Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Flower in the angiosperms is an aid to sexual reproduction. All flowering plants (angiosperms) show sexual reproduction and thus form fruits and seeds. To ensure the fruit and seed formation flowers show following adaptations : (/) Diversity of inflorescences (ii) Adaptation in structure of flower and floral parts. (Hi) Scents and rich colours for sexual reproduction. uman !eings have intimate relationship with flowers as flowers are o!"ects of aesthetic# ornamental# social# religious and cultural value as they express human feelings such as love# affection# happiness# mourning etc. $efore the plant flowers# many hormonal and structural changes are initiated so that differentiation and further development of floral primordia ta%es place. Infloresences are first formed which later on !ear floral !uds and then flowers. Flowers !ear male and female reproductive structures (/) Androecium is male reproductive structure which consists of whorls of stamens (reproductive organs) (ii) &ach stamen has two parts'a long slender filament and usually !ilo!ed structure anther so they are dithecous. Anther is a four sided structure consisting of four microsporangia located at the corners. stigma. The !asal !ulged part of the pistil is the ovary. (nside the ovary is the ovarian cavity (locule . !he placenta is located inside the ovarian cavity.

"evelopment and structure of microsporangia.

Stigma Anther Filament P oll en gr ai ns Filament

Ovar y

))))Sepal
12

(ii) Gynoecium is female Fig. Stamen reproductive part Fig. Flower of flower which consists of pistil. &ach pistil has three parts# the stigma# style and ovary. Stigma is distal !ul!ous part# which serves as a landing platform for pollen grains. The style is the elongated slender part !eneath the

^r Stigma Style Fig. Gynoecium

Ovary

Pollen sac

Vascular bundle

Epidermis

Endothecium Pollen grains Stomium Pollen sac

C
Pollen grain Anther

Microsporogenesis. *rocess of formation of microspores from a pollen mother cell through meiosis is called Filament microsporogenesis. Such microspores (pollen grains) are arranged in the cluster of four cells (i.e., microspore tetrad). Pollen grain *ollen grains represent male gametophytes. *ollen grain has dou!le layered wall. (ts inner layer is called intine and outer layer is exine. (i) Intine ' (t is cellulosic inner layer. (ii) #xine ' It is thic%# cuticularised showing spiny outgrowths. (t is made up of sporopollenin. &xine may !e thin or a!sent at certain places. These are called germpores (+ in dicots and one in monocots). ,reen pores lac% sporopollenin. "evelopment in Pollen grain
E'ine Generative ucleus ( cell #ntine &ale gametes *ollen grain Cytoplasm

&ale Pollen gametes tube Vegetative nucleus

Germ

pore

Cytoplasm A Microspore

B
Pollen grain germination

(a) Pre-Pollination Development. ucleus o! pollen grain shi!ts to one side o! "all and !orms t"o
cells a large tube or vegetative cell and a small generative cell. #n some cases$ generative cell divides into t"o male gametes be!ore the dehiscence o! anther% #t means at

the time o! pollination$ pollen grain may be shed at the 2 celle stage )tube cell * generative cell! or " celle stage )tube cell * + male gametes,% (!) Post Pollination Development. On the stigma$ its tube cell s"ells up and comes out as pollen tu#e. Generative cell divides into t"o male gametes i! it has not divided already% A!ter the !ormation o! pollen tube$ tube cell nucleus and t"o male gametes descend to the tip o! pollen tube% -ube cell nucleus starts degenerating% . Development o$ Female gametop%yte / #t occurs inside the nucleus o! developing ovule o! angiosperms% A single archesporial cell di!!erentiates in the internal cells o! nucleus near the micropylar end% -he archesporial cells directly !unction as megaspore mother cell or may divide periclinally to !orm an outer parietal cells and inner sporogenous cell% -he sporogenous cell directly behaves as megaspore mother cell% -he diploid megaspore mother cell enlarges in si0e and divides by meiosis to !orm a tetrad% #n this the chromosome number reduces to hal! in the resultant nuclei% #n &eiosis # due to "all !ormation t"o cells are produced% #t is called 1yad stage% #n &eiosis ## the dyad stage results in !ormation o! linear tetrad o! !our megaspores%

1egenerating megaspores Functional megaspores 2 C1

Stages in development o! !emale gametophyte

Only chala0al megaspore remains !unctional "hile upper three degenerate% -he !unctional megaspore enlarges and gives rise to !emale gametophyte or Embryo sac% -his !unctional megaspore is !irst cell o! !emale gametophyte% -he embryo sac contains & nuclei #ut ' cells-" micropylar$ 3 chala0al and one central% -he three micropyle cells are collectively 4no"n as egg apparatus% One cell is large and is called egg% -he egg represents the single !emale gamete o! embryo sac% -he three chala0al cells are called antipodal cells or chalazal triad. -hey are vegetative cells and may degenerate soon% #n the middle the largest central cell contains t"o polar nuclei "hich !use to !orm single diploid !usion nucleus or secondary nucleus% All the cells o! embryo sac are haploid e'cept central cell "hich becomes diploid due to !usion o! t"o polar nuclei%

5%S% mature ovule

( -he ovule is a small structure attached to the placenta by means o! a stal4 called $unicle. -he body o! the ovule !uses "ith !unicle in the region called %ilum. -hus hilum represents the 6unction bet"een ovule and !unicle% Each ovule has one or t"o protective envelopes called integuments. #nteguments encircle the ovule e'cept at the tip "here a small opening called the micropyle is organi0ed% Opposite the micropylar end$ is the chala0a$ representing the basal part o! the ovule% Enclosed "ithin the integuments$ is a mass o! cells called the nucellus. Cells o! the nucellus have abundant reserve !ood materials% 5ocated in the nucellus is the em#ryo sac or $emale gametop%yte. An ovule generally has a single embryo sac !ormed !rom a megaspore through reduction division%

1) * Gateway Sel$ Master o$ Biology Pollination. -rans!er o! pollen grains !rom anther to the stigma o! a pistil is termed pollination% On the basis o! source o! pollination it is o! !ollo"ing types% +i! Autogamy )sel! pollination, re!ers to the trans!er o! pollen grains !rom the anther to the stigma o! the same !lo"er$ e.g., Viola, Oxalis. (ii) Geitonogamy means trans!er o! pollen grains !rom anther to stigma o! another !lo"er on the same plant% #t is genetically autogamy but !unctionally cross pollination% (Hi) Allogamy(7enogamy is the trans!er o! pollen grains !rom anther o! one !lo"er to stigma o! another !lo"er on a di!!erent plant o! same species% Cleistogamous $lowers are invaria#ly autogamous. Cleistogamous !lo"ers are !lo"ers "hich do not open at all% #n such !lo"ers$ the anthers and stigma lie close to each other% 8hen anthers dehisce in the !lo"er buds$ pollen grains come in contact "ith the stigma to e!!ect pollination% -hus$ cleistogamous !lo"ers are invariably autogamous as there is no chance o! cross9pollen landing on the stigma% Pollen grains in contact "ith the stigma is a chance in both "ind and "ater pollination% -o compensate !or uncertainties and associated loss o! pollen grains$ the !lo"er produces enormous amount o! pollen "hen compared to the number o! ovules% Features o$ win pollinate plants, e.g., grasses$ corn (i) Pollen grains are light and non stic4y to be transported by "ind currents% {ii) Stamens are "ell e'posed% {Hi) 5arge !eathery stigma to trap air borne pollen grains% (iv) 8ind pollinated !lo"ers o!ten have a single ovule in each ovary and numerous !lo"ers pac4ed into an in!lorescence$ {e.g., corn cob,% )v, Flo"ers are not so colour!ul and "ithout nectaries% Features o$ water pollinate plants. Fresh "ater /9 e.g., Vallisnaria, Hydrilla &arine "ater /9 Zostera. {i) Flo"ers emerge above the "ater level !or insect or "ind pollination% {ii) #n some species li4e sea grasses$ !emale !lo"ers remain submerged in "ater and pollen grains are released inside the "ater% Such pollen grains are long ribbon li4e to be carried passively inside "ater% {Hi) Pollens have mucilaginous covering to protect !rom "etting% Plants pollinate #y #iotic agents. 2ees$ butter!lies$ !lies$ beetles$ "asps$ ants$ moths$ birds )sunbirds and humming birds, and among the animals$ insects$ particularly bees are the dominant biotic pollinating agents% Even larger animals such as some primates )lemurs,$ arboreal )tree9d"elling, rodents$ or even reptiles )gec4o li0ard and garden li0ard,%
Pollen grain Stigma Style

Ovary Pollination

. Features o! insect pollinated !lo"ers )(, 5arge$ colour!ul$ !ragrant and rich in nectar% {ii) Small !lo"ers are clustered into an in!lorescence% {Hi) ectar and pollen grains are the usual !loral re"ards to sustain animal visits%

. E'amples o! Floral re"ards )i, Amorphophallus #ts !lo"er is : !eet in height so it provides sa!e places to lay eggs to animals% {ii) !ucca plant A moth deposits eggs in the locule o! ovary o! yucca plant and inturn pollinates yucca plant$ so moth and plant cannot complete their li!e cycle "ithout each other% ( Pollen Pistil -nteractions Pollination does never ensure that only right type o! pollen "ill !all on stigma% 2ut pistil has ability to recognise the pollen "hether it is o! right type )compatible i! !rom same species as stigma, or "rong type )incompatible i! !rom other species or same plant,% Post pollination events are promoted only i! pollen is o! right type$ in case o! "rong pollen$ pistil re6ects pollen tube gro"th !rom pollen germ pores% Pollen tube a!ter reaching ovary$ enters the ovule through micropyle and then enters the one o! the synergids through !ili!orm apparatus% Events !rom pollen deposition on stigma until pollen tube enters the ovule are together re!erred as pollen pistil interaction% Signi!icance )(, #t allo"s only right type o! !ertili0ation% {ii) Pollen pistil interaction can be manipulated to get desired hybrids by plant breeders% . Arti!ical hybridi0ation -hese are crop improvement programmes in "hich only desired pollen grains are used !or pollination and stigma is protected !rom contamination so that desired hybrids can be achieved% t Emasculation #! the !emale parent bears bise'ual !lo"ers$ removal o! anthers !rom the !lo"er bud be!ore the anther dehisces using a pair o! !orceps is necessary% -his step is re!erred to as emasculation% . 2agging Emasculated !lo"ers have to be covered "ith a bag o! suitable si0e$ generally made up o! butter paper$ to prevent contamination o! its stigma "ith un"anted pollen% -his process is called bagging$ t 1ouble Fertili0ation% -he !ertili0ation in the angiosperms plants involves the phenomenon o! !ertili0ation o! the egg "ith one male gamete to !orm a diploid 0ygote "hile the other male gamete !uses "ith the diploid secondary nucleus resulting in the !ormation o! triploid primary endosperm nucleus% -his is called as double !ertili0ation% Signilicance% -he !usion o! the male gamete "ith secondary nucleus results in the !ormation o! triploid nucleus "hich "ill divide to !orm triploid endosperm% -he endosperrn% "ill provide nutrition to the developing embryo% For !ertili0ation in angiosperms$ one male gamete o! pollen tube !uses "ith egg cell )!emale gamete, to !orm 0ygote% -his !usion is called syngamy% Second male gamete !rom pollen tube !uses "ith secondary nucleus to !orm primary endosperm nucleus )3(t,% -his is called -riple !usion% As embryo sac has t"o nuclear !usions$ this phenomenon is called double !ertili0ation% Post $ertili.ation /vents )(, Endosperm !ormation by mitosis% (ii) Embryo !ormation by !usion o! male gamete "ith egg% (in) #nteguments o! ovules become hard !or !ormation o! seed% /n osperm #% Endosperm )3 , Formation% Endosperm is meant !or nourishing the embryo% #n angiosperms$ it is triploid because it is !ormed a!ter triple !usion bet"een one male gamete and t"o polar nuclei% Endosperm !ormation is accompanied by degeneration o! nucleus% Endosperm is o! !ollo"ing three types

-.

uclear Endosperm% Primary endosperm nucleus divides and redivides to !orm a large number o! !ree nuclei% 8all !ormation occurs and multicellular endosperm is !ormed% endosperm is o! cellular !orm !rom the beginning e.g., "atura, #etunia.

.. Cellular Endosperm% 8all !ormation occurs a!ter every division o! primary endosperm nucleus$ so that +. ;elobial Endosperm% First division o! primary endosperm nucleus is !ollo"ed by cyto4inesis to produce t"o
cells micropylar and chala0al "ithin each o! "hich !ree nuclear division occurs but ultimately they may become cellular e.g., Asphodelus, $remurus.

+1!

Free nuclear divisions Simultaneous "all !ormation

uclear type

)+,

Successive "all !ormation

)3, Cellular type

<st cellular divisions ;elobial type

Endosperm may persist in the seed% #t is called as endospermic seed or albuminous seed$ e%g%$ Castor% #t may be consumed by the embryo% #n such a case !ood is generally stored in the cotyledons% Such seeds are called non9endospermic or e'albuminuous$ e.g.,Groundnut%