An Introduction To Solar Collectors For Heating & Cooling of Buildings & Domestic Hot Water Heating

An Introduction to Solar Collectors for Heating and Cooling of Buildings and Domestic Hot Water Heating
GUYER PARTNERS
..+., lubhouse /rive &l 0acero, % 951-2 353,4 55261135 7pguyer8pacbell.net
J. PAUL GUYER, P.E., R.A.

Paul Guyer is a registered civil engineer, mechanical engineer, fire protection engineer and architect with over 35 years experience designing all types of buildings and related infrastructure. For an additional 9 years he was a public policy advisor on the staff of the alifornia !egislature dealing with infrastructure issues. "e is a graduate of #tanford $niversity and has held numerous local, state and national offices with the %merican #ociety of ivil &ngineers and 'ational #ociety of Professional &ngineers. "e is a Fellow of the %merican #ociety of ivil &ngineers and the %rchitectural &ngineering (nstitute.
) *. Paul Guyer +,-+
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2. 2.! 2.# 2.$ SCOPE RELATED CRITERIA SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS ENERGY STORAGE AND AUXILIARY HEAT DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEMS (DHW) THERMOSYPHON, BATCH AND INTEGRAL COLLECTOR SYSTEMS SPACE HEATING AND DHW SYSTEMS PASSI"E SYSTEMS SOLAR COOLING SYSTEMS SYSTEM CONTROLS
2. FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS
This course is adapted from the Unified Facilities Criteria of the United States government, which is in the pu lic domain, has unlimited distri ution and is not cop!righted"
The #igures, Ta les and S!m ols in this document are in some cases a little difficult to read, ut the! are the est availa le" DO NOT PURCHASE THIS COURSE IF THE FIGURES, TABLES AND SYMBOLS ARE NOT ACCEPTABLE TO YOU.
1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 SCOPE. 9his course presents design criteria and cost analysis methods for the si:ing and 7ustification of solar heat collectors for potable water and space heaters. (nformation is presented to enable engineers to understand solar space conditioning and water heating systems or conduct feasibility studies based on solar collector performance, site location, and economics. ;oth retrofit and new installations are considered. 1.2 RELATED CRITERIA. #tandards and performance criteria relating to solar
heating systems have been evolved by government agencies and various associations and institutes. 9he most widely used are listed below. ;ecause solar technology is a continuously evolving field, be aware that publications listed below may have been revised or superseded. #ub7ect #olar ollector (nstantaneous Performance 9hermal #torage /evices /ocument %#"<%& #tandard 93655, =0ethods of 9esting to /etermine the 9hermal Performance of #olar ollectors= %#"<%& #tandard 9.655, =0ethods of 9esting 9hermal #torage /evices ;ased on 9hermal Performance= 'ational ;ureau of #tandards, ';#(< 526-3,5%, =Provisional Flat Plate #olar ollector 9esting Procedures> First <evision= %#"<%& #tandard 9562-, =0ethods of 9esting to /etermine the 9hermal Performance of #olar /omestic ?ater "eating #ystems= %#"<%& #tandard 9262,, =0ethods of 9esting to /etermine the 9hermal Performance of $ngla:ed Flat6Plate !i@uid #olar ollectors= 3
omplete #olar ollector Performance &valuation
9esting #olar "ot ?ater "eaters 3includes 9hermo6 syphon, ;atch, ;readbox, or (ntegral #torage ollectors4 9esting #wimming Pool #olar ollectors
9esting 9racAing ollectors
oncentrator
#olar &nergy (ndustries %ssociation, =0ethodology for /etermining the 9hermal Performance <ating for 9racAing oncentrator #olar ollectors= 'ational ;ureau of #tandards, ';#(< 516--25, =(nterim Performance riteria for #olar "eating and ooling #ystems in ommercial ;uildings= "$/ <eport .93,.+, =(ntermediate 0inimum Property #tandards #upplement, #olar "eating and /omestic "ot ?ater #ystems= 'ational ;ureau of #tandards, ';#(< 556-+5+, =(ntermediate #tandards for #olar /omestic "ot ?ater #ystemsB"$/ (nitiative= %<( #tandard 9-,, =9he %ir onditioning and <efrigeration (nstitute 3%<(4 ertification Program for #olar ollectors= #olar &nergy (ndustries %ssociation #tandard, /irectory of #< ertified #olar ollector <atings ouncil of %merican ;uilding Cfficials /C&B #B3.+2-6,-, =<ecommended <e@uirements to ode Cfficials for #olar "eating, ooling, and "ot ?ater #ystems= 'ational ;ureau of #tandards, ';#(< 526--.3%, =Plan for the /evelopment and (mplementation of #tandards for #olar "eating and ooling %pplications=D or =%#90 #tandards on #olar &nergy=, %#90 ommittee &6.. 'ational ;ureau of #tandards, ';# 9ech. 'ote --3., =Guidelines for the (nstallation of #olar omponents on !ow #loped <oofs=D and /ept. of &nergy, .
#olar #ystem Performance
Property #tandards for #olar #ystems
Property #tandards /eveloped for "$/ /omestic "ot ?ater (nitiative #olar ollector ertification and !abeling
#olar ollector ertification, <ating, and !abeling ;uilding ode
Cverall #tandards #ummary
(nstallation Guidelines
=(nstallation Guidelines for #olar /"? #ystems in Cne and 9wo6Family /wellings=D and 'ational ;ureau of #tandards, ';#(< 2,6+--1, =/imensional onsiderations in #olar (nstallations=D and #heet 0etal and %ir onditioning ontractor 'ational %ssociation, (nc., =(nstallation #tandards for Cne and 9wo6 Family /wellings and 0ultifamily "ousing (ncluding #olar= #olar 0aterials and omponents /ept. of &nergy, /C&B9( 6--35. =#olar "eating 0aterials "andbooA=D and 'ational ;ureau of #tandards 9echnical 'ote --3+, =#olar &nergy #ystems 6 #tandards for over Plates for Flat Plate ollectors=D and 'ational ;ureau of #tandards, ';#(< 596-9-3, =#olar &nergy #ystems 6 #tandards for <ubber "ose=D and 'ational ;ureau of #tandards, ';#(< 2-6++3+, =#olar &nergy #ystems 6 #tandards for %bsorber 0aterials= 'ational ;ureau of #tandards, ';#(< 2-6+3.., =Fire 9esting of <oof60ounted #olar ollectors by %#90 &-,2=D and 'ational ;ureau of #tandards, ';#(< 2-6 +-99, =?ind, &arth@uaAe, #now, and "ail !oads on #olar ollectors=D and ';#(< 2+6+.25, ="ail (mpact 9esting Procedures for #olar ollector overs= 'ational ;ureau of #tandards, ';#(<526 3#ee also "$/ <eport .93,.+4 -53+, =&nvironmental and #afety onsiderations for #olar "eating and ooling %pplications= 'ational ;ureau of #tandards, ';#(< 5
0iscellaneous 9ests
Product #afety
ertified 9est !abs ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+
526-535, =!aboratories 9echnically Eualified to 9est #olar ollectors in %ccordance with %#"<%& #tandard 93655= (n addition to these standards, there are plumbing standards published by 9he (nternational %ssociation of 0echanical and Plumbing Cfficials 3(%0PC4, and various state building codes. 1.3 SOLAR ENERGY. 1.3.1 SOLAR RADIATION. &nergy from the sun is received by the earth as electromagnetic radiation. 0ost of the energy is received in the visible and infrared portions and a small amount as ultraviolet radiation. 'orth of the 9ropic of ancer 3+3 deg. ' latitude4, the sun maAes a daily arc across the southern sAy from east to west as shown in Figure -6-. For a typical location at 3+ deg. ' latitude the sun would be 2-.5 deg. above the southern hori:on or nearly overhead at noon 3solar time4 on *une +while on /ecember +- it would be only 3..1 deg. above the hori:on. #olar insolation 3(4 is measured in !angleys 3!4 or ;tuBft+. Cne !angley e@uals 3.122 ;tuBft+. 9he amount of solar energy that exists outside the atmosphere, often called the solar constant, is --1.. !Bhr or .+9.+ ;tuB ft+6hr. %t most 5,F to 2,F of this amount will striAe the earthGs surface, the remainder being absorbed or reflected in the atmosphere. 0onthly average and yearly average daily insolation data for numerous locations are given in 9able -6-. (n general, the higher the latitude, the less insolation is received on a hori:ontal surface. 1.3.2 COLLECTING SOLAR ENERGY. ollection of solar energy is based on the very
high absorption of radiant energy by dull, blacA surfaces and on the =greenhouse effect.= 9he latter refers to the ability of glass to transmit visible radiation but prevent the loss of heat from the collector plate which radiates at longer wavelengths 3infrared fre@uencies4. Glass 3or plastic4 cover plates are generally used over flat absorber plates to reduce heat loss 3see Figure -6+4. 9he heated absorber plate may have a fluid 3water, air or other4 pass over it or through tubes attached to the plate. 9he fluid thus ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 1
heated may be used to heat potable water, heat spaces, or drive an absorption or <anAine power cycle air conditioner.
Figure -69he sunHs path across the sAy at specific times of year
Figure -6+ #chematic cross6section of typical solar collector with heavy blacA insulation and two cover sheets ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 5
9able -69otal "ori:ontal #olar <adiation (ntensity 3;tuBft +6day4 from #olar &nergy <esearch (nstitute ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 2
9able -6- 3continued4 9otal "ori:ontal #olar <adiation (ntensity 3;tuBft +6day4 from #olar &nergy <esearch (nstitute ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 9
9able -6- 3continued4 9otal "ori:ontal #olar <adiation (ntensity 3;tuBft +6day4 from #olar &nergy <esearch (nstitute ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ -,
9able -6- 3continued4 9otal "ori:ontal #olar <adiation (ntensity 3;tuBft +6day4 from #olar &nergy <esearch (nstitute ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ --
9able -6- 3continued4 9otal "ori:ontal #olar <adiation (ntensity 3;tuBft +6day4 from #olar &nergy <esearch (nstitute ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ -+
9able -6- 3continued4 9otal "ori:ontal #olar <adiation (ntensity 3;tuBft +6day4 from #olar &nergy <esearch (nstitute
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9he amount of solar energy collected by a solar collector depends on its efficiency, which is determined by how it is constructed, its configuration, and the choice of materials used. #tandards are available as given in herein which can test the instantaneous efficiency of a solar collector for a specified set of operating conditions. Cther parameters, not related to the physical characteristics of a solar collector, can affect performance. 9he atmosphere reduces the radiation received on the earthGs surface and is also responsible for the scattering of light which results in diffuse, as distinct from direct, solar radiation. 9he diffuse component may represent as much as +5F63,F of the total solar radiation depending on the weather conditions. loudy days are virtually -,,F diffuse solar energy. #olar flat plate collectors absorb heat from the diffuse component as well as the direct. 9hus, some heat is available on partly cloudy days. 9he reflectance of the ground 3snow, sand, water, etc.4 or nearby ob7ects may also influence the amount of solar energy reaching a collector. 9herefore, the amount of solar energy received at any location depends on the hour of the day, the day of the solar year, and the meteorological conditions. 9his amount can vary from about 5, ;tuB ft+6hr on a foggy winter day to as much as 3,,6355 ;tuB ft +6hr on a typical sunny summer day. 1.3.3 SOLAR COLLECTOR ORIENTATION. &ven though solar collectors can collect heat from the diffuse component of solar radiation, solar systems are designed to use the direct component. /irect radiation is in the form of parallel rays coming straight from the sun. 9o best capture this energy the solar collector should be tilted as shown in Figure -6+ so that it is more nearly perpendicular to the solar rays. 9he =optimum= tilt angle varies even as the sun changes its position throughout the day and year. "owever, since the solar system cannot be continuously moved, some general rules can be stated> 1.3.3.1 For all year domestic hot water 3/"?4 heating use a tilt angle e@ual to the latitude. 1.3.3.2 For all year /"? heating and winter space heating, use a tilt angle e@ual to the latitude plus -,6-5 degrees.
-.
1.3.3.3 For all year /"? heating, winter space heating, and summer cooling use same as above. 1.3.3.4 For winter only space heating use a tilt angle e@ual to the latitude plus -,6-5 degrees. 1.3.3. For summer space cooling use a tilt angle e@ual to the latitude minus -,6-5 degrees. 1.3.3.! For summer only space cooling and all year /"? heating use the same as above. (n addition to choosing the best collector tilt angle, consideration must be given to the orientation of a collector 3i.e., the direction the collector faces4. 'ormally true south is the best and most fre@uent choice. "owever, slightly west of south 3-, degrees4 may be preferable in some locations if an early morning ha:e or fog is a regular occurrence.
Figure -63 ollector tilt for domestic hot water3usually I latitude, but -, deg variations either side of optimum are acceptable
-5
Figure -6. ollector orientation 3optimum I true south, but +, deg variations to either side are acceptableD local climate and collector type may influence orientation4 #ome deviations from these tilt and orientation angles are allowable without significantly affecting performance. %s shown in Figures -63 and -6., the tilt angle may vary JB6 -, degrees and the orientation angle up to +, degrees either side of true south 3'ational #olar "eating and ooling (nfo enter, -9594. For these deviations the solar collectors would still collect 95F6 -,,F of their rated capacity in most locations of the $.#. %dditional deviations would re@uire more collector area to capture the same amount of energy. %s a very approximate rule of thumb, for each deviation of -, degrees beyond that shown in Figures -63 and -6. add -,F more collector area. (f you must choose between an east roof and a west roof, use the west roof in the western coastal area. Cther areas will re@uire local weather considerations. %s important as collector location, is Aeeping the collectors out of the shade, especially between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m., when most of the useful energy collection occurs. 9he designer should try to
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anticipate any future structures or vegetation 3trees4 that could blocA future solar access. (n summary, although many buildings will not have a =perfect= solar orientation, there can still be many places with good solar energy potential. 1.3.4 AD"ANTAGES AND DISAD"ANTAGES. #olar energy is inherently nonpolluting, provides substantial freedom from the effects of fuel price increases, and saves valuable fossil fuels. /isadvantages are that collectors perform poorly in cold cloudy weather, when most neededD and room heat exchangers and industrial unit heaters must be larger than in conventional systems due to the relatively low temperature of heating fluid. 9he disadvantages may be circumvented by good designD where fuel costs are high enough 3as discussed in the examples, #ection .4, a solar system will prove cost effective. #olar systems designed for combined heating and cooling will utili:e the collector all year and thus are potentially more cost effective. 2. FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS. 9his section will cover in detail the typical components of a flat plate solar collector as shown previously in Figure -6+. 2.1 COLLECTORS. 9he collector is the most important and one of the most expensive parts of a solar heating system. (t must be long6lived and well insulated, yet its cost must be minimi:ed. ollectors of primary interest for space and water heating are of two basic types> li@uid and air. !i@uids may be water, an antifree:e mixture, or various hydrocarbon and silicone heat transfer oils. %ir6type collectors use air as the collector fluid. 9he absorber plate is that part of the collector which absorbs the solar energy and converts it to thermal energy. % portion of the thermal energy is carried to the building or thermal storage unit by the fluid which circulates through passages in the absorber plate. 9he absorber plates can be made of metal, plastic, or rubber compounds. 9he metals commonly used in order of decreasing thermal conductivity are copper, aluminum, and steel. Plastics 3polyolefins4 and rubbers 3ethylene propylene compounds4 are relatively inexpensive, but due to their low thermal conductivity and their temperature limitations, they are suitable only for low temperature applications, such as heating swimming pool water or for use with water source heat pumps. 9ypical ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ -5
cross sections of solar collector types are shown in Figure +6-. Cther ma7or components of a solar collector include> %bsorber plate coating 6 9o enhance the heat transfer and protect the absorber plate. Cne or more transparent covers 6 9o reduce thermal losses by radiation 3using the =greenhouse effect=4 and by convection 3wind, etc.4. #pacings are nominally -B+ inch or more. (nsulation 6 Cne to three inches are used to reduce heat loss through the side and bacA of the absorber plate. ollector box or housing 6 9o provide a rigid mounting to hold the components. 0ust be weatherproofed. GasAets and seals 6 9o insure a weathertight seal between components while allowing thermal expansion of the components. 'ormally these seals remain ductile to accomplish their purpose. Flat6plate collectors are most suitable for low temperature applications such as domestic hot water and space heating. 9hey collect both direct and diffuse radiation. (t is not re@uired that they tracA the sun, thus initial cost and maintenance are minimi:ed. % properly designed flat6plate collector has a life expectancy of -, to +5 years, or sometimes longer. %ll copper and glass systems currently exhibit the longest lives. $sing softened water will help. 9ubes should be -B+ inch in diameter or greater for low pressure drop and longer life. 9he better the attachment of tube6to6 plate 3such as by soldering4, the better the heat transfer, but the greater the manufacturing cost. %dvances in collector cost reduction will probably be made in the direction of cheaper manufacturing processes. #ome collectors not made from tube and sheet may not tolerate /"? line pressures. #pecifications for pressuri:ed collector circuits should re@uire collectors which will taAe proof test pressure e@ual to -5,F of expected circuit pressure. (n hot climates, it is important to reduce roof heat load due to collector heat
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gain in summerD this can be accomplished by venting the space between collector plate and gla:es with dampers or by covering the collectors. % normal amount of dirt and dust
Figure +69ypes of #olar "eat ollectors ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ -9
on the glass cover will reduce heat collected by about 5F. 'ormal rainfall is usually sufficient to relieve this problem. &xcept for warm climates with high insolation 3( K B 6 -.,, ;tuBft+6day4, two cover glasses may be optimum. (n warm climates, one glass is optimum. 0any plastics have an undesirable transparency to infrared radiation, to which glass is nearly opa@ue, so the desired =greenhouse effect= is not so pronounced with plastic materials as with glass. "owever, losses by radiation from the collector are small compared with convective losses due to windD thus plastics can be employed to reduce breaAage and cost, but with some loss in collector performance. Plastics with maximum opa@ueness to infrared and maximum transparency to ultraviolet 3$L4 and visible radiation and with high resistance to $L degradation should be specified. 9he following sections give more detailed information on collector designs and components. 2.1.1 LI%UID AND AIR&TYPE COLLECTORS. !i@uid and air type collectors each have some advantages which are summari:ed in 9able +6-. !i@uid types are more suited to /"?, the collector area is usually smaller, and more information is available about li@uid systems. ollectors for heating air do not re@uire protection from free:ing and have minimal corrosion problems, leaAs do not cause serious damage, they may cost less per unit area, and are better suited to direct space heating for residences where duct6worA is already present. "owever, since leaAs in air systems are less easily detected, they can degrade system performance if not corrected. ?herever this manual discusses li@uid collectors, air collectors are included, and cost analyses apply e@ually to both. 9he design procedure for air collectors differs, however. "eat transfer oils used in li@uid systems offer free:e protection and some corrosion protection, but they also re@uire heat exchangers for heating domestic hot water, as do antifree:e6water mixtures. 2.1.2 SELECTI"E SURFACES. #ome collectors are manufactured with a blacA coating which absorbs the high fre@uency incoming solar radiation very well and which emits low fre@uency infrared radiation poorly. 9his is a highly desirable combination of properties for a collector. 9he absorptance should be ,.9 or higher and emittance may be ,.- or lower. #uch coatings are approximately e@ual in effect to one cover glass. ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ +,
9able +6%dvantages and /isadvantages of %ir and !i@uid "eating #ystems
+-
9hus, a selective coating plus one cover glass may be expected to be about e@ual in efficiency to a collector with two cover glasses and a flat blacA painted surface. &lectroplated blacA nicAel, blacA chrome, copper oxide or anodi:ed aluminum are common types of selective coatings. ost of selective surface coatings may be greater than an extra sheet of glass, but much research is being done to produce low cost, easily applied coatings. 9he stability of blacA nicAel, chrome and aluminum in the presence of moisture has not yet been proven. !ong6term stability in the presence of moisture or other expected environmental factors 3salt air, etc.4 must be included in specifications for selective surfaces. 9able +6+ is a summary of absorber coatings both selective and nonselective. 2.1.3 COLLECTOR CO"ERS (GLA'ES). 9he transparent covers serve to admit solar radiation to the absorber while reducing convection and radiation heat losses from the collector. 9he covers also protect the absorber from dirt, rain, and other environmental contaminants. 9he material used for covers include glass andBor plastic sheets. Glass is most commonly used because of its superior optical properties and durability. #tandard plate glass reflects about 2F and absorbs about 1F of normal incident solar radiation, resulting in a transmissivity of about 21F. Met it is essentially opa@ue to long6 wave thermal radiation from the absorber. 9ransmission of solar radiation into the collector can be increased by minimi:ing the reflectance and the absorptance of the glass covers. %bsorptance of solar radiation by the collector can be increased with the use of thinner tempered glass and by using glass that has a low iron content. %lthough glass is sub7ect to impact damage and is more expensive than plastic, it does not degrade in sunlight or at high collector temperatures, and is generally considered to be more durable than plastic. (mpact damage may be reduced with the use of tempered glass and small collector widths. %lso -B+6inch wire mesh may be hung over glass covers for protection, but the effective absorber area will be reduced by approximately -5F. (n general, screens are not recommended. 0ost plastic covers transmit the solar spectrum as well or better than glass gla:ing. $nfortunately, they transmit infrared
++
9able +6+ haracteristics of %bsorber oatings 3selective coatings alphaBepsilon K +D non6selective coatings alphaBepsilon N -4 ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ +3
9able +6+ 3continued4 haracteristics of %bsorber oatings 3selective coatings alphaBepsilon K +D non6selective coatings alphaBepsilon N -4
9able +63 % omparison of Larious 0aterials $sed for ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+
ollector overs. +.
radiation well also, increasing radiation losses from the collector. 9able +63 compares the different characteristics of glass and plastic covers. %lthough resistant to impact damage, plastics generally degrade in sunlight and are limited as to the temperatures they can sustain without undergoing serious deformation. Cften they do not lie flat, resulting in a wavy appearance. (n general, acrylic is the most $L resistant and F<P Plastics offer good impact and high temperature properties. 9eflon F&P film has good transmittance and high temperature properties, but is limited in strength. #ome collectors using plastic covers are designed to have stagnation temperatures no higher than +,, deg. 6 +55 deg. F. "owever, plastic covers have been developed to withstand .,, deg. F. 9he manufacturer should be consulted. &ach additional cover, whether it be glass or plastic, reduces convection heat losses but results in added expense and less solar radiation transmitted to the absorber. 0ost commercially available collectors come with one or two covers. 9he decision to use one or two covers depends on the type of absorber coating, the re@uired collection temperatures, average ambient air temperature, the local wind conditions, and of course, the cost of the covers. 9he use of a selective surface is about e@ual to using one additional cover. 9hus for most cases, only one glass cover is needed if the absorber has a selective coating. (n fact, one study indicated that winter performance was actually reduced by the use of two glass covers with a selective surface compared to one cover with the selective surface. 9wo covers are generally recommended for use in 'orthern climates where winter ambient air temperatures are low. For flat6plate collectors used mostly for winter heating, one rule of thumb is to use one glass cover where average winter air is greater than, .5 deg. F, and two glass covers in colder climates. 9able +6. gives some approximations in the selection of collector covers. 2.1.4 COLLECTOR INSULATION. (nsulation behind and to the side of the absorber serves to reduce conduction losses. $sually, this insulation consists of -61 inches of high6temperature fiberglass batting or semi6rigid board or even mineral wool. #tyrofoam and urethane foams are usually not used because they may deform at high temperatures or give off gases 3which may be toxic4. 9he insulation should be ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ +5
9able +6. Guide to #election of 'umber of 9ransparent over Plates. separated from the absorber plate by-B+ to 3B. inch and have a reflective foil facing the absorber plate. (f fiberglass insulation is used, it should not be typical construction grade which contains phenolic binders that may =outgas= at the stagnation temperature of the collector. (n all cases, specifications should call for insulations that are not flammable, have a low thermal expansion coefficient, do not melt or outgas at collector stagnation
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temperatures 33,, deg. N .,, deg. F4, and 3whenever possible4 contain reflective foil to reflect thermal radiation bacA to the absorber. 2.1. COLLECTOR HOUSINGS. 9he housing or collector box serves to> #upport the collector components. Protect the absorber and insulation from the environment. <educe convection and conduction losses from the absorber.
0any housing designs are available on the marAet. 9hey are constructed of metals, wood, plastics, concrete, and other materials. 9he most commonly used materials are aluminum, galvani:ed sheet metal, fiberglass laminates, high temperature thermoplastics, and wood. (t is recommended that wood be avoided for use as a structural member, spacer, or anchor for panels due to its susceptibility to deterioration and flammability. %ll structural materials are suitable if properly used. "owever, most commercially available housings consist of a galvani:ed sheet metal box with an anodi:ed aluminum frame which fits on top of the box. #ome housings are designed to be integrated directly into the roof or wall structure, thus reducing construction costs. #ince field labor is expensive, the collector housing should be designed such that the collector units can be @uicAly secured in place and connected to the external piping. Provisions should also be made for easy replacement of broAen glass covers. 9he absorber plate should be mounted so as to be thermally isolated as much as possible from the housing. 2.1.! COLLECTOR GAS(ETS AND SEALANTS. GasAets and sealants must be carefully selected if a collector is to have a long life. Generally, the housing and the gla:ing have different rates of thermal expansion. GasAets and sealants form the flexible interface between the two components and seal out moisture and other contaminantsD if they fail, moisture will fog the gla:ing and may possibly damage the absorber coating and the insulation. 9hese problems can drastically reduce the thermal
+5
performance of the collector. 9wo suitable sealing methods are shown in Figures +6+ and +63. 9he gasAets provide flexible support and the primary weather sealant insures
9able +65 "eat 9ransfer Fluids
+2
9able +65 3continued4 "eat 9ransfer Fluids
+9
Figure +6+ #ingle gasAet seal for double gla:ing
Figure +63 9ypical sealing method for single or double gla:ing ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 3,
against moisture leaAage. /esiccants are sometimes placed between the two gla:ings to absorb any moisture that may remain after cover installation. ?hen selecting collector gasAets and sealants, certain material re@uirements must be Aept in mind. 9he gasAets and seals must> ?ithstand significant expansion and contraction without destruction. %dhere effectively to all surfaces. <esist ultraviolet degradation. <esist outdoor weathering. 'ot harden or become brittle. ?ithstand temperature cycling from 63, deg. to .,, deg. F. 'ot outgas at high temperatures.
;oth &P/0 and silicone rubbers have been found ade@uate for use as gasAet materials. #ilicone sealants have exceptional weathering resistance and have received widespread use for many years. 2.1.# COLLECTOR FLUIDS & CORROSION AND FREE'E PROTECTION. 9he choice of which collector fluid to use is important because this is the life6blood of the system. 9he cheapest, most readily obtainable, and thermally efficient fluid to use is ordinary water. "owever, water suffers from two serious drawbacAs 6 it free:es and it can cause corrosion. 9herefore, the choice of collector fluid is closely linAed to the type of solar system, the choice of components, future maintenance, and several other factors which will be discussed in this section. (mplicit in this discussion is the use of a fluid other than air as the collector fluid. %s explained in 9able +6- an air solar system does not suffer from corrosion or free:ing effects, but its low density and heat capacity re@uire the use of fans and large ducts, large storage volumes, and is generally not suitable for domestic water heating. 9he remainder of this section applies to li@uid solar heating systems. Generally the standards state that the heat transfer fluid must be nonionic, high dielectric, nonreactive, noncorrosive, nonflammable and stable with temperature and time. (f the fluid is toxic it may be used only in systems specially designed for it as will be explained later. 9he 'ational ;ureau of #tandards 3-92,4, <ef 6 /C& #olar ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 3-
"eating 0aterials "andbooA, has proposed the following criteria to reduce the risA of fire in the use of solar heat transfer fluids> 9he flash point of the li@uid heat transfer fluid shall e@ual or exceed the highest temperature determined from 3a4, 3b4 and 3c4 below> 3a4 % temperature of 5, deg. above the design maximum flow temperature of the fluid in the solar systemD or 3b4 3-4 % temperature +,, deg. F below the design maximum no6flow temperature of the fluid attained in the collector provided the collector manifold assembly is located outside of the building and exposed to the weather and provided that relief valves located ad7acent to the collector or collector manifold do not discharge directly or indirectly into the building and such discharge is directed away from flames and ignition sourcesD or, 3+4 9he design maximum no6flow temperature of the fluid in all other manifold and relief valve configurationsD 3c4 -,, deg. F (f there is no danger of free:ing and the collector loop consists of all copper flow passages, then ordinary water would be the choice for collector fluid. (f free:ing conditions are encountered, there are a number of designs that should be considered before it is decided to use a heat transfer oil or antifree:e mixture. 9hese free:e protection schemes are summari:ed here using Figure +6. as the basic open loop type collector circuit. 2.1.#.1 DRAIN DOWN OR DRAIN BAC( METHOD 6 9he water in the collector is drained out of the system, or into a tanA near the collector, or into the main storage tanA when temperatures in the collector approach free:ing. 9his scheme re@uires automatic valves to dump the water and purge air from the system. Cften a larger pump will be re@uired to overcome the system head and re6prime the collectors. % way to avoid automatic 3solenoid4 valves is to drain the collectors whenever the pump shuts off. 9his still re@uires a larger pump. 9hree6way valves exist that can use city water pressure to reprime the systemD otherwise pumps must be used. #ome drainbacA systems only
3+
drain the water to a small tanA near the collectors thus re@uiring only a small additional pump. "eat exchangers may be re@uired to separate potable water from nonpotable water. 2.1.#.2 HEAT TAPES 6 &lectric resistance heat tapes are thermostatically activated to heat the water. 9his scheme re@uires extra energy and is not completely reliable. (nsertion of heat tapes into preconstructed collectors may be difficult. 2.1.#.3 RECIRCULATION METHOD 6 (n this method the control system of Figure +6. merely turns on the pump if free:ing approaches. (n this way, warm water from storage circulates through the collectors until the free:ing condition is over. 9he only extra component needed is a free:e sensor on the collector which is a minimum cost item. "owever, by circulating heated water, the capacity of storage decreases and less is available the following day. 9his method is probably the most reliable of the three since it does not depend on additional electrical valves or heating tape, provided that bacA up power is available to operate pumps in the event of power failure. (f the preceding methods are not acceptable or if the choice of water is not acceptable due to concern about corrosion, then a heat transfer fluid must be used. 9he heat transfer fluid must be used with a heat exchanger in a =closed66loop= configuration as shown in Figure +6.. 9he configuration shown in Figure +6. will be from -,F6+5F less efficient due to the temperature penalty associated with the heat exchanger and the low specific heat of the heat transfer fluid as compared to water. 'ote an additional pump is also re@uired. (f the heat transfer fluid is toxic or non6potable 3such as antifree:e4 then a double6walled heat exchanger must be used for protection. 9he different types of heat exchangers are explained in Figure +65. (t is difficult to estimate the most cost effective free:e protection method. #ome studies have shown that for many areas in the $.#., the recirculation method is best particularly where free:ing days are few in number. (t tends to have the lowest capital cost and energy use cost. "owever, all the methods except heat transfer fluids rely on the presence of electricity to operate. % simultaneous electrical failure and free:ing condition would result in potential failure of the systems. %n exception is that new thermally actuated draindown valves are becoming available to replace the sometimes troublesome solenoid valves. 9herefore, the absolute safest system would be the nonfree:ing heat transfer fluids and these might be considered for ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 33
the very cold parts of the country 3;oston, hicago, etc.4. &ach potential pro7ect should be considered individually using local weather criteria, free:e protection capital costs,
3.
Figure +6. 9ypical configurations for solar water heater systems additional energy to run the system, reliability, maintenance, and type of system as the criteria. Cften a detailed computer simulation would be re@uired to choose. "owever, any of the methods will provide some degree of protection. (f heat transfer fluids are selected for corrosion or free:e protection, the following paragraphs discuss pertinent criteria. 0ost heat transfer fluids contain some degree of toxicity. 9o minimi:e the probability of contamination of potable water systems the following items should be addressed in any specification or bid> %ssurances to preclude the possibility of cross connection of potable water piping with heat transfer fluid piping. 9he use of tags, color coding, different pipe connections, etc, are suggestions. "ydrostatic testing of system to find leaAs. olor indicators in heat transfer fluid to find leaAs. #afe designs for heat exchangers as given in Figure +65. /etermine toxicity classification of heat transfer fluids. #uggested categories as a minimum are> Cral toxicity 3C<%! !/5,4 arcinogenic.
35
Ccular irritant 3eye4. /ermal irritant 3sAin4. ;efore heat transfer fluids are discussed, a review of basic corrosion theory is in order. 9he two types of corrosion which cause the most damage in solar systems are galvanic and pitting corrosion 3&yre, -9524. Galvanic corrosion is a type of corrosion which is caused by an electrochemical reaction between two or more different metals in contact with each other. % chemical reaction between the metals causes a small electrical current which erodes material from one of the metals. #olar energy systems generally contain a number of different metals such as aluminum, copper, brass, tin, and steel. 9his maAes the solar system a prime candidate for galvanic corrosion. (f the dissimilar metals are physically 7oined or if they are contacted by a common storage or heat6 transfer fluid, the possibility of galvanic corrosion becomes much greater. Pitting corrosion is a highly locali:ed form of corrosion resulting in deep penetration at only a few spots. (t is one of the most destructive forms of corrosion because it causes e@uipment to fail by perforation with only a very small weight loss. ?hen heavy metal ions such as iron or copper plate on a more anodic metal such as aluminum, a small local galvanic cell can be formed. 9his corrosion spot or =pit= usually grows downward in the direction of gravity. Pits can occur on vertical surfaces, although this is not as fre@uent. 9he corrosion pits may re@uire an extended period 3months to years4 to form, but once started they may penetrate the metal @uite rapidly. "eavy metal ions can either come as a natural impurity in a water mixture heat transfer fluid or from corrosion of other metal parts of the solar system. Pitting corrosion has the same mechanism 3concentration cell4 as crevice corrosion thus it can also be aggravated by the presence of chloride or other chemicals which can be part of the water mixture or a contaminant from solder fluxes. %luminum is very susceptible to pitting corrosion, while copper generally is not. 9here are several preventive measures which will eliminate or at least minimi:e galvanic and pitting corrosion in collector systems which use an a@ueous collector fluid. 9he best method to prevent galvanic corrosion is to avoid using dissimilar metals. ?here this is not possible or practical, the corrosion can be greatly reduced by using nonmetallic connections between the dissimilar metals, thus isolating them. Galvanic protection in the form of a sacrificial anode is another method of protecting the ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 31
Figure +65 "eat exchangers for solar water heating systems
35
parent metals. %lso, use of similar metals reduces the problems of fatigue failure caused by thermal expansion. Pitting corrosion is essentially eliminated if copper absorber plates are used. orrosion inhibitors can minimi:e pitting corrosion in aluminum absorbers. 9he types of heat transfer fluids available may be divided into two categories, nona@ueous and a@ueous. #ilicones and hydrocarbon oils maAe up the nona@ueous group, while the a@ueous heat transfer fluids include untreated potable 3tap4 water, inhibited6distilled water, and inhibited glycolBwater mixtures. 9he potable tap water and inhibited distilled water do not, of course, offer free:e protection. 9able +65 shows characteristics of some of the most common heat transfer fluids. 2.1.#.1 SILICONE FLUIDS. #ilicone heat transfer fluids have many favorable properties which maAe them prime candidates for collector fluids. 9hey do not free:e, boil, or degrade. 9hey do not corrode common metals, including aluminum. 9hey have excellent stability in solar systems stagnating under .,, deg. F. #ilicone fluids are also virtually nontoxic and have high flash and fire points. urrent evidence indicates that silicone fluids should last the life of a closed6loop collector system with stagnation temperatures under 35, deg. 6 .,, deg. F. 9he flash point is fairly high, .5, deg. F, but since the "$/ standards state that heat transfer fluids must not be used in systems whose maximum stagnation temperature is less than -,, deg. F lower than the fluidGs flash point, this limits most silicone oils to systems with a maximum temperature of 35, deg. F or less. %lso silicones do not form sludge or scale, so system performance does not decrease with time. 9he main drawbacA of silicone fluids is their cost. 9hus the cost of the +, to 3, gallons of collector fluid re@uired for a typical 5,, ft + collector system becomes considerable. %s with hydrocarbon oils, the lower heat capacity and higher viscosity of silicone fluid re@uires larger diameter and more expensive piping. /ue to the higher viscosity, larger pumps will be re@uired and subse@uent higher pumping costs. Cne other problem with silicone fluids is the seepage of fluid at pipe 7oints. 9his problem can be prevented by proper piping installation and by pressuri:ing the system with air to test for leaAs. 9here have also been reports of seepage past the mechanical seals of circulating pumps. 9he use of magnetic drive or canned wet rotor pumps when available in the proper si:e is a method of avoiding mechanical seal leaAage. #ilicones have the advantage of lasting the life of the system with little ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 32
maintenance. ?hile this helps minimi:e operating expenses, the initial cost of silicones is marAedly higher than that of other available heat transfer fluids. "owever, the high initial cost of silicone heat transfer fluid may be less than the savings that result from minimum maintenance and no replacement of collector fluid. 9he use of silicone fluid allows absorbers with aluminum fluid passages to be used without fear of corrosion. 9he savings gained from the use of aluminum absorbers as opposed to copper absorbers could be substantial. 2.1.#.2 HYDROCARBONS. "ydrocarbon oils, liAe silicones, also give a long service life, but cost less. 9hey are relatively noncorrosive, nonvolatile, environmentally safe, and most are nontoxic. 9hey are designed for use in systems with lower operating temperatures, since some brands breaA down at higher temperatures to form sludge and corrosive organic acids. 9ypical closed6cup flashpoints run from 3,, deg. F to .+, deg. F, but the fluids with higher flashpoints have a higher viscosity. 9he "$/ bulletin on minimum property standards for solar heating systems recommends a closed6cup flashpoint -,, deg. F higher than maximum expected collector temperatures. $nsaturated hydrocarbons are also sub7ect to rapid oxidation if exposed to air, necessitating the use of oxygen scavengers. #ome hydrocarbons thicAen at low temperatures and the resultant higher viscosity can cause pumping problems. 'ewer hydrocarbons are being developed which do not harm rubber or materials of construction, since this has been a problem with hydrocarbons. (n general, they cannot be used with copper, as it serves as a catalyst to fluid decomposition. 9he thermal conductivity of hydrocarbons is lower than that of water, although the performance of some brands is much better than others. 9he cost of typical hydrocarbon and other synthetic heat transfer oils vary. % typical li@uid collector of 5,, ft + plus the piping to and from storage will re@uire from +, to 3, gallons of collector fluid. 9he lower heat capacity and higher viscosity of these oils will also re@uire larger diameter pipe, increasing materials costs further. (f hydrocarbon fluids are used, the additional capital cost should be compared with expected savings due to lower maintenance costs. 9he use of aluminum absorbers rather than copper absorbers will also result in substantial savings. 2.1.#.3 DISTILLED WATER. /istilled water has been suggested for use in solar collectors since it avoids some of the problems of untreated potable water. First, since ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 39
the distillation process removes contaminants such as chlorides and heavy metal ions, the problem of galvanic corrosion, though not completely eliminated, should be alleviated. "owever, distilled water is still sub7ect to free:ing and boiling. For this reason, an anti6free:eBanti6boil agent such as ethylene glycol is often added. 2.1.#.4 WATER&ANTI&FREE'E. 'onfree:ing li@uids can also be used to provide free:e protection. 9hese fluids are circulated in a closed loop with a double wall heat exchanger between the collector loop and the storage tanA 3see Figure +654. ?aterBantifree:e solutions are most commonly used because they are not overly expensive. &thylene and propylene glycol are the two most commonly used antifree:es. % 5,65, waterBglycol solution will provide free:e protection down to about 63, deg. F, and will also raise the boiling point to about +3, deg. F. 9he use of waterBglycol solution presents an additional corrosion problem. ?ater glycol systems will corrode galvani:ed pipe. %t high temperatures glycols may breaA down to form glycolic acid. 9his breaAdown may occur as low as -2, deg. F and accelerate at +,, deg. F. 9his acid corrodes most all metals including copper, aluminum, and steel. 9he rate of glycol decomposition at different temperatures is still a sub7ect of uncertainty. 9he decomposition rate of glycol varies according to the degree of aeration and the service life of the solution. 0ost waterBglycol solutions re@uire periodic monitoring of the p" level and the corrosion inhibitors. 9he p" should be maintained between 1.5 and 2.,. <eplacement of the waterBglycol solution may be as often as every -+6+. months or even sooner in high temperature systems. (f these solutions are used in the collector loop, the seller should specify the expected life of the solution and the amount of monitoring re@uired. 9he cost of periodic fluid replacement and monitoring should be considered in the economic analysis. #ince glycol6water mixtures do re@uire a lot of maintenance 3and since users can be @uite negligent4 it is recommended that glycols not be used in family housing solar heating and /"? systems, and that glycol6water solutions be reserved for use in large6scale installations which have regular maintenance schedules and where the high cost of silicone oils would be prohibitive. 2.1.$ COLLECTOR CONNECTIONS. ?ater flow through non6hori:ontal collectors should always be against gravity, except in tricAle6type collectors. $sually this means ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ .,
water inlet to the collector at the bottom, and outlet at the top.
are must be taAen so
that e@ual flow goes to all collectors. (f the pipe manifold pressure drop is large, then end collectors will get little flow. 9he design most usually used is one in which the collectors are connected in parallel. 9his results in low pressure drop and high efficiency of each collector. % series hooAup results in the highest temperature and the highest pressure drop but lowest collector efficiency. "igher temperatures than in the parallel arrangement may be obtained with parallel6series connections, but at the expense of reduced efficiency and greater cost. 9hese high temperatures are not usually re@uired for hot water and space heating. Figure +61 shows different connection configurations. %ll collector systems should be installed using a reverse6return 3O flow4 piping layout as shown in figure +61a. $p to about -+ collectors in a row can be accommodated. Lery large installations may merit computer simulations to optimi:e the flow balance of each stage. 2.1.) COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY AND HEAT LOSSES. (n the preceding sections, many details as to the construction and choice of components of a solar collector have been given. %ll of these features contribute to how well a collector will perform or how efficient it will be. #olar collectors, depending on their construction and materials, suffer from several Ainds of heat losses. 9hey can lose heat by convection of wind blowing over their top and bottom surfaces. %s the collector temperature increases above the temperature of the surrounding air, the radiation heat losses increase. 9his results in lower heat collected 3lower efficiency4 at higher collector temperatures. "eat can be lost by conduction from the bacA and sides of a collector. 9o evaluate the effects of all these parameters individually would involve detailed and difficult calculations. Fortunately, collector performance can be compared much more easily by a single graph depicting collector efficiency versus the parameter P9B(. collector efficiency is defined as the ratio of the heat collected to the insolation 3(4 falling on the surface of the collector. %lso> P9 I 9i6 9a
.-
Figure +61 onnection #chemes for #olar "eating #ystems
Figure +61a ollector Piping where
.+
9i I temperature of fluid entering collector 3inlet4. 9a I ambient air temperature. Figure +65 gives the efficiency of some typical flat plate solar collectors. 9he most efficient solar collector would convert -,,F of the sunGs energy falling on it to usable heat. %s shown in Figure +65, this is impossible so the designer looAs for a collector that converts the greatest percentage of solar energy to heat, at the re@uired temperature, and at the lowest cost. (t is important that each collector be tested according to an exacting standard. 9he early standard for testing solar collectors, was ';#(< 5.6135 published by the 'ational ;ureau of #tandards. 9his is the standard the previous edition of this report used to report collector efficiencies. #ubse@uently, the %merican #ociety of "eating, <efrigerating, and %ir onditioning &ngineers, (nc. 3%#"<%&4 sponsored the development of a uniform method of testing solar collectors to form the preliminary standard 936P and finally the version in use today, %#"<%& #tandard 936 55, =0ethods of 9esting to /etermine the 9hermal Performance of #olar ollectors.= 9his method uses the "ottel6?hillier e@uation and is generally accepted in the solar industry. 9he differences between the ';# and the %#"<%& standard are as follows> %#"<%& re@uires the use of gross collector area rather than aperture or net area used in ';#. %#"<%& uses the collector inlet temperature as one of its parameters whereas ';# uses the average absorber plate temperature defined as the sum of the inlet and outlet temperatures divided by two. (n general, the ';# standard will give higher collector efficiencies, possibly 5F6-,F, but the accepted consensus standard at this time is %#"<%& #tandard 93655. 9he /epartment of &nergy 3/C&4 is using the %#"<%& standard in developing its program for national certification and rating of solar collectors. 9herefore, all data given in this report and future reports will conform to the %#"<%& standard. Figure +65 shows many contemporary solar collectors as of the writing of this course. /ata is from %#"<%& 936 55 tests.
.3
Figure +65 9ypical #olar ollector &fficiencies
..
% large amount of test data on solar collectors is becoming available through the national certification program run by #&(%, the ' &! tests, and individual laboratories testing for the manufacturers. 9he 'ational ertification Program managed by #&(% is now the primary source of solar collector test data. 9able +61 represents a random sampling of the many solar collectors available. (t is not a comprehensive list nor is it an endorsement of any particular collector. 9hese data were excerpted from the #olar <ating and ertification Program of #&(%, *uly -923 &dition. 9he main criteria for each collector in 9able +61 is that it have an accepted %#"<%& 93655 performance test. Cther than that, collectors were chosen to provide a variety of types, materials, construction techni@ues, geographical locations, and cost information. % few cautions are advisable. Prices may be up to one year old from the publication date and should be checAed if a purchase is anticipated. 0anufacturers may have other models available. For example, 9able +61 may give details for a single gla:ed collector and chances are the manufacturer would also have a double gla:ed model with valid %#"<%& 93655 test data. 9he user may Anow of other collectors with test data available. 9hese could be readily compared to similar models in 9able +61. 9o select a collector from 9able +61, first note that collectors constructed of similar materials 3copper, aluminum, etc.4 are grouped together. 9hen, it is necessary to pay attention to the y6intercept 3called efficiency intercept in 9able +614 which gives the highest efficiency of a collector, and the slope which gives a measure of the rate at which the collector efficiency decreases. 9hese parameters will be used later in estimating the solar collector performance. (n general the more negative the slope, the less efficient the collector. "owever, this must be balanced with the value of the efficiency intercept. For example, in Figure +65 and 9able +61 note that double gla:ed collectors start out at a lower instantaneous efficiency 3y intercept4 but do not lose efficiency very fast 3less negative slope4 so that when comparing with single gla:ed collectors the operating temperature 39 i4 will ultimately determine which is best 3see 9able +6. also4. ?hen the cost of the collector is also considered, it becomes very difficult to =intuitively= picA a best collector in 9able +61. 9he user should consider several options of collectors when using the worAsheets in the later sections. (n choosing a collector, Figure +65 should be used only for @ualitative
.5
9able +61 #olar ollector 9est <esults
.1
9able +61 3continued4 #olar ollector 9est <esults
.5
.2
.9
5,
5-
5+
Figure +65 9ypical #olar ollector &fficiencies
53
7udgments, while 9able +61 should be used for typical slope and intercept values. 9his avoids the errors associated with trying to =read off= numbers on Figure +65.
Figure +62 &vacuated tube solar heat collector. 2.1.1* OTHER TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTORS. 9he three most common types of solar collectors are flat plate collectors, evacuated tube collectors, and concentrating collectors. /ue to certain cost and performance advantages, flat plate collectors have been used extensively for residential /"? and space heating applications. &vacuated tube and concentrating collectors are used mostly in solar applications re@uiring very high temperatures. #ome applications re@uiring large solar arrays are using evacuated and concentrating collectors. % brief description follows. 2.1.1*.1 E"ACUATED&TUBE COLLECTORS. Figure +62 shows an evacuated6tube collector. 9his type of collector uses a vacuum between the absorber and the ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 5.
glass outer tube to significantly reduce convection and conduction heat losses. &vacuated6tube collectors operate essentially the same as flat6plate collectors. #olar radiation passes through the outer glass tube and is absorbed by the coated absorber. "eat energy is transferred to fluid flowing through the absorber. 0ost evacuated6tube designs collect both direct and diffuse radiation efficiently, but certain types are specifically designed for more efficient collection of direct radiation. %lthough evacuated6tube collectors are considerably more expensive than typical flat6plate collectors, they are much more efficient and more cost effective when high collection temperatures are needed for operating absorption chillers or for industrial process heating. 9hey may not be as efficient as flat6plate collectors at low6temperature applications such as domestic water heating and space heating. For these applications, evacuated tube collectors should be 7udged on a cost per ;tu basis to determine their effectiveness. 0aintenance costs may be higher and heat dissipation coils may be re@uired. omparisons can be made using data similar to that in Figure +65 and 9able +61, although evacuated tube collectors normally show a higher =all6day= performance than that indicated by the instantaneous values of 9able +61. 2.1.1*.2 CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS. oncentrating or focusing collectors intercept direct radiation over a large area and focus it onto a very small absorber area. 9hese collectors can provide very high temperatures more efficiently than flat6plate collectors, since the absorption surface area is much smaller. "owever, diffuse sAy radiation cannot be focused onto the absorber. 0ost concentrating collectors re@uire mechanical e@uipment which constantly orients the collectors towards the sun and Aeeps the absorber at the point of focus. 9here are many types of concentrating collectors. 9he most popular types are the parabolic trough, the linear6trough fresnel lens, and the compound parabolic mirror. Figure +693a4 shows a linear concentrating or parabolic trough collector. (t collects energy by reflecting direct solar radiation off a large curved mirror and onto a small absorber tube which contains a flowing heat transfer li@uid. 9he absorber tube is encased in a glass or metal tube which may or may not be evacuated. 9his type of collector must tracA the sun and can collect only direct radiation. Figure +693b4 shows a linear6trough, fresnel lens collector. (n this design a curved lens is used to focus incoming rays onto a small absorber plate or tube through which the heat ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 55
transfer li@uid is circulated. 9his type of collector also re@uires a tracAing mechanism and can collect only direct radiation. Figure +693c4 shows a compound parabolic mirror collector. 9he design of the mirrors allows the collector to collect and focus both direct and diffuse radiation without tracAing the sun. Periodic changes in the tilt angle are the only ad7ustments necessary. /irect radiation is intercepted by only a portion of the mirror at a time, thus this collector does not collect as much solar energy as a focusing collector which tracAs the sun. (t is, however, less expensive to install and maintain. 9he absorber tube is encased within an evacuated tube to reduce heat losses. 0any other types of concentrating collectors have been developed which produce high temperatures at good efficiencies. "owever, the potentially higher cost of installing and maintaining tracAing collectors may limit their use in some applications. 9hese points should be addressed early in pro7ect development when tracAing collectors are considered. (n addition, concentrating collectors must be used only in those locations where clear6sAy direct radiation is abundant. 2.2 ENERGY STORAGE AND AUXILIARY HEAT. #ince effective sunshine occurs only about 5 to 1 hours per day 3in temperate latitudes4, and since heating and hot water loads occur up to +. hours a day, some type of energy storage system is needed when using solar energy. 9he design of the storage tanA is an integral part of the total system design. %lthough numerous storage materials have been proposed, the most common are water for li@uid collectors and rocA for air. 9hese have the advantages of low cost, ready availability and well Anown thermal properties. Precise heat storage si:ing is not necessary, but economics and system design to determine the optimum range of si:es. 9he temperature range wherein useful heat is stored is important in determining optimum system si:e. (f the volume of storage is too large, the temperature of the storage medium will not be high enough to provide useful heat to the building. %lso, overdesigned storage re@uires excess floor space. (f the storage is too small, the storage medium temperature will be too high, resulting in low collector efficiency. Practical experience in the industry as well as computer simulations and
51
experiments have resulted in general rules of thumb for storage si:ing. 9hese guidelines give storage si:es for which the performance and cost of active solar systems are optimi:ed and relatively insensitive to changes within the range indicated. 9he optimum si:e of storage for active solar systems is -5 ;tuBdeg. FBft + of collector area. 9he range is -,6+, ;tuBdeg. FBft + 3+,,6.,, Q*Bdeg. systems application of the rule gives the following. WATER SYSTEMS. #ince water has a specific heat of - ;tuBlb6deg. F, then -5 lb of water storage are needed per s@uare foot of collector or considering the density of water, 2.33 lbBgal or 1+.. lbBft 3, then -.2 gal of storage are needed for each s@uare foot of collector 3range -.+ to +., galBft +4. 9he range in #( units is 5,6-,, litersBm+. AIR SYSTEMS. #ince rocA has a specific heat of ,.+- ;tuBlb6deg. F, and rocA densities 3-5, lbBft34 typically contain +,F6.,F voids, then the optimum storage si:e is ,.2 ft3 per s@uare foot of collector 3range ,.5 to -.-5 ft 3 per s@uare foot of collector4. 9he range in #( units is ,.-5 to ,.35 m 3Bm+. (n general, for e@ual storage capacity, the rocA pebble bed would have to occupy a volume +6-B+ to 3 times larger than a water tanA. <ocA storage bins have higher structural re@uirements, and tend to lose more heat due to their greater surface area. <ocA bins generally provide good temperature stratificationD contrary to practice in conventional /"? systems, stratification is desirable in both water and air solar systems. ' &! has done studies to show that good stratification can add 5F6-,F to overall system performances. 9o achieve this, baffles or modified inlets to the tanAs are used. "owever, specially designed tanAs with baffles or diffusers are expensive and not readily available. 9o suppress convection warm water enters and leaves the top of the tanA, and cold water, the bottom. (n this way the hottest water goes to the load and the coldest to the collectors. % typical /"? system is shown in Figure +6-,. $se of two tanAs insures that when hot water from the first 3tempering4 tanA is available, the auxiliary heat will not come onD also less total fuel will be used to bring the smaller ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 55 Bm+4. For water or air
Figure +69 oncentrating collectors for solar energy
second tanA up to temperature. #ingle tanA arrangements, while possible and economical, are not recommended due to the fact that they tend to activate the heating element every time there is a draw of water rather than wait for the solar collectors to provide additional heated water. <esearch is being done and new tanAs designed to overcome this deficiency. 9he two6tanA arrangement avoids this control problem. 9wo6 tanA arrangements are suited to retrofits since the second tanA 3the water heater4 is already there. % variation would be to use a heat exchanger 3copper coil4 in the tempering tanA collector loop for free:e protection. 9he tempering tanA could then be an inexpensive unpressuri:ed tanA. %nother method of heat storage in air systems that is currently being investigated is latent heat storage. !atent heat is stored in a material as it changes phase from a solid to a li@uid. 0aterials which have melting points near the temperatures supplied by solar collectors store heat as they melt and release it as they resolidify. 9he two materials which have received the most attention are salt hydrates and paraffins. 9he advantage of latent heat storage is that it can store very large @uantities of heat per pound of storage material. 9herefore, less volume should be
52
Figure +6-, #chematic of potable hot water heating system using solar storage 3tempering4 tanA ahead of conventional fueled or electric service water heater re@uired for latent heat storage than for heat storage in rocA beds. "owever, problems of slow solidification and low heat conductivity retards effective heat transfer to and from the material. %s a result, a large surface area6to6volume ratio is re@uired, which significantly increases the effective volume of latent storage. solar storage 3tempering4 tanA ahead of conventional fueled or electric service water heater.R !atent storage materials are often expensive when compared to rocA. (n addition, they must be pacAaged in individual containers to allow ade@uate heat transfer area. 0any latent heat materials cannot withstand fre@uent recycling and must be replaced periodically. <esearch is being done by ' &! and others to develop practical latent heat materials ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 59
which can withstand extended recycling. ' &! is investigating a dissolved salt storage unit that uses immiscible li@uids for the heat exchange surface which greatly reduces the problem of crystalli:ation during recycling. (nitial tests have been encouraging. %nother ma7or drawbacA of latent heat storage is that heat is stored at an average temperature with essentially no thermal stratification occurring in the storage unit. % high level of thermal stratification maximi:es thermal performance because low temperature fluid can be delivered to the collectors and high temperature fluid can be delivered to the heat load. For example, the high degree of thermal stratification in rocA6 beds results in the delivery of 59 deg. F air to the collector and -+, deg. F to -5, deg. F air to the heat load. (n comparison, latent heat storage in GlauberGs salt occurs near an average temperature of 9, deg. FD thus air at 9, deg. F is delivered to both the collectors and the heat load. /ue to the problems discussed, latent heat storage has not received widespread use. #ince it is not economically 7ustifiable to store huge @uantities of heat, most solar systems cannot be depended on to provide -,,F of the buildingGs needs. /epending on the geographical area and si:e of the system, about .,F to 2,F of the heat re@uirement is the average to design for. 9herefore auxiliary heaters are necessary. 9hey should be si:ed to provide all the energy re@uirements, although in some cases, again depending on location, it may be possible to increase storage volume and provide less than -,,F bacAup auxiliary heat. 9his is especially true if the use of passive solar designs can be incorporated with active systems. 9he auxiliary heater should operate automatically as needed, use the most economical fuel, and share a common heat delivery system with the solar system. Cften a heat pump is a good choice in that it can serve both as an auxiliary heater and worA together with the solar system. (n retrofit situations, the existing heater would be the choice. 2.2.1 STORAGE TAN(S. ?ater may be stored in a variety of containers usually made of steel, concrete, plastics, fiberglass, or other suitable materials. #teel tanAs are commercially available and have been used for water storage. 9hey are available in many si:es and are relatively easy to install. "owever, steel tanAs are susceptible to corrosion and should be lined or galvani:ed. /issimilar metal at pipe connections should be separated by high temperature rubber connections or galvanic corrosion will ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 1,
occur. #teel tanAs must be well insulated to minimi:e heat losses.
oncrete tanAs are
durable, but may be difficult to install. oncrete tanAs cast in place, prefabricated septic tanAs, or large diameter pipes may be used for water storage. % high temperature sealant or lining should be applied to the interior of the tanA to prevent seepage of water through the tanA. %lthough concrete is less conductive than steel, concrete tanAs should also be insulated to reduce thermal losses. !eaAs are difficult to repair. Fiberglass and plastic tanAs are corrosion resistant and easily installed. 9hey are available in many shapes and si:es. %lthough many commonly fabricated tanAs will begin to soften at temperatures above -., deg.6-1, deg. F, there are more expensive, specially fabricated tanAs available that can withstand temperatures up to +5, deg. F. 9he types of plastics needed to store large @uantities of water at high temperatures can be more expensive than steel. ?hen storage tanAs are to be custom made, a calculation of heat loss against expected fuel cost inflation will almost always 7ustify increasing insulation around the tanA to <6-9, 1 inches, compared with the usual + inches. "$/ (ntermediate 0inimum Property #tandards 3$.#. /ept "$/, -9554 re@uires that tanA losses be limited to -,F in +. hours. $sually <6-9 insulation will satisfy this re@uirement. (t is a good practice to insulate tanA supports from the ground if possible. osts of storage tanAs vary considerably depending on the @uality of construction and the distributor. 9able +65 summari:es advantages and disadvantages and 9able +62 gives approximate comparative costs for tanAs of various materials. %ll storage tanAs for li@uids should be located so that if they leaA, damage to the building will be prevented. 9he cost of housing the tanA or burying it must be included in the total cost of the solar heating system. ;uried tanAs must be protected from ground water, and buoyant forces resisted. $nderground tanAs are not preferred, if other options are available. 9anAs must be reasonably accessible for repairs. (n very mild or warm climates, outdoor location may be feasible. 9anA connections should comply with local codes with regards to bacAflow preventers, safety relief valves, etc. 2.3 DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEMS (DHW). /omestic hot water systems 3/"?4 3without space heating4 may use lined, insulated, pressuri:ed tanAs similar to the conventional water heater. %ppropriate temperature and pressure relief valves must be ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 1-
used. #ince it is possible for solar collectors to reach very hot temperatures, a tempering or mixing valve should be used. % typical two6tanA installation with proper valves and connections would be as shown in Figure +6--. 9o si:e the collectors and storage tanA it is necessary to estimate or measure the hot water consumption of the facility or building. For typical family residences, +, galBdayBperson of hot water is normally consumed. (f it is estimated the hot water consumption is larger than average, use 3, galBdayBperson. #o, 2, to -+, galBday should serve a typical four6person family. 9able +69 gives water consumption data for different types of conventional facilities and may be used to supplement over data.
2.4 THERMOSYPHON, BATCH, AND INTEGRAL STORAGE COLLECTOR SYSTEMS. % variation of the /"? system is the thermosyphon system which uses the principle of natural convection of fluid between a collector and an elevated storage tanA. %s water is heated in the collector it rises naturally to the tanA above. 9he bottom of the tanA should be mounted about + feet higher than the highest point of the collector. 9his is the main disadvantage in that structural re@uirements will often prohibit the weight of a water tanA on a high point of the structure. %lso, since the thermosyphon system is connected directly to the potable water supply it is difficult to protect from free:ing. "owever, new models are coming on the marAet that use Freon as the heat transfer fluid, solving the free:ing problem. 9he advantages of thermosyphon units are that they do not re@uire pumps or electronic control systems. "ence the costs to purchase and operate these components are eliminated. %lso these systems save by virtue of eliminating these components as a source of reliability or maintenance problems. % last
1+
9able +65 %dvantages and disadvantages of tanA types ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 13
9able +62 #torage 9anA osts advantage is that they are completely independent of electrical grid power. ;atch and integral storage collector 3(# 4 systems are similar in that they also do not have pumps or controllers. ;atch systems 3often called =breadbox= also4 are simply a blacA painted storage tanA 3or several4 installed in a weathertight box and gla:ed with glass or plastic. 9hey depend on their heat transfer by flow of water through the system initiated whenever there is demand for water by the occupants. (ntegral storage collectors put the tanA and collector together to form a large mass of fluid to be heated by the sun. 9he intent is to have a large enough mass of water that free:ing will not be a problem except in the severest of climate. #urprisingly only about 3,6., gallons of water are needed to accomplish this over most of the $nited #tates. (# systems also depend on system demand for their flow, but some models have also been configured to use the
1.
Figure +6-9ypical /"? (nstallations thermosyphon principle. 9he testing of these units is different than regular solar collectors since the %#"<%& 93655 standard does not apply. 9hese units must be tested as =whole systems=. 9he method is given in %#"<%& #tandard 956-92-. %t the time of this edition of the handbooA much of this data is 7ust becoming available. 9he trend seems to be that thermosyphon systems are probably the most efficient followed by (# and batch systems in that order. ' &! has installed and tested a thermosyphon system and compared its performance to a pumped system that uses a differential 3onBoff4 controller and one with a proportional 3continuous4 controller. %s shown in figure +6--a, the tanA temperature rise for a one6day test was very similar for all three systems. %lthough the performance of the thermosyphon unit was very slightly lower it
15
9able +69 "ot ?ater /emands and $se for Larious 9ypes of ;uildings ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 11
Figure +6--a 9hermosyphon #ystem 9ests
15
is not enough to rule out the use of these systems especially when their advantages of improved reliability and maintenance are considered. 9he important conclusion of these tests is that the performance is similar enough that the choice of which to use can be made by considering other pertinent factors of the installation. 9he results of system tests on these models are reported in the /irectory of #< <atings. 9hough slightly lower in performance, the inherent simplicity and implicit lower cost maAe these systems an attractive alternative. 9he user should insure that the free:ing problem is ade@uately addressed should one of these models be used. 2. SPACE HEATING AND DHW SYSTEMS. #pace heating systems are a simple extension of the /"? systems. 9he collectors and storage tanA need to be resi:ed to provide the greater loads. % heat delivery system is added and the auxiliary heater 3or existing heater4 is connected in as bacAup. 9he design of the space heating system, if a retrofit, will depend on the existing system. ?ater6to6air heat exchangers may be placed in existing ductworA, in which case, an unpressuri:ed, unlined tanA may be used and represents a minimum heating system as in Figure +6-+. 9o provide corrosion andBor free:e protection the use of a closed collector loop and heat exchanger are re@uired as in Figure +6-3. 9he cautions given in Figure +65 regarding toxic heat transfer fluids must be observed. 9he most versatile system would be as shown in Figure +6-. in which space heating and /"? are provided. <emember that -,,F bacAup capability is needed but that oversi:ing is not necessary. %uxiliary heat can be used directly such as a heat pump or separate furnace or it could be added to the main storage tanA using a heat pump, a separate boiler, or electrical resistance heating. /"? could be added to Figure +6-+ and +6-3 by adding a preheat coil in the storage tanA. Figure +6-+ has the potential to provide some building cooling by using the collector at night to radiate heat to the sAy and storing cool water for use during the day. Cr a heat pump could be used to cool the building, re7ect heat to the storage tanA during the day, and then, as before, cool the tanA at night through the solar collectors. $ngla:ed collectors are superior to gla:ed collectors for this application. 9here are many variations that could be used with the configurations given in Figures +6-+ through +6-.. %ir type space heating systems are sometimes used and a typical system is shown in Figure +6-5 3see 9able +6- for ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 12
advantages of air versus li@uid4. 9he heat storage tanA is replaced by a rocA bed 3nominally -63 inch diameter4. <ocA provides very desirable temperature stratification. /esigns should emphasi:e minimum pressure drop through the rocA bed. 9he rocAs carefully washed and placed can be stored in a bin, which should be insulated, or beneath the building if this is feasible. Qeep dust to a minimum. "eat collected by the collectors is blown through the rocA bed from top to bottom. "eat is delivered from storage to the building by circulating air in the reverse direction, bottom to top. 'ote that in contrast to water storage, heat cannot be added to and removed from the rocAs at the same time. "ollow core concrete wall panels and decAs have been used for solar heat storage and air ducts. 9hey provide thermal mass and air flow passages in one design. %ttention to proper sealing is necessary to prevent dust contamination. /uring heat collection, the rocAs at the top of the bin will attain a temperature nearly e@ual to that of the incoming solar heated air, while the air leaving the storage will be delivered to the collectors at the minimum temperature of the rocAs. 9he conduction between the rocAs is small, thus with no air circulation the rocA bet will remain stratified with the top of the rocA bed warmer than the bottom. %lso, limited conduction and convection in the rocA6 bed significantly reduces heat loss from the rocA6bed. "eat is drawn from the storage by circulating building air directly through the rocA bed from bottom to top. 9he air will then be delivered to the building at a temperature near the maximum temperature of the collectors. (f additional heat is re@uired, supplementary heat is added down6stream from the storage unit. 9his system allows the rocA bed to deliver useful heat until all of the rocAs are at room temperature. % variation is a no6storage air heating system which circulates heated air when available. Performance is limited to daytime heating due to the lacA of storage, but such systems are well suited to warehouses and factories which have mainly daytime operations. /"? is provided in Figure +6-5 by pumping the water in the preheat tanA through an air6to6water heat exchanger placed in the return air duct from the collectors. 9his is not very efficient and is one of the disadvantages of the air system. (t would, perhaps, be 7ust as cost effective to have a separate small li@uid system 3say two collectors4 to provide /"?. ;oth air and li@uid space heating systems re@uire a heat delivery networA to transfer heat from storage to the building. 0ost of the buildings in the $nited #tates are heated by circulation of warm air through the building. ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 19
9he air is usually heated in a central location and ducted to the individual rooms. 9his method is used particularly in residential buildings. "ydronic heating is another common heat distribution method. (n hydronic heating systems hot water or steam is circulated through pipes to =convectors= located in the individual rooms of a building. 0odern hot water convectors are comprised of one or more finned tubes located on the wall near the floor. 9hese baseboard heaters deliver heat to the room mainly by convection as air moves through the fins. % less common heating system consists of lengths of tubing embedded in the floors, walls, or ceilings of the living space. ?arm water is supplied to the tubes by a boiler and the heat is transferred to the room by convection and radiation. 2. .1 HEAT DISTRIBUTION FOR LI%UID&TYPE SOLAR SYSTEMS. 9he temperature re@uirements of a hydronic heating system are dependent on the amount of heat exchanger surface. 0ost baseboard heaters have comparatively small surface areas, so they re@uire higher temperatures, typically about -2, deg, F. (f larger heat transfer areas are available as in older or modified hot water systems, temperatures of -+, deg. F may be sufficient. 9emperatures of -,, deg. F are ade@uate for the system which uses entire floors, walls, and ceilings as radiator surfaces. /uring the winter, typical li@uid6type solar systems are seldom operated at delivery temperatures above -5, deg. F. 9hus it is evident that the use of solar heated water in standard baseboard heaters is impractical. Cnly modified baseboard heaters of ade@uate si:e or radiant panels are suitable for use in hydronic systems which use solar heated water. Cne of the most economical means of auxiliary heat supply and heat distribution for li@uid6type solar systems involves the use of a warm air system. % typical system is illustrated in Figure +6-1. (n this system the warm air furnace is located downstream from a li@uid6to6air heat exchanger which is supplied with solar6heated water. 9he furnace can then serve to boost air temperature when insufficient heat is available from the solar heated water, or it can meet the full heat load if no heat is available in solar storage. %uxiliary heat can be supplied by a gas, oil, or electric furnace, or by the condenser of an air6to6air heat pump. %nother method of heat distribution involves the use of a water6to6air heat pump
5,
Figure +6-+ 0inimum heating system, showing relationship of collector, storage, and room unit heater
5-
which draws heat from the solar storage tanA and pumps it to a condenser coil which is placed in a central air duct. 9he advantage of this system is that it can effectively use heat from solar storage at temperatures down to .5 deg. F, thus more of the stored heat is available. %lso, average storage temperatures are lower, resulting in significantly increased collector efficiency. 2. .2 HEAT DISTRIBUTION FOR AIR&TYPE SOLAR SYSTEMS. 9he pipes and pumps of the li@uid6type system are replaced by air ducts and fans. 9he warm air system is obviously the best heat distribution system for use with an air6type solar system. 9he ability to circulate building air directly through the collectors is one of the ma7or advantages of an air6type solar system. 9he rocA bed storage also worAs best with a warm air system. %lthough warm air as low as -,, deg. F can be used to heat an occupied building, most existing warm air systems are si:ed assuming warm air temperatures of -+, deg. F to -5, deg. F. 9ypical mid6day collection temperatures usually range from -3, deg. F to -5, deg. F. 0aximum storage temperatures are typically around -., deg. F at the end of the collection period. 9hus the heating load can be met by the temperature of the solar heated air a large portion of the day. ?hen storage temperatures are insufficient to maintain the desired temperature in the building, heat from an auxiliary source must be added to supplement the solar heated air. 9he auxiliary furnace is located downstream from the rocA bed so that the rocA bed serves as a pre6heater for the furnace. 9his arrangement allows the rocA bed to deliver useful heat until all of the rocAs are at room temperature. %n air handler unit provides the dampers and blowers necessary to direct air circulation between the solar collectors, rocA6bed, and building as needed. %n air handler unit may be more expensive than the combined cost of individual dampers and blowers, but it will probably be less expensive to install. (t is also more compact. 2. .3 HEAT PUMPS. "eat pumps have been mentioned in previous sections as a possible choice for auxiliary heaters. #ome manufacturers are combining solar systems with heat pumps for the purpose of reducing auxiliary energy costs. ?hen a heat pump and a solar system are combined in this manner, the system is usually called solar ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 5+
assisted or solar augmented heat pump 3#%"P4 system. #olar assisted heat pump systems can be configured in many different ways. For example, the solar collectors can be either water or air types, the heat storage medium can be water or a solid material such as rocA or bricA, and the heat pump can be of either the air6to6air design or the water6to6air design. ;ut heat pumps have a characteristic which can limit their effectiveness> the efficiency and capacity of a heat pump decreases as the temperature of the heat source 3usually outdoor air4 decreases. 9his deficiency can be overcome, however, by using solar collectors to gather the sunGs energy for the purpose of Aeeping the heat source in the temperature range re@uired for efficient heat pump operation. 2. .3.1 AIR&TO&AIR HEAT PUMPS. #ome air6to6air heat pumps function very well as an auxiliary heater at temperatures down to +, deg. F. ;elow these temperatures, they suffer in efficiency and performance. ?hen solar assisted by heat from a rocA6pebble storage bed and air collectors, the heat pump adds much to the performance of the solar energy system. ?ithout such a solar assist, air6to6air heat pumps have limited utility in cold climates. 9heir use should be carefully checAed with the local utility and pump manufacturer. 9he heat pump also provides cooling during the summer. (t thus has year6round utility. "eat pumps should be comparison6shopped. 9he purchaser should looA at the cost, performance, service, and expected life. $nits differ considerably from manufacturer to manufacturer. 2. .3.2 LI%UID&TO&AIR HEAT PUMPS. 9he li@uid6to6air heat pump is an ideal auxiliary heater when coupled with li@uid solar storage. (t operates at very low cost. %nd it greatly enhances solar energy collection by drawing down the temperature of the solar storage water to as low as .5 deg. F. (t should be considered for all installations, except those with existing fossil fuel furnaces and no need for summer cooling. Cut of the many #%"P configurations which could be used, the two most in use are called the =series= and =parallel= configurations. Figure +6-5 is a series #%"P system. ?hen the system is used for heating, water from the storage tanA is circulated through water6 cooled collectors where it is heated before returning to the storage tanA. ?arm water from the storage tanA is also circulated through a water6to6air heat pump. "eat is removed from the water and transported to the indoor air by the heat pump and the water returns to the storage tanA at a lower temperature. (f heat is added to the water in ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 53
the tanA faster than it is removed by the heat pump, the temperature of the water will rise. ?hen the water temperature is high enough 3about -,. deg. F4, heat can be extracted directly from the water by means of water6to6air heat exchanger. (n this mode of operation, the heat pump is shut off. %uxiliary electrical resistance heaters are provided to maAe up the balance of the heat load if the heat from the heat pump or water air heat exchanger is not sufficient to meet the demand. 'ormally this could be =off6peaA= power for the auxiliary heater. ?hen used for cooling, the heat pump transports heat from the building to the water in the storage tanA thereby causing the temperature of the water in the tanA to rise. /uring spring and fall, when it is not unusual to have a light cooling load during the day and a light heating load at night, the heat in the storage system is simply shuttled from the building to storage during the day and from storage to the building at night, and the solar collectors are used only to maAe up for lost heat. /uring periods of prolonged cooling demand, the heat pumped into the storage tanA might be sufficient to cause the temperature of the water to rise to where the heat pump will no longer operate. 9hus, provision must be made for re7ecting excess heat. Cne method is to add a cooling tower to the system to cool the water. %nother method is to circulate water through the solar collectors at night and re7ect heat by radiation to the night sAy. /uring periods of high cooling load it is not desirable to also add heat to the storage tanA by circulating water through the solar collectors. 9herefore, when the system is in the cooling mode the solar collector circuit can be used to heat /"?. 9he =parallel= #%"P system is shown in Figure +6-2. 9he solar heating system and the heat pump operate in parallel. #olar heat is used directly rather than being transferred to a storage medium and then transported into the building with a heat pump. 9his system is essentially a direct solar heating system with an air6to6air heat pump as a bacAup heating system. 9he choice of a =best= system is difficult to maAe due to the many variables involved. For example, in addition to the two configurations shown in Figures +6-5 and +6-2, one could examine a series system with low cost 3ungla:ed4 collectors, or a series system with air6collectors and rocA storage, or a parallel system with low cost collectors, etc. &ach system would be highly dependent on geographical location, type of construction, etc. Cne such analysis done at ' &! comparing several systems to a standalone air source heat pump, showed the =parallel= ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 5.
system to have the best comparative performance. &ach heat pump configuration should be considered on a case6by6case basis. 9he analysis of these systems is beyond the scope of the worAsheets given in this course, and the reader is directed to more sophisticated computer programs. 2.! PASSI"E SYSTEMS. ' &! has published a contract report, =Passive #olar /esign Procedures for 'aval (nstallations= that is a reference on this sub7ect. (t contains data and worAsheets to si:e passive solar designs at +,, geographical locations. Cver -,, different passive designs can be considered and the method is applicable for single family residences, family townhouses, dormitories 3i.e. ;&EGs4, small offices, and other concrete blocA buildings. % =passive= solar energy system is one which uses the building structure as a collector, storage and transfer mechanism with a minimum amount of mechanical e@uipment. #ome would include a thermosyphon, batch, and (# systems in this definition. %s a rule, passive systems are generally difficult to retrofit %nother disadvantage is that the owner or occupant may be re@uired to perform daily tasAs, such as covering a south facing window at night, opening and closing shutters, etc. %lthough the specific arrangements vary, all of these systems rely on direct solar heating of storage. 9he storage then heats the house. % few examples are shown in Figure +6-9. Given the solar gain available on a vertical surface, the simplest and most obvious means of solar heating is 7ust to let the sun shine in through large, south6facing windows. (n fact, in a house with any south6facing windows, that is what is already happening to some degree. ;ut the sunshine through the windows seldom heats the whole house. 9here are two reasons for this. First, most houses do not have enough south6facing glass. #econd, houses lacA enough storage to soaA up the heat and Aeep it until night. &ven rooms that overheat during the day cool off all too rapidly in the evening. Cn many buildings it is possible to add south6facing windows or sAylights to increase direct solar heating. "owever, the extra window area can cause a =fry or free:e= situation unless storage and night window insulation is added as well. 9here must also be provisions for getting heat from the rooms receiving sunlight to the rest of the house. Providing such storage and delivery of solar heat gained through windows is
55
Figure +6-3 #pace heating system with closed collector loop
Figure +6-. #pace heating and domestic water system
51
the basis of passive solar heating systems. %s shown in Figure +6-9 the type of storage used and where it is located with respect to the windows varies for different passive systems. 9all metal or fiberglass tubes can be used to hold water instead of drums. &ntire walls of solid concrete or grout6filled masonry store solar heat well. #lab floors can absorb solar heat coming in through windows, sAylights, or greenhouse glass. (n each of these systems, the sunlight coming in through the glass must shine directly on the storage. (f it does not the storage cannot absorb enough solar heat to provide much warmth for the house. 0ost passive systems deliver heat to the rest of the house =naturally= 6 that is, the heat moves by itself without use of pumps or fans. 9here is some natural regulation of how fast heat moves from the storage into the house 6 the colder the house gets, the faster the heat is drawn out of the storage. 9hat is how the drum wall worAs. (n other passive systems, solar heat is =trapped= between the glass and storage 3in the air space between the glass and a concrete wall, or in an entire greenhouse4, and the amount of heat allowed into the house is controlled by opening and closing vents, either manually or automatically. 9he performance of passive systems depends not 7ust on how much solar heat they can collect, but also on how much of that heat is lost through the glass at night. 9he most common solution to the problem of heat loss is to install movable insulation 3such as insulating curtains4 between the glass and the storage. 9he curtains or other devices are moved during the day to let the sunshine in, and closed at night to reduce heat loss. ertain conditions must be present to do a simple passive retrofit. #ince the basis for passive heating is to =let the sun shine in,= the building must have extensive south6facing windows or sAylights or places where they can be added. (n addition, there must be a place close to the windows where storage can be located. 9he storage must receive midday sun. 9he problem here is that drums of water and masonry walls are so heavy that most existing floors canGt support them. (f the floor is not strong enough, there are at least two possible alternatives. Cne is to put the water or masonry wall on its own foundation on the exterior of the south wall. %nother is the techni@ue of turning a room addition into a solar heater that provides warmth for the rest of the house as well. %s with active solar systems and heat pumps, there are endless variations of the passive techni@ue, limited only by oneGs imagination. 9here are systems that use water on the roof to absorb heat ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 55
directly, and there are clever ways to insulate glass at night by blowing #tyrofoam beads between two glass panes 3;&%/?%!! of #teve ;aer4. %lso natural ob7ects such as earth berms to protect from winds and trees which shade in summer and let light pass in winter should be considered. Figures +6+, through +6+3 show various representations of some of these passive techni@ues used either by itself or in con7unction with air collectors and thermosyphon systems. %lthough passive systems are rather simple in construction and design, their performance analysis is often complicated by a vast interplay of many components. "ere are some =rules of thumb= that should be useful for passive designs> #outh6facing passive storage walls in direct sunlight should have a minimum of 3,6lb water storage or -5,6lb masonry 3concrete4 storage per s@uare foot of south vertical gla:ing. (f the storage media is not located in direct sunlight, four times this amount will be needed. %t least 561 gallons water storage 3about .5 lb4 per s@uare foot of south glass is recommended. #hading of south windows should be used to reduce summer and fall overheating. Cne effective geometry is a roof overhang which will 7ust shade the top of the window at noon 3solar time4 sun elevation of .5 deg. and will fully shade the window at noon sun elevation of 52 deg. F. 9he best thicAness of a 9rombe wall is from -+ to -1 inches. 9he masonry should have a high density 6 at least -,, lbBft 3. 9hermocirculation vents can be used to increase daytime heating but will not increase nighttime minimums. Lents should have lightweight passive bacAdraft dampers or other means of preventing reverse flow at night. 9wo to three s@uare feet of south6facing double gla:ing should be used for each ;tuBdeg. F6hr of additional thermal load 3i.e., exclusive of the gla:ing4. 9his will give 5,F to 2,F solar heating in northern 'ew 0exico 3!os %lamos4 for a building Aept within the range of 15 deg. F to 55 deg. F. %n easier to use rule is that for a well6insulated space in ., deg. ' latitude in cold climates 3outdoor temperature I +, deg. F to 3, deg. F4 the ratio of south gla:ing to floor area is in range ,.+, to ,.+5 to maintain an average space
52
temperature of 12 deg. F over +. hours 3e.g., a +,, ft + floor space needs .,65, ft+ of south gla:ing4. (n temperate climates 335 deg. F to .5 deg. F outdoor temperature4 use ratios in the range ,.--6,.-5. For greenhouses> 9o determine solar gain> # I -+,, ;tuBft + of gla:ing per clear day, # I 5,, ;tuBft+ per average day. /ouble gla:e only south wall. (nsulate all opa@ue surfaces to <+,, outside foundation to frost line to <-,, minimi:e infiltration with caulAing. 9hermal mass I 5 gal of water or -6+B3 ft 3 of gravel per s@uare foot of gla:ing. (f storage is thermally isolated from greenhouse, air should be moved at -, ft 3Bmin per s@uare foot of gla:ing through the storage. 2.# SOLAR COOLING SYSTEMS. 9he state6of6the6art of solar cooling has concentrated primarily on the developmental stages of systems in the last few years. Larious methods have been researched, and some demonstrated, but only a few systems have been installed for other than research purposes. #olar cooling systems are attractive because cooling is most needed when solar energy is most available. (f solar cooling, can be combined with solar heating, the solar system can be more fully utili:ed and the economic benefits should increase. #olar cooling systems by themselves, however, are usually not economical at present fuel costs. ombining solar heating and cooling systems is not easy because of the different system re@uirements. 9his can best be understood by summari:ing the different solar cooling techni@ues. %s with solar heating, the techni@ues for solar cooling consist of passive systems and active systems. 9he passive systems use some of the techni@ues discussed above. For active solar cooling systems the three most promising approaches are the heat actuated absorption machines, the <anAine cycle heat engine, and the desiccant dehumidification systems. % brief summary of these systems is given here. 2.#.1 ABSORPTION COOLING. %bsorption cooling is the most commonly used method of solar cooling. %n absorption refrigeration machine is basically a vapor6compression machine that accomplishes cooling by expansion of a li@uid refrigerant under reduced pressure and temperature, similar in principle to an ordinary electrically operated vapor6 compression air conditioner. 9wo refrigerant combinations have been used> lithium ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 59
Figure +6-5 9ypical air6type space heating system bromide and water, and ammonia and water. 9here have been a number of proposed solid material absorption systems also. Figure +6+. shows a typical lithium bromide 3!i;r4 absorption cooler. (n the absorption cooler, heat is supplied to the generator in which a refrigerant is driven from a strong solution. 9he refrigerant is cooled in the condenser and allowed to expand through the throttling valve. 9he cooled, expanded refrigerant receives heat in the evaporator to provide the desired cooling, after which the refrigerant is reabsorbed into the cool, weaA solution in the absorber. 9he pressure of the resulting strong solution is increased by pumping and the solution is available to repeat the process. 9he performance of the system is governed largely by the temperature difference between the generator and the condenser and absorber units.
2,
Figure +6-1 % li@uid6to6air heat delivery system #ince the generator temperatures in solar driven systems are only moderate, it is important to Aeep the condenser and absorber temperatures as low as possible. 9he !i;r system is preferred over ammonia systems for solar energy applications because of the lower generator temperatures re@uired. Permissible generator temperatures for a water6cooled !i;r system range from -5, deg. F to +-, deg. F 351 deg. 699 deg. compared to the +,5 deg. F to +.2 deg. F 395 deg. 6-+, deg. 4 temperatures re@uired for a water6cooled ammonia absorption system. 0ost, if not all, of the commercially available absorption units use !i;r and water as the absorbent6refrigerant fluid pair. ;ecause the !i;r will crystalli:e at the higher absorber temperatures associated with air cooling, these units must be water cooled. % prototype ammonia6 water unit, amenable to direct air cooling, has been built by !awrence ;erAeley !aboratories. % number of e@uipment re@uirements and limitations must be considered 4
2-
Figure +6-5 #eries6connected, solar6assisted heat pump system in the analysis and design of solar powered absorption systems. 9he first consideration involves the type of collector used. 9he temperatures re@uired by absorption coolers are obtainable with flat plate collectors but at low collection efficiencies. ollection efficiency is improved with an increased number of gla:ings and with a selective surface, therefore, it may be cost effective to improve the collector rather than to simply oversi:e. oncentrating or evacuated tube collectors are usually used in these applications. (f concentrating collectors are used, the associated higher costs and potentially increased maintenance for the tracAing mechanism must be considered. (n general, concentrating collectors operate at higher efficiency at these higher temperatures. "owever, the higher temperatures are usually not re@uired to operate the space heating system.
2+
Figure +6-2 #eries6connected, solar6assisted heat pump system 9herefore, the relative importance of the two thermal loads must be considered when selecting a system. 9he second consideration involves the means of delivery of the heated fluid to the absorption cooler. #ince, in many climates, the cooling load is simultaneous with and often proportional to the solar insolation, it may be desirable to allow the heated collector fluid to bypass the storage unit. Cther climates may re@uire a hot storage unit but one of considerably smaller si:e than the one used for heating purposes. 9he important re@uirement is that high temperatures be available during periods of heavy cooling load. % third consideration deals with the problem of reduced efficiency of the absorption cooler under start up and transient conditions. 9ypical absorption coolers do not reach operating efficiency until after an hour or more of operation time. % machine which is cycled on and off regularly will have a drastically reduced average coefficient of performance when compared to a machine in steady
23
Figure +6-9 Passive solar energy systems state performance. 9his problem has been overcome in at least one installation by the use of a cold storage unit. 9he cold storage unit permits continuous operation of the absorption cooler and thus allows some reduction in the system and cooler si:e. % fourth consideration is the need for some means of cooling the absorber and the condenser. % cooling tower or some other low temperature cooling system must be used to obtain reasonable performance. %ll of the commercially available units re@uire a cooling tower which is another maintenance item. urrent research is underway to develop units that do not have a separate cooling tower. 2.#.2 RAN(INE CYCLE HEAT ENGINE COOLING. <anAine cooling systems are still in development with only a few in operation. ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ (n these systems the shaft power produced 2.
by a heat engine drives the compressor in a conventional vapor compression6type cooling machine. 9he thermal energy input to the heat engine can be from a solar collector or from a solar collector and a fossil fuel combustor. 9he fossil fuel can supplement solar energy, or it can be used alone as the auxiliary energy supply when no solar energy is available. %lternatively, electricity can be used as the auxiliary energy supply by coupling an electric motor directly to the compressor shaft. %nother option is a motor6generator using a heat engine for generating electricity when solar energy is available and there is little or no cooling load. From state6of6the6art considerations, two types of fluid heat engines are primarily feasible in solar cooling units. (n one type of engine, the worAing fluid cyclically changes phase from li@uid to gas and bacA to li@uid. 9he most widely used engine of this type operates on the <anAine cycle. (n the other type, the worAing fluid remains in the gaseous state. 9hese engines operate on various cycles, including the #tirling and ;rayton cycles. For relatively low thermal energy input temperatures 3less than .,, deg. F4, <anAine cycle engines are superior in performance to gas cycle engines. %t higher temperatures, gas cycle engines e@ual or better the performance of <anAine cycle engines. <elatively low temperatures are attainable with state6of6the6art thermal solar collectors, so the heat engine6vapor compression development pro7ects involve <anAine cycle engines. (n a <anAine cycle engine, fluid in the li@uid state is pumped into a boiler where it is evaporated and possibly superheated by thermal energy. 9he vapor generated in the boiler is then expanded through a device such as a turbine, a piston6cylinder 3reciprocating4 expander, or a rotary vane expander. 9he expansion process lowers the temperature and pressure of the vapor, and effects a conversion of thermal energy into shaft worA. 9he fluid leaves the expander either in the vapor phase or as a li@uid6vapor mixture and flows into a condenser, where it returns to the li@uid phase by giving the energy of condensation to cooling water or ambient air. 9his li@uid is then pumped into the boiler, and the cycle is repeated. (n some systems under development, the same worAing fluid is used in both the <anAine engine and the vapor compression chiller, which permits the use of common condenser and the elimination of special seals to maintain fluid separation in the expander6compressor unit. 9hese systems have areas that need development in matching the solar heat engine with the mechanical compressor units of ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 25
Figure +6+, 'ew construction 3office4 passive solar energy system
Figure +6+Lertical wall solar collector
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Figure +6++ #outh wall solar collector with combined storage
25
Figure +6+3 <etrofitted large rocA bin storage
22
Figure +6+. #chematic of lithium bromide absorption cooler the cooling e@uipment. #ince most compressors are designed for certain speed and tor@ue inputs, the varying operation of a solar heat engine will probably reduce the overall CP of the unit. %lso the solar heat engine is at high efficiency at high storage CP of the system. 9hese systems are designed for large cooling load tanA temperatures whereas the solar collectors are at low efficiency which will also affect the applications. 2.#.3 DESICCANT COOLING. 9he <anAine engine vapor compression and the absorption cooling units operate on the basis of closed cycles6fixed amounts of worAing fluid are circulated within sealed e@uipmentD the worAing fluids do not come in contact with the building air. /esiccant cooling systems, on the other hand, may be designed for open6cycle operation, since the only circulating fluids involved are air and water. 9he basic concept is to dehumidify air with a desiccant, evaporatively cool the dehumidified air, and regenerate the desiccant with solar6derived thermal energy. 9wo basic open6
29
cycle arrangements are feasible> the ventilation mode and the recirculation mode. (n the ventilation mode, fresh air is continually introduced into the conditioned space. (n the recirculation mode, exhaust air from the conditioned space is reconditioned and returned to the space. Figure +6+5 illustrates a ventilation system in which a solid desiccant material mounted on a slowly rotating wheel provides the basis for obtaining a cooling effect.
Figure +6+5 #chematic of solar desiccant cooling 9he hot desiccant material absorbs moisture from incoming ventilation air and increases the dry6bulb temperature. 9his dry air stream is cooled in two steps. First, it is sensibly cooled by heat exchange with the building exhaust air. 9hen it is evaporatively cooled and partially rehumidified by contact with a water spray. 9he exhaust air from the building is evaporatively cooled to improve the performance of the heat exchanger. %fter being heated by heat exchange with the incoming air, the exhaust air is further heated by energy from the solar system andBor from an auxiliary energy source. 9he hot exhaust air passes through the desiccant material and desorbs moisture from it, thereby ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 9,
regenerating it for continuation of the process. /esiccant systems have faced problems of high parasitic power and large space re@uirements relative to capacity. ;ecause of their bulAiness, the systems may have primary application in the low capacity range 3i.e., residential systems4 if and when ways can be found to reduce parasitic power re@uirements to acceptable levels. 9he (nstitute of Gas 9echnology 3(G94 has been investigating design modifications in a prototype 36ton system. %i<esearch is developing a -6lB+6ton desiccant cooling system around a radial flow design. (llinois (nstitute of 9echnology is developing a dehumidifier of a cross6flow design that will provide more compact and efficient operation than previous designs. Oeopower is developing a uni@ue closed cycle desiccant system in which the desiccant is integral with the collector. 2.#.4 OTHER COOLING METHODS. Cther methods, using solar heating e@uipment but not direct solar energy, should also be considered. 9hese methods chill the thermal storage unit of the system during the night and use the chilled medium to provide the daily cooling load. 0ethods of chilling the storage include radiation of the heat to the night sAy and heat exchange with the night air cooled or uncooled by auxiliary means. 9he chilled storage is used directly, via heat exchange with the building air. ;oth rocAbed and water storage are suitable since the only additional hardware re@uired is that to route the fluid. % heat pump can be used during the day to cool the building and re7ect heat to the thermal storage unit. 9he thermal storage is then cooled by using the solar collectors for night sAy radiation. From experimentation in %ri:ona, ;liss obtained a nightly heat re7ection @uantity of 31, ;tuBnightBft + for a blacA cloth radiator. %nalytical estimates can be obtained using an effective clear sAy temperature of +5 deg. F 3-. deg. 4 lower than the ambient air temperature. 9he advantage of this system is that the same e@uipment 3collectors and heat pump4 can also be used for heating. (n systems with dual storage units, the heat pump transfers heat from one to the other 6 cooling the first and warming the second. 9he cool fluid in the first unit is circulated to the house while the concentrated heat in the second is discharged to the outdoors. %n evaporative cooler can be used coupled with a rocAbed storage unit. 'ight air is evaporatively cooled and circulated through the rocAbed to cool down the pebbles in the ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 9-
storage unit. /uring the day, warm air from the building can be cooled by passing it through the cool pebble bed. 9his method is not very effective in humid geographical areas. 9he storage volume can also be cooled using a small refrigeration compressor. 0ost through6the6wall air conditioners use such compressors to cool the indoor air. 9his unit acts as the bacAup or auxiliary cooling system 6 analogous to the bacAup heating system. (f operated only at night, its capacity can be as small as half that of an independently functioning unit and still meet peaA cooling demands. 'ighttime operation will be particularly wise if electric companies charge more for electricity during times of peaA loads on hot summer afternoons. %n even smaller compressor can be used if it operates continuously night and day 6 cooling the storage when not needed by the house. 2.#. ESTIMATING SYSTEM SI'E. 9he si:ing of cooling system components is dependent on hardware, climate, and economic constraints. 9he cooling unit must be si:ed so as to provide the maximum cooling load under conceivable adverse conditions of high humidity and low or erratic solar insolation. 9he collection area re@uired is dependent on the fraction of the cooling load to be provided by solar. Lery large collector areas may be re@uired for -,,F solar cooling under adverse conditions of high humidity and low insolation. %lthough a detailed calculation method, as provided in the worAsheets in the following sections for heating systems, is not available for solar cooling, an estimate of the re@uired collector area can be made by the e@uation> % I 3 ooling loadB CP4B 3(9 x SetaRcollect x SetaRdelivery4 where> ooling load I the portion of the total cooling load provided by solar calculated using %#"<%& techni@ues or others. CP I oefficient of Performance of the cooling unit. CP is the ratio of heat energy removed to energy supplied from external sources. 0anufacturing data is recommended for determining CP 33.-3 ;tu I - A?h4.
9+
(9 I average instantaneous solar insolation on collector surface 3i.e., at tilt angle4. SetaRcollect I average collector efficiency under design conditions. SetaRdelivery I delivery efficiency which taAes into account heat exchanger efficiency and thermal losses. (n general, the collector area re@uired to provide the ma7ority of the cooling load is larger than the collector area of typically si:ed heating only systems. ollector areas for heat engine systems are larger than the areas for absorption cooling systems due to the thermal efficiency of the heat engine, which should be included in the preceding e@uation. 2.$ SYSTEM CONTROLS. #ystem controls are used to turn on a circulating pump or blower to the collector only when the sun is providing heat. /ifferential thermostats are commercially available to turn on the collector pump only when the collector plate temperature is a preset number 3usually +, deg. F4 hotter than the storage tanA bottom temperature. % typical control strategy is shown in Figure +6+1 3<ho6#igma, undated4 and the hooAup in Figure +6+5. /ifferential thermostats are available with high temperature protection and low temperature 3free:e4 protection. "igh temperature protection is important, especially in evacuated tube collectors, in that it prevents a very =hot= collector from suddenly receiving a supply of cold water thus producing a thermal shocA that could damage the collector components. %nother type of control called proportional control is available. (t is similar to the C'BCFF differential controller in operation. 9he difference is that the proportional controller changes the threshold C' and CFF points and controls the flow such that less than full flow can be achieved if the sun is at less than full intensity. 9he advantage is that the proportional control can =turn on= the system when the other controller 3the C'BCFF type4 is waiting for more sun to become available. 9his is an advantage on cloudy days and early morning start ups. Cverall system efficiency is increased slightly with the proportional control. 9hese
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Figure +6+1 ontrol system strategy controls are more expensive and one such experiment at ' &! has shown that proportional controls result in considerably more cycling of the pump motor which could shorten pump life. (t is recommended that the control manufacturer be consulted on this point before a proportional control is used. %s the building re@uires heat, other controls must direct pumps or blowers to provide heat from the storage tanA to the load. 9his control is the conventional thermostat. 9he same room thermostat may control the auxiliary heaterD however, a delay timer or a two6step room thermostat must be incorporated into the auxiliary heater control circuit so that the auxiliary heat will not come on if heat is available from storage. 9en minutes has been suggested as a typical time delay before auxiliary heat comes on. #ome manufacturers supply combination thermostat and solar system controls. 2.) PIPING, PUMPS, "AL"ES. 2.).1 PIPE AND HEADER SI'ING. Piping should be designed for low pressure drop. %ll exposed piping should be well insulated with approved weather resistant insulation. /ielectric unions should be used at connections between dissimilar metals.
9.
Figure +6+5 ontrol of system for space and /"? heating
95
<ubber or silicone hose used for connections must be of a high temperature type. 9he pipe ends should have ferrules to provide a good seal with the hose. (n low pressure systems, spring type clamps are preferred because they compensate for thermal expansion. opper pipe is preferred to galvani:ed steel due to its longer life expectancy and relative ease of installation. 9hermal expansion should be provided for all piping or hard tubing. Pipe si:ing should be in accordance with recogni:ed methods, but for most installations the following estimates are reasonable> For a single row of parallel collectors with =T= number of branches, ,.5 gpm flow per collector, water or 5,F glycol as heat transfer fluid. $p to 3 collectors 6 -B+6inch headers . to 5 collectors 6 3B.6inch headers 2 to -+ collectors 6 -6inch headers -3 to -2 collectors 6 -6-B.6inch headers 0ore than -9 collectors 6 -6-B+6inch or larger 3si:e for each design4 b. #ame as above except collectors in a double row series6parallel arrangement. $p to 5 collector branches 6 -B+6inch headers 1 to -, collector branches 6 3B.6inch headers -- to -5 collector branches 6 -6inch headers -1 to ++ collector branches 6 -6-B.6inch headers 0ore than +3 collectors 6 -6-B+6inch or larger 3si:e for each design4 2.).2 PUMPS AND COLLECTOR FLOWRATE. Pumps are si:ed in accordance with recogni:ed practices also. #ince solar systems are nothing more than a combination of pipes, valves, and fittings it is possible to do a heat loss calculation to determine the system head. harts are available in standard fluid flow handbooAs that give the friction losses or =e@uivalent length of feet in pipe= for various fittings and valves. 9hese are merely summed for the entire system. 9he flowrate through the collector loop is determined by the maximum amount of energy which must be removed from the collector. 9his maximum is about ++5 ;tuBft +Bhr. Cften a manufacturer will specify the flowrate through his collector and this value should be used. (f not, an estimate can be made by determining the flowrate necessary to remove the maximum amount of energy ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 91
while minimi:ing the collector inlet temperature 3to maintain high collector efficiency4. 9he rule of thumb for this calculation is ,.,-5 to ,.,+, gpm for each s@uare foot of collector area for water. For other fluids this can be scaled by the value of the specific heat of the fluid as compared to water 3
$
I - ;tuBlbm6deg. F4. 'ow that head loss and
flowrate are determined, a pump can be selected by using the manufacturersG standard tables and graphs. For typical domestic hot water systems and space heating systems for a house for a family of four, the pumps are @uite small, averaging -B-+ to -B+, hp. (n some systems, liAe a drain down system, pump si:es can be much larger due to the higher vertical =head= re@uirements. (f the water in the system is open to the atmosphere or if the water is to be used for drinAing the pump should be made of bron:e or stainless steel on all water6wetted surfaces to minimi:e corrosion. Pumps will have longer life if they are placed in low temperature parts of the water circuits. Pumps can be =staged= to give more flow or head. 9wo pumps in series will give the same flow against twice the head. 9wo pumps in parallel will give twice the flow at the same head. 9wo or more small circulator6type pumps are often cheaper than a single larger pump. 2.).3 "AL"ES. Lalves, other than seasonal or emergency shut6off valves, should be electrically operated and located out of the weather or well protected. % vent must be provided at the high point in li@uid systems to eliminate entrapped air and it should also serve as a vacuum breaAer to allow draining of the system. 9o avoid multiple venting, systems should be piped to avoid having more than one high point. Pressure relief must be provided at some point in each flow circuit. hecA valves can be added to prevent thermally induced gravity circulation. % flow6checA valve 3used in the hydronic heating industry4 will also accomplish the same purpose. 0ixing valves should be used to protect /"? systems from delivering water hotter than specified 3usually -+, deg. 6 -., deg. F4. onsideration should be given to energy conservation by lowering /"? temperature whenever possible. Cften -,5 deg.6--5 deg. F will suffice if water is used only for showers and washing hands. 2.1* OTHER CONSIDERATIONS.
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2.1*.1 ARCHITECTURAL. #olar collector arrangements should be studied to facilitate blending collector panels into the architecture of new or existing buildings. #hade trees must be so located as not to cast shadows on the collector. Cther structures such as chimneys which can cast shadows should be carefully located to avoid shading of the collector. &xperience of Florida installers indicates that if collectors are placed directly on the roof, the life of asphalt shingles under the collector may be reduced by up to 5,F. 9his suggests that a small space should be left between the collector and the roof, or the collector should be built into the roof. (n the latter case, the design must provide for simple glass replacement. % space between collector and roof allows for snow to fall through rather than accumulate. 2.1*.2 REDUCTION OF HEAT LOSSES. <eduction of heat losses is usually one of the most important steps in the design of a solar space heating system. (t almost always costs less to super6insulate a building to reduce losses than to provide additional solar collector area to provide the extra heat. (nstalling -+ or more inches of insulation in the attic, insulating existing walls by in7ecting nonflammable foam 3one manufacturer claims 3,F reduction in total heat loss, multiple gla:ing, and weatherstripping should all be evaluated for cost effectiveness versus a larger solar system. (f the solar6augmented system is found to be cost competitive with a conventional system on a life cycle cost basis, then the cost effective amount of insulation will be the same for both the solar and conventional systems. 9hus the solar system should not be charged for the cost of insulating the house. 2.1*.3 MAINTENANCE AND ACCESSIBILITY. #ystems should be designed for minimum maintenance. 0aintenance of glass will be minimi:ed if vandalism can be reduced. ollectors of flat6roofed buildings may be shielded from the ground by a sAirt around the roof perimeter. !ocating the collector in the bacAyard area of residences rather than on a street6facing roof reduces probability of vandalism. /ouble strength glass for top surface can be used in hail areas, and also provides protection from small stones. #till more protection is offered by a screen of ,.56inch mesh stretched several inches above the collectors, but with some loss in collector efficiency 3-5F4. Generally ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ 92
mesh screens are not recommended.
ollectors and mounts must withstand expected
wind and snow loads. ollector design should allow for rapid replacement of glass covers. Pumps, pipes, and controls should be reasonably accessible to allow repair or replacement. ?ater pumps should be located so that leaAage does not cause serious damage. %s solar designs move from theory to practice, a Anowledge of reliability, durability, and maintainability is desired to achieve maximum system performance. 9o achieve this information ' &! has initiated an on6site evaluation of solar systems. 9hese evaluations have resulted in a compilation of =lessons learned= which in turn has resulted in suggestions as to how to do a preventative maintenance program to avoid these common problems. 9he list of =lessons learned= can be used as a pre6design checAlist as well as a guide for a preventative maintenance program.
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An Introduction To Solar Collectors For Heating & Cooling of Buildings & Domestic Hot Water Heating

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An Introduction To Solar Collectors For Heating & Cooling of Buildings & Domestic Hot Water Heating

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An Introduction to Solar Collectors for Heating and Cooling of Buildings and Domestic Hot Water Heating

J. PAUL GUYER, P.E., R.A.

) *. Paul Guyer +,-+

2. FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS

) *. Paul Guyer +,-+

omplete #olar ollector Performance &valuation

) *. Paul Guyer +,-+

9esting 9racAing ollectors

#olar #ystem Performance

Property #tandards for #olar #ystems

#olar ollector ertification, <ating, and !abeling ;uilding ode

Cverall #tandards #ummary

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ertified 9est !abs ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+

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Figure +69ypes of #olar "eat ollectors ) *. Paul Guyer +,-+ -9

9able +6%dvantages and /isadvantages of %ir and !i@uid "eating #ystems

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) *. Paul Guyer +,-+

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9able +65 "eat 9ransfer Fluids

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9able +65 3continued4 "eat 9ransfer Fluids

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Figure +6+ #ingle gasAet seal for double gla:ing

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Figure +65 "eat exchangers for solar water heating systems

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are must be taAen so

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Figure +61 onnection #chemes for #olar "eating #ystems

Figure +61a ollector Piping where

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Figure +65 9ypical #olar ollector &fficiencies

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9able +61 #olar ollector 9est <esults

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9able +61 3continued4 #olar ollector 9est <esults

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9able +61 3continued4 #olar ollector 9est <esults

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9able +61 3continued4 #olar ollector 9est <esults

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9able +61 3continued4 #olar ollector 9est <esults

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9able +61 3continued4 #olar ollector 9est <esults

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9able +61 3continued4 #olar ollector 9est <esults

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Figure +65 9ypical #olar ollector &fficiencies

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Figure +69 oncentrating collectors for solar energy

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