Definition of Crack Tip Opening Displacement

There are two common definitions of the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD): 1. The opening displacement of the original crack tip.

2. The displacement at the intersection of a 90 !erte" with the crack flanks.

These two definitions are e#$i!alent if the crack %l$nts in a semicircle.

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CTOD in Specimen
The crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) of a crack at the edge of a three'point %ending specimen is shown %elow:

where CTODm is the meas$red crack tip opening displacement( $s$all) near the edge of the specimen for ease of access( CTOD is the real crack tip opening displacement( a is the length of the crack( and b is the width of the rest of the specimen. &lease note that the fig$re is for ill$stration p$rpose onl) and not to scale. *rom simple geometr) of two similar triangles:

where

is a dimensionless rotational factor $sed to locate the center of the hinge.

*or simplicit)( let+s ass$me that the center of the hinge locates at the center of b( i.e.( , 1-2. The CTOD then %ecomes

The a%o!e hinge model ma) not %e acc$rate when the displacement is mostl) elastic. . more acc$rate approach is to separate the CTOD into an elastic part and a plastic part:

where is the small scale )ielding stress and m is a dimensionless constant that depends on the material properties and the stress states.
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Relationship between J and CTOD

Consider a linear elastic %od) containing a crack( the / integral and the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) ha!e the following relationship

where and m are defined in the pre!io$s section. *or plane stress and nonhardening materials( m 0 1. 1ence( for a thro$gh crack in an infinite plate s$%2ected to a remote tensile stress (3ode 4)( the crack tip opening displacement is

5hih( C. *.( 1961( took a step f$rther and showed that a $ni#$e relationship e"ists %etween / and CTOD %e)ond the !alidit) limits of 78*3. 1e introd$ced the 90 intercept definition of CTOD( as ill$strated %elow.

The displacement field is

The CTOD is e!al$ated from ux and uy at r 0 r* and

5ince

The CTOD %ecomes

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

CTOD Testing

The concept of fract$re to$ghness was introd$ced in an earlier Connect article( /o% knowledge 91( which disc$ssed the Charp)': test( a simple #$alitati!e test that gi!es onl) an indication of the to$ghness of a metal. The ne"t few articles will look at the tests that ena%le fract$re to$ghness to %e acc$ratel) meas$red in a #$antitati!e manner %) $sing a f$ll si;e specimen containing a crack with loading that is representati!e of ser!ice conditions. This allows a fitness'for'p$rpose anal)sis to %e carried o$t which ena%les a critical defect si;e to %e calc$lated. Th$s( prior to fa%rication( realistic acceptance standards can %e set and decisions on appropriate <D8 techni#$es and detection sensiti!ities can %e made. *or e#$ipment alread) in ser!ice( it is possi%le to 2$stif) the contin$ed $se of cracked or otherwise flawed components $ntil s$ch time as repair or replacement can %e effected. 5$ch engineering critical assessments can sa!e an operator large amo$nts of time and mone)( r$nning into perhaps h$ndreds of millions of po$nds in the case of an oil rig for e"ample. =hilst the Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) test was de!eloped for the characterisation of metals it has also %een $sed to determine the to$ghness of non'metallics s$ch as welda%le plastics. The CTOD test is one s$ch fract$re to$ghness test that is $sed when some plastic deformation can occ$r prior to fail$re ' this allows the tip of a crack to stretch and open( hence +tip opening displacement+. >nlike the ine"pensi!e 10mm %) 10mm s#$are Charp)': test piece with a %l$nt machined notch( the CTOD specimen ma) %e the f$ll thickness of the material( will contain a gen$ine crack and will %e loaded at a rate more representati!e of ser!ice conditions. Con!entionall) three tests are carried o$t at the rele!ant temperat$re to ens$re consistenc) of res$lts. The test piece itself is +proportional+ ' the length( depth and thickness of each specimen are inter' related so that( irrespecti!e of material thickness( each specimen has the same proportions. There are two %asic forms ' a s#$are or a rectang$lar cross section specimen. 4f the specimen thickness is defined as +=+( the depth will %e either = or 2= with a standard length of ?.@=. . notch is machined at the centre and then e"tended %) generating a fatig$e crack so that the total +defect+ length is half the depth of the test piece' see Fig.1. . test on a 100mm thick weld will therefore re#$ire a specimen meas$ring 100mm wide( 200mm deep and ?@0mm long ' an e"pensi!e operation( the !alidit) of which can onl) %e determined once the test has %een completed.

*ig.1. &roportional rectang$lar cross section CTOD specimen

The test is performed %) placing the specimen into three point %ending and meas$ring the amo$nt of crack opening. This is done %) means of a strain ga$ge attached to a clip placed %etween two acc$ratel) positioned knife edges at the mo$th of the machined notch ( Fig.2)

*ig.2. T)pical test arrangement. The specimen can %e easil) immersed in a cooling %ath

.s %ending proceeds( the crack tip plasticall) deforms $ntil a critical point is reached when the crack has opened s$fficientl) to initiate a clea!age crack. This ma) lead to either partial or complete fail$re of the specimen. The test ma) %e performed at some minim$m temperat$re eg the minim$m design temperat$re or( more rarel)( at a range of temperat$res. .s a r$le of th$m%( a CTOD !al$e of %etween 0.1mm and 0.2mm at the minim$m ser!ice temperat$re is regarded as demonstrating ade#$ate to$ghness. The !al$es that are re#$ired for the calc$lation of to$ghness are firstl) the load at which fract$re occ$rs and secondl) the amo$nt %) which the crack has opened at the point of crack propagation (Fig.3).

*ig.A. &osition of CTOD specimen immediatel) prior to crack propagation

5ince the length of the crack and the opening at the mo$th of the notch are known it is a simple matter to calc$late the crack tip opening %) simple geometr). =hilst the test is in progress the res$lts are recorded a$tomaticall) on a load-displacement chart that is similar in some respects to the tensile test c$r!e ill$strated in Fig.3 in Job knowledge 69. The CTOD c$r!e is a plot of stress !ers$s strain ( Fig.4). This ill$strates the !ario$s shapes of c$r!e that ma) %e prod$ced ' (a) is a test where the test piece has fract$red in a %rittle manner with little or no plastic deformation. (%) e"hi%its a +pop'in+ where the %rittle crack initiates %$t onl) propagates a short distance %efore it is arrested in to$gher material ' this ma) occ$r se!eral times gi!ing the c$r!e a saw tooth appearance or after this one pop'in deformation ma) contin$e in a d$ctile manner as in (c) which shows completel) plastic %eha!io$r.

*ig.?. 7oad !s crack opening displacement c$r!es showing three t)pes of fract$re %eha!io$r

The location of the notch in the weld 1.B or parent metal is important as an incorrectl) positioned fatig$e crack will not sample the re#$ired area( making the test in!alid. To %e certain that the crack tip is in the correct region( polishing and etching followed %) a metall$rgical e"amination are often carried o$t prior to machining the notch and fatig$e cracking. This ena%les the notch to %e positioned !er) acc$ratel). This e"amination ma) %e carried o$t after testing as f$rther confirmation of the !alidit) of the test res$lts. Once the sample is %roken open the crack s$rface is e"amined to ens$re that the fatig$e crack has a reasona%l) straight front. The resid$al stresses present in a welded 2oint ma) ca$se the fatig$e crack front to %e irreg$lar ' if this is e"cessi!e the test ma) %e in!alid. To o!ercome this pro%lem the test piece ma) %e locall) compressed at the machined notch tip to redistri%$te the resid$al stress. Two depressions each side of the sample can often %e seen where this compression has %een carried o$t. The fatig$e cracking itself sho$ld %e carried o$t $sing a low stress range. The $se of high stresses to speed $p the fatig$e cracking process can res$lt in a large plasticall) deformed area ahead of the fatig$e crack and this will in!alidate the res$lts of the test.

Other ca$ses of test fail$re can $nfort$natel) onl) %e determined once the test has %een completed and the crack s$rface e"amined. The precise length of the fatig$e crack is meas$red ' this is re#$ired for the anal)sis ' %$t if the length of the crack is not within the limits re#$ired %) the specification the test is in!alid. 4f the fatig$e crack is not in a single plane( if the crack is at an angle to the machined notch or if the crack is not in the correct region the test will need to %e repeated.

Celated specifications
BS 7448 BS 7910 Parts 1- 4 Fracture Mechanics Toughness Tests Guide on Methods for Assessing the Accepta i!it" of F!a#s in Meta!!ic

Structures$ ASTM %18&0 Standard Test Method for Measure'ent of Fracture Toughness$

This article was written %) Gene Mathers

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Topics Co!ered
Dackgro$nd 4ncreasing 3aterial Demands Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTOD The CTOD Test &rocess 5ample 3achining for the CTOD Test Commonl) >sed Test 5pecimens Testing <omenclat$re for the CTOD Test The 4mportance of the &re'*atig$e Crack &re'Cracking *atig$ing the 5ample 4nitiation and &ropagation of a *atig$e Crack 4nitiation and Erowth of a Crack Tracking Crack 7ength 5tress Distri%$tions Crack *ront 8"amination *ract$re 3aintaining Constant Temperat$re 5tress 4ntensit) *actor Data .nal)sis CTOD *ail$re T)pes &op'in *ail$res Calc$lating CTOD :al$es The *inal Ces$lt

Dackgro$nd
%(en the strongest and hardest-#or)ing 'ateria!s on earth - pipes* dri!!s* 'unitions* girders - crac)$ A crac) is the eginning of fai!ure* ut #hen and ho# dra'atica!!" #i!! the fai!ure occur+

4ncreasing 3aterial Demands

The #or!d de'ands 'ore-greater ,uantities of energ"* ta!!er ui!dings* !onger pipe!ines* faster and higher-f!"ing aircraft$ Materia! scientists ha(e responded #ith stronger and 'ore dura !e 'eta!s* ut e(er" one* gi(en the right set of circu'stances* #i!! crac)$ -e )no# 'ore and de'and 'ore of 'ateria!s than e(er efore$ .ather than reacting to pro !e's as the" occur* 'ore and 'ore industries are choosing to e proacti(e in fai!ure pre(ention " testing 'ateria!s properties e"ond the nor'a! testing re,uire'ents$ /ne such test that goes e"ond traditiona! 'ateria! propert" ana!"sis is the 0T/1 test* #hich is gaining popu!arit" in the oi! and gas industr"$

Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTOD

0rac) Tip /pening 1isp!ace'ent test or 0T/1 is one of a fa'i!" of fracture 'echanics tests that 'easures the resistance of a 'ateria! to gro#ing a crac)$ Si'i!ar tests 2i$e$* da314* 510* 5%%* and 6107 can deter'ine fracture resistance of a 'ateria!* ut 0T/1is particu!ar!" suited to pipe!ine and dri!!ing e,uip'ent$ The 0T/1 test is used to deter'ine the fracture 'echanics properties of ducti!e 'ateria!s and can e thought of as the si'u!ated opening of a pre-e8isting fatigue crac) prior to fracture$ The data that resu!t fro' this opening can e used for critica! defect assess'ent* in #hich the critica! defect si9e can e deter'ined$

The CTOD Test &rocess

P!ease note that the fo!!o#ing is a si'p!ified (ersion of the 0T/1 test process and does not co(er a!! aspects of the test* such as persona!i9ed testing specifications$ A 0T/1 test can e ro)en into 4 'ain steps: 1. 2. A. ?. 3achining of the test specimen (5ample 3achining)F *atig$ing of the specimen within specified limits (&re'Cracking)F Dreaking of the specimen $nder controlled conditions (*ract$re)F &ost anal)sis of the specimen and res$ltant data to o%tain the CTOD !al$e (Data .nal)sis).

5ample 3achining for the CTOD Test

;n!i)e other destructi(e 'ateria! tests* the 0T/1 test has 'u!tip!e factors that can affect the resu!tant (a!ue$ 4ot on!" is the test te'perature a (aria !e* ut the speci'en si9e can a!so affect the resu!ts* as #e!! as the conditions in #hich the resu!t can e used$ <t is i'portant to use the 'a8i'u' thic)ness of speci'en possi !e #hen perfor'ing the test$ As a genera! ru!e* if a 'ateria! 'eets the T/1 test re,uire'ents at a gi(en test si9e* then the resu!ts can e e8trapo!ated to app!" to thinner sections* ut not thic)er$

Figure 1. Machining test sa'p!es for 0T/1 testing$

Commonl) >sed Test 5pecimens

For structura! and pipe 'ateria!s used in the oi! and gas industries* the 'ost co''on!" used speci'ens are a rectangu!ar three-point end or a s,uare three-point end$ The rectangu!ar three-point end is prefera !e* e8cept #here there is !i'ited 'ateria! or a surface notch needs to e e(a!uated$

Testing <omenclat$re for the CTOD Test

As #ith other destructi(e 'ateria! tests* the 0T/1 (a!ue can (ar"* depending on the direction of the test$ The (arious testing specifications ha(e their o#n no'enc!ature to descri e the sa'p!e and notch direction in respect to the grain f!o# or #e!d direction$ This no'enc!ature is t"pica!!" the sa'e as that of a charp" test$

The 4mportance of the &re'*atig$e Crack

The ca!cu!ation of the fina! 0T/1 (a!ue is dependent on the depth of a pre-fatigue crac) fro' the surface of the speci'en$ As it is i'practica! to fatigue a crac) fro' the actua! speci'en surface* the speci'en is 'achined to inc!ude a notch* #hich #i!! act as the initiation point of the fatigue crac) and e inc!uded in the o(era!! !ength of the fatigue crac) used for the ca!cu!ation of the 0T/1 (a!ue$ 4ationa! standards are used for the actua! testing criteria$

&re'Cracking
/n co'p!etion of 'achining of the speci'en* an actua! fatigue crac) is induced at the ase of the starter notch$ This crac) 'ust e of sufficient !ength to "pass an" area of p!astic defor'ation that 'a" ha(e een occurred during the 'achining process$ The

crac) !ength is t"pica!!" ased on the si9e of the sa'p!e* the 'ethod of notch 'anufacture* the #idth of the notch* the shape of the notch* and practica! ti'e restraints$ The o(era!! !ength fro' the surface of the sa'p!e to the crac) tip 'ust fa!! #ithin gi(en para'eters$ /ther factors that a!so 'ust e considered inc!ude the ang!e of the crac) in respect to the speci'en and the difference in !ength of the crac) as seen on the e8posed surfaces$ The operation is t"pica!!" perfor'ed in air at roo' te'perature$

*atig$ing the 5ample

Fatiguing the sa'p!e re,uires a 'ini'u' and 'a8i'u' fatigue !oad$ <f the !oads se!ected to induce the fatigue crac) are too !o#* then the fatigue ti'e 'a" eco'e restricti(e-or* at the e8tre'e* a crac) 'a" not de(e!op$ <f the !oads are too high* then a p!astic 9one 'a" resu!t #hich #ou!d affect the 0T/1 resu!t-or* again at the e8tre'e* the sa'p!e 'a" fracture pre'ature!"$ The nationa! standards specif" criteria to ensure a (a!id test sa'p!e* inc!uding: a 'ini'u' to 'a8i'u' !oad ratio of !ess than 0$1* a change in stress intensit" re!ating to the 'odu!us of the 'ateria!* and a 'a8i'u' !oad ased on the 'ateria! tensi!e properties* speci'en si9e and span used$

Figure 2. Fatiguing the 0T/1 test sa'p!e$

4nitiation and &ropagation of a *atig$e Crack

<nitiation and propagation of a fatigue crac) is dependent on the configuration of the sa'p!e* the crac) !ength and the !oading conditions$ This re!ationship deter'ines the stress intensit" factor 257 at the fatigue crac) tip* and can e deter'ined for a three-

point end " the fo!!o#ing for'u!a:

=-here 5 is the stress intensit" factor* F is the !oad* S the span* B the speci'en thic)ness* - the speci'en #idth and a the crac) !ength>$

Figure 3. Fatigue !oading of the 0T/1 test sa'p!e$ 1uring the fatigue operation* -* B and S re'ain constant$ The e,uation de'onstrates a definiti(e re!ationship et#een the crac) !ength* !oad and stress intensit"$

4nitiation and Erowth of a Crack

To initiate and gro# a fatigue crac) for a 0T/1 test* (arious 'ethods can e used$ a. Constant Load ' . constant load amplit$de (load) is the most common sit$ation. 1owe!er( for the p$rposes of growing a fatig$e crack for a CTOD it is not the most practical. 4n order to meet the !alidit) re#$irements imposed %) the specifications( the load ratio selected wo$ld ha!e to %e determined %ased on the final crack length. .s a res$lt( the crack growth rate wo$ld increase as the length increasedF howe!er( it wo$ld %e slow in the initial stages of crack length. This method can res$lt in an e"tended time to grow the crack of the re#$ired length. Decreasing Load ' D) calc$lating the load restrictions for a gi!en crack length( it is possi%le to start the fatig$e operation with a high load and decrease it to the limits re#$ired as the crack grows. Done caref$ll)( this can sa!e time in o%taining !alid fatig$e crack front( %$t it sho$ld %e noted that red$cing the load %) too great an amo$nt can res$lt in the crack propagation slowing or e!en stopping. 4n this case( a

%.

gi!en n$m%er of fatig$e c)cles wo$ld %e needed to initiate the crack again. c. Constant ' D$ring the fatig$ing of a CTOD sample( 5( = and D will remain constant. .s s$ch( the relationship %etween the crack length( load and stress intensit) can %e $tili;ed in the growth of a fatig$e crack. *rom the e#$ation it can %e seen that %) keeping the change in stress intensit) constant( the load will drop proportionall) as the crack length increases.

This 'ethod #i!! resu!t in an e(en !oad drop as the crac) gro#s and #i!! pre(ent the crac) arrest that can occur #hen 'ethod is used$ <t is possi !e to co' ine aspects of the three 'ethods to further increase to efficiencies of the crac) propagation$ B" starting #ith a high 5 and reducing it as the crac) e8tends* one can reduce the ti'e necessar" to gro# a crac) #hi!e )eeping #ithin the specification re,uire'ents$

Tracking Crack 7ength

Trac)ing the actua! crac) !ength can e done in a nu' er of #a"s* such as: a. :is$al meas$rement can %e made on the sample. >sing this method( onl) the crack length at the o$ter s$rface can %e determined. To enhance the crack( non' destr$cti!e testing techni#$es s$ch as d)e penetrant or magnetic permea%ilit) work well. The compliance techni#$e depends on a Gth order pol)nomial in which the coefficients are %ased on the specimen geometr) and material properties. T)picall)( a clip gage is attached to the sample at the machined opening and electronicall) records the opening that is then related to the crack length. The recorded length can then %e $sed to a$tomaticall) ad2$st the load( %ased on the method decided for the crack growth( res$lting in a smooth load drop. The potential drop across the crack depends on ohmHs law: as a crack grows the potential will increase. .s with the compliance techni#$e( this method can %e directl) associated with the load control and hence gi!e a smooth load transition.

%.

c.

Figure 4. Trac)ing crac) !ength of 0T/1 test sa'p!es$ -hi!e perfor'ing the fatigue operation* it is i'portant to re'e' er that on!" the outer surface can e 'easured and confir'ed$ The fatigue is propagating across a p!ane inside the sa'p!e* and as such the !ength cannot e (isua!!" confir'ed unti! the test is co'p!ete and the sa'p!e fractured open$ The co'p!iance and potentia! drop techni,ues can pro(ide infor'ation a out the interna! situation of the fatigue crac)$

5tress Distri%$tions
?ariance in !ength across the fatigue crac) front increases in 'ateria!s in #hich an e(en stress distri ution is not present* i$e$ in a #e!d'ent$ <n these cases* (arious operations 'a" e necessar" to produce a !inear crac) front$ Preco'pression of the sides of the sa'p!e and re(erse ending are t#o of the 'ost co''on techni,ues e'p!o"ed$

Crack *ront 8"amination

/n co'p!etion of the fatigue operation* the (isi !e crac) front 'ust e (isua!!" e8a'ined to ensure co'p!iance to the specification* e$g$ #ithin !ength to!erances fro' the surface and et#een sides* straightness and the a sence of an" o (ious surface ifurcations$

Figure 5. %8a'ination of fracture surfaces can pro(ide infor'ation a out the t"pe of fai!ure that has ta)en p!ace$

*ract$re
The actua! rea)ing of the speci'en is perfor'ed under 'onotonic conditions* #hich 'eans that the sa'p!e is under increasing !oad unti! fracture* and at a static te'perature$

3aintaining Constant Temperat$re

Fractures can e affected " te'perature* therefore it is i'portant to contro! the te'perature throughout the test$ Testing in a !i,uid a!coho! ath #ith 0/ & as a coo!ing 'ediu' is one of the 'ost co''on 'ethods to achie(e this$

5tress 4ntensit) *actor

The rate of testing is deter'ined " the change in the stress intensit" factor during the initia! app!ication of !oad$ As #as seen in the e,uation* the stress intensit" is dependent on the !oad and crac) !ength$ Since the crac) !ength is not 'easura !e unti! the sa'p!e is fractured* it is not possi !e to confir' the actua! testing rate unti! co'p!etion of the test$ An esti'ated crac) !ength 'ust e used to deter'ine the testing rate-#ith the actua! test rate confir'ed to e #ith in the (a!idation !i'its$ 1uring the app!ication of the !oad* a c!ip gage is used to 'easure the opening at the 'outh of the fatigue crac)$ This opening is p!otted against the !oad app!ied$

Figure 6. ;se of a c!ip gage a!!o#s crac) opening #idth to e 'easured$

Data .nal)sis
After the sa'p!e has een fractured* scientists perfor' (arious operations to deter'ine the 0T/1 t"pe and (a!ue$ The fracture face 'ust e e8a'ined in con@unction #ith the p!ot of the !oad (s$ the crac) 'outh opening$ Fro' this* the t"pe of fracture can e deter'ined$

CTOD *ract$re T)pes

Three 'ain categories of fracture e8ist: a. m I in which the fract$re face e"hi%its tearing and the final fract$re occ$rs $nder decreasing load $ I in which the fract$re face e"hi%its tearing and the final fract$re occ$rs $nder increasing load c I in which the fract$re face does not e"hi%it tearing and the final fract$re occ$rs $nder increasing load

%.

c.

Figure 7. The (arious 'odes of fai!ure during 0T/1 testing$

&op'in *ail$res
A 4th t"pe of fai!ure can occur #hich is )no#n as a pop-in$ <n this situation* either a !oad drop* a disp!ace'ent increase* or oth is o ser(ed* and the !oad then reco(ers to e8ceed the initia! condition$ -hen a pop-in occurs* the 'ateria! has partia!!" fracturedA ho#e(er* the re'aining !igand is sufficient to #ithstand the increase in !oad$ <t is often possi !e to see the cause of the pop-in on the fracture face$ The (a!idit" of the pop-in is e(a!uated ased on the changes in !oad and3or disp!ace'ent$ <f dee'ed (a!id* the fina! ca!cu!ation of the 0T/1 (a!ue is ased on the !oad and disp!ace'ent at the pop-in occurrence$ The !ength of the fatigue fracture and an" tearing 2in the case of a u t"pe fracture on!"7 shou!d e 'easured$ The fatigue crac) !ength is used in the 0T/1 ca!cu!ation$

Calc$lating CTOD :al$es

Fro' the p!ot* the 'a8i'u' !oad and the p!astic co'ponent 2?p7 of the crac) opening is deter'ined for use in the 0T/1 ca!cu!ation$ The 0T/1 (a!ue is ca!cu!ated fro' the fo!!o#ing for'u!a:

#here B is the 0T/1* F is the !oad* S the span* B the speci'en thic)ness* - the speci'en #idth* a the crac) !ength* ( the poisonCs ratio* ?p the p!astic co'ponent corresponding to the !oad at the critica! e(ent* 9 is the c!ip gage height and DES is the

"ie!d at test te'perature$

The *inal Ces$lt

-hen the graphica! data has een ana!"9ed* the sa'p!e 'easured and e8a'ined* and the 0T/1 (a!ue ca!cu!ated* the (a!idit" of the resu!t 'ust a!so e e(a!uated$ As discussed a o(e* so'e of the (a!idit" re,uire'ents of the 0T/1 test cannot e deter'ined unti! the test is co'p!eted$ A (a!ue 'a" e o tained* there 'a" e a 'ini'u' (a!ue of 0T/1 and3or t"pe of fracture restrained* ut* the test 'ust a!so e (a!id$ <t is possi !e to ha(e a resu!t #ith a sufficient (a!ue to 'eet the specification re,uire'ent* ut sti!! ha(e an in(a!id test$ Si'i!ar!"* "our resu!t 'a" e !o#er than re,uired #ith an in(a!id test$ <n these cases* the resu!t o tained shou!d not e used and the test shou!d e repeated$

5o$rce: 8lement 3aterials Technolog)