Prestressed Concrete Structures Dr. A. K. Sengupta Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, odule !

" #ecture$% Introduction, Prestressing Systems and aterial Properties Advantages, #imitations and Type of Prestressing Welcome back to prestressed concrete structures. This is the second lecture of the first module on introduction, prestressing systems and material properties. (Refer Time Slide: 01:11 adras

!n this lecture, first "e shall learn some definitions of terms "hich are used in prestressed concrete. #e$t, "e shall learn about the ad%antages of prestressing, after that "e shall mo%e on to the limitations of the prestressing. &nder the types of prestressing there can be %arious classifications: first, "e shall study about the sources of prestressing force' ne$t, "e shall study about the e$ternal or internal prestressing' the ne$t classification "ill be pre(tensioning or post(tensioning' then linear or circular prestressing' full, limited or partial prestressing' finally, "e shall see unia$ial, bia$ial or multia$ial prestressing. )fter that, "e shall see some photographs of manufacturing of prestressed concrete products.

*irst, "e shall see about rail"ay sleepers and then "e shall see the construction of bridge girders. (Refer Time Slide: 0+:,,

The terms commonly used in prestressed concrete are e$plained. These terms are placed in groups as per the usage. (Refer Time Slide: 0+:-.

We are discussing about the forms of prestressing steel. Wires are a single unit "hich is made up of steel. Strands are t"o, three or se%en "ires, "hich are "ound to form a

prestressing strand. ) tendon is a group of strands or "ires "hich are "ound to form a single prestressing tendon. (Refer Time Slide: 0,:+.

Similarly, "e can ha%e a bar "hich is a single unit. ) cable is a group of tendons forming a prestressing cable. #ote that the diameter of a bar is much larger than the diameter of a "ire. (Refer Time Slide: 0,:-.

!n this sketch, you can see the %arious forms of prestressing steel. /n the top left is a se%en("ire strand and you can see that si$ "ires ha%e been "ound around a central "ire.
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/n the top right, "e can see ho" the tendons are attached by this anchoring system. We ha%e the anchor block, the guide, and these 0a"s or the "edges "hich hold on to the tendons at the end. /n the bottom left, "e can see a single bar' note that the diameter is much larger than the "ire. /n the right hand side, "e can see the anchoring of indi%idual "ires by the button heads. (Refer Time Slide: 0-:--

#e$t, "e are studying about the nature of concrete steel interface. When there is ade1uate bond bet"een the prestressing tendon and concrete, it is called a bonded tendon. 2re( tensioned and grouted post(tensioned are bonded tendons. That means if there is concrete all around the tendons then it is called a bonded tendon. *or a pre(tensioned member it is al"ays the bonded tendon and for a post(tensioned member if it is fully grouted then it is a bonded tendon.

(Refer Time Slide: 0.:+3

When there is no bond bet"een the prestressing tendon and concrete, it is called unbonded tendon. When grout is not applied after post(tensioning, the tendon is an unbonded tendon. *or a post(tensioned member, if grout is not passed through the duct then the tendon remains an unbonded tendon' that means the concrete does not come in direct contact "ith the tendon. (Refer Time Slide: 04:0.

#e$t "e are studying about the stages of loading. The analysis of prestressed members can be different for the different stages of loading. The stages of loading are as follo"s:
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first is initial' it can be subdi%ided into t"o sub stages: (a is during tensioning of steel and ne$t at transfer of prestress to concrete. The purpose of studying the stages of loading is to understand the transfer of forces to the steel and to the concrete. !n the initial stage, first, the stress is transferred to the steel and then from the steel, the stress is transferred to the concrete. (Refer Time Slide: 05:0+

The ne$t stage is an intermediate stage' this includes the loads during transportation of the prestressed members. !f the prestressed members are precast some"here else and they are transferred to the site, then there "ill be some stresses during this transportation and the members ha%e to be analy6ed for the stresses during this transportation. *inally, "e ha%e the final stage. This also can be subdi%ided into t"o: at ser%ice, the member is under operation and at ultimate stage, refers to an e$treme e%ent "here the member can reach its final strength. #e$t, "e are studying the ad%antages of prestressing.

(Refer Time Slide: 05:.7

The prestressing of concrete has se%eral ad%antages as compared to traditional reinforced concrete "ithout prestressing. ) fully prestressed concrete member is usually sub0ected to compression during ser%ice life. This rectifies se%eral deficiencies of concrete. The follo"ing te$t broadly mentions the ad%antages of a prestressed concrete member "ith an e1ui%alent reinforced concrete member. (Refer Time Slide: 07:,0

) main deficiency of reinforced concrete members is the cracking of concrete. 8ut the prestressing o%ercomes this cracking. The concrete remains uncracked under the ser%ice
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conditions and this leads to se%eral ad%antages of prestressed concrete. !f the concrete is uncracked, the primary ad%antage that "e get is the reduction of deterioration and corrosion. The reduction of steel corrosion leads to increased durability of precast and prestressed member. The ne$t ad%antage is that the full section is utili6ed. That means, the section "ill ha%e a higher moment of inertia "hich "ill gi%e higher stiffness and this "ill also lead to a less deformations, "hich "ill thus ha%e an impro%ed ser%iceability. Since the section is uncracked there is also an increase in the shear capacity. (Refer Time Slide: 03:--

*or an uncracked member, it is suitable to be used in pressure %essels and in li1uid storage tanks. 8ecause in this type of structures, "e do not "ant cracks through "hich the li1uid can seep out or "hich can also create a ha6ard. 9ence prestressing is applied in this type of structures. )nd also, "e can see that there is an impro%ed performance due to resilience under dynamic and fatigue loading. 8ig structures can undergo se%eral cycles of loading "hich can induce fatigue in the member, but "hen the member is prestressed then its beha%ior gets better.

(Refer Time Slide: 10:,4

#e$t "e are studying the high span(to(depth ratios for prestressed concrete members. Since the span(to(depth ratio is high, prestressing is applied for large spans like bridges, buildings "ith large column free spaces as "e can see in godo"n structures. Typical %alues of span(to(depth ratios in slabs are as follo"s: for a non(prestressed slab, the span( to(depth ratio is +7:1' for a prestressed slab, the ratio can increase to -.:1. That means, as "e are prestressing the slab, the clear span can be much larger compared to an e1ui%alent reinforced concrete slab and this helps in the future use of the building. (Refer Time Slide: 11:-1

*or the same span, the depth of a prestressed member is less than the corresponding R: member. !t leads to reduction in self "eight, more aesthetic appeal due to slender sections and finally it gi%es a more economical section because the amount of concrete used is much less. (Refer Time Slide: 1+:10

The ne$t ad%antage of prestressing is it is %ery much suitable for precast construction. The ad%antages of precast construction are as follo"s: it is a rapid construction, better 1uality control, reduced maintenance, suitable for repetiti%e construction, multiple use of form"ork "hich leads to reduction of form"ork and a%ailability of standard shapes. Thus prestressing goes %ery much hand(in(hand "ith precast construction. The ad%antages of precast construction can be fully utili6ed and this leads to a much better and fast construction.

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(Refer Time Slide: 1,:01

9ere "e can see some typical e$amples of precast members. !n the top left, "e see a T( section "hich can be used in buildings' second, "e can see a double T(section "hich can be used in buildings or bridges. !n the bottom left, "e see a hollo" core section "hich can be used in bridges or industrial buildings and on the bottom right, "e see a typical pile "hich can be used for the foundation of buildings or bridges. (Refer Time Slide: 1,:,5

These are some other e$amples of precast members like an ;(section, "hich can be used to support other members, an in%erted T(section, if this is also used, the flanges are used
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to support other members and on the right most side, "e see the !(girders "hich are %ery typical in bridge construction. (Refer Time Slide: 1-:0.

We are mo%ing on to the limitations of prestressing. )lthough prestressing has ad%antages, some aspects need to be carefully addressed. *irst, it needs skilled technology. 9ence, it is not as common as reinforced concrete. #e$t, use of high strength materials is costly. Then there is an additional cost in au$iliary e1uipment. *inally, there is need for better 1uality control and inspection. )lthough "e ha%e many ad%antages of prestressing, "e ha%e to be cautious because the additional ad%antages bring in responsibilities. We need to ha%e good technology to implement the prestressing. There should be good 1uality control so that the ad%antages that "e are e$pecting "ill be materiali6ed. 9ence, care should be taken in manufacturing prestressed concrete products. #e$t, "e are mo%ing on to the different types of prestressing.

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(Refer Time Slide: 1.:+.

2re stressing of concrete can be classified in se%eral "ays. The follo"ing classifications are discussed. The first classification is based on source of prestressing force. This classification is based on the method by "hich the prestressing force is generated. There are four sources of prestressing force: mechanical, hydraulic, electrical and chemical. (Refer Time Slide: 1.:.7

The ne$t classification is e$ternal or internal prestressing. This classification is based on the location of the prestressing tendon "ith respect to the concrete section.

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(Refer Time Slide: 14:1.

The third classification is the pre(tensioning or post(tensioning. This is the most important classification and is based on the se1uence of casting the concrete and applying tension to the tendons. The fourth classification is linear or circular prestressing' this classification is based on the shape of the member prestressed. (Refer Time Slide: 14:-4

The fifth classification is full, limited or partial prestressing. 8ased on the amount of prestressing force, the three types of prestressing are defined. *inally, the si$th

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classification is unia$ial, bia$ial or multi(a$ial prestressing. )s the names suggest, the classification is based on the directions of the prestressing member. The indi%idual types of prestressing are e$plained ne$t. (Refer Time Slide: 15:+0

9ydraulic prestressing This is the simplest type of prestressing producing large prestressing forces. The hydraulic 0ack used for the tensioning of tendons comprises of calibrated pressure gauges "hich directly indicate the magnitude of force de%eloped during the tensioning. This is the most common form of applying the prestress to the steel "hich is then finally transferred to the concrete. 9ydraulic 0acks "hich operate based on oil pressure is used to apply the prestress.

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(Refer Time Slide: 17:0-

#e$t is the mechanical prestressing. !n this type of prestressing, the de%ices include "eights "ith or "ithout le%er transmission, geared transmission in con0unction "ith pulley blocks, scre" 0acks "ith or "ithout gear dri%es and "ire("inding machines. This type of prestressing is adopted for mass scale production. Thus, the mechanical prestressing is based on e1uipments "hich are relati%e "ith the mechanical principles and these e1uipments are more popular "hen a mass production of prestressed members are done. (Refer Time Slide: 17:-7

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The third type is the electrical prestressing. !n this type of prestressing, the steel "ires are electrically heated and anchored before placing concrete in the moulds. This type of prestressing is also kno"n as thermo(electric prestressing. That means, the "ires are heated, they e$pand and then are allo"ed to cool do"n, "hich transfers the prestress to the concrete. (Refer Time Slide: 13:14

The fourth form is the chemical prestressing. !n this type of prestressing, e$pansi%e cements are used and the degree of e$pansion is controlled by %arying the curing conditions. The e$pansi%e action of cement is restrained "hile setting. This generates tensile forces in the tendons and compressi%e stresses in concrete. This chemical prestressing is relati%ely rare but it can be used in order to transfer prestress to the concrete. We are mo%ing on to the second group of classifications.

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(Refer Time Slide: 13:.-

The e$ternal prestressing "hich means the prestressing is achie%ed by elements located outside the concrete member. *or e$ample: by cables lying outside a beam, it is called e$ternal prestressing. This techni1ue is adopted in repair and strengthening "orks such as retrofitting of bridges. (Refer Time Slide: +0:+.

This photograph sho"s that the tendons are lined inside the bo$ girder of a bridge. 9ere "e can note that on the left and on the right side, the prestressing tendons ha%e been anchored to the hunches in the bo$ girder.
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(Refer Time Slide: +0:-,

When the prestressing is achie%ed by elements located inside the concrete member commonly by embedded tendons, it is called internal prestressing. <ost of the applications of prestressing are internal prestressing. (Refer Time Slide: +1:00

!n this photograph, "e can see that the tendons are located inside the member. /nce the concrete is cast these ducts and the tendons "ill be concealed by the concrete and it cannot be seen from the outside. #o" this internal prestressing is thus different from e$ternal prestressing based on the location of the tendon "ith respect to the concrete.
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(Refer Time Slide: +1:,,

The ne$t classification is the most important. When the tension is applied to the tendons before casting the concrete, it is called pre(tensioning. The pre(compression is transmitted from steel to concrete through bond o%er the transmission length near the ends. (Refer Time Slide: ++:00

9ere "e can see some electric poles "hich ha%e been pre(tensioned. Thus, the steel "ires ha%e been first tensioned "hen the concrete has been placed. )fter the concrete had

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hardened, the steel "ires "ere cut and at that time, the prestress "as transferred from the steel to the concrete. The other type of classification is the post(tensioning. (Refer Time Slide: ++:+3

The tension is applied to the tendons after hardening of the concrete. The pre( compression is transmitted from steel to concrete by the anchorage de%ice at the end blocks. The essential difference of post(tensioning "ith respect to pre(tensioning is that, the tension is applied to the steel after the concrete is hardened. /nce the steel is tensioned, it is then released and the steel sets on the concrete member through the anchorage blocks, "hich thus transfers the prestress to the concrete. The details of pre( tensioning and post(tensioning "ill be co%ered under the talk on 2restressing Systems and =e%ices.

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(Refer Time Slide: +,:,1

This photograph sho"s a post(tensioned bo$ girder bridge. 9ere "e can see that some of the tendons ha%e been stretched. !t has been fi$ed by the anchor blocks and thus some prestress has been applied to the sections. (Refer Time Slide: +,:.5

The ne$t classification is based on the direction. When the prestressed members are straight or flat in the direction of prestressing, the prestressing is called linear prestressing. *or e$ample, the prestressing of beams, piles, poles and slabs. The

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prestressing cable profile may be cur%ed. That is, if the prestressing tendons are along the line of the member then it is called a linear prestressing. (Refer Time Slide: +-:,-

!n this photograph, "e can see that rail"ay sleepers are stacked. These are e$amples of linear prestressing because the prestressing tendons are in line "ith the longitudinal a$is of the sleepers. (Refer Time Slide: +-:.0

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The ne$t type is the circular prestressing. When the prestressed members are cur%ed, the direction of prestressing also changes and this prestressing is called the circular prestressing. *or e$ample, circumferential prestressing of tanks, silos, pipes and similar structures. (Refer Time Slide: +.:15

This photograph is of a containment structure and here the prestressing "ires "ere "ound around this containment structure and hence this is called circular prestressing. !t is different from the more con%entional linear prestressing. (Refer Time Slide: +.:,7

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The ne$t classification is related "ith the amount of prestressing. When the le%el of prestressing is such that no tensile stress is allo"ed in the concrete under ser%ice loads, it is called full prestressing. !t is referred to as Type 1 in the code !S: 1,-, ( 1370. Thus, in a fully prestressed member there cannot be any tension in the concrete during the ser%ice life and this type of members are referred to as Type 1 members in the code. (Refer Time Slide: +4:15

When the le%el of prestressing is such that the tensile stress under ser%ice loads is "ithin the cracking stress of concrete it is called limited prestressing and it is designated as Type +. Thus in a limited prestressed member, tension is allo"ed in concrete but it is made sure that it is lo"er than the tensile strength of the concrete. 9ence, cracking "ill not de%elop "ithin the concrete. These types of members are referred to as Type + members in the code !S: 1,-,.

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(Refer Time Slide: +4:.5

The partial prestressing means the le%el of prestressing is such that under tensile stresses due to ser%ice loads there can be cracking and the crack "idth is limited "ithin some allo"able %alues. Then it is called partial prestressing and it is referred to as Type , in the code. Thus in partial prestressing "e allo" not only tensile stresses but also cracking of the concrete. The crack "idth "ill be limited "ithin allo"able %alues. (Refer Time Slide: +5:,,

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The ne$t type of classification is based on the different directions of prestressing. When the prestressing cables are parallel to one a$is, it is called unia$ial prestressing, for e$ample, longitudinal prestressing of beams. (Refer Time Slide: +5:.4

When there are prestressing cables parallel to t"o a$es, it is called bia$ial prestressing' for e$ample bia$ial prestressing of slabs. (Refer Time Slide: +7:1,

!n this photograph, "e can see that the slab has been prestressed in t"o directions. We can note the ducts running in t"o directions and in addition to the ducts, there are also
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non(prestressed con%entional reinforcement to take account of shrinkage and thermal stresses. Thus this is an e$ample of a bia$ial prestressing as compared to a unia$ial prestressing for beams. (Refer Time Slide: +7:-7

When the prestressing cables are parallel to more than t"o a$es, it is called mutia$ial prestressing' for e$ample, prestressing of domes. !n domes of some big structures, prestressing can be done in more than t"o directions and in that case, it is called a multia$ial prestressing.

#e$t, "e are mo%ing on to the manufacturing of pre(tensioned rail"ay sleepers. #ote that "e shall see the se1uence of the pre(tensioning operation.

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(Refer Time Slide: +3:,-

This is a tra%eling pre(tensioning stress bench. !t is called a stress bench because the tendons are anchored to this unit and this unit can mo%e from one place to another on the rollers "hich are placed in rails. 9ence, this is called a tra%elling pre(tensioning stress bench. (Refer Time Slide: ,0:1+

/nce the steel is placed in this stress bench, these are anchored at the end. This anchoring is done by "edges. /ne side it is anchored and the other side the tension is applied.

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(Refer Time Slide: ,0:,3

This is the other end "here the strands are fi$ed to a steel plate, "hich is being mo%ed out by hydraulic 0acks. This is called the stretching end as compared to the dead end of the other side of the stress bench. #ote, that there is an initial gap bet"een the end of the stress bench and the plate to "hich the tendons are attached. There is a scale to measure the e$tension after the prestressing operation is carried out. This scale also measures the mo%ement of this end plate "ith respect to the end of the stress bench. The hydraulic 0ack is a double acting 0ack "here oil is pumped through one pipe and it mo%es out through the other pipe.

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(Refer Time Slide: ,1:-3

This is the situation after the tendons ha%e been stretched. #ote that the piston of the 0ack has come out. !t has pushed the end plate to e$tend the tendons. The gap bet"een the end plate and the end of the stress bench has increased. (Refer Time Slide: ,+:17

:ompare this figure once again "ith the pre%ious figure. !nitially, "e had a smaller gap

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(Refer Time Slide: ,+:+-

and then after stretching the tendons, "e ha%e a bigger gap. #o" the tendons are under tension. This gap is being monitored by the scale "hich records ho" much e$tension the tendons ha%e been sub0ected to. /nce the tendons are stretched then "e are ready to cast the concrete. The ingredients of concrete are stored in the yard. (Refer Time Slide: ,,:0+

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!n this photograph, "e can see that the coarse aggregate "hich are gra%els and the fine aggregate "hich is the sand, ha%e been kept separately in the storage yard. (Refer Time Slide: ,,:15

The material is brought and is "eighed by an automatic batching machine. !t is measured e$actly ho" much amount of the coarse and the fine aggregates ha%e to be mi$ed. (Refer Time Slide: ,,:,.

/nce the concrete is mi$ed, in a mi$ture, then it is dropped by a hopper on to the stress bench. #ote that, this is the green concrete "hich is the fine aggregate, the coarse
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aggregate, the cement and the "ater has been mi$ed. Some admi$tures are also mi$ed. #o" the concrete is in green stage and it has been dropped "ithin the stress bench. (Refer Time Slide: ,-:10

#o" once the concrete is dropped then it is %ibrated. !n this case, the mould itself is %ibrated. There is some %ibration done by needle %ibrators so as to make sure that the concrete is "ell compacted "ithout %oids. )fter that, the finishing is done properly to make sure that it is a smooth finish at the top after the concrete has been cast. (Refer Time Slide: ,-:-7

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#o" once the concrete has been cast it needs to be cured. Remember that prestressed concrete needs good 1uality control. !n order to ha%e proper curing of the concrete, a steam chamber has been made. *rom the stress bench, the mould is directly pushed inside the steam chamber and it is kept there for +- hrs for the initial curing under controlled en%ironment. There is steam inside the en%ironment "hich helps in the rapid curing of the concrete in the mould. (Refer Time Slide: ,.:,5

)fter +- hrs that mould is brought out. *rom the mould, each sleeper is no" ready to be taken out. 8efore the sleepers are taken out, the "ires are cut. We get four sleepers from one stress bench. /nce the "ires are cut, the prestress is transferred to the concrete. That is originally, the steel "as under tension, then the concrete "as cast, the concrete "as cured enough to get a minimum strength and then the "ires "ere cut. /nce the "ires are cut, they try to shrink and that transfers the prestress to the concrete. The prestress is transferred to the concrete by the bond o%er a certain length "hich is called the transmission length at the t"o ends of the member.

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(Refer Time Slide: ,4:.0

/nce the "ires are cut, they are taken out from the mould. 9ere "e can see that a sleeper is being taken out from the mould. (Refer Time Slide: ,5:01

#e$t, it is being stacked. That is, from one stress bench "e are getting four sleepers and "e can see that at the end of the sleepers the "ires ha%e been cut and these sleepers are no" prestressed.

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(Refer Time Slide: ,5:+0

*or further curing, these sleepers are taken to a "ater tank and there they are cured for a substantial period, so that the concrete gains its final strength. )nd this process is e$pedited by the tra%elling form"ork, because since the tra%elling stress bench can mo%e from one place to another on "heels, the "hole process is %ery fast. The construction is a fast track construction and the production of rail"ay sleepers can be at a high rate. 9ere "e can see that many sleepers ha%e been stacked and they are ready for dispatching to the rail"ays. (Refer Time Slide: ,7:15

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!n this photograph, "e can see that from the stacking yard, the sleepers are being loaded onto "agons. These "ill be transported to the site "here they "ill be placed beneath the rails. Thus, the pre(tensioning operation is a %ery fast track construction and it is suitable for mass production of prestressed elements like rail"ay sleepers, poles and other smaller units. This is done in a controlled en%ironment "ith proper 1uality control and precise tensioning of the tendons. We are mo%ing on to the construction of a post(tensioned bridge girder. (Refer Time Slide: ,3:15

)s compared to a pre(tensioned member, in a post(tensioned member first the reinforcement cage is made, the duct is placed and then the concrete is cast. The steel tendon is then passed through the ducts. )fter the concrete has cured sufficiently, tension is applied on the tendons by hydraulic 0acks and then the tendons are held by anchorage blocks "hich gradually apply the prestress to the concrete. The essential difference bet"een pre(tensioning and post(tensioning is that, in the pre(tensioning the steel "as stretched before the casting of the concrete, but in post(tensioning the steel "ill be stretched after the casting of the concrete.

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(Refer Time Slide: -0:+,

!n this photograph, "e can see an !(girder "here the reinforcement cage has been fabricated. /nce the reinforcement cage has been fabricated, the ducts through "hich the tendons "ill be passed are placed. #o", the placement of the duct is based on analysis "hich "e shall co%er later. /nce the duct is placed and the side form"orks are placed, then the concrete is cast. )fter the casting of the concrete, it "ill be cured for a substantial period till it gains strength. (Refer Time Slide: -1:0+

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Then through the ducts, the steel tendons are passed and these tendons are right no" pro0ecting out from the end of the members. These tendons "ill be stretched by hydraulic 0acks. (Refer Time Slide: -1:+4

!n this photograph, "e can see at the bottom that the 0ack is stretching the tendons. /nce the tendons are stretched, "edges are placed in the anchor blocks and then the 0ack can be released. When the 0ack is released, the tendons sit on the anchor blocks through the "edges and the prestress is transferred to the concrete beam. This operation has to be done %ery carefully because, unless the stretching is controlled, there can be early cracking in the concrete member, if the concrete has not gained enough strength. 9ence, in a post(tensioning operation, one has to be e$tremely careful during the stretching of the steel because that is the testing time for the prestressed member. /nce the stretching operation is done properly, then the member is ready for the ser%ice loads. The member can be precast in a different place and it can be transported to site or it can be placed in the final location and the post(tensioning operation can be done at the final location.

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(Refer Time Slide: -+:.7

!n today>s lecture, "e ha%e co%ered many definitions of the prestressing system. The first sets of definitions "ere related "ith the type of steel that is used in the prestressing systems. !t can come in the form of indi%idual "ires, it can come in the form of strands, or it can come in the form of a bar. !ndi%idual "ires are "ound to form a strand, se%eral strands can be placed in a tendon and again se%eral tendons can form a cable. Thus, depending upon the type of application, the prestressing steel is selected. We also had learned about the other definitions like the stages of prestressing. We said that there are three main stages. The first one is the initial stage "here the steel is tensioned and then the stress is applied to the concrete. The second stage is the intermediate stage for precast members "here the stresses that generate during transportation need to be checked. *inally, "e ha%e the final stage. That also can be di%ided into t"o stages. /ne is the ser%ice stage "hich is for the period for "hich the structure is being used. There can be an ultimate stage "hich occurs from e$treme e%ent "hen the load can be substantially high and the member can reach its final strength. =epending upon the stages, the analysis has to be done considering the strength of the concrete and the allo"able stresses for each stage. )fter the definitions, "e had mo%ed on to the ad%antages of prestressing, as compared to reinforced concrete. We ha%e seen that there are se%eral ad%antages of prestressed concrete, out of "hich the primary ad%antage is that the concrete stays uncracked for
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most of the prestressed concrete members. :racking is a big disad%antage for reinforced concrete because that leads to corrosion and the section is not fully utili6ed. Whereas, in a prestressed concrete member, since cracking is a%oided, the full section is utili6ed' "e ha%e higher moment of inertia, thus higher stiffness, "e ha%e reduced deflection. The biggest ad%antage is that the deterioration of the steel is reduced because of the absence of cracks. The second ad%antage is the increased span(to(depth ratio. *or prestressed concrete members, the span can be substantially large as compared to an e1ui%alent reinforced concrete member. This is to an ad%antage for bridge construction and for building construction "here "e need large column free space such as in commercial building and office space "here "e need a large span. This is possible "hen "e prestress the slabs. The reduced depth also helps to reduce the "eight and this makes a prestressed concrete ha%e less concrete as compared to a reinforced concrete member. The third ad%antage that "e had seen "as that the prestressed concrete is a good 1uality product. The ser%ice life can be more and pro%ided it is made properly the ser%iceability of prestressed concrete members are better than a reinforced concrete member. !t has a higher resilience "ith "hich it has a better fatigue beha%ior as compared to a reinforced concrete member. 8ut along "ith ad%antages "e also ha%e limitations of prestressing because, it brings us additional responsibility in the manufacturing of the prestressed concrete product. *irst, "e need skilled technology and "e need the au$iliary e1uipments to ha%e prestressing in the member. #e$t, both the concrete and the steel ha%e to be of good 1uality and hence the cost increases. The process of prestressing should be e$tremely careful because, unless there is proper 1uality control of prestressed concrete, there can be cracks during the prestressing operation. !f the concrete is not cast properly that "ill lead to corrosion and "hich can lead to reduction of the strength of the prestressed concrete members. 9ence, a prestressed concrete member demands a better 1uality control and inspection during the manufacturing process. )fter this, "e had mo%ed on to the different types of prestressing. We had seen that the prestressing can be classified based on different methods of classification. The first
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classification "as based on source of prestressing force. The prestress can be applied by a hydraulic 0ack or it can be applied mechanically in a mass production unit. !t can also be applied by an electrical system or a chemical system. The most common is the hydraulic 0acks "hich operate based on the oil pressure and it is used to stretch the tendons. The second classification is based on the location of the prestressing tendon "ith respect to the concrete. !f the tendon is outside the concrete, it is called e$ternal prestressing as is used in bridge girders. !f the tendon is concealed "ithin the concrete then it is called an internal prestressing. <ost of the prestressed concrete members are internally prestressed' ducts are laid out "ithin the concrete for a post(tensioned member and the steel remains "ithin the duct "hich is "ithin the concrete. The third classification and "hich is the most important classification "as the pre( tensioning or post(tensioning. This classification is based on the se1uence of stretching the steel and the casting of the concrete. !f the steel is stretched first before the casting of the concrete this is called a pre(tensioned concrete. !f the steel is stretched after the casting and curing of the concrete, it is called a post(tensioned concrete. Thus, the pre( tensioning and the post(tensioning are based on the se1uence of stretching of the steel and the casting of the concrete. The ne$t classification "as related "ith the direction of prestressing' for beams, sleepers, poles, pipes these are all linearly prestressed, here the prestressing tendon is along the a$is of the member. Whereas tanks, silos, and containment structures they are circularly prestressed. That is, the prestressing tendons are "ound around the circumference of the member. 8ased on the direction of prestressing, it can be classified as linear or circular prestressing. The ne$t classification "as related "ith the amount of prestressing: full, limited or partial. ) fully prestressed member refers to a member "hich does not ha%e any tensile stress during its ser%ice life. ) limited prestressed member refers to a member "hich can ha%e a tensile stress, but the tensile stress is limited to the cracking strength of the concrete. Thus "e do not e$pect any cracks under the ser%ice loads. The third type is the partial prestressing "here "e can not only ha%e a tensile stress but also can ha%e cracking. 8ut the crack "idth is limited to check corrosion. Thus based on the amount of
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prestressing "e can ha%e a member fully prestressed "hich is referred to as Type 1, or a limited prestress "hich is referred to as Type +, or a partially prestressed member, "hich is referred to as Type ,. The analysis also should take account of these types, so as the strength calculations are done appropriately. The final classification "as related "ith ho" many directions of prestressing are being done. ) unia$ial prestressing is done for a linear member like beams, sleepers, piles and poles. 8ia$ial prestressing is done for a t"o dimensional member like a slab, "here the prestressing can be done in t"o directions. <ultia$ial prestressing is done for elements like domes "here the prestressing can be done in more than t"o directions. )fter this classification, "e had mo%ed on to the manufacturing of pre(tensioned rail"ay sleepers. !n this section "e had obser%ed ho" a mass production of rail"ay sleepers is undertaken. This is a pre(tensioned concrete, "hich means, the steel is stretched before the concrete is cast. The concrete is cast in a stress bench "hich is a self straining member and a tra%elling stress bench is used for the fast track construction. Within the stress bench, first the steel is anchored at one end "hich is called the dead end and then it is stretched at the other end by hydraulic 0acks. /nce the stretching operation is o%er then the concrete is cast. The coarse aggregate, the fine aggregate, the cement, "ater and admi$tures if any, are mi$ed in the mi$er and it is dropped in the mould of the stress bench and it is %ibrated for proper compaction. /nce it is properly casted, the surface is finished and the stress bench is inserted "ithin a curing chamber. The controlled curing under steam helps to gain the strength of the concrete 1uickly. Within +- hours it gains substantial strength to ha%e the prestress transferred from the steel to the concrete. )fter +- hours the moulds are taken out and then the "ires are cut. When the "ires are cut the pre(tension is transferred to the concrete. )fter this, the sleepers are taken out from the moulds, they are stacked in the "ater tank and then they are cured until the concrete has gained the final strength. /nce the curing is o%er they are stacked in the yard from "hich they are dispatched on the "agons for the construction of the rail"ay tracks.

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Thus the manufacturing of rail"ay sleepers is done in a %ery controlled en%ironment "ith the fast track construction, so that the production of rail"ay sleepers can meet the demand of the rail"ay tracks. #e$t, "e had seen the post(tensioning operation of a bridge girder, "here "e had seen first the reinforcement gauge "as made, through that duct "as laid. /nce the duct is laid properly, the side form"orks are built and it is made sure that "e ha%e ade1uate co%er around the reinforcement. Then the concrete is cast. The concrete should be of good 1uality and it has to be properly compacted so as not to ha%e any %oids "ithin the concrete. /nce the concrete is cast and it has been cured to gain substantial strength, then the tendons are passed through the ducts. )t the one end, it is anchored by an anchorage de%ice, on the other end it is stretched by a hydraulic 0ack. /nce the stretching operation is done, "edges are attached to the strands and the 0acks are gradually released by "hich the tension in the steel gets transferred to a concrete as a compression. This is the post( tensioning operation "hich also needs a great care to ha%e the operation done properly. With this "e are ending this chapter on the ad%antages, limitations and the different types of prestressing. Thank you.

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