the system instead of being grounded. These harmonic currents may create problem such as magnetically coupling to telephone circuits to produce interference.
4-8
Figure 4-4 Harmonic Analysis for Feeder With 900-kvar Capacitor at Location A
Next, a 1200-kvar capacitor was added to the model at location B in Figure 4-2. The harmonic analysis was repeated for the first section of the feeder. These results are shown in Figure 4-5. As you can see, the most prominent resonant point has moved to a lower frequency near the 8th harmonic.
4-9
Figure 4-5 Harmonic Analysis for Feeder With 900-kvar Capacitor at Location A and a 1200-kvar Capacitor at Location B
Finally, the 1200 kvar was added to the model at location C in Figure 4-2. The harmonic analysis for the first feeder section outside the substation was repeated. The results are in Figure 4-6. The dominant resonant point has moved to a lower frequency, the 6.5th harmonic.
4-10
Figure 4-6 Harmonic Analysis for Feeder With 900-kvar Capacitor at Location A, a 1200-kvar Capacitor at Location B, and a 1200-kvar at Location C
The following plots (Figure 4-7 to Figure 4-9) show the driving-point impedance at each capacitor location, with all capacitors in service.
4-11
Figure 4-7 Harmonic Analysis for Location A With All Recommended Capacitors in Service
Figure 4-8 Harmonic Analysis for Location B With All Recommended Capacitors in Service
4-12
Figure 4-9 Harmonic Analysis for Location C With All Recommended Capacitors in Service
Note that some resonant peaks are higher at each capacitor location than at the head of the feeder, but different peaks are magnified at each capacitor location. For grounded capacitor banks, a similar analysis could be done to find the resonant points for the zero-sequence driving-point impedance. The resonant points for the zero sequence will not in general be at the same frequencies as they are for the positive sequence because the network rd impedances are different for the positive and zero sequence. The triplen harmonic currents (3 , th th 6 , 9 , and so on) injected by three-phase devices are predominantly zero-sequence. Some of the undesirable effects of harmonics are also related mostly to the zero-sequence flows (such as coupling to telephone circuits or stray neutral voltages). Zero-sequence resonance and antiresonance may therefore be particularly important. Possible solutions to a harmonic resonance problem include:
Moving the capacitor bank to a different location on the distribution feeder This works best if the feeder is connected to a strong, low-impedance transmission system. If the bulk power system impedance is larger than the distribution feeder impedance, then moving the capacitor location on the feeder will have little effect. Using a different size capacitor bank. Using an ungrounded capacitor bank if the problem is caused by zero-sequence harmonics. Putting a small reactor in series with the capacitor bank so that it acts as a filter or moves the resonant point. 4-13
It is sometimes cheaper to pay the telephone company to alleviate a telephone interference problem from their side.
4-14
5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The Move to Higher Levels of Shunt Compensation on Distribution Feeders
It is often nearly impossible to install a new utility transmission or distribution circuit. There is therefore an increasing need to maximize the amount of power that can be transferred over the existing circuits. Power-transfer capability can be limited by low steady-state voltage, thermal overloads, rotor-angle instability, or voltage instability. Shunt capacitors can often be used to alleviate these problems; the power-transfer capability of the network can thus often be increased by adding shunt capacitors. Shunt capacitors supply reactive current, which is 90 out of phase with the sinusoidal voltage. By supplying reactive current locally, shunt capacitors in strategic locations can reduce the amount of reactive current flowing through the distribution and transmission network. In an inductive network, the voltage drop is mostly due to the reactive current flow, so decreasing the reactive current flow will normally raise low system voltages. By the same token, if improperly applied, shunt capacitors can create overvoltage problems. Useable electric power is proportional to the component of current that is in-phase with the sinusoidal voltage. By decreasing the reactive current flow, which is not in phase, shunt 2 capacitors reduce the I R losses and thermal loading on the circuit. More in-phase current (useable power) can then flow without thermally overloading the circuits. The best location for shunt capacitors is usually near the load; a capacitor in the distribution system will often reduce the reactive power flows in both the distribution system and the transmission system. The active power-transfer capability of both systems may therefore be increased. In addition, the following problems, which can be potentially damaging and dangerous when capacitors are connected to the transmission system, can usually be easily avoided if capacitors are located in the distribution system, close to the load:
Very high voltage when a large capacitor bank remains connected at the open end of a long line without load Ferroresonance with the magnetizing reactance of a transformer for certain switching configurations Generator self-excitation when the system separates leaving a small generator connected to a relatively large capacitor bank with no load
These problems are almost never severe if the capacitors are not separated from the load. They are thus much less likely to occur when the shunt capacitors are located in the distribution system, close to the load. 5-1
EPRI Licensed Material Conclusions and Recommendations
It is usually less expensive per kvar to install capacitors at the distribution level than at the transmission level because the voltage rating does not need to be as high. There are exceptions, however. It may be economic to connect shunt capacitors to a 13.8-kV tertiary winding of an autotransformer in the bulk power system. Also, when communication has to be provided to monitor and switch each bank, a large number of small units connected to the distribution system may be more expensive than a large bank connected to the transmission system. For the reasons given above, the capacitive shunt compensation in distribution systems may be increased significantly in the coming decades. Extensive distribution-capacitor-placement programs are now in place at several utilities [7, 8]. To help support the transmission system, it may be desirable to even overcompensate the reactive power load (that is, to connect more capacitors to a distribution circuit than are required to cancel the reactive load). The extra compensation can be used to make up for the reactive power losses in the network. Some utilities are designed so that the operators can switch distribution capacitors on-line to help support the system during transmission system emergencies, even though these capacitors would normally be off without the emergency.
Power Quality and Other Problems That May Be Caused by High Levels of Shunt Compensation
When a large capacitor bank is connected to the system, the jump in the steady-state voltage magnitude before and after the switching operation may be excessive. This may make it difficult to coordinate with other voltage-control devices. It may also cause a visible change in the output from incandescent light bulbs, which can become objectionable. On the other hand, more switching operations may be required if capacitor bank sizes are too small; this can also be a problem. If back-to-back capacitor banks are switched, the current inrush from one bank to another may be excessive. The current out-rush for nearby system faults may also be excessive. This may make it difficult to coordinate fuses and other protective devices. Ringing voltage transients may result if shunt capacitors are switched on-line when the sinusoidal voltage waveform is not at a zero crossing. The ringing transient is the result of energy oscillation between the capacitor and the net inductance of the system. When an uncharged capacitor is suddenly switched on-line, it momentarily pulls the adjacent feeder voltage to zero. Almost immediately, a ringing voltage transient is induced whose first peak can theoretically (in a lossless system) approach twice the normal peak-voltage on the feeder. The simulation results shown in section 2 indicate that for a realistic system, the peaks will typically be 1.6 times the rated peak-voltage. Simulations indicate that as the total amount of shunt capacitance increases, the overshoot due to switching in each additional identical bank is relatively unchanged, but the ringing frequency is lowered, and the transient takes longer to decay. There are many documented cases where adjustable-speed drives have disconnected because of transient overvoltages caused by capacitor switching. Because the voltage transients last longer, it is likely that increased levels of capacitive compensation will aggravate the power quality problems related to capacitor switching. There will also be more switching operations with increased levels of compensation. The inductive components of the power system impedance may interact with a capacitor bank during normal operation to form a tuned circuit with a resonance or anti-resonance at an 5-2
unfortunate frequency. Magnetic saturation, rectification, and other nonlinear processes generate harmonic currents at characteristic frequencies, which are an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency, 60 Hz. If the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit coincides with the frequency of the harmonic current injected into the system, the normally sinusoidal voltage waveforms may be distorted. The resonant points, where the system impedance peaks, shift to lower frequencies as more shunt-connected capacitors are added. With the load power factor corrected to 0.95, the lowest th th rd resonance is typically between the 5 and 7 harmonic. In most situations, 3 harmonic currents produced by single-phase loads and transformer magnetizing pose no threat because feeders are rd not resonant near the 3 harmonic. However, as can be seen in Figure 3-1, power-factor compensation values of 1.0 or higher may move the resonant point to the 3rd harmonic, giving cause for concern. The frequency at which the impedance reaches a minimum may in some cases be equally important. Many devices that produce harmonic currents also have filters. These filters are designed to have a low impedance to ground for critical harmonic currents. They are supposed to shunt the harmonic currents to ground locally so that the currents do not enter the system. However, if the system impedance at characteristic harmonics is less than the filters, the harmonic currents will enter the system instead of being grounded. Harmonic current flows:
Can cause telephone interference Can cause electronic equipment to malfunction Can increase system losses and thermal overload Can cause earth-fault relays to malfunction
Zero-sequence harmonic current flows are particularly objectionable because they flow in the neutral circuit and may be easily coupled magnetically to other electrical circuits. The neutral-toearth voltage can cause electric shocks. Zero-sequence resonance and anti-resonance may therefore be particularly important. The resonant points for the zero sequence will not, in general, be at the same frequencies as the resonant points for the positive sequence because the network impedances are different for the two sequences.
rd th th The triplen harmonic currents (3 , 6 , 9 , and so on) injected by three-phase devices are predominantly zero-sequence. If the fundamental-frequency phase voltages are unbalanced, however, some of the triplen harmonic current can be positive- or negative-sequence. Most commercial loads and industrial three-phase sources are connected to the network using grounded wye-delta transformers. These transformers ground the zero-sequence currents so that they do not enter the network. As the simulations in section 2 show, third-harmonic voltage distortion is generally not a problem with this type of load.
If the circuit is resonant at the third harmonic, single-phase harmonic sources can be a problem, however. The triplen harmonic currents from a single-phase-to-ground nonlinear load include a 5-3
zero-sequence component as well as positive- and negative-sequence components. There will be no zero-sequence component, however, if the loads are connected phase-to-phase. The groundedwye-to-grounded-wye transformer connection normally used for residential distribution systems does not divert the zero-sequence currents to ground, so the harmonic current for all three sequences enter the distribution network. The zero-sequence triplen harmonic currents from loads on different phases may tend to add, while the positive- and negative-sequence currents for these harmonics will tend to cancel. The triplen harmonic currents flowing in the network may therefore be mostly zero-sequence unless the loads are connected phase-to-phase. Thirdharmonic voltage distortion may therefore be severe if the networks zero-sequence impedance is resonant at the third harmonic. Harmonic analysis of distribution networks with single-phase-toground loads should therefore consider both the positive-sequence and zero-sequence network impedances. Possible solutions to a harmonic resonance problem include:
Moving the capacitor bank to a different location on the distribution feeder. This works best if the feeder is connected to a strong, low-impedance transmission system. If the bulk power system impedance is larger than the distribution feeder impedance, then moving the capacitor location on the feeder will have little effect. Using a different size capacitor bank. Using an ungrounded capacitor bank if the problem is caused by zero-sequence harmonics. Putting a small reactor in series with the capacitor bank so that it acts as a filter or moves the resonant point. It is sometimes cheaper to pay the telephone company to alleviate a telephone interference problem from its side.
Special equipment and operating procedures may be needed with high levels of capacitive compensation. Switching strategies for capacitor banks have traditionally been based upon the time of day, the voltage at the capacitor, or the local reactive power flow. This does not always result in the lowest feeder losses or the best feeder voltage profile, particularly when the capacitor has to coordinate with other voltage-control devices. Extensive distribution-capacitorplacement programs are now in place at several utilities [7, 8]. These programs sometimes include remote control and monitoring for each capacitor bank. As the load varies, individual phase capacitors can then be switched at the best time to maintain the optimum voltage profile and reactive power flow on the feeders. Some utilities also monitor the harmonic content of the voltage and current. Armed with this information, the operators can change the capacitor or system configuration to move the resonant frequency when problems are detected. Provision is also sometimes made to energize capacitor banks on the voltage-crossovers to avoid switching transients. Many smaller capacitor banks at different locations will often have to be used instead of one large bank at a central location. There is a tradeoff: Smaller capacitor banks cost more per kvar, but the system losses may be less with smaller capacitor banks and they can also provide a better voltage profile. If added capacitive compensation is concentrated at only a few feeder locations, the losses and thermal loading of the feeder may actually increase instead of decrease. Often, with more total shunt compensation, smaller capacitor banks will be needed at more locations to avoid local voltage problems and excessive reactive power flows. 5-4
Tools and Techniques for Analyzing Systems With High Levels of Shunt Compensation
There is an increased need to study high levels of capacitive shunt compensation to avoid potential problems and to maximize the potential benefits. There are many software applications available that provide the tools required for planning and designing these facilities. This report describes some of the analytical tools and demonstrates how selected tools can be applied. Most of the tools highlighted in this report are inexpensive and readily available. There are many analytical techniques and computer programs that are designed specifically to optimize the placement of capacitor banks on distribution feeders. In the hands of an experienced user, a general-purpose program, such as an Optimal Power Flow (OPF) or a Security Constrained Power Flow, can also be used for this purpose. These applications may consider the voltage profile on the feeder, the change in voltage due to switching, reduction of feeder losses, the desired power-factor range, available capacitor bank sizes, the feeder locations that can physically accommodate added capacitor banks, and economics to determine the optimal capacitor bank sizes and locations. Each method of analysis has its advantages and disadvantages. The trade-off is often between ease of application and detail of representation. Some of the tools are not very user-friendly, and a great deal of skill or insider knowledge may be required to properly apply and interpret the results from some of the more complex methods. Simplifying assumptions need to be made for every type of analysis. The key question may be how reasonable are the assumptions for the questions being considered. Numerical programming methods such as OPF and the security-constrained power flow can be formulated to address the capacitor-placement problem. These techniques essentially find a capacitor-placement solution that minimizes cost while obeying voltage, power-flow, and/or other specified constraints. The cost that is minimized may include the costs of losses (both energy and capacity costs may be factored in), the costs of the capacitors themselves, and penalties for unacceptable voltage or undesirable capacitor-placement patterns. A securityconstrained power flow can consider several system loading levels at once. Automated capacitor-placement programs typically do not include harmonic resonance as one of the placement criteria. It is therefore possible for the software to recommend capacitor locations that would cause an undesirable harmonic resonance. Harmonic analysis may, of course, be done separately to identify the locations on the feeder where capacitors of a specific size should not be located. But this approach is cumbersome and may involve several iterations. A future generation of programs may automatically consider harmonic resonance when choosing capacitor locations and sizes. Switching transients and step changes in fundamental-frequency voltage are also not normally considered in capacitor-placement routines. These can often be analyzed separately. Short-circuit programs can be used to find the maximum unit size that can be switched at various locations without producing unacceptable jumps in voltage. A switching-urge program or EMTP type of analysis may also be used to help define the maximum bank size that can be used at various locations. This information may then be used to limit the options for capacitor placement until feeder locations and bank sizes are found that are acceptable in all ways.
5-5
With regard to the effect of overcompensation on harmonic distortion, the following conclusions and observations can be made:
Overcompensation is mainly an issue for the third harmonic. Simulations support the belief that overcompensation will yield third-harmonic problems in some systems. However, test system simulation results vary widely because third harmonics are mainly zero-sequence. The zero-sequence harmonic impedance and voltage depend greatly on the transformer connections and grounding. The voltage magnitude is sometimes very sensitive to overcompensation. Field tests, together with simulations of heavy and light load conditions, using a range of power-factor-compensation levels would help to identify the potential significance of this issue.
5-6
6
REFERENCES
1. Power Quality Implications of Overcompensated Systems, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1001683. 2. Canadian/American EMTP User Group, Alternative Transients Program (ATP) Rule Book, Co-Chairmen W. S. Meyer and T. Liu, Portland, Oregon, 1995 (www.ee.mtu.edu/atp). 3. H. K. Hidalen, ATPDRAW Version 3.4, SINTEF Energy Research, Norway, 2001 (www.ee.mtu.edu/atp). 4. TOP, The Output Processor, Version 6.01, Electrotek Concepts, Inc., Knoxville, TN, 2001 (www.electrotek.com). 5. W. M. Grady, PCFLO Users Manual, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 2000 (www.ece.utexas.edu/~grady). 6. H. N. Ng, M. M. A. Salama and A. Y. Chikhani, Classification of Capacitor Allocation Techniques, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 15, No 1, pp. 387-392, January 2000. 7. Wireless remote Monitoring and Control,Carl R. Goeckeler, DistribuTECH 2002. 8. Distribution Line Capacitors at Alabama Power Company, Donald M. Parker, EPRI Capacitor Workshop, May 13, 2002.
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Power Quality Implications of Overcompensated System

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Power Quality Implications of Overcompensated System

Power Quality Implications of Overcompensated Systems

Technical Update, February 2003

EPRI Project Manager A. Sundaram

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material Introduction

Adding Capacitors to the Distribution System Instead of the Transmission System

EPRI Licensed Material Introduction

Limitations on Shunt Compensation

EPRI Licensed Material Introduction

EPRI Licensed Material

Simulation Software and Methodology

Description of the Test System

EPRI Licensed Material Impact of Overcompensation on Capacitor Switching Transients

Rtrans = 0.02, Ltrans = 0.56mH

EPRI Licensed Material Impact of Overcompensation on Capacitor Switching Transients

Voltage and current probes to confirm base case conditions

Time-controlled switch switch on at voltage peak

Run for 0.1s, using integration step size of 1s

EPRI Licensed Material Impact of Overcompensation on Capacitor Switching Transients

Converting to basic units for ATP use yields

-15000 0 20 40 Time (ms) 60 80 100

EPRI Licensed Material Impact of Overcompensation on Capacitor Switching Transients

Figure 2-3 Zoom-In of Figure 2-2

EPRI Licensed Material Impact of Overcompensation on Capacitor Switching Transients

EPRI Licensed Material Impact of Overcompensation on Capacitor Switching Transients

EPRI Licensed Material

Figure 3-1 Resonance Brought About by Shunt Capacitors

Simulation Software and Methodology

Figure 3-2 Interface Screen for PCFLO

PCFLO modifications for Q compensation study

Figure 3-3 Figure Modified Interface Screen for PCFLO

Description of the Test Cases

Results of Type A Simulations

Strong resonant peak at light load condition

Harmonic with largest voltage identified

SKI CHL OIL

Overcompensation can lead to undesirably high voltages

105 SKI 100 CHL OIL 95

Results of Type B Simulations

Problem switches to 3rd harmonic

Figure 3-12 (HAY). Same conclusion as Figure 3-11.

105 WAT FND HAY TV 95

EPRI Licensed Material

Optimization of Capacitor Placement Using Distribution Feeder Analysis Software

reactive line ow Mvar

0 Substation Feeder end

reactive line ow Mvar

Overview of Available Applications

Example Using Advantica Stoners SynerGEE

Figure 4-3 Results of Harmonic Analysis for Feeder With No Capacitors

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material Conclusions and Recommendations

EPRI Licensed Material Conclusions and Recommendations

EPRI Licensed Material Conclusions and Recommendations