Preferred Citation: Jaini, Padmanabh S. Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women.

Berkeley: University of California Press, c1991 1991. http: ark.cdlib.or! ark: 1"#"# ft1"$nb#%k

Gender and Salvation

Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women Padmanabh S. Jaini
UNIVERSITY OF CA IFORNIA PRESS

Berkeley Los Angeles Oxford

! "##" The Re$ent% o& the Univer%it' o& Cali&ornia

Preferred Citation: Jaini, Padmanabh S. Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1991 1991. http: ark.cdlib.or! ark: 1"#"# ft1"$nb#%k

Fore(ord
RO)ERT P. GO *+AN &ne of the !reat desiderata of h'manistic scholarship is a f'll(fled!ed and detailed social history of the )ndian s'bcontinent. So'th *sia is, after all, not only the home of ro'!hly one(third of the %orld+s pop'lation b't also the so'rce of one of the %orld+s most ancient and end'rin! civili,ations, %hich has !iven rise to many of the !reat reli!io's, philosophical, literary, and artistic traditions. )t is, moreover, a re!ion that has lon! been and contin'es to be of enormo's interest to scholars in many disciplines incl'din! the h'manities, the social and nat'ral sciences, and professional fields. -hat no s'ch social history e.ists is not, therefore, for lack of interest on the part of scholars. )t does not e.ist chiefly beca'se the doc'ments 'pon %hich it %o'ld have to be based are lar!ely 'navailable and only partially to be reconstr'cted. -he reasons for this are several and incl'de those that complicate the effort to achieve a social history of any ancient civili,ation, s'ch as the loss and deterioration of doc'ments and artifacts of material c'lt're. &ne obstacle to o'r developin! a broader sense of early So'th *sian social history, ho%ever, is in some %ays pec'liar to )ndia and to the kinds of orientalist scholarship that have traditionally been bro'!ht to bear 'pon it. -his is the fact that for the ancient and m'ch of the medieval period o'r 'nderstandin! of the nat're of polity and society, of po%er relations amon! the social classes and bet%een the !enders, has been lar!ely derived from the s'rvivin! te.ts

created by and for a literate and dominant !ro'p of elites %hich set forth a remarkably consistent social ideolo!y that has lon! been / viii / accepted, often 'ncritically, by contemporary scholarship as derived from act'al observation of a lar!ely 'nchan!in! society. -he vision of the social order derived from these te.ts, the normative te.ts of Brahmanical c'lt're, %as not merely adopted at face val'e by scholars0 it %as embraced by colonial administrators %ho in many %ays revalori,ed the te.ts and enforced them as the basis for land settlement, la% codes, and administrative systems from the ei!hteenth cent'ry on%ard. )ndeed the ancient period+s only s'rvivin! f'lly artic'lated diver!ence from this dominant ideolo!y %hich claimed to derive its a'thority for the enforcement of its f'ndamental social vision1that of an imm'table and eternal set of hierarchical class divisions1from the vedas , a body of te.ts that predated history itself, %ere the competin! te.ts of the so(called heterodo. systems, Jainism, B'ddhism, and *2ivikism.314 -hese traditions, ho%ever, co'ple their radical criti5'e of Brahmanism, alon! %ith its metaphysics and their sociolo!ical conse5'ences, %ith at least an implicit criti5'e of all society save that of the monastic order and so, %ith a fe% interestin! e.ceptions, provide 's %ith only a some%hat indirect means of access to the early social history of So'th *sia. 6oreover these systems became either e.tinct or mar!inali,ed by the early modern period, and so the force of their social vision s'ch as it %as tended to be diff'sed if not entirely bl'nted e.cept in a fe% re!ions.374 )n the modern period, the British colonial administration and its representatives, partly 'nder the infl'ence of their reconstr'ction of So'th *sia as a re!ion of timelessness, tended to inf'se its dominant social and historical disco'rse %ith its o%n self(servin! vision, %hich serves to obsc're m'ch of %hat m'st have been the comple.ity of the social reality it faced. Colonial historians, bo'nd as they %ere on the one hand by the ideolo!ical frame%ork of post(8nli!htenment 8'rope, incl'din! both the pra!matic positivism of the British and the romantic idealism of continental )ndolo!y and, on the other, the press'res to artic'late an intellect'al 2'stification for the imperial enterprise and its efforts to redefine the political and economic str'ct'res of )ndia, created a set of normative conceptions of the social life of ancient and modern )ndia %hose conse5'ences are %ith 's to this day. -he principal articles of faith of the colonial historians %ere that )ndia+s political life tended inel'ctably to%ard chaos and its social life to%ard the de!radation and ab'se of specific se!ments of the society, especially the so(called 'nto'chables and %omen, the latter !enerally bein! condemned to s'ch social evils as child marria!e, domestic slavery, and the instit'tion that came to be kno%n as 9s'ttee.9 8nli!htened and impartial intervention in the form of British r'le %as necessary to eliminate these evils and prevent their rec'rrence. *t the same time a some%hat co'ntervailin! notion1 / i. / derivin! lar!ely from the romanticism of the 9&riental :enaissance91held that ancient )ndia, and to some e.tent modern r'ral )ndia, %ere e.amples of a p're, simple, and virt'o's sta!e of h'man civili,ation that only in the modern 'rban settin! had someho% been s'b2ect to de!eneration. -his notion %as picked 'p by e.ponents of the so(called ;ind' :enaissance and developed into a theory of ancient )ndia as a place of social and !ender e5'ality that only in relatively modern times1'nder the pernicio's infl'ences of forei!n, that is, )slamic and 8'ropean, r'le1had p't forth, ori!inally as defensive strate!ies, the str'ct'res perceived as the evils of caste and the de!radation of %omen. )n the li!ht of this some%hat 'npromisin! historio!raphical sit'ation it is small %onder that the

enterprise of reconstr'ctin! the social history of premodern )ndia has been a diffic'lt one. Some pro!ress has been made more recently, ho%ever, in the task of reconstr'ctin! a some%hat more comple. description of )ndian society at least d'rin! the British colonial period. * !ro'p of social historians, callin! themselves the S'baltern <ro'p, has !athered aro'nd :ana2it <'ha and, by s'b2ectin! available doc'ments to a species of disco'rse analysis, has made some pro!ress in recoverin! and representin! the ideolo!ies, attit'des, and responses of !ro'ps that have been hitherto mar!inali,ed by the colonial historians. -hro'!h efforts s'ch as these %e have been able to revise some%hat o'r 'nderstandin! of those se!ments of So'th *sian society1lo%(caste !ro'ps, tribals, the peasantry, and %omen1%ho have, 'ntil very recently, lacked access to the prod'ction and dissemination of the sorts of te.ts that have chiefly concerned historians. B't even %ith s'ch contrib'tions o'r vie% of the social history of premodern )ndia has been e.ceedin!ly limited. =or one thin! the techni5'es of the ne%er historians, %ith a fe% e.ceptions,3"4 have not provided 's %ith !reatly enhanced access to the social history and the social theories of the vario's s'bc'lt'res of So'th *sia in the millennia of their recorded history. -here are in fact fe% early )ndian te.ts that can be !en'inely re!arded as historio!raphical no matter ho% m'ch historical information %e derive or claim to be able to derive from them. *side from the body of epi!raphical evidence from ancient and medieval )ndia, the vast ma2ority of the enormo's corp's of te.ts that have s'rvived from precolonial )ndia are, insofar as %e may impose 'pon them o'r set of alien !enres, lar!ely confined to the areas of reli!ion, philosophy, science, aesthetics, !rammar, and so on1that is, the vast body of te.ts classified as sastra 0, belles(lettres >sahitya 0?, and of co'rse the massive te.ts on traditional la%, social relations, and le!endary history >dharmasastra, itihasa-purana 0?. -hese /./ te.ts, altho'!h they contin'e to be e.tensively mined for %hat they can tell 's abo't the state of social and po%er relationships in precolonial and pre()slamic )ndia, m'st be read for s'ch p'rposes %ith e.treme ca'tion. )n the first place these te.ts are almost all, to a !reater or lesser e.tent, polemical in some %ay. *t the very least they artic'late the %orldvie% of a dominant, literate elite derived almost entirely from the Brahman and @satriya classes and those that %ere able to ally themselves %ith these ancient elites or effectively displace them. *ltho'!h it has rarely been 'nderstood by the orientalists and their follo%ers, these doc'ments define and reinforce a set of vie%s devised by and in the political and economic interests of a small b't dominant interlockin! directorate of lando%nin! classes. -hey are not the vie%s of a society at lar!e altho'!h, as in any case of dominance and s'bordination, the dominated may identify %ith and appropriate the ideolo!y of their masters. * partic'lar device of the a'thors of these elite doc'ments has been to bolster the claims of these te.ts to a'thority by attemptin!, in most cases, to remove them from the conditioned %orld of historical reality. )n this their 'ltimate models %ere the Aedas, te.ts that, the Brahmanical tradition asserted, %ere apauruseya 0, prod'ced by no h'man a!ency. -hese te.ts, %hich form the basis of the traditional schools of Brahmanical and ;ind' tho'!ht and ideolo!y, are th's e.plicitly ahistorical, e.istin! eternally and in fact pree.istin! the %orld. &ther traditional Brahmanical te.t'al traditions trace their ori!ins to s'perh'man seers or rsis 0 %ho, like the Aedic seers, had, at least by implication, access to similarly 'nconditioned te.ts that lend the tradition an a'ra of inerrancy. -hese traditional te.ts have relatively little to say abo't the nonelite se!ments of )ndian society, and %hat little they do say is of a !eneral and normative type prescribin! the nat're and d'ties of the s'bordinate elements in the social 'niverse: the lo%er classes and %omen. 6embers of these !ro'ps are often, %hen they conform perfectly to the s'bordinate and even servile roles allotted them, held 'p for

praise and even ideali,ed.3B4 Chen they do not, they serve as ne!ative e.amples by the terrible fate and 'niversal contempt that is their lot.3D4 Chile the te.ts of the political and priestly elites either i!nore the lo%er orders of society or define them in terms of their o%n elaborate and divinely ordained paradi!ms, these orders, %hether the peasantry, the tribal pop'lations, the !ro'ps defined as o'tside the pale of rit'al p'rity of the Brahmanical social order, or %omen, !enerally lacked access to the means of creatin!, disseminatin!, and preservin! similar doc'ments. )f they had a clearly different %orldvie% than that artic'lated by the elites, it has not been / .i / recorded and preserved for o'r st'dy. &n the other hand, as s'!!ested above, there %as, in the te.ts and practices of the so(called heterodo. or sramana 0 monastic reli!io's movements, especially B'ddhism and Jainism, the artic'lation of a'tonomo's and po%erf'l voices that sharply challen!ed the Brahmanical vie% of social ordination especially as it !ro'nds itself in the ri!idly hierarchical and f'nctionalist model of the varnasrama 0 system, a social model derivin! its a'thority from the Aedas and s'ch %idely disseminated and presti!io's Sanskrit te.ts as the epics, the Bhagavad-Gita 0, and the principal dharmasastras 0. B't %hile the heterodo. traditions challen!e and even ridic'le the Brahmanical system of rit'al and its social correlate, a comm'nity composed of classes set apart by impermeable bo'ndaries and ranked hierarchically by their predetermined f'nctions and de!ree of rit'al p'rity, they are, for the most part, far less interested in s'b2ectin! the po%erf'lly patriarchal ideolo!y of the traditional c'lt're to any very penetratin! criti5'e. 8ach of them has, ho%ever, str'!!led %ith %hat, !iven the traditional Brahmanical ideolo!y concernin! the nat're and f'nctions of %omen, m'st present itself as a problem especially to monastic comm'nities %hose doctrines and rhetoric place !reat stress 'pon the avoidance of family ties, emotional bonds, and, most partic'larly, se.'ality and the pleas'res of the senses1all of %hich are associated %ith %omen. -he problem is then constr'cted in terms of the de!ree to %hich %omen can make the same sort of ren'nciatory commitment and spirit'al pro!ress as men. )t is a problem precipitated by the some%hat reformist tendency of the heterodo.ies that derives nat'rally from their attack on Brahmanical privile!e and pretensions.3E4 Fet, altho'!h B'ddhist and Jaina thinkers are %illin! to re2ect the notion of a hierarchical social order, the po%er of the patriarchal doctrine of male s'premacy in all matters proved harder for them to escape. )ndeed, %ith their obsessive concern %ith ren'nciation, %ithdra%al from the sec'lar social 'niverse, and avoidance of the sens'al life, the te.ts and sermons of B'ddhism and Jainism often stress so vir'lently ne!ative a vie% of %omen1 partic'larly the female anatomy1as to make even the !ynophobic elements in most ;ind' te.ts seem rather mild.3G4 )ndeed the stat's of %omen and its implications for their access to the spirit'al life is one of the most interestin!, informative, and ne!lected areas of the st'dy of traditional )ndian c'lt're and society. *n e.amination of the traditional literat're, the %ritin!s of both colonial administrators and )ndian reformers, and the contemporary press and feminist %ritin! in )ndia s'!!ests that an 'nderstandin! of the traditional attit'des to%ard and / .ii / treatment of %omen in So'th *sian society is central to an 'nderstandin! of )ndian c'lt're in !eneral. Chile the recent e.tension of %omen+s st'dies to So'th *sia has been one of the most important and

stim'latin! 'ndertakin!s of contemporary scholars %orkin! on the re!ion, the val'e of m'ch of their scholarship tenets to be vitiated by an inade5'ate 'nderstandin! of the profo'nd role the social constr'ction of !ender has played in the formation of )ndian social and reli!io's life. -his inade5'acy is not, ho%ever, the fa'lt of social scientists and feminist scholarship. :esearchers in these areas rarely have direct access to the primary so'rces of the )ndian tradition, as fe% can %ork independently %ith the lan!'a!es1Sanskrit, Pali, the Prakrits, and *pabhramsa1in %hich they are %ritten. =or an 'nderstandin! of these te.ts they have had to depend 'pon the translations and scholarly %ritin! of philolo!ically oriented )ndolo!ists. -hese latter, ho%ever, %hether thro'!h oblivio'sness or o'tri!ht hostility, have been notorio'sly 'ninterested in the social implications of the doc'ments %ith %hich they concern themselves. )ndeed most )ndolo!ists, %hether in the 8ast or Cest, appear to have imbibed m'ch of the Brahmanical ideolo!y of ahistoricism and are far, in their p'blished %orks, from contrib'tin! to a penetratin! analysis of !ender and po%er relations in the social history of )ndia. Cithin the past decade or so, ho%ever, a ne% !eneration of Sanskrit scholars has be!'n to brin! the insi!hts and methods of the social sciences1psycholo!y, sociolo!y, anthropolo!y, and %omen+s st'dies 1fr'itf'lly to bear on the ancient te.ts of )ndia and the impact of the ideolo!ies they p't for%ard 'pon the c'lt'res and societies of So'th *sia as they e.ist today. )nterestin! %ork has been done on some of the most deeply infl'ential te.ts of traditional )ndia, %orks like the ahabharata 0 and the !amayana 0, b't m'ch more needs to be done.3$4 )n addition a body of scholarly literat're e.ists for the st'dy of the role of %omen and attit'des to%ard se.'ality in )ndian B'ddhism.394 6ost 'r!ently needed, ho%ever, are st'dies of te.ts and traditions that have been either inade5'ately treated or %holly i!nored. )nto this last cate!ory m'st be placed virt'ally the %hole of the copio's and important body of te.ts, in Sanskrit and Prakrit, prod'ced by the vario's schools of Jainism over the last t%o and a half millennia. Scholarly st'dies of the ancient and fascinatin! tradition of Jainism are far fe%er than those of ;ind'ism and B'ddhism. Still fe%er1in fact, none.istent1are st'dies that seek to place the teachin!s and concerns of the vario's Jaina sects in the conte.t of a broad social history of So'th *sia. -his lack may be 'nderstandable, b't it is nonetheless serio's. =or, as ) have s'!!ested else%here,31#4 Jaina te.ts often present 's %ith ideolo!ies and / .iii / pra.es associated %ith the other indi!eno's systems b't represented in e.treme and even radical form'lations. -h's the Jaina insistence on ahimsa 0, or nonin2'ry to livin! thin!s, e.presses a !eneral c'lt'ral val'e in radical form. Similarly the Jaina form'lation of the pan()ndian theory of "arma and rebirth is far more simply stated than in any tradition of ;ind'ism or B'ddhism and, ) %o'ld ar!'e, sheds important li!ht on the ori!ins and si!nificance of these concepts. -hen too, the Jaina, especially Hi!ambara, strict'res on the monastic comm'nity are far more ri!oro's and constrainin! than those that !overn, say, the B'ddhist sangha 0, and th's can teach 's a !reat deal abo't the deeply in!rained concerns %ith ren'nciation and self(control that 'nderlie m'ch of So'th *sian reli!io's and social conscio'sness. )n m'ch the same %ay, a close readin! of the Jaina te.ts that deal %ith the 5'estion of spirit'al liberation for %omen provides 's %ith si!nificant insi!ht into the nat're and the so'rces of the characteristic vie% of !ender and se.'ality in traditional )ndia. * caref'l st'dy of the f'ndamental and most infl'ential reli!io's, scientific, le!al, and literary te.ts of traditional )ndia provides 's %ith a %ealth of material on the c'lt're+s profo'nd concern %ith 5'estions of !ender and se.'ality and its po%erf'lly ambivalent attit'de to%ard %omen and their bodies. Fet despite a !enerali,ed perception that %omen, especially %hen constr'ed as creat'res of the passions, are portrayed as both less s'ited than men for the spirit'al life and as the most po%erf'l obstacle to men+s p'rs'it of it, and despite the

tendency to err on the side of copio'sness and elaboration that is one of the most note%orthy feat'res of all traditional )ndian literat're, %e can find no%here o'tside the Jaina te.ts translated here by Jaini any systematic effort to come to !rips %ith the 5'estion of %omen+s spirit'al capacity that appears to have tro'bled reli!io's thinkers so !reatly. &nly in these te.ts recordin! the prolon!ed and bitter debate over the iss'e do %e %e find both a concerted attempt on the part of the Hi!ambaras to derive the alle!ed spirit'al incapacity of %omen scientifically from a combination of script'ral a'thority, empirical observation, and lo!ical reasonin! and, radically opposed to this, the Svetambara Fapaniya defense of the position that, re!ardless of their social and political stat's relative to that of men, %omen are as capable as men of achievin! spirit'al liberation. 6oreover, the detailed ar!'mentation of the t%o sides of this iss'e provides 's, as is typical of Jaina te.ts, %ith the clearest possible insi!hts into the %ays in %hich the indi!eno's c'lt're of )ndia trained people to re!ard !ender and se.'ality, as %ell as the attit'des and an.ieties this c'lt're fostered re!ardin! the biolo!ical and anatomical differences bet%een the se.es. )n addition these / .iv / te.ts provide 's %ith virt'ally the only coherent scientific e.planation of the 5'estion of se.'al orientation to be fo'nd not only in So'th *sia b't any%here in the premodern %orld. )n other %ords these doc'ments are !en'inely 'ni5'e, and it is no e.a!!eration to state that %itho't some a%areness of their contents it is impossible to form a clear sense of the social constr'ction of !ender in traditional as %ell as modern )ndia. Iet me no% t'rn to the specifics of the Jaina te.ts that Professor Jaini has placed before 's and disc'ss them in the conte.t of the broad indi!eno's )ndian tradition concernin! %omen, !ender, se.'ality, and the respective capacities of the t%o se.es to attain the hi!hest de!ree of spirit'al advancement, as this tradition is to be add'ced from the ma2or doc'ments of ;ind'ism and B'ddhism. -he 5'estion of the role and capacities of %omen in spirit'al life is an ancient one in )ndia. *s has often been noted, %omen, specifically the %ives of reli!io's thinkers, are depicted as early as the Upanisads as en!a!ed in metaphysical debate %ith their h'sbands.3114 )n the epic literat're s'ch %omen are fre5'ently sho%n as the spirit'al companions of their h'sbands, the forest sa!es or rsis 0. )n a fe% instances, individ'al %omen ascetics are mentioned and occasionally they play independent roles in the epic narratives and may even be sho%n to attain spirit'al liberation.3174 )n !eneral, ho%ever, little systematic attention is !iven to the spirit'al potentiality of %omen. =or one thin!, the Aedic and ;ind' traditions do not develop in the earliest period the instit'tion of comm'nal monasticism. <reat emphasis is placed 'pon ren'nciation of the %orld anti on spirit'al pra.is and meditation, b't the central instit'tion for this in the early period %as the ashram, %hich, in keepin! %ith its characteri,ation as a spirit'ali,ed family >guru"ula ? 'nder the !'idance of a spirit'al father, the guru , and his %ife, %as not, altho'!h it mi!ht re5'ire celibacy of some or all of its members, in any meanin!f'l sense a monastery. )t is not 'ntil the time of the *disankaracarya, m'ch of %hose %ork appears to have been intended to co'nteract the infl'ence of B'ddhism, that ;ind'ism seems to have developed formal and centrali,ed monastic comm'nities. -hese comm'nities appear to have been closed to %omen 'ntil, in 5'ite recent times, parallel comm'nities of %omen have emer!ed. -he -heravada B'ddhist attit'de to%ard the admission of %omen to the sangha 0 or monastic comm'nity in early )ndia is %ell kno%n. )n the #ullavagga the B'ddha is said to have made no mention of the iss'e of the admission of %omen to the order 'ntil he %as approached by his %ido%ed relation, 6ahapa2apati <otami, leadin! a dep'tation of %omen %ho %ished to leave the %orld and pleadin! for permission on their behalf. -he B'ddha is said to have re2ected their petition three times. ;is disciple

/ .v / *nanda then took 'p their ca'se and pleaded the %omen+s case before his master. &nce a!ain the B'ddha ref'sed three times and relented in the end only %ith the observation that his doctrine, %hich %o'ld other%ise have end'red for a tho'sand years, %o'ld no%, %ith the creation of an order of n'ns, last only half that lon!.31"4 )nterestin! here is the admission on the part of the fo'nder of the order that %omen are as capable as men of leadin! the contemplative life and, as is made clear else%here in the canon, as capable of attainin! nirvana31B4 -he reasons for the B'ddha+s rel'ctance to admit %omen to the san!ha and his prophecy that this admission %o'ld halve the life of the B'ddhist dharma are never really made e.plicit, b't it is very probable that he is voicin! an implicit c'lt'ral pre2'dice concernin! %omen+s alle!edly !reater s'sceptibility to the passions and a partially artic'lated s'spicion that, !iven the traditional constr'ction of %omen as sed'cers of male spirit'al aspirants, the coe.istence of an order of n'ns %ith that of monks %o'ld inevitably lead to a decline.31D4 -he attit'de to%ard %omen+s capacity for the attainment of the !reatest spirit'al advancement in the 6ahayana te.ts is, typically, diverse. Hiana Pa'l ar!'es that the vario's 6ahayana sutras 0 present essentially three positions: >1? that %omen cannot enter the B'ddha realm, >7? that %omen can be lo%er(sta!e Bodhisattvas, and >"? that %omen can become advanced Bodhisattvas and imminent B'ddhas.31E4 -he first of these positions is analo!o's to the position of the Hi!ambaras, %hile the third more or less parallels that of the Svetambaras. Still, as Jaini points o't in his introd'ction to the present vol'me >JB"?, the theoretical possibility of a female B'ddha held o't by some 6ahayana s'tras is not s'pported in practice by the incl'sion of a female in any of the lists of B'ddhas. )t is only amon! the Jainas that this 5'estion is the s'b2ect of prolon!ed and si!nificant debate, a debate that, far from ever bein! resolved, remains enshrined in an irred'cible sectarian schism. =or the ma2or sects of Jainism, the Hi!ambara and the Svetambara, remain to this day deeply divided not only on the 5'estion of the propriety of a %oman+s takin! 'p the monastic life b't on a more f'ndamental 5'estion 1that of the possibility of a person enterin! the state of spirit'al liberation or nirvana immediately after a life in a female body. Kor is the 5'estion merely an intellect'al one. =or the Svetambaras not only believe that %omen can adopt the mendicant life as the path to spirit'al advancement0 they have p't this belief into practice. )ndeed today, as in ancient times, Svetambara and Sthanakavasi n'ns >sadhvis 0? considerably o'tn'mber their male co'nterparts >munis ?.31G4 8ven the Hi!ambaras have a small n'mber of 9n'ns9 >aryi"as 0 and "sulli"as 0?, / .vi / altho'!h, as %e shall disc'ss f'rther belo%, they are not accorded the same spirit'al stat's as the m'nis. -he 5'estion, then, of the possibility of a %oman+s livin! the life of a ren'nciant, %hich the Jains believe is the only path to spirit'al liberation,31$4 is not a p'rely theoretical one. &n the contrary it is of the !reatest si!nificance to the t%o ma2or comm'nities of Jainism and indeed comes to dominate intersectarian disco'rse from at least the second cent'ry *.H. to the ei!hteenth cent'ry, the period spanned by the te.ts Jaini has collected and translated, and in fact do%n to the modern era. -his disp'te, as %e shall see, contin'es to have si!nificant ramifications beyond the s'rface level of its content, b't of more immediate interest are the specific terms 'pon %hich the debate hin!ed. -he traditional literat're of )ndia, %hether Aedic, ;ind', B'ddhist, or Jaina, is filled, as noted above, %ith passa!es deni!ratin! %omen and their moral, physical, and spirit'al capacities. *s early as the

!gveda 0 itself there are ne!ative all'sions to them as fickle and treachero's.3194 )n the ahabharata 0 it is sho%n that a man %ho is t'rned into a %oman is barely able to ride his horse.37#4 )n an often 5'oted passa!e from the infl'ential anava Dharmasastra 0 it is laid do%n as a basic social la% that at no point in her life from infancy to old a!e may a %oman be independent of a male !'ardian nor merit a'tonomy even in the kitchen.3714 )n another famo's passa!e, the !reat poet(saint of the ;indi( speakin! %orld -'lsi Has observes that, alon! %ith donkeys, dr'ms, and people of the lo%er social orders, %omen sometimes need to be beaten.3774 -he n'mber of s'ch passa!es in the reli!io's and le!al literat're of traditional )ndia is enormo's, and there is no need to treat the matter at len!th here. Chat is 'ni5'e abo't the Jaina debates on the spirit'al liberation of %omen is not the attit'de they display to%ard the female se. b't rather their systematic foc's on the 5'estion of !ender, their e.tension of the !eneral debate, and to some de!ree their rootin! it specifically in the biophysical nat're of the h'man female. -his is not to say that other te.t'al traditions do not e.hibit and indeed enco'ra!e a virt'ally patholo!ical rev'lsion for those or!ans and processes that are 'ni5'e to the female. )ndeed they do.37"4 B't no%here else do %e find female reprod'ctive physiolo!y cited as itself a principal reason for the alle!ed incapacity of %omen to achieve spirit'al liberation. -he ar!'ments bro'!ht forth by the Hi!ambara a'thors to s'pport their position that there can be no spirit'al liberation for %omen are 5'ite diverse and attack the 5'estion, as is typical of traditional )ndian sastraic ar!'mentation, from a n'mber of directions. *s 's'al, appeal is made on / .vii / both sides of the debate to script'ral a'thority, lo!ical inference, lin!'istic interpretation, and direct observation. *nd m'ch of this ar!'mentation1s'ch as that recorded in several of the te.ts translated here dealin! %ith the 5'estion of %hether the %ord 9%oman9 in script'res assertin! the possibility of mo"sa 0 for %omen really means 9a man %ith the se.'al feelin!s of a %oman937B4 and %hether the t%o sects+ a!reement that a %oman, no matter ho% %icked, can fall no lo%er than the si.th of Jainism+s seven hells lo!ically implies that she can, by the same token, not rise to the hi!hest spirit'al state >nirvana ?37D4 1may seem bafflin! to the reader 'nfamiliar %ith the canons of traditional )ndian debate. Some ar!'mentation on the Hi!ambara side derives from post'lates that echo the !enerally miso!ynistic and patriarchal attit'des of the society as a %hole. )t is ar!'ed, for e.ample, that %omen are not only physically %eaker than men, and hence 'nable to end're the harsh asceticism re!arded as necessary for liberation, b't are intellect'ally, ethically, and morally inferior as %ell. -h's Sakatayana cites, as his purvapa"sa 0, the ar!'ments that %omen are e.cessively devio's and fickle >Chapter )), JG$?, that they lack the intellect'al, forensic, and s'pernat'ral po%ers of advanced male spirit'al adepts >J71(7D?, and that they lack the physical, moral, and spirit'al co'ra!e of men >J$D?. )n several passa!es the !eneral c'lt'ral attit'de that %omen have less control of their se.'al passions than men is bro'!ht for%ard as at Jayasena+s $atparyavrtti 0 >Chapter )A, JB(D?. Several of the a'thors, incl'din! Sakatayana and Prabhacandra, refer to %hat m'st be seen as social factors in a patriarchally str'ct'red monastic order and ambient society, rather than as nat'ral endo%ments of !ender. -h's %e have the ar!'ments, repeated by several a'thors on both sides of the debate, that the inferiority of %omen is demonstrated by the fact of n'ns havin! to sho% deference even to monks %ho may be far 2'nior to them and even by the fact that they are s'b2ect to se.'al harassment and assa'lt by men.37E4 )t is %orthy of note in connection %ith these disp'tes that the Svetambaras, altho'!h they steadfastly ar!'e for the possibility of %omen enterin! the mendicant life and attainin! nirvana, rarely cate!orically ref'te the miso!ynistic claims of the Hi!ambaras per se. *ltho'!h they may tend to soften

these claims by, for e.ample, pointin! o't famo's %omen from literat're and script're %ho sho%ed !reat spirit'al or moral co'ra!e, or by assertin! that men too may share some of the moral defects char!ed to %omen, they seem !enerally %illin! to accept the ne!ative characteri,ations, contentin! themselves merely %ith assertin! that these do not in and of themselves precl'de the possibility of moksa for all %omen. )nterestin! tho'!h this type of ar!'mentation is for those desiro's of / .viii / 'nderstandin! the nat're and development of attit'des to%ard !ender in traditional c'lt'res and societies, it is thro'!h their detailed and elaborate disc'ssion of the biolo!ical and psycholo!ical aspects of female !ender and se.'ality and their development of the notion of specific types of libido or se.'al orientation >veda ? that the Jaina te.ts stand o't as 'ni5'e and of partic'lar importance. -he concept of veda, se.'al orientation that is not necessarily related to biolo!ical !ender, appears to be 'ni5'e to the Jaina te.ts in traditional )ndia and to constit'te the only consistent theoretical attempt in this c'lt're, and perhaps any premodern c'lt're, to e.plain the phenomena of heterose.'ality and homose.'ality. -he latter phenomenon in partic'lar is all b't i!nored in the sastraic literat're associated %ith the ;ind' tradition.37G4 *s is made clear from a readin! of the te.ts on the spirit'al liberation of %omen, Jaina thinkers 'nderstood that there %ere three kinds of se.'al feelin!, %hich they called striveda, pumveda 0, and napumsa"aveda 0, or the se.'al feelin!s normally appropriate to a %oman, a man, and a hermaphrodite respectively. ;o%ever, they ar!'ed, these feelin!s need not in all cases correspond to the biolo!ical !ender of the person %ho entertains them. -h's a person can, for e.ample, be biolo!ically and anatomically male >dravyapurusa 0? %hile at the same time emotionally or psycholo!ically female >bhavastri 0?. -he most elaborate form'lation of this theory of se.'ality independent of biolo!y is !iven by 6e!havi2aya >Chapter A), J1($?, b't it is addressed by most of the %riters1either >for the Hi!ambaras? as part of their demonstration of the impossibility of moksa for %omen or >for the Svetambaras? as part of the ar!'ment of their opponents. )n both cases the iss'e is the Hi!ambara attempt to ar!'e that %here script're appears to permit spirit'al liberation for %omen, it is in fact 'sin! the %ord 9%oman9 in a secondary sense to mean a biolo!ical male %ith the se.'al orientation of a female, that is, a male homose.'al. Konetheless, the ar!'mentation is intrinsically interestin! and sheds si!nificant ne% li!ht on the constr'ction of h'man se.'ality in premodern societies. B't beyond even the elaborate and learned disp'tations s'mmari,ed above, a readin! of the Jaina te.ts translated by Jaini sho%s clearly that the Hi!ambaras+ principal ar!'ment a!ainst the liberation of %omen rests on their perception of and profo'nd an.ieties abo't the anatomy of the h'man female in !eneral and her reprod'ctive system in partic'lar. *s one mi!ht e.pect, a !ood deal of the ne!ative attit'de to%ard the female body in this strictly patriarchal system is foc'sed 'pon the phenomenon of menstr'ation. -h's 6e!havi2aya, representin! the Hi!ambara position, remarks / .i. / that 9she has an imp're body as is evident from the flo% of menstr'al blood each month.9 ;e !oes on to reinforce the sense of dis!'st this ca'ses him by 5'otin! @'ndak'nda and the Bhartrhari verse cited above.37$4 -his sort of ne!ative foc's or taboo on menstr'ation has been %idely observed in many traditional c'lt'res both in )ndia and else%here. -he Jaina te.ts, ho%ever, take patriarchal an.iety and phobic representation of the female body and its nat'ral processes to hei!hts almost 'nkno%n

else%here. =or in addition to their rev'lsion for the act'al reprod'ctive or!ans and processes of %omen, the Jaina a'thors have created an entirely ima!inary feminine microbiolo!y that is, so far as ) can tell, 'ni5'e in %orld literat're. *ccordin! to the 'nanimo's Jaina vie%, certain portions of a %oman+s body, partic'larly orifices and indentations s'ch as the !enitals, the space bet%een the breasts, the armpits, and the navel, !ive rise to vast n'mbers of min'te and s'btle livin! or!anisms, kno%n as aparyaptas 0. -hese creat'res, sometimes seen as arisin! specifically from menstr'al and other bodily fl'ids,3794 are, the ar!'ment !oes, destroyed in vast n'mbers by the ordinary activities of the %oman %hose body is their host and so she is seen as inevitably the a!ent of massive invol'ntary himsa 0, or in2'ry to livin! bein!s.3"#4 6oreover, it is tho'!ht that the activities of these microscopic bein!s in the !enitals are perceived by %omen as a sort of 9itchin!9 that can be relieved only thro'!h interco'rse.3"14 *s a res'lt of this, Hi!ambara a'thors s'ch as @'ndak'nda ar!'e that a %oman is, by virt'e of her very anatomy, incapable of f'lly adoptin! the !reat vo%s inc'mbent on an aspirant to liberation for, as a conse5'ence of her inevitable infestation %ith these aparyaptas, she is, on the one hand, constantly violatin! the cardinal Jaina precept of ahimsa, or nonin2'ry to livin! bein!s, and, on the other, never free from the se.'al desires that block spirit'al pro!ress. =inally, the Hi!ambaras+ attit'des concernin! %omen+s reprod'ctive physiolo!y and alle!ed deficiencies in morality and self(discipline m'st be seen as foc'sed 'pon the critical and definin! feat're of their monastic pra.is: n'dity. =or it is the Hi!ambara re5'irement that a tr'e mendicant m'st abandon clothin! that, %ith this doctrinal 5'estion of %omen+s capacity for spirit'al liberation, most clearly and bitterly divides the t%o ma2or sectarian traditions of Jainism. Both sects a!ree that there can be no 5'estion of %omen adoptin! n'dity for a variety of reasons ran!in! from the s'pposed rev'lsion the si!ht of naked >and possibly menstr'atin!? %omen %o'ld aro'se to the inevitability of their provokin! and livin! %ith a constant fear of se.'al attack that %o'ld, in any case, be inimical to the peace of mind necessary for the tr'e spirit'al path.3"74 6oreover, the Hi!ambaras ar!'e, %omen are more !iven to feelin!s of shame and modesty / .. / than are men and co'ld never overcome them s'fficiently to %ander p'blicly in the n'de.3""4 Since, for all of these reasons, the Hi!ambaras posit the impossibility of n'ns !oin! naked, they ipso facto deny them any hope of spirit'al liberation. =or the Hi!ambaras ar!'e that a sense of modesty indicates the fail're to s'ppress all se.'al feelin!s and that the %earin! of clothin! is b't one form of keepin! nonessential possessions, t%o factors that are absol'tely o't of keepin! %ith the life of a tr'e ren'nciant. -h's n'dity is, for the Hi!ambaras, an absol'te re5'irement for a !en'ine mendicant. Since %omen cannot 'ndertake this practice it follo%s that they cannot be tr'e n'ns and hence one cannot attain spirit'al liberation immediately follo%in! a life in a female body. -he Svetambaras, for %hom the donnin! of %hite robes is both a symbol and a re5'irement of the monastic life, cannot accept this position, and one is often moved, in readin! these debates, by the feelin! that despite the very real anim's to%ard %omen e.pressed by both parties to the debate and the amo'nt of effort and time invested in it, it harbors a po%erf'l and only occasionally e.plicit s'bte.t. )n other %ords, one feels that in their vir'lent attacks on the minds, so'ls, and bodies of %omen, the Hi!ambaras are also, perhaps chiefly, attemptin! to 'nderc't the spirit'al bona fides of their Svetambara rivals, %hile in their some%hat !r'd!in! defense of the possibility of moksa for %omen the Svetambara and Fapaniya monks are really defendin! their o%n entitlement to the term 9m'ni.9 =or 2'st as the Hi!ambaras re!ard their o%n ks'llikas and aryikas only as partic'larly pio's lay%omen, so

they are inclined to treat Svetambara monks themselves as pio's if pretentio's laymen, referrin! to them sometimes contempt'o'sly as %ainabhasas , or pse'do(Jainas. )ndeed !iven the very attit'des e.pressed in the Jaina literat're and in the other )ndian traditional te.ts to%ard %omen, it is diffic'lt to believe that the monkish a'thors on both sides of the iss'e co'ld have re!arded %omen in and for themselves as s'fficiently interestin! to s'stain so intense a debate for so many cent'ries. 6ore likely, this debate on the 5'estion of the possibility of strimo"sa 0 %as at least to some e.tent a kind of protracted metaphor for a str'!!le over the spirit'al validity of the t%o paths of Jaina mendicancy themselves. B't this is not to say that the iss'es and attit'des abo't %omen anti !ender raised in these te.ts are not intrinsically of interest and even vital to o'r 'nderstandin! of the conception of %omen as 9the &ther9 in patriarchal societies in So'th *sia and else%here. =or in the Jainas9 characteristic peelin! of social and psycholo!ical constr'ctions back to some radically constr'cted core, %e see, ) think, %ith 'n's'al clarity some / ..i / of the roots of miso!yny in traditional as %ell as modern male(dominated c'lt'res. =or here, alon! %ith the 's'al stereotypin! ab'se abo't the 9%eaker se.,9 the fickleness of %omen, and their alle!ed se.'al voracity, %e have a perhaps more f'ndamental set of attacks derivin! 'nambi!'o'sly from po%erf'l and deep(seated phobic an.iety abo't the 9'ncanny9 physiolo!y of the female reprod'ctive system. -he Jaina conception of a %oman inhabitin! a body infested %ith hosts of tiny bein!s that, thro'!h her incessant desires and biolo!ical processes, she both creates and annihilates, a body at once all'rin! and rep'lsive that makes of a man both a lecher and mass m'rderer, and so leads him from the spirit'al path directly to hell, is virt'ally 'ni5'e in its constr'ction and e.plicitness. 6y feelin! is that these attit'des, far from bein! the 5'aint or bi,arre obsessions of a frin!e reli!io's sect, in fact lie close to the heart of the se.ism that has served as a rationale for the disempo%erment of %omen in all spheres of life, sec'lar and spirit'al, in societies of the ancient 8ast and the modern Cest. )t is for this reason that ) believe these Jaina debates on the liberation of %omen deserve to be read not only by scholars of 8astern reli!ion b't by tho'!htf'l people in all areas of scholarship incl'din! anthropolo!y, sociolo!y, social history, psycholo!y, and %omen+s st'dies. Partic'lar attention to these te.ts and %hat they tell 's abo't the profo'ndly miso!ynistic attit'des that lie at the heart of the ma2or reli!ions ori!inatin! in the Kear 8ast and So'th *sia sho'ld, ) think, also be !iven by the a'thors of contemporary feminist st'dies of these reli!ions and their or!ani,ational str'ct'res.3"B4

Note%
1. =or concise introd'ctions to the three heterodo.ies in ancient )ndia see, for Jainism, Jaini >19G9?0 for B'ddhism no ade5'ate sin!le vol'me e.ists, b't an e.cellent 'nderstandin! of the le!ends, doctrines, and monastic r'les of early )ndian -heravada B'ddhism can be !otten from Carren >1$9E, pp. E#(E1?0 for *2ivikism see Basham >19D1?. )n the areas %ith %hich they %ere chiefly concerned1metaphysics, the e.istence, nat're, and destiny of the h'man so'l, the 'sef'lness of bha"ti , the efficacy of Aedic rit'al, and the a'thority of the Aedas themselves1these schools %ere %ell positioned to make a po%erf'l criti5'e of Brahmanism and ;ind'ism. =or, as :ana2it <'ha p'ts it >19$9, p. 71D?, 9no criticism can be f'lly activated 'nless its ob2ect is distanced from its a!ency.9 Konetheless, as %ill be sho%n belo%, this distance in the case of the heterodo. systems %as only partial. )n critical areas, s'ch as the 'nderstandin! of !ender and the role of %omen both in temporal society and in the reli!io's comm'nities %hose very raison d+Ltre is the ren'nciation of temporal society, these schools shared and

even bolstered the ideolo!ical pres'ppositions of Brahmanism. / ..ii / 7. -h's, for e.ample, it has often been ar!'ed that <andhi derived his concerns %ith ve!etarianism and especially the techni5'e of nonviolence as a political instr'ment from his formative years in <'2arat, an area %hose c'lt're is tho'!ht to have been heavily infl'enced by the Jainas, %ho have been concentrated there in the modern period. See, for e.ample, 8rikson >19E9, pp. 1E7(1E"?. ". <'ha, for e.ample, applies his analysis of historio!raphical materials to premodern )ndian te.ts. -h's he t'rns his attention to the !a%atarangini 0, a %ell(kno%n history of @ashmir by the t%elfth( cent'ry poet(historian @alhana. -he problem here, ho%ever, is that te.ts even as 9historical9 as @alhana+s are a !reat rarity in premodern )ndia and <'ha+s analysis even of this te.t, altho'!h provocative, is filled %ith anachronisms. See <'ha >19$9, pp. 71G(719?. B. -ypical fi!'res of this type %o'ld be Sita and Savitri, e.amples of perfectly devoted %ives in the epic and pop'lar literat'res, and <'ha >the Kisada chief, not the historian?, %ho, altho'!h of lo%, even despised, class, ennobles himself thro'!h service and devotion to the @satriya !od(man, :ama. D. 8.amples of this type %o'ld be @aikeyi, the ins'fficiently s'bordinated 5'een of @in! Hasaratha, %hose name is still 'sed in )ndia as a pe2orative term for a shre%ish %ife or one %ho p'ts her o%n interests before those of her h'sband, or Samb'ka, the lo%ly sudra 0, or peasant, %ho dares to appropriate a f'nction of the 'pper classes, reli!io's penance, and is s'mmarily e.ec'ted for this offense by the kin! in the last book of the !amayana 0. See &almi"i !amayana , A)), ED(EG. E. * de!ree of e!alitarianism, %hich incl'des %omen only insofar as it e.tends to them the possibility of spirit'al liberation, becomes characteristic not only of the heterodo. !ro'ps b't of the vario's traditions of devotional ;ind'ism that, collectively, become the dominant reli!io's tradition in So'th *sia %ith the %anin! of B'ddhism and Jainism. 8ven as early as the Bhagavad-Gita 0 >i., "7?, the a'thors find it pr'dent, in makin! the case for bhakti, to have @rsna observe that %omen, alon! %ith members of the lo%er social orders, may thro'!h this method attain salvation. =or a detailed disc'ssion of the Brahmanical position on liberation for %omen and the si!nificance of the Gita 0 passa!e, %hich is even cited by one Jaina a'thor, see the )ntrod'ction >JB#? and Chapter A) >J$7 and n. B"?. G. -he ;ind' literat're, rooted as it is mainly in the social life of the comm'nity and containin! a considerable body of te.ts on erotics, both poetic and technical, is th's only partially concerned %ith overt attacks on %omen as a class. *s for B'ddhism, it sho'ld be remembered that altho'!h it is his enco'nter %ith the fo'r visions that aro'ses in the Bodhisattva his desire to leave the %orld, it is the si!ht of the partially clothed bodies of the bea'tif'l dancin! !irls sent to divert him that provides the immediate impet's for him to leave his family and become a mendicant. See Carren >1$9E, pp. DE(E1?. Compare the elaborate treatment of this episode in *sva!hosa+s poetic renderin! of the B'ddha+s career, the Buddha'arita >v, BG(ED?, in Johnston >19"E?. -he Jaina attit'de to%ard %omen and the female body is disc'ssed at len!th belo%. $. =or e.amples of this approach see 6asson >19GB, 19GD?, :aman'2an >19G7?, <oldman >19G$, 19$D?, and S'therland >19$9, =orthcomin!?. *side from these and a fe% other st'dies, mostly by the same a'thors, most scholarship on the role of %omen in ancient )ndian literat're and society has consisted of catalo!s of references in specific te.ts or the literat're as a %hole >e.!., 6eyer, 19"#?, / ..iii /

traditionalist apolo!ia attemptin! to demonstrate that ne!ative attit'des to%ard %omen in contemporary )ndia are the res'lt of a post()slamic de!eneration of a very different sit'ation in ancient times, or reli!io's(historical st'dies of 9the <oddess9 >e.!., @insley, 19$E?. -his last type is of little 'se in reconstr'ctin! the sociolo!y of !ender in premodern )ndia. 9. =or -heravada B'ddhism the most 'sef'l %ork is ;orner >19"#?. =or the 6ahayana schools see Pa'l >19G9?. =or a st'dy of the treatment of homose.'ality in B'ddhism, see M%illin! >19$9?. 1#. <oldman >19$B, p. DD, n. 1#G?. 11. Brhadaranya"a-upanisad 0, )ll, $, 1(170 )A, D, 1(1D. Passa!es s'ch as these have, ho%ever, been fre5'ently 'sed as the basis for claimin! that there %as complete social e5'ality for %omen in vedic )ndia. -his is hi!hly 'nlikely. 17. See, for e.ample, the stories of Sabari at !amayana 0, iii, G#, and of Svayamprabha >iv, B9(D1?. 1". -his famo's passa!e is disc'ssed in the )ntrod'ction >JB1?. * len!thy treatment is !iven in ;orner >19"#, pp. 9D(11G?. 1B. See ;orner >19"#, pp. 1#"(1#B?. 1D. See ;orner >19"#, pp. 11#(117?. 1E. Pa'l >19G9, p. 1E9?. 1G. =or a disc'ssion of the tradition concernin! these n'mbers in ancient times see Jaini >19G9, p. "G? and ;orner >19"#, pp. 1#1(1#7?. =or an indication of the relative n'mbers of monks and n'ns in modern times see Jaini >19G9, p. 7BE, n. $?. 1$. *ccordin! to the Jainas a layman, ho%ever pio's, cannot, since he or she does not practice the necessary vo%s of the monastic orders in their most ri!oro's form, attain nirvana 0. See Jaini >19G9, p. 1E#?. &f co'rse it sho'ld be noted that so restricted is the Jaina vie% in the matter of the attainment of tr'e spirit'al release that it is held that in the c'rrent de!enerate period of the Jaina cycle of time, no one, not even the most pio's monk, can attain nirvana 0. See the )ntrod'ction >JBB?. 19. *t !gveda 0, N, 9D, 1D, for e.ample, it is stated that there can be no friendship %ith %omen as they have the hearts of %olves or 2ackals >9na vai strainani sakhyani santi salavrkanam hrdayany eta9?. -he !reat commentator Sayanacarya e.plains that s'ch friendships are like those fatal ones formed by tr'stin! creat'res s'ch as calves. 7#. 71. ahabharata 0, N))), 17, 11(1D. anusmrti , v, 1B$.

77. !am'aritmanas 0, A, D$, E >p. G"E?. 7". *s mentioned above, B'ddhist te.ts often refer 'npleasantly to the female !enitalia as a %ay of c'ltivatin! aversion to the life of the senses. *ltho'!h this attit'de r'ns co'nter to the fetishistic foc's on the female anatomy and its constit'ent parts in the co'rtly erotic and romantic literat're as %ell as the te.tbooks on erotics, some of the ;ind' literat're shares this phobic attit'de to%ard the female body. &ne %ell(kno%n verse from the collection attrib'ted to the co'rtier(t'rned(ascetic Bhartrhari is 5'oted by 6e!havi2aya. See Chapter A) >J1# and n. 1#?. 7B. See, for e.ample, the e.tensive lin!'istic ar!'mentation on this point in Chapter )) >J9D(1B1?. / ..iv /

7D. Compare, for e.ample, the lo!ical ar!'mentation in Chapter ))) >J$(11?. 7E. See Chapters A) >J1$? and )) >JEB(G7?. 7G. Compare the sketchy and 'ncertain references to homose.'ality in 6eyer >19"#?. -he phenomenon is all b't i!nored in the copio's epic and dharmasastra 0 literat're, %hich other%ise tends to be filled %ith prescriptions and prohibitions on virt'ally every aspect of h'man behavior. 8ven the te.ts on se.'al behavior, the "amasastra , %hich deli!ht in detailed catalo!in! of the varieties of h'man se.'al response, have little to say on this s'b2ect beyond some disc'ssion of the se.'al activities of 9napumsa"as 9 %itho't makin! it 5'ite clear %hether these are tr'e hermaphrodites, e'n'chs, or biolo!ically normal males %hose se.'al desires are aro'sed by other males. See, for e.ample, Aatsyayana+s (amasutra 0. &ther than this, homoeroticism is mentioned in ;ind' te.ts mainly in the conte.t of po%erf'l devotion, as in passa!es %here @rsna+s lovers, in the !rief and madness of separation from him, make love %ith one another. )n one interestin! passa!e, the !amayana 0 commentator <ovindara2a, attemptin! to e.plain the sense in %hich :ama is said to be 9pumsam drsti'ittapaharinam ,9 or 9one %ho ravishes the si!ht and hearts of men,9 5'otes a verse in %hich %omen, %atchin! the princess Hra'padi at her bath, 9mentally become men,9 that is, conceive a >male? se.'al passion for her. See <ovindara2a on !amayana 0 7.".79 ><'2arati Printin! Press edition, p. B79?. )n the r'les of cond'ct for B'ddhist monks the 5'estion of male homose.'ality is disc'ssed and the practice condemned, b't so far as ) can determine no theory is p't forth to e.plain it. See M%illin! >19$9?. 7$. Chapter A) >J1#?. 79. See, for e.ample, Chapter A) >J11?. "#. )n response to the Svetambara ob2ection that the male body too m'st s'pport s'ch life(forms, the Hi!ambaras reply that it does b't in s'ch relatively small n'mbers as not to present an ins'perable obstacle to the f'll adoption of the mendicant vo%s and practice. See, for e.ample, Chapter )A >JG?. "1. )nterestin!ly, the intimate association the Jainas make bet%een se.'ality and violence is rendered still more e.plicit by their ob2ection to se.'al interco'rse not merely in the 's'al terms of morality and control of the senses b't in terms of their preocc'pation %ith ahimsa. =or if, as they ar!'e, the va!inal canal is infested %ith vast s%arms of min'te bein!s, then it follo%s that the po%erf'l friction of the se.'al act m'st sla'!hter them in h'!e n'mbers. )ndeed the Jaina a'thors fre5'ently cite verses to the effect that %ith each 9blo%9 h'ndreds of tho'sands perish. -his, co'pled %ith the loss of e5'ally lar!e n'mbers of bein!s in the dischar!e of semen, makes, in the Jaina vie%, each act of se.'al interco'rse a kind of massive holoca'st of livin! bein!s. =or an ill'stration of these vie%s see Chapter A) >JE9?. "7. See, for e.ample, Chapter ))) >JB9(D7?. "". See, for e.ample, Chapter A) >J11?. "B. -here are a n'mber of s'ch st'dies no% available. See, for e.ample, Bo'cher >19$$?0 for Christianity see Ceber >19$G?. * st'dy of the feminist challen!e to patriarchal reli!io's a'thority and the resistance that it meets is to be fo'nd in Ceaver >19$D?. Similar %orks e.ist for J'daism and so on. / ..v /

Pre&a,e
) became a%are of the importance of the vast literat're on this central controversy bet%een the t%o

ma2or Jaina sects d'rin! the preparation of my earlier %ork, $he Jaina )ath off )urifi'ation >19G9?. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i+s >19GB? p'blication of Sakatayana+s t%o te.ts, the Strinirvanapra"arana 0 and the (evalibhu"tipra"arane , to!ether %ith their ne%ly discovered Svopa%navrttis 19*'tocommentaries,9 that is, commentaries by the a'thor of the verse >"ari"a ? te.t1'nder the title Strinirvana(evalibhu"tipra"arane , seemed to provide in a sin!le vol'me the entire Fapaniya literat're on the t%in controversies. ;e referred to three ma2or Svetambara %orks on these t%in topics: the $ar"arahasyadipi"avrtti 0 by <'naratna, the Sastravartasamu''aya-ti"a 0 by Fasovi2aya, and the *u"tiprabodha-Svopa%navrtti 0 by 6e!havi2aya. ;e also reprod'ced in an appendi. shorter selections bearin! 'pon the topic of strimo"sa 0 from the follo%in! >Sanskrit? %orks of the Svetambara a'thors: ;aribhadra+s Lalitavistara 0 >#aityavandanasutra-vrtti 0?0 *bhayadeva+s Sanmatitar"a-vrtti 0 Aadivetala(Santis'ri+s +ttaradhyayanasutra-brhadvrtti 0 Santis'ri+s ,yayavataravarti"a-vrtti 0 ;emacandra+s *ogasastra-Svopa%navrtti 0 6alaya!iri+s )ra%napanasutra-vrtti 0 and :atnaprabha+s !atna"aravatari"a 0 >)ramananayatattvalo"a-ti"a 0?. -his appendi. also contained a portion from the Hi!ambara a'thor Prabhacandra, b't only the purvapa"sa 0, that is, the Svetambara position as o'tlined by that a'thor >correspondin! to Chapter ))), J1(""? in his ,yaya"umuda'andra 0. Since it is rather 'n's'al for the t%o sects to p'blish from each other+s reli!io's literat're, ) %as not / ..vi / s'rprised to see Prabhacandra+s ref'tation of the Svetambara position omitted in this edition. )t is at this point that ) first conceived an idea of prod'cin! a comprehensive vol'me that %o'ld brin! to!ether the Fapaniya as %ell as the Svetambara and the Hi!ambara te.ts on the topic of strimoksa and also to 'ndertake a translation of this material. Unfort'nately, %ith the sin!le e.ception of <'naratna+s %ork >see Chapter v?, none of the %orks cited above has been translated even into ;indi, let alone into a Cestern lan!'a!e. )n 19$#, on a =ello%ship of the *merican )nstit'te of )ndian St'dies, ) visited )ndia to cons'lt %ith the Jaina mendicants and pandits of both sects and to search for copies of the above(mentioned te.ts in the Jaina libraries >bhandaras 0?. -o my !reat disappointment there %ere fe% scholars %ho co'ld claim any familiarity %ith these te.ts and fe%er still %ho had read the te.ts ori!inatin! from the rival sect. Kevertheless, ) mana!ed to obtain clarification on a !reat many doctrinal points pertainin! to this partic'lar controversy from the scholars of each sect. ) co'ld not find ne% man'script material from the Jaina bhandaras, b't ) %as able to obtain microfilms of a sin!le palm(leaf man'script of an 'np'blished %ork entitled Bhu"ti- u"tivi'ara 0 >see Jaini, 19$E? by the Hi!ambara a'thor Bhavasena >c. 17GD? from the BibliothO5'e Kationale, Strasbo'r!. *s one %o'ld e.pect, there is a !reat deal of m't'al borro%in! bet%een these %orks and also tiresome repetition. )nstead of pr'nin! the repetitions and th's !ivin! small selections from each one of these do,en or so te.ts, ) have chosen for this vol'me si. %orks1five complete and one abrid!ed1notable for their ori!inality as %ell as for the l'cidity of their presentation. -hey have been arran!ed in chronolo!ical order, be!innin! %ith ei!ht Prakrit verses from the Suttapahuda 0 of the Hi!ambara a'thor @'ndak'nda >c. *.H. 1D#? and endin! %ith the vol'mino's polemics of the Svetambara a'thor 6e!havi2aya >c. 1G##?, an arran!ement that helps 's to trace the emer!ence of ne% ar!'ments thro'!h the cent'ries in this sectarian debate. -he choice of @'ndak'nda >Chapter )? %as obvio's, for, as noted earlier, he is the initiator of the strimoksa debate and the first to challen!e the le!itimacy of clothed mendicancy. &f the remainin! a'thors, the ninth(cent'ry Fapaniya a'thor Sakatayana >Chapter ))? m'st be accorded the foremost position as the first kno%n defender of %omen+s ability to attain nirvana. ;is treatise >pra"arana 0? specifically entitled Strinirvana 0, co'pled %ith an 9*'tocommentary,9 is the first kno%n %ork devoted to this topic in the Jaina tradition. -here he e.amines critically the script'ral passa!es that %ere held by

opponents to s'pport the thesis that %omanhood is not: / ..vii / compatible even %ith f'll mendicancy, let alone %ith moksa. -he Fapaniyas meet their adversary in the eleventh(cent'ry Prabhacandra >Chapter )))?, %ho p'ts forth a forcef'l defense of the Hi!ambara position a!ainst strimoksa, not by citin! the appropriate script're or by reinterpretin! it, b't thro'!h form'latin! a strin! of lo!ical ar!'ments called prayogas in his ,yaya"umuda'andra 0. ;e is s'pplemented by the t%elfth(cent'ry Jayasena >Chapter )A?, %ho reintrod'ces the biolo!ical reasons for denyin! mendicancy to %omen1reasons that had received scant notice by Prabhacandra1thro'!h his commentary the $atparyavrtti 0 on @'ndak'nda+s )rava'anasara 0. -he Fapaniyas have disappeared by this time, b't as the fifteenth(cent'ry <'naratna+s short b't ele!antly %ritten $ar"arahasyadipi"avrtti 0 demonstrates, the Svetambaras have carried the debate for%ard. <'naratna >Chapter A? represents a lon! line of Svetambara a'thors %ho had s'ccessf'lly employed the Fapaniya ar!'ments ane%, not only to defend the %omen+s ability to attain moksa b't to 'phold the le!itimacy of the clothed monks+ mendicancy a!ainst the attacks of the Hi!ambara sect. 6e!havi2aya >Chapter A)? in his *u"tiprabodha-Svopa%navrtti 0 s'mmari,es the %orks of all the precedin! a'thors0 he takes 'p the challen!e of @'ndak'nda, systematically ref'tes Prabhacandra+s ar!'ments, e.amines Jayasena+s observations, and responds to the attacks of his contemporary neo(Hi!ambaras. 6oreover, since no ne% %ritin! on this controversy appears in either sect after his time, he indeed can be said to have had the last %ord in this e.traordinary debate. =ort'nately, all of these te.ts had been critically edited by eminent scholars %ith many helpf'l footnotes on variant readin!s and s'!!ested emendations. *s %as indicated above and %ill become clear from the brief introd'ctions to the a'thors precedin! the translations of their te.ts, only the %ork of Sakatayana >Chapter ))? constit'tes an independent %ork0 the rest form small sections %ithin their lar!er vol'mes. -hese editions have lon! been o't of print and little kno%n in the Cest, especially the vol'me containin! the %ork of 6e!havi2aya, of %hich only a sin!le fra!ile copy of the edition of 197$ co'ld be located at the I. H. )nstit'te of )ndolo!y in *hmadabad. Cith no prospect in si!ht of these vol'mino's te.ts bein! reprinted, ) had prepared romani,ed versions of the one Prakrit and five Sanskrit te.ts on strimoksa to accompany their translation in this vol'me. Iimitations of space, ho%ever, have made the incl'sion of all si. te.ts impossible. ) therefore incl'de, as a representative sample, the te.t from the ,yaya"umuda'andra 0 of Prabhacandra >Chapter )))? in the *ppendi.. =or the p'rpose of this vol'me ) have taken the liberty of occasionally breakin! / ..viii / the Sanskrit sentences and n'mberin! the portions %ith section marks >e.!., J1? to indicate the t%o sides of the debate >kno%n as the purvapa"sa 0 and the uttarapa"sa 0?. ) have also identified the sect of the proponent of a !iven ar!'ment, a practice seldom follo%ed by the traditional )ndian a'thors. -hese names, as %ell as the titles of %orks to %hich the ori!inal 5'otations are traced, bein! additions, are placed in brackets0 a 5'estion mark %ithin brackets 3P4 sho%s that the so'rce has not been traced. -ranslation of Sanskrit te.ts s'ch as these, %hich are f'll of technical terms and for %hich there is no established precedent, is no easy task. -here are no satisfactory renderin!s possible even for s'ch %ell( kno%n %ords as mo"sa, mu"ti , or nirvana 0 >tentatively translated here as 9spirit'al liberation9 or 9salvation9?, let alone for the strictly Jaina technical terms s'ch as bhava 0 >9internal0 mental9?, darsana 0 >9perception0 vie%0 faith9+?, dravya >9e.ternal0 physical9?, "asaya 0 >9passion9?, maya >9deceitf'lness0 crookedness9?, parigraha 0 >9attachment0 property0 possession9?, sadhu 0 >9monk9?, sadhvi 0 >9n'n9?,

sattva >9stren!th0 co'ra!e0 fortit'de9?, veda >9libido0 se.'al desire9?, yoga >9activity0 vibration9?, to mention only a fe%. =or the most part ) have follo%ed the translation of these terms in my earlier %ork, $he Jaina )ath of )urifi'ation >abbreviated as J)) ?, the vario's sections of %hich have also been often cited for doctrinal e.planations to avoid repetition. Similarly, ) have retained the practice here, %hich proved to be e.tremely 'sef'l in that %ork, of not 'sin! italics for the romani,ed Sanskrit te.ts and italici,in! and definin! the Sanskrit technical terms only at the point of their initial appearance in the %ork. -hereafter the reader is referred to the Concordance and <lossary of Sanskrit and Prakrit Cords at the back of the book, %hich provides brief definitions and pa!e references for s'ch terms. -he translation of these te.ts %ith the necessary annotations %as made possible thro'!h a -e.t and -ranslation <rant d'rin! 19$"(19$D from the Kational 8ndo%ment for the ;'manities. ) %ish to thank several of my collea!'es at Berkeley and else%here, notably :obert B's%ell for helpin! me to or!ani,e the material and Bimal @rishna 6atilal and 6'shashi -achika%a for el'cidatin! several intricate points of )ndian lo!ic that occ'r in these te.ts. -hanks are d'e especially to my esteemed friend and collea!'e :obert <oldman for patiently readin! %ith me the final draft of the translation. ;is many val'able insi!hts on the place of the Jaina debate in the social history of )ndia are embodied in his =ore%ord to the present vol'me. ) am also very !ratef'l to my friend ;emant Chimanlal Broker of / ..i. / *hmadabad for obtainin! a fine ill'stration of a Jaina n'n for the d'st 2acket. =inally, ) sho'ld like to e.press my !ratit'de to Iynne Cithey of the University of California Press for her 'nfailin! s'pport in seein! the %ork thro'!h p'blication. P*H6*K*B; S. J*)K) UK)A8:S)-F &= C*I)=&:K)*, B8:@8I8F /1/

Introd-,tion
)a,.$ro-nd o& the Jaina Se,tarian *ebate
J1 -he salvation or spirit'al liberation of %omen >called stri-nirvana , stri-mo"sa , or stri-mu"ti ? has been a matter of !reat controversy bet%een the t%o ma2or sects of Jainism, the Hi!ambaras and the Svetambaras. -he former vehemently have insisted that one cannot attain moksa, emancipation of a so'l from the cycles of birth and death >samsara ?, as a female, %hile the latter have steadfastly ref'sed to claim e.cl'sively male access to the liberated state >-rhat or Siddha ? of the so'l. -he be!innin!s of the fe'd bet%een the t%o sects1%hich event'ally split Jaina society into t%o hostile camps1is itself shro'ded in mystery0 no one has yet been able to ascertain %ith any precision either the direct ca'se of the division or the dates of the initial controversy. Both traditions a!ree, ho%ever, that the final breach took place aro'nd "## B.C. d'rin! the time of the Aenerable Bhadrabah', a contemporary of 8mperor Candra!'pta, the fo'nder of the 6a'ryan dynasty. Since that time, the t%o sects have ref'sed to accept the validity of each other+s script'res0 indeed, the Hi!ambaras have even claimed that the ori!inal %ords of 6ahavira %ere irrevocably lost.314 )n addition, the adherents of both sects ref'se to reco!ni,e their rival+s reli!io's as tr'e mendicants >muni or sadhu ?, settin! 'p a debate that tears at the very fabric of the entire Jaina comm'nity.

J7 &ne of the ma2or iss'es dividin! the t%o sects %as the acceptability of ordained persons %earin! clothes. Chile this mi!ht seem to 's moderns a trivial iss'e on %hich to base %hat %as to become a ma2or sectarian disp'te, /7/ the debate masked basic concerns in Jaina soteriolo!y that %ere hardly frivolo's. &n one point there %as 'nanimity: the last !reat teacher >kno%n by the title of Jina, or a spirit'al victor? of their reli!ion, Aardhamana 6ahavira, %ho lived, accordin! to the tradition, from D99 to D7G B.C. , had been a naked ascetic >a'ela"a sramana ?, and some of his early adherents had been similarly 9sky(clad9 >digambara ? and hence came to be kno%n as %ina"alpins >i.e., similar to the Jina?.374 B't this %as the e.tent of the consens's. -he Hi!ambaras, %ho %ent naked >nagna ? follo%in! 6ahavira+s e.ample, claimed that a mendicant m'st reno'nce all property or possessions >parigraha ?, incl'din! clothes0 the only e.ceptions they allo%ed %ere a small %hisk broom >ra%oharana ? for br'shin! insects a%ay from one+s seat and a %ater !o'rd >"amandalu ? for toilet p'rposes. -hey therefore accepted only naked monks as the tr'e mendicant adherents of the Jina and re!arded the Svetambara monks, %ho contin'ed to %ear %hite clothes >sveta-ambara ? after ordination, as no better than celibate laymen >brahma'arigrhastha ?. K'dity th's became for the Hi!ambaras the f'ndamental identifyin! feat're >muni-linga ? of the mendicant life, and they maintained that %itho't 'ndertakin! at least that modic'm of practice, one co'ld not hope to attain the most e.alted of states, moksa or nirvana. -he Svetambaras, of co'rse, conceded that 6ahavira adopted the practice of n'dity >a'ela"a ?, b't they re!arded the ren'nciation of clothes as optional for monks, some%hat similar to the practice of a'sterities s'ch as fastin!, %hich, altho'!h entirely commendable, %as hardly mandatory. -he Svetambara position became increasin!ly intransi!ent, ho%ever, 'ntil the leaders of that sect came to claim that clothes %ere an inte!ral part of the holy life and that they %ere the only tr'e mendicants beca'se they %ore clothes. *s the debate became even more inflammatory, the Svetambaras even resorted to eschatolo!ical ar!'ments to 2'stify their claim: the practice of n'dity, %hile commendable d'rin! the time of 6ahavira himself, %as no lon!er advisable in this de!enerate a!e. -heir script'res related that soon after 6ahavira+s death the practice of n'dity became e.tinct. )ts revival %as deemed inappropriate d'rin! the s'bse5'ent period, in a fashion reminiscent of the "alivar%ya practices1or those practices once le!itimate b't no% condemned1in the ;ind' la% books. Svetambaras therefore considered the Hi!ambaras heretics for re2ectin! the a'thenticity of their canon >agama ?, especially for defyin! the canonical in2'nctions a!ainst n'dity, and for sho%in! disrespect to the lar!e mendicant order of the %hite(clad Svetambara monks %ho %ere follo%in! the prescribed practice of the sthavira"alpa , that is, bein! clothed and bein! a member of the ecclesiastical comm'nity. /"/ J" Cith the overridin! importance that the Hi!ambaras attached to n'dity, it is no s'rprise that clothes came to occ'py a central position in the debates on the possible salvation of %omen as %ell. =or reasons that are never specifically stated, even the Hi!ambaras did not !rant %omen permission to practice n'dity 'nder any circ'mstances and insisted that %omen %ear clothes. -his in2'nction effectively barred %omen from ever reno'ncin! all 9possessions9 and, accordin!ly, from attainin! moksa in that life. =emale mendicants, altho'!h called noble or venerable ladies >aryi"as or sadhvis ?, %ere technically not considered mendicants at all b't simply celibate, albeit spirit'ally advanced, lay%omen >ut"rsta-sravi"a ?1a stat's similar to that %hich the Hi!ambaras %ere %illin! to accord to the Svetambara monks. -he Svetambaras, on the other hand, did not consider clothes a possession

>pari!raha? b't rather an indispensable component of the reli!io's life >dharma-upa"arana ?. -herefore, even tho'!h n'ns %ore clothes in strict accordance %ith the prohibition a!ainst n'dity, they %ere on an e5'al footin! %ith monks and %ere !ranted the f'll stat's of mendicancy. 6ore important, ho%ever, %omen %ere th's considered eli!ible to attain moksa in that very female body1a prospect possible to any n'n %ho %as s'fficiently adept spirit'ally. 6oksa %as therefore based not on biolo!ical condition b't on spirit'al development alone. JB -he Hi!ambaras, ho%ever, ref'sed to accept any possibility of a person, %hether male or female, attainin! moksa %itho't reno'ncin! one+s clothes, for the retention of clothes implied resid'al se. desire >e.pressed thro'!h la%%a or shame?0 %hen co'pled %ith their prohibition a!ainst %omen ever reno'ncin! their clothes, this ref'sal led to the form'lation of the doctrine that a person co'ld not attain moksa %hile havin! a female body. Stran!ely, this development is neither attested in the pre(6a'ryan canon, the Dvadasanga-sutra 1admittedly reco!ni,ed only by the Svetambaras1nor disc'ssed in the earliest strat'm of postcanonical literat're of the Hi!ambara sect >e.!., the Sat"handagama-sutra , c. 1D#?. -he earliest indication that there %as s'ch a controversy in the Jaina comm'nity of mendicants >sangha ? is to be fo'nd in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of the Hi!ambara mendicant @'ndak'nda >c. second cent'ry *.H. ?. Chile e.plainin! the tr'e nat're of ren'nciation >pravra%ya ?, @'ndak'nda observes that one becomes a Jaina mendicant %hen one reno'nces not only internal attachments b't also all forms of e.ternal possession, incl'din! one+s clothes, and ass'mes the state of complete n'dity >nagnabhava ?. ;e then states, rather cas'ally, that a %oman+s ren'nciation is not comparable to that of a man: -here is also the emblem 3linga , i.e., order4 for %omen: a n'n is called aryika 3a venerable lady4. . .. She %ears a sin!le piece of cloth and eats only one meal a day. /B/ )n the teachin! of the Jina a person does not attain moksa if one %ears clothes. . .. K'dity is the path leadin! to moksa. *ll others are %ron! paths. -he !enital or!ans of the %oman, her navel, armpits, and the area bet%een her breasts, are said 3in the script'res4 to be breedin! !ro'nds of s'btle forms of life. ;o% can there be 3f'll4 ren'nciation for a %omanP -heir minds are not p're and by nat're they are not firm in mind or in body. -hey have monthly menstr'ation. -herefore, for %omen there is no meditation free from fear.3"4 JD @'ndak'nda does not identify the school %hich mi!ht have claimed that a n'n+s ren'nciation %as as complete as that of a monk. &ne %o'ld e.pect his opponents to be the Svetambaras, %ho have traditionally held that vie%. Fet the earliest e.tant %ork dedicated to a systematic ref'tation of the Hi!ambara position does not ori!inate in the Svetambara camp. :ather, this honor belon!s to an obsc're Jaina sect kno%n as the Fapaniya, %hich probably came into e.istence aro'nd the second cent'ry and %as e.tinct by the t%elfth.3B4 Sakatayana, a ninth(cent'ry mendicant of this order, is credited %ith a %ork called the Strinirvanapra"arana , a short treatise in some fifty verses, to!ether %ith a commentary >the Svopa%navrtti ?, that establishes him as the first kno%n )ndian e.po'nder of a %oman+s >i.e., a n'n+s? ability to attain moksa. JE -he Fapaniya sect seems to have combined in its practices elements dra%n from both of the t%o ma2or Jaina sects. =ollo%in! the Hi!ambaras, their male mendicants %ent naked0 b't, like the Svetambaras, the Fapaniyas ackno%led!ed the a'thority of the Svetambara canon and professed that n'dity %as prohibited for %omen beca'se in their case that practice %as not necessary to achieve moksa. =or the Fapaniyas, a modic'm of clothin! %as not a hindrance to the attainment of moksa in the

present life for a %oman or even for a man %ho, after becomin! a monk, developed inflammations s'ch as fist'las that needed to be covered by clothin!. -he Svetambaras, %ho had close affinities %ith the Fapaniya sect, appear to have s'bse5'ently adopted the Fapaniya ar!'ments in favor of the possibility of %omen attainin! moksa and challen!ed the Hi!ambaras on this iss'e. -he controversy spanned a tho'sand years and %as carried forth in the %orks of s'ch Svetambara mendicant %riters as ;aribhadra >c. GD#?, *bhayadeva >c. 1###?, Santis'ri >c. 117#?, 6alaya!iri >c. 11D#?, ;emacandra >c. 11E#?, Aadideva >c. 11G#?, :atnaprabha >c. 17D#?, <'naratna >c. 1B##?, Fasovi2aya >c. 1EE#?, and 6e!havi2aya >c. 1G##?3D4 -he Hi!ambara responses probably be!in %ith Airasena >c. $##? and contin'e in the %orks of Hevasena >c. 9D#?, Kemicandra >c. 1#D#?, Prabhacandra >c. 9$#(1#ED?, Jayasena >c. 11D#?, and Bhavasena >c. 17GD?. Kot%ithstandin! the contin'ed attempts made by scholars of both schools to ref'te their /D/ rival+s position, the lines of ar!'ment remained f'ndamentally the same and the sectarian battles became increasin!ly acrimonio's. JG *s is %ell kno%n to st'dents of )ndian philosophy, the basic te.ts of the si. philosophical schools >darsanas ? have one common !oal: establishin! the validity of their conception of moksa or nirvana1 synonymo's in Jainism1the classical ideas of salvation in )ndia, %hich brin! an end to the cycle of rebirth >samsara?. )t is e.traordinary indeed that no other school e.cept the Jaina ever 5'estioned the inherent capacity of a %oman to attain moksa in her present body, in her present life. -he Jainas are conspic'o's, therefore, in introd'cin! %hat is basically a sectarian disp'te into their philosophical te.ts. )t sho'ld be remembered that both Hi!ambaras and Svetambaras are almost 'nanimo's in their approach to ref'tin! the doctrines of the non(Jaina philosophical schools >darsanas?. ;o%ever, once a'thors affiliated %ith either of the t%o main Jaina schools finish their disco'rse on the tr'e nat're of moksa, there inevitably appears a disp'te over the physical prere5'isites necessary to attain that state: the Hi!ambaras claim that moksa is attainable only by males, %hile the Svetambaras maintain that havin! a female body is no obstacle to salvation. &ne mi!ht e.pect the Jainas to settle this matter thro'!h reco'rse to their script'res0 b't, as noted above, the sects do not al%ays share the same body of te.ts. -hey do, ho%ever, share a common belief system and in many cases their positions are identical re!ardin! the stat's of %omen vis(Q(vis men %ithin the ecclesiastical order or %ith reference to the la%s of karma that apply to male and female rebirth processes. -he syllo!istic form'las >of the traditional )ndian type called prayogas ? employed by both schools, %hen e.amined from the standpoint of the si!nificance of their shared beliefs and doctrines, th's provide interestin! e.amples of the sectarian disp'tes that racked the medieval Jaina ch'rch in partic'lar, as %ell as the attit'de of )ndians in !eneral to%ard %omen, both in the reli!io's and social spheres. ) propose here to compile briefly some of the ma2or ar!'ments 'sed by the Jainas in their treatments of the possibility of %omen attainin! moksa and %ill foc's in partic'lar on those inferences that are presented in syllo!istic form. -his e.amination %ill also enable 's to dra% o't the implications of that controversy for the %ider problem of reli!io's salvation for %omen.

Format and S-b%tan,e o& the *ebate

J$ -he !eneral format of the initial series of ar!'mentation is the Hi!ambara+s denial of moksa for %omen, the Svetambara+s affirmation of %omen+s capacity to achieve salvation, and the Hi!ambara+s reb'ttal. -he

/E/ Hi!ambara makes the openin! statement: -here is moksa for men only, not for %omen0 beca'se of the absence of valid evidence to s'pport that claim0 as is the case %ith con!enital hermaphrodites >napumsa"a ? 3%ho are considered 'nfit to attain moksa in both sects4.3E4 J9 -he Svetambara ans%ers: -here is moksa for %omen0 beca'se there is no deficiency in the ca'ses 3called ratnatraya , or the 9-hree Je%els94 that lead to moksa for them0 as is the case for men. )n their ref'tation of the Hi!ambara claim, the Svetambaras retort that the Hi!ambaras m'st cite an ade5'ate piece of evidence that %o'ld prove the absence in %omen of the conditions that lead to moksa. S'rely, say the Svetambaras, s'ch ins'fficiency in %omen cannot be proved by perception >pratya"sa ?0 nor can it be established via a valid inference >anumana ?, since s'ch an inferential mark >linga ? that has invariable concomitance >vyapti or avinabhava ? %ith %hat is inferred >sadhya ? cannot be fo'nd. Kor is there any scope for resortin! to script're >agama ? in this case, for they find no passa!e in the te.ts %hich %o'ld concl'sively prove that one cannot attain moksa in a female body. &n the other hand, they can prove that a %oman is free from those deficiencies %hich prevent her from attainin! moksa. =or %hat is the primary condition for attainin! moksa *s described in a treatise accepted as a'thoritative by both schools, the $attavarthasutra , the path to moksa consists of -hree Je%els >ratnatraya?1ri!ht vie% >samya"-darsana ?, ri!ht kno%led!e >samya"-%nana ?, and ri!ht cond'ct >samya"-'aritra ?1and all three of these 2e%els are to be fo'nd to!ether in %omen. Comen therefore have no deficiency in re!ard to the attainment of moksa. J1# -he Hi!ambara reb'ttal to the Svetambara position may be paraphrased as follo%s. Ce of co'rse admit that the -hree Je%els are to be fo'nd in %omen, as yo' mentioned, b't only in an inchoate form. 6erely possessin! the r'diments of the -hree Je%els, ho%ever, does not 5'alify them to attain moksa, for other%ise all reli!io's persons in the moment immediately follo%in! their initiation into mendicancy %o'ld necessarily attain moksa. B't this, of co'rse, is not the case. 6oksa is possible only %hen the aspirant attains to the absol'te perfection of the -hree Je%els, especially of ri!ht cond'ct, and that perfection, %e maintain, is impossible for a %oman. J11 -he Svetambara ob2ects to this stand by challen!in! the Hi!ambara to sho% ho% one %o'ld ever perceive this perfection of the -hree /G/ Je%els. S'rely, the Svetambara maintains, the point at %hich s'ch perfection occ'rs is the pen'ltimate moment of one+s life, immediately precedin! the attainment of moksa, and that moment is imperceptible. B't is its imperceptibility s'fficient ca'se to deny its e.istenceP )f yo' have any other lo!ical means to prove yo'r ar!'ment, then let 's hear yo'r ar!'ments. J17 -he ans%ers to this challen!e !iven by the Hi!ambara s'm 'p the basic ar!'ments of the debate. -he Hi!ambara says that, of co'rse, there are valid proofs %hich s'pport o'r o%n claim that %omen cannot attain moksa, beca'se they are inherently inferior to men >hinatvat ?. -his can be proved by the follo%in! reasons, all of %hich incl'de appropriate syllo!istic inferences >prayo!a?:>1? the inability of %omen to be reborn in the seventh and lo%est hell, 'nlike men0 >7? their inability to reno'nce all

possessions, incl'din! clothes0 >"? their inferiority in s'ch skills as debatin!0 >B? their inferior position in both !eneral society and the ecclesiastical order.3G4 J1" Before t'rnin! to a consideration of the first reason, it is appropriate to e.plain initially a fe% cosmolo!ical details pertainin! to the Jaina beliefs abo't an individ'al+s rebirth in the lo%est hell. -he Jaina 'niverse consists of three spheres: the 'pper heavenly abodes >svar!aloka?, the lo%er hellish abodes >narakaloka?, and the tiny area in bet%een called the middle abode >madhyaloka, the earth?, %herein d%ell h'man bein!s and animals.3$4 -here are a variety of heavens sit'ated one above the other, abodes of ever increasin! happiness. -he hi!hest heaven, called Sarvarthasiddhi >lit., *ccomplishment of *ll Hesires?, %as considered the hi!hest point of %orldly happiness and %as achievable only by the hi!hest kind of meritorio's >punya ? deeds. Similarly, there are seven s'ccessive hells, their misery increasin! as one descends. -he lo%est hell, called 6ahatamahprabha >lit., Pitch Harkness?, %as attained only by those bein!s %ho commit the most ina'spicio's >apunya or papa ? actions. Beyond the heavens b't %ithin the habitable 'niverse >called lo"a"asa , beyond %hich movement %as not possible? %as an area %here the Jainas believed that emancipated so'ls called Siddhas, once freed from their karmic b'rden and all other forms of embodiment, rose a'tomatically and abided forever in their omniscient !lory. -he s'mmit of the 'niverse %as called the Siddha(loka. -he Jainas also had strin!ent restrictions on the process of rebirth bet%een the three spheres. * bein! born into one hell, for e.ample, co'ld not be reborn into another hell or into a heaven. By the same token, a heavenly bein! co'ld not be reborn into a different heaven or into one of the hells. -he destiny of both hell and heavenly bein!s %as, therefore, in the /$/ 6adhya(loka as a h'man bein! or an animal. -he middle realm %as th's the center of !ravity of the rebirth process and the sprin!board to rebirth in any other sphere. )n a!reement %ith !eneral )ndian beliefs, the Jainas also believed that moksa co'ld be achieved only from a h'man e.istence. J1B Chat is of partic'lar interest for o'r controversy is the fact that the Hi!ambaras and the Svetambaras, %ho both accept this cosmolo!y and the r'les pertainin! to rebirth, a!ree f'rther that %omen, 'nlike men, are incapable of e.periencin! the most e.treme form of 'n%holesome volitions0 conse5'ently, they are incapable of bein! reborn in the lo%est, the seventh, hell. ;o%ever, %hile the Svetambaras did allo% %omen to e.perience e.treme p'rity of moral conscio'sness and therefore attain rebirth in the Sarvarthasiddhi, this possibility %as denied by the Hi!ambaras. -he Hi!ambaras 'sed their belief in the disparity bet%een the moral conscio'sness of men and %omen as 2'stification for their do!ma that %omen1%ho cannot fall into the lo%est hell or rise to the hi!hest heaven1are inherently incapable of achievin! the Siddha(loka, a realm beyond the hi!hest heaven at the s'mmit of the Jaina 'niverse. J1D -he rationale behind this ar!'ment %as the m't'ally accepted doctrine that the intensity of a !iven volition determined the character of the action it cataly,ed. -he Jainas 'sed the %ord 9dhyana 9 >concentration? to refer to both evil and !ood volitional imp'lses. 8vil concentration %as t%ofold: arta >sorro%f'l? and raudra >cr'el?, of %hich the most e.treme forms of the latter led to rebirth in the seventh hell. Cholesome concentration %as similarly t%ofold: dharma >ri!hteo's? and su"la >p're?. -he c'ltivation of the former led to %holesome destinies, c'lminatin! in the hi!hest heavens. &nly by p're concentration >s'kladhyana?, ho%ever, co'ld one attain moksa after havin! completely eliminated all karmic bonds. -he Hi!ambaras maintained that only those %ho %ere capable of entertainin! the most imp're forms of concentration %ere similarly fit to entertain the p'rest types of concentration. -hey therefore ar!'ed that the inability of a %oman to be born in the seventh hell %as a s're indication

of her incapacity ever to be born in the hi!hest heaven. 8ven if, for the sake of ar!'ment, the Hi!ambaras %ere to re!ard the attainment of the Sarvarthasiddhi heaven as immaterial to the debate abo't moksa, they still %o'ld have ar!'ed that the abode of the Siddhas1%hich represented cosmolo!ically the hi!hest e.treme of the 'niverse, in contradistinction to the seventh hell1co'ld be attained only by those %ho %ere able to perfect that s'kladhyana.394 Sho'ld the Svetambara, ho%ever, insist that the female body %as no obstr'ction to attainin! not only Sarvarthasiddhi b't even the Siddha(loka, then they perforce %o'ld also have to admit that %omen co'ld /9/ be reborn in the seventh hell1a position that %as a!ainst their o%n script're and therefore false. -he Hi!ambara syllo!ism 'sed to prove this point is as follo%s: -he e.cellence of kno%led!e and so forth, re5'ired for moksa, is not fo'nd in %omen0 beca'se s'ch e.cellence and so forth m'st have absol'te perfection0 2'st as %omen lack the 'ltimate e.treme of demerit, %hich is the immediate ca'se of rebirth in the seventh hell. 3-hey therefore also lack the absol'te perfection re5'ired for attainin! moksa.431#4 J1E -he Hi!ambara position, based as it is on the alle!ed mediocrity of %omen and especially on their inability to e.perience the most evil forms of action, is co'ntered by the Svetambaras in the follo%in! ar!'ment, %hich reco!ni,es the fallacy of absence of invariable concomitance >vyapti ? in the Hi!ambara syllo!ism. -he Svetambaras maintain that there is no invariable concomitance bet%een the fact that %omen cannot fall into the seventh hell and their pres'med inability to attain moksa. -he Svetambaras advocate that %hen there is invariable concomitance bet%een t%o thin!s, the presence or absence of one thin! %o'ld al%ays be accompanied by the presence or absence of the companion item. =ire and smoke are so related, so that %henever there is smoke there is fire0 this is beca'se there is a ca'sal relationship bet%een smoke and fire. -he species of tree simsapa is also invariably associated %ith trees, so that %henever there is an absence of trees, there %o'ld al%ays be an absence of simsapa: th's there is a relationship of >nonca'sal? pervasion >based on identity? bet%een tree and simsapa. B't, the Svetambaras advocate, the fall into the seventh hell and the inability to attain moksa are neither ca'sally related1as %ere fire and smoke or the -hree Je%els and moksa1nor nonca'sally pervasive, as %ere tree and simsapa. ;ence to propose an invariable concomitance bet%een the fall into the seventh hell and the inability to achieve moksa is fallacio's. Beca'se of this lack of ca'sal connection, the Hi!ambara ar!'ment remains inconcl'sive. J1G &n the face of it, the Svetambara ar!'ment seems concl'sive eno'!h. B't the Hi!ambara response, %hich ) have fo'nd in only a sin!le te.t, the ,yaya"umuda'andra of Prabhacandra >c. eleventh cent'ry?, is %orth notin!.3114 Prabhacandra re2ects the Svetambara indictment of the Hi!ambara claim, based as it is on the inherent problems involved in establishin! a ca'se(and(effect relationship bet%een fallin! into the seventh hell and !oin! to moksa. ;e instead advocates a different type of relationship: that of indicator >gama"a ? and indicated >gamya ?. Prabhacandra re2ects the fa'lt sho%n by the Svetambara of the absence of / 1# / invariable concomitance bet%een !oin! to the seventh hell and !oin! to moksa, beca'se the la% of concomitance does not necessarily depend on a ca'se(and(effect relationship or on a relationship of pervasion based on identity. )nvariable concomitance is possible even if the relationship pertainin!

bet%een those thin!s is merely that of a sin!le co!nition invariably linkin! t%o disparate thin!s >gamya-gama"a-bhava ?. )n the co!nition of the rise of the asterism @rttika >the Pleiades?, for e.ample, the follo%in! rise of the constellation Sakata >9the Cart,9 the five stars formin! the ne.t asterism :ohini? can invariably be inferred, even tho'!h there is no ca'sal relationship >or identity relationship? bet%een the t%o asterisms. * similar relationship of indicator indicated e.ists bet%een fallin! into the seventh hell and attainin! moksa0 th's the m't'ally accepted fact that %omen do not fall into the seventh hell is a valid condition for inferrin! that %omen do not attain moksa. *ny attempt to claim other%ise %o'ld yield the 'ndesirable conse5'ence of denyin! the valid relationship pertainin! bet%een the rise of @rttika and the rise of Sakata. Prabhacandra is caref'l to point o't here that the t%o capacities of !oin! to the seventh hell and !oin! to moksa are in no %ay directly related. ;o%ever, he proposes a certain inherence >samavaya ? of these t%o capacities in a sin!le %hole, the so'l of the individ'al person. ;ence if a sin!le so'l has the capacity to fall into the seventh hell thro'!h e.tremely demeritorio's action, that same so'l m'st have the similar capacity to attain moksa thro'!h e.tremely p're actions. -h's the Hi!ambaras are merely claimin! that the inability of %omen to perform s'ch e.tremely imp're actions as %o'ld res'lt in fallin! into the seventh hell allo%s one to infer that %omen are e5'ally incapable of performin! those perfectly p're actions1that is, to achieve the absol'te perfection of the -hree Je%els1%hich allo% one to attain moksa. Citho't the absol'te perfection of the -hree Je%els, moksa %ill be impossible, for the la% does not allo% a res'lt to follo% %itho't an initial ca'se. -herefore, the Hi!ambaras re2ect the Svetambara claim that there is no association bet%een fallin! into the seventh hell and attainin! moksa. J1$ -he Siddha(loka1the abode of the emancipated so'l, %herein the so'l remains eternally at the s'mmit of the 'niverse in all its omniscient !lory1provides the ne.t occasion for investi!atin! a relevant script'ral passa!e that seems to all'de to the possibility of a %oman+s attainin! moksa. )n an aphorism appearin! in the tenth chapter of the $attvarthasutra 1the only Jaina treatise accepted by both the Hi!ambaras and Svetambaras >incl'din! the Fapaniyas?1the a'thor, Umasvati, lists the types of liberated so'ls from the standpoint of their %orldly stat's prior / 11 / to becomin! Siddhas.3174 Some Siddhas, for e.ample, attained moksa from the continent of Jamb'dvipa, %hile others attained it from else%here0 some attained Siddhahood at the time of a -irthankara+s appearance in the %orld, %hereas others attained it in their absence. -he controversial point in this aphorism is that the cate!ory of lin!a, literally 9si!n9 b't ordinarily referrin! to biolo!ical !ender, is also listed. -he Jaina te.ts refer to three biolo!ical !enders: male >pumlinga ?0 female >strilinga ?0 and indeterminate >napumsa"alinga ?, %hich ro'!hly corresponds to a hermaphrodite in that its !ender si!n is not strictly male or female. By the last !ender, Jainas 'nderstood only those %ho %ere born %ith feat'res not e.plicitly male or female and not s'ch bein!s as e'n'chs, %ho mi!ht be ne'tered after birth. Both sects believed that these three !ender si!ns %ere the res'lts of nama-"arma , that is, a karma %hich pro2ects the appropriate bodies %hereby one can distin!'ish a bein! as heavenly, infernal, animal, or h'man and reco!ni,e its se. %ithin this destiny. )t %as also f'rther believed by both sects that a hermaphrodite may not receive ordination, as its physical condition prod'ced an inc'rable restlessness of mind that prevented it from the kind of concentration re5'ired for spirit'al e.ercises. )ts physical !ender th's created mental indecision as to the ob2ects of its se.'al desire, %hich prod'ced in t'rn an eternal insatiability of mind. Correspondin! to these three lin!as, %hich %ere permanent physical feat'res of one+s !iven life, the

Jainas also proposed three psycholo!ical se.'al inclinations. Called vedas , these %ere the prod'cts of del'din! >mohaniya ? karma, %hich %as responsible for the aro'sal of se.'al desires >veda, i.e., libido?. * male+s desire for a female %o'ld th's be kno%n as pumveda , or male libido0 a female+s desire for a male as striveda , or female libido0 and a hermaphrodite+s desire for both male and female as napumsa"aveda , or the hermaphrodite libido.31"4 :e!ardless of their biolo!ical !ender >lin!a?, all h'man bein!s %ere believed capable of e.periencin! any of the three vedas. -hese libidos, ho%ever, m'st be totally annihilated by means of ri!hteo's meditation >dharmadhyana? before a person co'ld practice the p'rest meditation >s'kladhyana?, a precondition for the attainment of *rhatship. -he Siddha1a desi!nation the Jainas applied e.cl'sively to the totally disembodied so'l of an *rhat after his death1%as th's evidently free from both physical lin!a and psycholo!ical veda0 yet, in a conventional manner, he co'ld still be described as a Siddha %ho %as formerly male or female >by !ender? or a Siddha %ho e.perienced formerly, as he climbed to the s'mmit of the spirit'al path, any of the three libidos. -he %ord 9lin!a9 that appears in this s'tra of Umasvati is 'sed by the / 17 / Svetambara to corroborate his contention that the script'res allo% moksa not only for males b't also for females and even certain hermaphrodites >the noncon!enital type?. J19 -he Hi!ambaras, %ho admit the appearance of the %ord 9lin!a9 in this s'tra, contend, ho%ever, that the %ord sho'ld be interpreted instead as the psycholo!ical veda, %hether of the male, the female, or the hermaphrodite. -hey clin! to their belief that only a person %ho is physically male >i.e., a monk? is intended by the s'tra. *ccordin! to them the terms 9stri9 and 9nap'msaka9 are 'sed there >i.e., in the terms 9strilinga-Siddha 9 and 9napumsa"alinga-Siddha 9? to refer not to a former %oman or a former hermaphrodite b't to the past state of that kind of a monk %ho had started to climb the spirit'al ladder >gunasthana , c'lminatin! in his *rhatship? %ith either a female libido >striveda? or a hermaphrodite libido >nap'msakaveda?. S'ch a monk may be called metaphorically female or hermaphrodite in vie% of this stran!e orientation, !ivin! rise to s'ch e.pressions as strilin!a(Siddha or nap'msakalin!a( Siddha. Physically, ho%ever, he is male and had to destroy all forms of veda lon! before he co'ld arrive at the sta!e of the *rhat >the thirteenth !'nasthana? and finally become a Siddha >%ho is even beyond the !'nasthana ladder?. J7# *ltho'!h the Fapaniya a'thor Sakatayana re2ected the very idea of distin!'ishin! libido alon! the lines of biolo!ical !ender, ar!'in! that se. desire, like an!er or pride, is the same in man, %oman, or hermaphrodite, this seems to be his personal vie%, for the script'res of both the Svetambara and the Hi!ambara sects accept the theory of three libidos. -he Svetambaras therefore re2ect the Hi!ambara interpretation of the script'ral passa!e on a different !ro'nd. -hey retort that if a man may be allo%ed to attain moksa even %hen he had previo'sly e.perienced striveda >%hich %as 'nnat'ral to him?, then there are no !ro'nds for denyin! moksa to a %oman %hen she also similarly e.perienced striveda >%hich %as, of co'rse, nat'ral to her?. 6oreover, if ind'l!in! in a se.'al inclination that is contrary to his nat're does not prevent a man from attainin! moksa, then s'rely that option sho'ld be available to a %oman also, and th's she too sho'ld be able to attain moksa if she has e.perienced p'mveda. J71 -he Hi!ambara reply to this ob2ection appears in the follo%in! syllo!ism: * bein! %ho is 'nable to attain moksa beca'se of its physical body m'st necessarily be 'nable to attain it mentally also0 as, for e.ample, animals and other nonh'man bein!s 3%ho are barred from attainin! moksa40 a %oman is 'nable to attain moksa beca'se of her female body0 therefore she is 'nable to

attain moksa even by e.periencin! the male libido.31B4 / 1" / -he Hi!ambaras th's propose that, re!ardless of the type of se.'ality a person may entertain internally, only a person %ho is physically male has the ability to destroy all karmas thro'!h the perfection of s'kladhyana. -he Hi!ambaras+ contention therefore follo%s from their f'ndamental idea that a female body is someho% inferior to a male body, as is e.pressed in the follo%in! syllo!ism: Comen are not %orthy of attainin! moksa0 beca'se they are inferior to men >hinatvat ?0 as are hermaphrodites.31D4 J77 -his f'ndamental inferiority of females is en'nciated in the follo%in! ar!'ment 'sed by the Hi!ambaras: * female body is not able to destroy the hosts of karmas0 beca'se it is prod'ced in association %ith that evil karma called %ron! vie% >mithyatva ?0 as is the case %ith the bodies of hell bein!s and so forth.31E4 -he si!nificance of this syllo!ism is very !rave. -he Hi!ambaras have maintained that a person %ho !enerates the Jaina vie% of reality >samya"tva or samya"-darsana ? may never a!ain be reborn a female, re!ardless of %hether at that time the person %as male or female.31G4 *ltho'!h bein! born a man does not invariably mean that the person is endo%ed %ith samyaktva, birth as a %oman is a s're indication that the so'l inhabitin! that body %as endo%ed %ith mithyatva at the moment of birth. -his r'le applies invariably to all %omen, accordin! to the Hi!ambaras, incl'din! even the mothers of the -irthankaras. &f co'rse, there is nothin! to prevent a %oman from !eneratin! samyaktva at a s'bse5'ent moment in her life b't, 'nlike men, she is considered incapable of perfectin! it in her present body. -his lack of perfection proceeds as a direct res'lt of her female body. *s @'ndak'nda pointed o't, her !enital or!ans and the area bet%een her breasts are a breedin! !ro'nd of min'te forms of life. >-his leads the Svetambara a'thor 6e!havi2aya to concl'de: 9=or this reason, %omen s'ffer from constant itchin! ca'sed by these bein!s, %hich does not allo% them ever to have any cessation of se.'al desire90 see Chapter A), J17.? 6enstr'ation is seen as a so'rce of in2'ry >himsa? to infinite n'mbers of s'bmicroscopic lives, the demise of %hich inevitably dist'rbs the %oman. ;er body in !eneral and menstr'ation in partic'lar ca'se in her e.treme forms of an.iety and mental restlessness >from %hich males by the very nat're of their bodies are al%ays free?, th's preventin! her from foc'sin! her mind firmly on the holy path. )t is even believed that the flo% of / 1B / menstr'al blood is not an invol'ntary >i.e., nat'ral? f'nction of a %oman+s body b't the res'lt of a se.'al volition >veda, a variety of mohaniya(karma responsible for the emer!ence of se.'al passion?, a phenomenon comparable to a man+s emission of semen >virya ? d'rin! a dream.31$4 ;er menstr'al cycles are th's constant reminders to her as %ell as others that she is se.'ally desirable. -his a%areness be!ets shame >la%%a ?, %hich in t'rn leads to dependency on %earin! clothes in order to shield herself from the l'rid !lances of men. )t also makes her s'b2ect to the constant fear of bein! se.'ally assa'lted by males th's makin! her dependent on society at lar!e for protection. -hese t%o constant factors of shame and fear, %hich the Hi!ambaras believe men may overcome, render a %oman 'nfit to 'ndertake the hi!her vo%s >mahavratas? of a mendicant or to p'rs'e the 'pper reaches of the meditational states

thro'!h %hich alone one may e.tirpate the libido >i.e., the veda? and thereby climb to the s'mmit of the p'rest meditation >s'kladhyana?, %hich m'st terminate in moksa. =or all these reasons, the Hi!ambaras believe that the body of a %oman is itself eno'!h to render a %oman incapable of attainin! moksa. J7" Stran!e as it may seem, the Svetambaras conc'r %ith the Hi!ambara vie% that a person %ho has samyaktva at the time of his >or her? death may never a!ain be reborn as a female. *ll the same, the Svetambaras have claimed there is one e.ception to this r'le. -his e.ception is described as an as'arya , or an e.traordinary event, indeed a miracle0 it applies to the person of 6alli, the nineteenth Jina, the only female of the t%enty(fo'r Jinas of o'r time, of %hom 6ahavira %as the last.3194 )t may be of some interest for 's to look into the le!end of this female Jina, as it provides a rare insi!ht into the factors tho'!ht to lead to rebirth as a %oman. J7B *ccordin! to Svetambara le!end, the so'l that later became the female 6alli %as in a former >third from the last? life a kin! named 6ahabala.37#4 @in! 6ahabala reno'nced the %orld to!ether %ith seven friends, and they all became Jaina mendicants. )t is c'stomary for Jaina monks to en!a!e in special a'sterities, s'ch as fastin!. *ll ei!ht monks made a solemn a!reement to 'ndertake an identical n'mber of fasts as part of their a'sterities. Ko%, 6ahabala %as by nat're deceitf'l and constantly fo'nd e.c'ses >s'ch as ill health? to skip meals and th's broke the a!reement by devio'sly acc'm'latin! a lar!er n'mber of fasts than his friends. ;is cond'ct %as other%ise fa'ltless, and as a conse5'ence of his !reat e.ertions in leadin! a holy life he !enerated s'ch karmic forces as %o'ld yield him rebirth as a %o'ld(be Jina1that is, one %hose conception >garbha ?, birth >%anma ?, ren'nciation >di"sa ?, enli!htenment >"evala%nana ?, and death >nirvana? %o'ld be celebrated as a'spicio's events >"alyana ? by !ods and / 1D / men. 8ven accordin! to the Svetambara canon a Jina m'st possess a male body, b't beca'se of the c'nnin! of the monk 6ahabala he %as, after completin! a lon! period in a heaven, reborn amon! the h'mans not as a male Jina b't as 6alli, a female. Since it is inconceivable that a %o'ld(be Jina co'ld be devoid of samyaktva at birth, the Svetambaras concl'de that 6alli %as an e.ception to both karmic r'les of rebirth1that a Jina m'st not be a female and that a %oman may not be endo%ed %ith samyaktva at birth. -he le!end tells 's that %hereas the monk 6ahabala %as born as a princess named 6alli >lit., 2asmine flo%er1beca'se of her !reat bea'ty?, the other seven monks %ere reborn as men, members of the %arrior caste, r'lers of nei!hborin! kin!doms. -hey all so'!ht 6alli+s hand in marria!e and even %ent to %ar over her. His!'sted to be re!arded as a se.'al ob2ect and to be the ca'se of violence, she reno'nced the %orld %hile still yo'n! and, havin! !ained kevala2nana or omniscience on the very day of her ren'nciation, became a Jina, th's attainin! the stat's e5'al to that of 6ahavira. -he Fapaniyas appear to be 'na%are of this le!end0 the Hi!ambaras vehemently re2ect it as blasphemy and consider it a Svetambara fabrication to s'pport their theory that a n'n can attain moksa. *ccordin! to them 6alli >or rather 6allinatha as he is called? %as male, a member of a royal family, and p'rs'ed the career of a %o'ld(be Jina in the same manner as did the other Jinas, that is, by strictly observin! the vo%s of a Hi!ambara monk. Kot%ithstandin! these t%o versions of the story, %e may note that all Jainas share in the belief that s'ch vices as cheatin! and crookedness >called maya in Jaina te.ts? are the f'ndamental ca'ses of rebirth as a %oman.3714 J7D :et'rnin! to the Hi!ambara ar!'ment that a person %ith samyaktva may not be reborn as a %oman, the Svetambara contends that this karmic r'le in itself sho'ld not hinder a %oman+s attainin! moksa, since, as even the Hi!ambaras admit, samyaktva can be !enerated at a s'bse5'ent time in a

%oman+s life0 th's an initial presence of mithyatva need not prevent a %oman from later attainin! the same !oal as a male. Cith respect to the oft(repeated Hi!ambara ob2ection concernin! a %oman+s dependence on %earin! clothes1%hich alle!edly stands in the %ay of her perfectin! ri!ht cond'ct >samyak(caritra? to the same level as a naked male mendicant1the Svetambaras say that clothes are not to be considered possessions >pari!raha? for a n'n b't rather aids to leadin! the holy life0 they therefore are comparable to the small %hisk broom >ra%oharana or pin'hi , a b'nch of peacock feathers allo%ed even for a Hi!ambara monk. / 1E / J7E -his brin!s 's to %hat is probably the %orst st'mblin! block in reconcilin! the Hi!ambara and Svetambara positions: the disp'te over the permissibility of a monk+s %earin! clothes, on the one hand, and the prohibition a!ainst n'dity for %omen, on the other, %hich virt'ally precl'ded %omen from moksa. -he follo%in! syllo!ism is proposed by the Hi!ambaras: -he holy cond'ct of %omen is ins'fficient to attain moksa0 beca'se that cond'ct is dependent 'pon possessions 3i.e., clothes40 as in the case of ho'seholders 3%ho are also barred from attainin! moksa beca'se of their property and other possessions4.3774 J7G -he Svetambara ans%er to this ar!'ment is, as pointed o't earlier, that clothes sho'ld be considered an aid to the attainment of moksa, as are s'ch re5'isites as the %hisk broom, and sho'ld not be called property >pari!raha?. -he Svetambaras accept the Hi!ambaras+ assertion that a ho'seholder may not attain moksa, b't the ca'se they cite is his attachment to possessions, %hich n'ns are pres'med to have overcome. -he $attvarthasutra >vii, 17? declares that 9Possession means attachment9 >mur''ha ?0 for the Svetambaras, therefore, attachment, not possession, is the iss'e. )n the absence of s'ch attachment, a n'n+s %earin! clothes sho'ld be considered cond'cive to her keepin! the precepts as %ell as indicative of her obedience to the in2'nction a!ainst n'dity. -he Hi!ambaras mi!ht still insist that, despite her lack of attachment, a n'n remains infat'ated %ith clothes simply beca'se she is compelled to contin'e %earin! them. B't the Svetambaras re2ect this claim, raisin! the comparison of a Hi!ambara mendicant seated in meditation on %hom clothes are forced: if the Hi!ambaras believe that that monk, beca'se of the contin'ed presence of nonattachment in his mind, has not broken the vo% of nonpossession >aparigraha ? even tho'!h he is 9%earin!9 clothes at the time, they %o'ld also have to admit that a n'n is similarly not rendered 'nfit for moksa 2'st beca'se she too is compelled to %ear clothes. J7$ -he Hi!ambara co'nters this apparently 'nassailable ar!'ment by demonstratin! the cr'cial difference bet%een the n'n and the monk in the e.ample. )n the case of the Hi!ambara monk on %hom clothes are forced, the Hi!ambara maintains that the monk %ill certainly discard those clothes once he rises from his meditation. 8ven more important, once those clothes fall from his body, he %ill not entertain the tho'!ht of pickin! them 'p1certain proof of his bein! tr'ly 'nattached to clothes. )n the case of a n'n, ho%ever, if clothes fall off her, she %ill deliberately pick them 'p1a s're si!n of her contin'ed attachment to those clothes. -his point can be proved in the follo%in! manner: / 1G / )f somethin! that has fallen is deliberately picked 'p, this proves there is no absence of attachment in the person %ho so picks it 'p0 as in the case of !old and so forth 3bein! picked 'p4.

Comen do deliberately pick 'p clothes 3%hen fallen40 therefore, there is no absence of attachment for n'ns, since they deliberately pick 'p 3thin!s that have fallen4.37"4 J79 -he Svetambara re2oinder is simply that a n'n is merely obeyin! the in2'nction to remain clothed. B't the dilemma over %hether attachment is present in her remains 'nresolved. -he Svetambara reply to this ar!'ment is that a n'n+s pickin! 'p clothes is comparable to a naked monk+s pickin! 'p his %hisk broom %hen he rises from his meditation, an act that is also deliberate and yet considered blameless. J"# -he Hi!ambaras+ ans%er leads 's back to their ori!inal premise that clothes are not appropriate re5'isites for keepin! the precepts. -hey maintain that the monk 'ses the %hisk broom to protect the lives of small insects that mi!ht ali!ht on his seat0 it is, therefore, a le!itimate re5'isite for keepin! his precept of ahimsa. Clothes, on the contrary, are a breedin! !ro'nd for lice and their e!!s0 they also !ive rise to many an.ieties and f'rther one+s dependence on the lay people %ho prod'ce them. Precisely for these reasons the -irthankaras have declared that clothes are possessions %hich sho'ld be reno'nced by an aspirant, in the same %ay that he sho'ld reno'nce s'ch internal possessions as %ron! vie%s and passions. -he follo%in! syllo!ism is offered in defense of this position: Clothes are not cond'cive to moksa0 beca'se their ren'nciation is en2oined0 as 3is the ren'nciation of4 %ron! vie%s.37B4 -he Hi!ambara position in this re!ard does not allo% any compromise. -he Hi!ambara therefore insists that a %oman %ears clothes not so m'ch to !'ard her precepts as to hide her shame >la22a, a form of passion born of mohaniya(karma? and to protect herself from possible attack. J"1 -he Svetambara admits that %ashin! and %earin! clothes may entail some s'perficial harm. B't he maintains that the !reat spirit'al benefits that accr'e to %omen from %earin! clothes1%itho't %hich they %o'ld be 'nable to lead the holy life1more than o't%ei!h the sli!ht amo'nt of in2'ry >himsa ? that those clothes en!ender. Clothes, therefore, sho'ld not be considered an impediment to moksa for %omen. J"7 -he Hi!ambara ans%er to this re2oinder is that they too prefer, indeed re5'ire, that n'ns %ear clothes0 they too are not blind to the spirit'al advanta!es that accr'e to %omen %ho try to follo% in the footsteps of the mendicant monks. B't they insist that the paths of those male mandicants / 1$ / %ho !o %itho't clothes >a'ela"a ? and those female reli!io's %ho %ear clothes >sa'ela"a ? are f'ndamentally different and do not lead to the same !oal. By lo!ic, paths that be!in separately cannot end in the same !oal0 therefore the Hi!ambara re2ects the e5'ivalence of these t%o paths. -he holy life of a n'n falls a !reat deal short of complete ren'nciation and th's. is 'ltimately comparable to the reli!io's life of a layperson. -herefore, like the ho'seholder, she may be admitted to heaven, b't she %ill be 'nable to attain moksa in her present life. )f the Svetambaras nonetheless contin'e to insist that a man+s %earin! clothes does not violate the precepts concernin! nonpossession >apari!raha? or nonin2'ry >ahimsa?, then they m'st also admit that one of these t%o kinds of moksa is inferior to the other1a position their o%n script're does not s'pport. J"" -he si!nificance of the script'ral passa!es cited above by the Hi!ambaras and Svetambaras concernin! the inability of %omen either to fall into the seventh hell or to reno'nce clothes completely is debatable. B't the adherents of the t%o sects have not relied entirely on script'ral testimony in

advocatin! their beliefs. -he Hi!ambaras in partic'lar have so'!ht to stren!then their ar!'ments by takin! reco'rse to the inferior position of %omen both %ithin )ndian society as a %hole as %ell as %ithin the ecclesiastical order. *ltho'!h the Upanisads attest to the debatin! abilities of Brahmanical %omen like <ar!i Aacaknavi >Maehner, 19EE, pp. DD(DG?, it is a lamentable fact of )ndian monastic life that altho'!h technically %omen %ere not denied the st'dy of the script'res, it %as certainly not their forte. -here m'st, of co'rse, have been learned %omen both in the Jaina and B'ddhist orders of n'ns, and they %o'ld probably have been allo%ed at one time to take part in the debates commonly held bet%een adherents of rival schools, as %itnessed by s'ch te.ts as the Jaina +ttaradhyayana-sutra and the B'ddhist $herigatha . B't in the postcanonical period of both reli!ions, the role of %omen !rad'ally receded 'ntil 'ltimately they %ere allo%ed to st'dy only the most r'dimentary te.ts pertainin! to cond'ct, not the rival philosophical doctrines that men p'blicly debated. Participation in s'ch debates %as not merely a matter of scholarship0 it also demanded demonstrable occ'lt po%ers, %hereby the !'ardian deities >sasana-devata ? of one+s o%n school1for e.ample, the !oddesses Cakaresvari for the Jainas and -ara for the B'ddhists1co'ld be s'mmoned to help defeat one+s rival.37D4 S'ch po%ers, called labdhis , %ere deemed the prero!ative of males only, %ho !enerated them thro'!h the impet's of their a'sterities and yo!ic po%ers. -he laity, of co'rse, %as considered incapable of developin! / 19 / s'ch po%ers, b't society at lar!e re!arded n'ns e5'ally po%erless, barred by their se. from invokin! these deities or from ind'l!in! in any form of -antric practices to call 'p these 9!'ardians.9 =or the Hi!ambaras, the incompetence of n'ns in s'ch m'ndane matters as the ability to en!a!e in debates or to !enerate occ'lt po%ers indicated that they %ere e5'ally incapable in s'ch s'pram'ndane concerns as attainin! that omniscience %hich is prod'ced thro'!h e.traordinary moral p'rity. J"B -he Svetambaras+ re2oinder is to the point: %omen may not participate in debate or develop occ'lt po%ers0 b't there is no proof that s'ch thin!s are invariably linked %ith moksa. 8ven the Hi!ambaras m'st admit that co'ntless so'ls, kno%n as mu"a-"evalins >or silent &mniscient Bein!s? have attained moksa %itho't 'tterin! even a sin!le %ord. -herefore, 'nless the Hi!ambaras are able to prove an invariable concomitance bet%een en!a!in! in debate and attainin! moksa, their point is moot and act'ally reflects social pre2'dice, %hich is totally o't of place in serio's disc'ssion. J"D Chile the Hi!ambaras cannot demonstrate any invariable concomitance bet%een the t%o factors, their reb'ttal falls back on their central thesis: %omen cannot achieve the perfection of holy cond'ct and hence are 'nable to attain moksa. -heir inference is a!ain based on the indicator indicated relationship: this imperfection is proved, they say, by %omen+s inability to participate in debate or !enerate psychic po%ers, %hich alle!edly res'lt not so m'ch from learnin! as from the ri!ors of a'sterities >tapas ? and the p'rity of cond'ct. *ccordin! to them, the latter are possible only to a Hi!ambara monk, not to a n'n, %ho fails to achieve p'rity of cond'ct. J"E -he disparity bet%een the stat's of n'ns and monks %ithin the Svetambara order provides the Hi!ambaras %ith still another point on %hich to reassert their ori!inal claim that %omen are inherently inferior to men and th's may not attain moksa. *s %as observed above, in the Hi!ambara sect a %oman may rise no hi!her than to the stat's of an advanced lay%oman >uttama-sravi"a ?, even tho'!h she is !iven the title 9n'n9 >aryika? o't of co'rtesy. ;er position, therefore, both technically and in practice, is inferior to that of a monk, tho'!h s'perior to that of lay people. B't this is not so in the Svetambara sect. -here %omen are considered the e5'als of men in leadin! the holy life, since both ass'me the same mendicant precepts and may possess the same de!ree of perfection in cond'ct. -echnically,

therefore, there is no disparity bet%een them, altho'!h in practical terms a Svetambara n'n fares little better than her / 7# / Hi!ambara co'nterpart. -his is manifest from the Svetambara mendicant la%, %hich stip'lates that: 8ven if a n'n is ordained for a h'ndred years she m'st pay homa!e to a yo'n! monk, even if that monk has been ordained that very day, by !oin! forth to meet him and by !reetin! him in reverence.37E4 She may, moreover, confess to monks and be admonished by them b't is prohibited from ass'min! those d'ties herself. -he Hi!ambaras sei,ed on this discrepancy bet%een the technical and practical stat's of Svetambara n'ns and asserted that the n'ns+ inferior stat's in the rival ecclesiastical order proves their inherent inferiority in reachin! the re5'ired perfection %itho't %hich moksa %o'ld be impossible. J"G -he Svetambaras+ reply to this challen!e is virt'ally identical to the previo's one: there is no lo!ical connection, let alone any invariable concomitance, bet%een havin! one+s !reetin!s ret'rned and attainin! moksa. -hey 'se the e.ample of a teacher and his disciple to ill'strate this point: the teacher may not !reet the disciple, b't the disciple can still attain moksa. -he Hi!ambaras+ reb'ttal is also a restatement of their earlier position. *!reed, there is no concomitance bet%een bein! !reeted and !oin! to moksa0 ho%ever, the Svetambaras m'st not for!et that only those disciples %ho first attain perfection %ill attain moksa, and attainin! perfection is not a 'niversal occ'rrence. &ther%ise, the Svetambara %o'ld have to admit that all disciples, re!ardless of their preparation, may attain moksa. )n s'pport of their claim, the Hi!ambaras offer a co'ntere.ample of the sons and da'!hters of a kin!. *ccordin! to )ndian la%s of primo!enit're only the eldest son may inherit the throne0 ho%ever, the disenfranchised princes do not then become e5'al in stat's to the princesses. Princes may be considered for kin!ship 'nder different circ'mstances0 princesses, ho%ever, are never entitled to inherit the throne. )n the same %ay, %hether a disciple is !reeted by a teacher or not, he may attain moksa only if he achieves the re5'ired moral perfection0 it is therefore invalid to compare him to %omen, %ho are inherently ineli!ible for that achievement. J"$ )n contin'ation of the same ar!'ment, the Hi!ambara sho%s the inferiority of %omen %ith re!ard to %orldly stat's as %ell. -he inference is syllo!istically framed: -here is no attainment of the hi!her stat's 3i.e., moksa4 by %omen0 beca'se they are 'n%orthy of the hi!her stat's desired by yo!ins, ho'seholders, or !ods0 as is the case %ith hermaphrodites.37G4 -he Hi!ambaras assert that the hi!hest stat's attainable by a layman is that / 71 / of the 'a"ravartin >'niversal? kin!, %hile the hi!hest stat's attainable by a heavenly bein! is that of Sakra >)ndra?, the kin! of the !ods. Ko female is ever kno%n to have attained either of these t%o most e.alted states. Since even these %orldly stat'ses are denied to %omen, it follo%s that they %o'ld certainly not be able to attain the s'pram'ndane stat's of Siddhahood. )n every ho'sehold as %ell, the man, not the %oman, is master of the ho'se. -his sit'ation also indicates to the Hi!ambaras the inherent inferiority of %omen.

J"9 -he sectarian disp'te bet%een the Hi!ambaras and Svetambaras concernin! the salvation of %omen mi!ht never have taken place if the Svetambara script'res had not affirmed that 6ahavira himself >'nlike <a'tama the B'ddha, for e.ample? had practiced n'dity and that %omen co'ld not be reborn in the lo%est hell >a matter on %hich all other )ndian schools are also silent?. -he debate bet%een the t%o sects, as o'tlined above, hin!es on the si!nificance of these t%o factors for 'nderstandin! the Jaina attit'de to%ard the position of %oman as mendicant and her ability to attain that perfection >alle!edly attained by men? %itho't %hich moksa is not possible. =or the Hi!ambaras, it is a %oman+s anatomy that prevents her from observin! the hi!hest precepts of mendicancy >incl'sive of nakedness?, %hich in t'rn acco'nts for her lack of moral perfection. =or the Svetambara, possession denotes not the material thin!s themselves b't mental attachment to them. -he cr'cial point of the controversy %o'ld th's appear to be the definitions of the %ords 9pari!raha9 and 9vitara!a91that is, %hat constit'tes a possession and %hat is its relationship to the absence of passionsP <iven the entirely literal interpretation of the term 9pari!raha9 by the Hi!ambaras, and the Svetambara claim that clothes per se do not constit'te possessions %hether for a man or a %oman, it is not s'rprisin! that the Jainas co'ld not resolve the problem of a n'n+s moksa. ='rthermore, to non(Jainas the %hole ar!'ment %o'ld appear to be fallacio's, since it is not possible to prove a person+s freedom from passions from his lack of possessions. -his %as in fact pointed o't by the !reat B'ddhist lo!ician Hharmakirti, %ho 'sed the Hi!ambara ar!'ment to ill'strate a lo!ical fallacy called 9'ncertainty9 >sandigdha ?. -o 5'ote Hharmakirti, the follo%in! Hi!ambara statements are %ron!: @apila 3the Samkhya teacher4 and others are not free from passions0 beca'se they are s'b2ect to the ac5'isition of property. and &ne %ho is free from passions is not s'b2ect to ac5'isition0 for e.ample, :sabha, the Jaina teacher.37$4 / 77 / -his Jaina ar!'ment, says Hharmakirti, is fallacio's beca'se the relationship bet%een the lack of freedom from passions and ac5'isitions, as %ell as their absence in :sabha, is d'bio's. ;ence this is a case of the ne!ative e.ample bein! defective inasm'ch as one can do'bt the absence of both the thin! to be proved >sadhya ? and the reason thereof >hetu ?.3794 -his d'bio's relationship itself is the only thin! that allo%s the contrary claims of the t%o Jaina sects to stand1the Hi!ambara vie% that a %oman cannot achieve the perfection of p're cond'ct >samyak(caritra? and the Svetambara contention that clothes do not constit'te pari!raha and therefore do not prevent a %oman from attainin! perfection e5'ivalent to that of a male.

Non/Jaina Tradition% o& +endi,an,' and Salvation &or 0omen

JB# -he Jaina debates on the salvation of %omen s'mmari,ed above are indeed 'ni5'e in the history of the reli!io's literat're of )ndia. -here is nothin! even remotely parallel to this disc'ssion in the %hole Brahmanical tradition, %hether in the Aedic script'res, the epics, or the la% books >the Dharmasastras ?. -raditional Brahmanical society certainly does 'phold the fo'rfold system of asramas c'lminatin! in sannyasa , or ren'nciation, b't 'nlike the Jainas, it never claimed that to be the e.cl'sive path to moksa. 8ven %hen asceticism %as the preferred path, Brahmanical society never approved of mendicancy for %omen and made marria!e mandatory for all %omen. *fter the death of her h'sband, a %oman of the Brahman caste mi!ht to all appearances lead the life of a n'n by observin! chastity, shavin! her head, and sleepin! on the floor, yet she %as not free to leave the

ho'sehold and 2oin a mendicant order composed of other %omen like her. ;o%ever p're the life of a %ido%, the la% books promise her nothin! more than a rebirth in heaven, implyin! that that is the hi!hest !oal a %oman can reach.3"#4 Probably the Bhagavad-Gita is the first sacred te.t that even mentions a para-gati >hi!hest !oal, i.e., moksa? in connection %ith %omen. ;ere too the a'thor of the Gita sho%s his disdain for %omen by bracketin! them %ith members of the t%o lo%er castes, namely the Aaisyas and the S'dras, all described as base(born >papa-yonayah , lit., born from the very %omb of sin? and declares that they too may attain para(!ati thro'!h devotion to the Iord.3"14 )t is not absol'tely clear, ho%ever, %hether s'ch a %oman %ill attain the 9hi!hest !oal9 in her present body and present life, a matter of contention in the Jaina debates disc'ssed above. JB1 * comparison %ith B'ddhism on this point is far more instr'ctive. )t is %ell kno%n that <a'tama, the B'ddha, a!reed only rel'ctantly, and only to%ard the end of his lifetime, to the establishment of an order of n'ns / 7" / >bhi"sunisangha ?. -he B'ddha is noted for his ref'sal to ans%er a !reat many philosophical 5'estions, b't fort'nately he %as 5'ite specific on the 5'estion of a %oman+s ability to attain nirvana in her present life. )t is told that the B'ddha thrice re2ected his a!ed a'nt+s implorin!s to become a n'n. *t this point the venerable *nanda intervened to ask the B'ddha if %omen %ere capable of attainin! nirvana. -he B'ddha+s ans%er %as 'nhesitatin!ly affirmative and led immediately to the ordination of 6ahapra2apati <a'tami, his a'nt, as the first member of the B'ddhist order of n'ns.3"74 ;ad the Jainas also asked a similar 5'estion of 6ahavira, himself a contemporary of the B'ddha, the Jaina debates disc'ssed above mi!ht not have taken place. B't then the B'ddha cate!orically condemned n'dity, %hereas 6ahavira practiced it himself and even advocated it for his disciples. -he Jainas %ere th's left %ith a le!acy of debatin! the stat's of a 9sky(clad9 vers's a 9cloth(clad9 mendicant >%ho claimed clothin! as an option? and especially the stat's of a n'n %ho %as left %ith no choice b't to remain clad like a ho'seholder and thereby %as liable to forfeit her ri!ht to attain moksa. JB7 Kot%ithstandin! the B'ddha+s cate!orical admission that a B'ddhist n'n can attain the same !oal of *rhatship attainable by a monk, the B'ddhists %ere not able to !rant e5'al stat's to a n'n %ithin the mendicant order. )n fact, the first of the 8i!ht 6a2or :'les >gurudharma ? that applied only to a n'n as a condition of her enterin! the san!ha reads: * n'n, even if a h'ndred years old 3by ordination4 m'st pay respect to a monk even if he has been ordained 2'st the day before.3""4 -his r'le, as seen above, is almost identically applied to the n'ns in the Svetambara order. -he Svetambara position on the stat's of a %oman appears very similar to that of the early B'ddhists. Both believed that a %oman %as capable of attainin! *rhatship, yet %as inferior to a man in the matter of ecclesiastical or!ani,ation. Both sa% no contradiction in this d'al standard, since a %oman+s stat's in the san!ha only reflected her standin! in lay society. JB" -he Hi!ambara position, by contrast, appears to correspond to another B'ddhist vie% accordin! to %hich a %oman may attain *rhatship b't may not become a B'ddha. Bein! born male >pumlingasampatti ? %as a precondition of bein! a B'ddha.3"B4 Ko female B'ddhas have ever been mentioned in the B'ddhist te.ts, either in Pali or in Sanskrit. -he pre2'dice a!ainst the female se. m'st have been deep(rooted in the pop'lar mind. )n the Pali Jata"a , for e.ample, %hich narrates the stories of five h'ndred and forty(seven past lives of the Bodhisattva <a'tama, there is not a sin!le

/ 7B / instance of his birth as a female, not even in his animal rebirths.3"D4 -he 6ahayana te.ts also are not e.empt from the belief that a B'ddha m'st be male. Citness, for e.ample, the story in the Saddharmapundari"a-sutra of the ei!ht(year(old Bodhisattva maiden Sa!ara(Ka!ara2a(d'hita, %hose se. chan!es %hen a prophecy is made that she %ill become a B'ddha.3"E4 Kot%ithstandin! the )ra%naparamita-sutra proclamations that matters of se. and physicality fall in the realm of convention, or similar !rand 'tterances in s'ch te.ts as the &imala"irtinirdesa ,3"G4 there has been no chan!e in the belief that only males can become B'ddhas. *dd to this belief the sin!'lar doctrine of the Saddharmapundari"a-sutra that nirvana %as attainable only by becomin! a B'ddha, and that the ;inayana *rhats %ere %ron! in pres'min! that they had attained nirvana, and %e are led to the stark concl'sion that only a male >i.e., a B'ddha? %as capable of attainin! nirvana.3"$4 -his doctrine of the Saddharmapundari"a-sutra , desi!nated sometimes as 8kayana, affords a certain parallel %ith the Hi!ambara position. =or both, bein! male is a necessary b't not s'fficient condition for attainin! nirvana. )n the 8kayana, the female Bodhisattva is transformed into a male Bodhisattva prior to attainin! B'ddhahood0 in the Hi!ambara vie%, the n'n+s deficiency in ass'min! the !reat vo% >mahavrata? of total apari!raha >incl'sive of n'dity? m'st res'lt in her event'al rebirth as a man to 5'alify for the attainment of moksa.

Contem1orar' Relevan,e o& the *ebate Amon$ the Jaina%

JBB )t %o'ld be appropriate to ask if these debates, interestin! as they are for 'nderstandin! the sectarian differences %ithin Jainism, have any relevance for those men and %omen %ho are act'ally en!a!ed in practicin! the Jaina mendicant discipline. =or 'nlike *2ivikism, %hich became e.tinct, and B'ddhism, %hich disappeared from )ndia a lon! time a!o, the Jaina sramana >ascetic? tradition has not only s'rvived b't contin'es to flo'rish in its motherland. *nd altho'!h the present(day Jaina comm'nity consists of no more than some si. million people >of %hich the Hi!ambaras probably constit'te a third?, the total membership of the Jaina mendicant order can still be co'nted in the tho'sands. -he precise n'mber of monks and n'ns %ithin the t%o Jaina sects is not kno%n. 6odern attempts to tab'late their n'mber1by co'ntin! the !ro'ps of mendicants in their vario's residences for the d'ration of the rainy season1has yielded a fi!'re of some t%enty(five h'ndred monks and as many as si. tho'sand n'ns. -he percenta!e of Hi!ambara mendicants is 5'ite small: no more than a h'ndred naked monks >m'nis? and probably even fe%er n'ns >aryikas?. -he remainder are / 7D / all %ithin the Svetambara comm'nity, incl'din! their reformist >i.e., non(idol(%orshipin!? s'bsects, namely, the Sthanakavasi and the -erapanthi. )f the fi!'re of si. tho'sand for the modern(day comm'nity of n'ns >for the entire Jaina comm'nity of only si. million adherents? so'nds sta!!erin!, consider the canonical claim that at the death of 6ahavira his san!ha consisted of fo'rteen tho'sand monks and thirty(si. tho'sand n'ns.3"94 )f this belief is based on fact >and there is no basis to do'bt this since both sects a!ree %ith this fi!'re?, then even if the n'mber of n'ns has decreased since the time of 6ahavira, their ratio to the m'nis has not chan!ed si!nificantly. -he inferior stat's of the n'ns in the Svetambara mendicant comm'nity not%ithstandin!, the n'merical s'periority they have en2oyed thro'!h the a!es m'st have contrib'ted tremendo'sly in shapin! the Jaina comm'nity. -heir impact is especially evident in their ability to promote the individ'al asceticism of the Jaina lay%omen %ho ro'tinely 'ndertake severe dietary restrictions and lon! periods of fastin! and chastity. Ko sociolo!ical research of any depth has been done on these %omen to tell 's abo't their family back!ro'nds or their personal reasons for reno'ncin! the ho'sehold life. * cas'al in5'iry ) cond'cted a fe% years a!o

amon! small !ro'ps of these n'ns in the areas of @athiavad in <'2arat and the 6ar%ad in :a2asthan revealed that a !reat ma2ority of them came from the affl'ent merchant castes, s'ch as the Srimalis or the &s%als. *lmost half of them %ere 'nmarried and had entered the mendicant life at a very yo'n! a!e >some even at the a!e of nine?, and in many cases they %ere recr'ited into the order by a female member of their o%n family, s'ch as an a'nt or sister, %ho had been ordained earlier in a similar manner.3B#4 JBD )t is a moot 5'estion %hether the Svetambara approval of moksa for %omen has contrib'ted in any %ay to the s'rvival of Jaina n'ns as a san!ha, especially in a co'ntry like )ndia, %here no other reli!io's comm'nity claims a similar !ro'p of %omen freed from the bonda!e of the ho'sehold life. *pparently approval of strinirvana and the s'rvival of a san!ha of n'ns are not connected, since the -heravadin B'ddhists of the Union of 6yanma >formerly B'rma?, Iaos, -hailand, and Sri Ianka, %ho also !rant *rhatship to n'ns and co'nt tho'sands of B'ddhist monks in their present mendicant ranks, cannot claim even a sin!le n'n. -he reasons for the demise of the bhiks'nisan!ha, even in the B'ddhist kin!doms of So'theast *sia, are shro'ded in mystery. -he B'ddha+s o%n dire prediction that beca'se of the admission of %omen to the san!ha the 9tr'e dharma9 %o'ld last only five h'ndred years >instead of a tho'sand? co'ld not b't have contrib'ted to the indifference of B'ddhists to the s'rvival of the order of n'ns.3B14 *ll attempts on the part of Sri Iankan B'ddhist lay%omen called / 7E / Hasasilamatta%a to revive the bhiks'ni order in modern times have failed beca'se of lack of s'pport from the comm'nity of monks.3B74 -he B'ddhists+ ambivalence to their o%n sisters aspirin! for mendicancy has no place in Jainism, %hich has in recent years reported !reat increase in the membership of their orders of n'ns. Si!nificant !ains have been made, for e.ample, by the relatively modern reformist Jaina sect kno%n as the -erapanthi >a s'bsect of the Sthanakavasi sect, fo'nded in 6ar%ad in 1GE#?, %hich has five h'ndred f'lly ordained n'ns1more than three times the n'mber of monks in that order. -his sect has even introd'ced an or!ani,ational innovation of female novices called sramanis , c'rrently 'nder trainin! to 2oin the order of n'ns. -he n'mber of s'ch sramanis %ho have taken the vo%s of poverty and celibacy r'ns to the h'ndreds, and almost all are 'nmarried and %ell(ed'cated %omen of the affl'ent &s%al comm'nity of :a2asthan.3B"4 8nth'siasm to lead a reli!io's life at so yo'n! an a!e is probably fostered by the self(esteem that the enhanced stat's of the n'n in the family and in the Jaina comm'nity at lar!e bolsters. &ne vent'res to think that a sense of self(esteem, so conspic'o's amon! these yo'n! %omen, probably derives from their bein! treated as e5'al to men in the spirit'al realm, a possible conse5'ence of the Svetambara doctrine of strimoksa. By contrast one can see the e.tremely small and declinin! n'mber of n'ns in the Hi!ambara comm'nity. 6ost of them %ere %ido%s before enterin! the order and %ith a fe% notable e.ceptions are less effective as !'ides and teachers in their lay comm'nities than their Svetambara sisters. &ne cannot fail to concl'de that the re2ection of strimoksa mi!ht in some %ay have led to a lack of enth'siasm for asceticism amon! the Hi!ambara %omen, disco'ra!in! them from actively p'rs'in! the vocation of n'ns.3BB4 -hese notions are p'rely spec'lative, ho%ever, since all Jainas, re!ardless of their sectarian affiliations, believe that neither a man nor a %oman can attain moksa d'rin! o'r de!enerate times of the so(called "aliyuga >the a!e of vice?, the fifth sta!e of time >pan'ama"ala ? in Jaina cosmolo!y, %hich %ill last at least for another t%enty tho'sand years. 6oksa %ill be possible only %hen the ne.t Jina, called 6ahapadma >%ho %ill be a contemporary of the f't're B'ddha 6aitreya?,3BD4 %ill appear1and that %ill be millions of years hence, at the be!innin! of a ne% era. )n the meantime the Jainas, %hether male or female, are instr'cted to lead a ri!hteo's life, one that %ill prepare them for ren'nciation 'nder the

ne% Jina. ;ere the Svetambara n'n has a lead over her Hi!ambara sister, since she may reali,e moksa in her female body. B't the Hi!ambara %oman+s priority %ill be to overcome her / 7G / femininity, since accordin! to the doctrine of that sect moksa is a male prero!ative, attainable only by the 9sky(clad9 monk.

Note%
1. &n the canonical literat're of the t%o Jaina sects, see J)) , chap. 7. 7. -he %ord 'sed for the Jaina monks in ancient times is nirgrantha and not 9Hi!ambara9 or 9Svetambara90 see Chapter )) >n. 17?. =or a disc'ssion on the nat're of the %ina"alpa in the t%o traditions, see Chapter )) >n. "D?. ". See Chapter ) >J1($? and a commentary on these verses in Chapter )A >JE($?. B. =or vario's traditions concernin! the ori!in of the Fapaniyas, see Chapter )) >J"?. D. Selections from the Sanskrit te.ts on strimo"sa from some of these Svetambara %orks appear in the Strinirvana-(evalibhu"tipra"arane >app. ))?. E. =or this ar!'ment and its co'nterar!'ment at J9, see Chapters ))) >J1? and A >J1 and n. 1?. G. =or a lon!er list of ar!'ments a!ainst strimoksa, Chapter A) >J7D(B1?. $. =or a dia!rammatic representation of the Jaina 'niverse and a description of the abode of the liberated so'ls, see J)) , pp. 17$ and 7G#. 9. &n the s'kladhyanas that are !ained only to%ard the very end of the Jaina spirit'al path, see J)) , pp. 7DG(7G#. 1#. See Chapter ))) >J"B?. 11. See Chapter ))) >J"E(BD?. 17. 9-he perfected so'ls can be differentiated %ith reference to the re!ion, the time, the basis of birth, the !ender, the mendicant cond'ct, and so forth9 >ksetrakala!atilin!atirthacaritrapratyekab'ddhabodhita2nanava!ahana+ntarasamkhya+lpabah'tvena sadhyah0 $attvarthasutra , ., G?. 1". =or details on these vedas or 9libidos,9 see Chapter A) >J1(E?. 1B. See Chapter ))) >J$B?. 1D. See Chapter A >J1 and n. 1?. 1E. See Chapter )) >J$9?. 1G. See Chapters )) >n. DG? and )A >J1"?. 1$. See Chapter A) >J$9?. 19. Birth of a female -irthankara >itthitittham ? is listed amon! the ten e.traordinary events that take place once in an 9infinite9 time cycle: 'vasa!!a!abbhaharanam itthitittham abhaviya parisa, @anhassa *varakamka 'ttaranam camdas'riyanam. 314 ;arivamsak'l'ppatti Camar'ppao ya atthasayasiddha, asam2ayes' p'a dasavi anamtena kalena. 374 Sthananga-sutra , J1#GB >Suttagame , p. "1B?.

7#. =or the Svetambara acco'nt of 6alli, see ,ayadhamma"ahao , chap. viii0 :oth >19$"?0 $risastisala"apurusa'aritra , vol. )A, chap. E. =or the Hi!ambara version, see +ttarapurana , chap. BE. 71. -he Svetambara acco'nt of 6alli ends %ith an e.hortation that c'nnin!, even if employed in matters of piety, leads to the calamity of rebirth as a %oman: '!!atavasam2amavao pa!itthaphalasaha!assavi 2iyassa, dhammavisaye vi s'h'ma / 7$ / vi hoi maya anatthaya. 314 2aha 6allissa 6ahabalabhavammi titthayaranamabamdhe +vi, tavavisayathevamaya 2aya 2'vaittahet'tti. 374 ,ayadhamma"ahao , ), viii, $D. 77. See Chapter ))) >JE#?. 7". See Chapter ))) >JDG?. 7B. See Chapter ))) >JG#?. 7D. =or the story of the Jaina lo!ician *kalanka bein! helped by the !oddess Cakresvari a!ainst the B'ddhists %ho %ere bein! helped by their !oddess -ara in a debate, see ,yaya"umuda'andra , pt. 1, intro., p. "E. 7E. See Chapter A) >J1$?. 7G. See Chapter A) >J"B?. 7$. sandi!dhobhayavyatirekah, yatha1avitara!ah @apiladayah, pari!raha!rahayo!ad iti. atra vaidharmyodaharanam . . . yo vitara!o na tasya pari!raha!rahah, yatha :sabhader iti. :sabhader avitara!atvapari!raha!rahayo!ayoh sadhyasadhanadharmayoh sandi!dho vyatirekah. ,yayabinduti"a , J1"7. 79. Commentin! on the above, Hharmottara says: yatha :sabhader iti drstantah. etasmad :sabhader drstantad avitara!asya pari!raha!rahayo!asya ca sadhanasya nivrttih sandi!dha. :sabhadinam hi pari!raha!rahayo!o +pi sandi!dho vitara!atvam ca. yadi nama tatsiddhante vitara!as ca pathante tathapi sandeha eva. ,yayabindu-ti"a , J1"7. 9Ko%, it is do'btf'l %hether really in the case of this :sabha both the predicate and the reason, both the fact of bein! s'b2ect to passions and havin! the instinct of property are absent. )ndeed, it is not certain %hether :sabha and consorts are really free from the instinct of propery and from passions. *ltho'!h in their o%n school they are declared to be s'ch, b't this is nevertheless, very do'btf'l90 Stcherbatsky+s translation of the ,yayabindu in Buddhist Logi' , )), p. 7BE. "#. nasti strinam prtha! ya2Ro na vratam napy 'posanam, patim s'sr'sate yena tena svar!e mahiyate0 anusmrti , v, 1DD. pita raksati ka'mare bharta raksati ya'vane, raksanti sthavire p'tra na stri svatantryam arhati0 ibid., i., ". nasti strinam kriya mantrair iti dharmavyavasthitih, nirindriya hy amantras ca striyo +nrtam iti sthitih0 ibid., i., 1$. -he theme of strimoksa is conspic'o's by its absence in P. A. @ane+s vol'mino's .istory of Dharmasastra %ith the e.ception of a sin!le reference to the possibility of %omen sec'rin! kno%led!e of moksa >in the absence of their access to the Aedic script're? on p. 971, n. 1BE$a >vol. A, p. ))?. Several ancient literary %orks >e.!., the (adambari of Banabhatta, p. $#? refer to parivra%i"as >female %anderin! reli!io's mendicants of the Brahmanical tradition?. -hese seem to be individ'als %ho practiced asceticism %itho't formin! a comm'nity, 'nlike the Jaina or B'ddhist n'ns %ho invariably %ere members of a san!ha >comm'nity of mendicant orders?. "1. mam hi Partha vyapasritya ye +pi sy'h papayonayah, striyo vaisyas tatha s'dras te +pi yanti param

!atim0 Bhagavad-Gita , i., "7. See Chapter A) >J$7, n. B"?. "7. alam *nanda, ma te r'cci mat'!amassa tatha!atappavedite dhammavinaye a!arasma ana!ariyam pabba22a. . . . bhabbo, *nanda, mat'!amo arahattaphalam pi sacchikat'm . . .0 &inaya )ita"am, #ullavagga , ., 1. "". =or these r'les in the Pali &inaya )ita"am and the Sanskrit Bhi"suni-vinaya , see Chapter A) >n. 1G?. "B. man'ssattam lim!asampatti het' sattharadassanam, pabba22a !'nasampatti / 79 / adhikaro ca chandata0 atthadhammasamodhana abhiniharo sami22hati. 314 man'ssattabhavasmim yeva hi thatva B'ddhattam patthentassa patthana sami22hati, . . . man'ssattabhave pi p'risalim!e thitass+ eva patthana sami22hati, itthiya va pandakanap'msaka('bhato byan2anakanam va no sami22hati . . .0 Jata"a , ), p. 1B. "D. =or an apocryphal story >called the )adipadana%ata"a ? of <a'tama+s last female incarnation, see Jaini >19$9?. "E. pancasthanani stri adyapi na prapnoti. katamani paRcaP prathamam brahmasthanam, dvitiyam sakrasthanam, trtiyam mahara2asthanam, cat'rtham cakravartisthanam, paRcamam avaivartikabodhisattvasthanam. . . . atha tasyam velayam Sa!ara(Ka!ara2ad'hita sarvalokapratyaksam . . . tat strindriyam antarhitam, p'r'sendriyam ca prad'rbh'tam, bodhisattvabh'tam catmanam samdarsayati0 Saddharmapundari"a-sutra , chap. .i. Ioss of a female rebirth is also considered to be one of the fr'its of readin! the Saddharmapundari"asutra : sacet matr!rama imam dharmaparyayam sr'tva . . . dharayisyati, tasya sa eva pascimah stribhavo bhavisyati0 ibid., chap. ..ii. "G. -ranslated by -h'rman, chap. G. =or a disc'ssion on the si!nificance of the se. chan!e as described in the seventh chapter >-he <oddess? of the &imala"irti-sutra , see Pa'l >19G9, chap. E?. "$. Saddharmapundari"a-sutra , chap. v, verses D9($". "9. =or the n'mber of monks and n'ns in the mendicant comm'nity of 6ahavira and that of the t%o earlier Jinas, namely Parsva and Kemi, see (alpasutra >Jacobi+s trans. 1$$B, pp. 7EG(7$D?. =or a detailed s'rvey of the mendicants of the Svetambara sect, see John Cort+s forthcomin! article 9-he Svetambar 6'rtip'2ak Sadh'.9 B#. &f the thirty(fo'r n'ns intervie%ed in the area of @'tch, for e.ample, fifteen >%ith a!es varyin! from 1E to BD? %ere %ido%s, three >a!es 7", "7, and "E? %ere married b't had been permitted by their h'sbands to become n'ns, and the remainin! si.teen >bet%een the a!es of 9 and 7"? %ere 'nmarried at the time of their ordination >di"sa ?. =or a brief acco'nt of the lives of a fe% leadin! Jaina n'ns, see Shanta >19$D, pp. B"G(D1$?. B1. sace, *nanda, nalabhissa mat'!amo . . . pabba22am, ciratthitikam, *nanda, brahmacariyam abhavissa, vassasahassam saddhammo tittheyya, . . . . paRc+eva dani, *nanda, vassasatani saddhammo thassati0 &inaya )ita"am, #ullavagga , N, ii, 7. B7. &n the state of n'ns in the -heravada tradition, see =alk and <ross >19$#?. =or a history of the Hasasilamatta%as seekin! the stat's of a n'n, see Bloss >19$G?. B". See Shanta >19$D, pp. "D$("E1?.

BB. )t may be 'sef'l in this connection to dra% attention to the le!end of a sectarian debate on strimoksa reported by the Svetambara a'thor 6er't'n!a in his )rabandha'intamani , pp. EE(E9. *ccordin! to this narrative, d'rin! the rei!n of Siddhara2a >t%elfth cent'ry? in <'2arat, a !reat Hi!ambara mendicant named @'m'dacandra from the Heccan arrived in his capital city *nahillap'ra and challen!ed the Svetambara monks to en!a!e in a debate on this 5'estion. -he Svetambara acarya Heva >later to be kno%n as Aadideva? accepted his challen!e and defeated him in a p'blic debate held at the co'rt of Siddhara2a. -he Hi!ambara @'m'dacandra died of h'miliation and shock, and the Hi!ambaras in the city %ere made to leave the co'ntry in dis!race. )t is said that Siddhara2a+s chief 5'een / "# / 6ayanalladevi >probably beca'se she also hailed from @arnataka? initially favored the Hi!ambara monk and even openly 'r!ed him on to victory. Chen she %as told that the Hi!ambaras opposed liberation for %omen %hile the Svetambaras 'pheld it, ho%ever, she shifted her alle!iance to the latter. -his debate is not attested in the Hi!ambara tradition, b't it is not 'nlikely that it is based on historical fact. -his is probably the only e.tant literary evidence that openly declares a prominent %oman+s conversion to the side %hich 'pheld the spirit'al liberation of %omen in preference to the one %hich had denied this privile!e to her. -his s'pports my ass'mption that the !reat disparity in the n'mber of n'ns in the t%o sects is a reflection of %omen+s response to the more s'pportive attit'de taken by the Svetambara tradition to%ard them. BD. &n 6aitreya and the f't're Jina, see Jaini >19$$?. / "1 /

Cha1ter I The Sutraprabhrta 2Suttapahuda 3 o& the *i$ambara A,ar'a 4-nda.-nda 2C. A.*. "563
Introd-,tion
>i? -he stat's of the a'aya >the head of a Jaina monastic comm'nity? @'ndak'nda >also kno%n by his monastic name Padmanandi, @'ndak'nda bein! the name of his place of birth in *ndhrapradesh? in the Hi!ambara hierarchy is very hi!h, probably ne.t only to that of the acarya Bhadrabah' ) >c. "## B.C. ?. )t %as d'rin! the time of Bhadrabah' that the once 'nited Jaina mendicant comm'nity of 6ahavira >traditionally D99(D7G B.C ?, kno%n in ancient times as Ki!anthas >Skt. Kir!rantha, lit. 9bond(free9?, split into t%o sects that later came to be desi!nated as the Hi!ambaras >9sky(clad,9 those %ho adopted n'dity follo%in! the e.ample of 6ahavira? and the Svetambaras >9%hite(cloth(clad,9 those %ho %ore %hite clothes claimin! that the practice of n'dity %as not obli!atory? and be!an to have separate script'res and different mendicant r'les for their respective !ro'ps. =or the Svetambaras this linea!e be!ins %ith acarya Sth'labhadra, a direct disciple of Bhadrabah'. Sth'labhadra not only inherited a lar!e !ro'p of mendicants 'nder his r'le b't also received a considerable portion of the script're >agama ? consistin! of the t%elve -ngas that contained the %ords of 6ahavira and his immediate disciples, the ganadharas . -his script're %as preserved orally in his tradition for several cent'ries 'ntil it %as finally revised and committed to %ritin! nine h'ndred and ei!hty years after the death of

6ahavira >i.e., in *.H. BD"?, 'nder the s'pervision of the acarya Hevarddhi @samasramana at Aalabhi in modern <'2arat. -he Hi!ambara acco'nt of the post(Bhadrabah' events, ho%ever, is not 5'ite so clear. -heir / "7 / linea!e be!ins %ith acarya Aisakha, also an immediate disciple of the acarya Bhadrabah'. B't 'nlike his Svetambara co'nterpart Sth'labhadra, acarya Aisakha did not s'cceed in receivin! the ori!inal script'res, barrin! a fe% remnants of the )urva , %hich, as its name indicates, %as believed to have predated even 6ahavira. -he mendicants of his linea!e %ere th's left %ith no script're that co'ld be traced to 6ahavira himself and hence maintained that the ori!inal %ords of 6ahavira had been irrevocably lost. -hey re2ected the a'thenticity of the Svetambara canon and set o't to create a ne% body of a secondary script're of their o%n called the -nuyogas . -he earliest s'ch e.tracanonical %ork based on the then e.tant )urva is called the Sat-"handa-agama >Script're in Si. Parts? and deals almost entirely %ith the doctrine of karma. )t %as compiled in an aphoristic >s'tra? style by the acaryas Hharasena and P'spadanta, aro'nd the be!innin! of the second cent'ry *.H ., and remained accessible only to a fe% hi!hly learned mendicant teachers %ithin that order. >=or the history of the Jaina canonical literat're, see J)) , chap. 7.? *ltho'!h revered as the most ancient script're >siddhanta ?, it %as hardly a s'bstit'te for the ori!inal sermons of 6ahavira or the e.e!esis by his !anadharas that co'ld be employed to challen!e the rival sect+s claim to le!itimacy. @'ndak'nda+s sin!'lar contrib'tion consists in his compilin! a n'mber of lit'r!ical tracts and creatin! several masterly doctrinal %orks of his o%n, %hich provided a parallel canon for the destit'te Hi!ambara tradition. -his earned him the everlastin! !ratit'de of the Hi!ambaras, %ho have for cent'ries invoked his name to!ether %ith that of 6ahavira and his chief !anadhara )ndrabh'ti <a'tama, placin! him ahead even of Bhadrabah', Aisakha, and some forty other elders >sthaviras ? in the linea!e, th's makin! him virt'ally the fo'nder of the Hi!ambara sect, as ill'strated by the follo%in! verse: man!alam bha!avan Airah, man!alam <a'tamo !anih, man!alam @'ndak'ndadyah, Jainadharmo +st' man!alam. >)rava'anasara , intro., n. 1? >ii? -he %orks attrib'ted to @'ndak'nda, all of them in Prakrit, can be divided in three !ro'ps. -he first !ro'p is a collection of ten bha"tis >devotional prayers?, short compositions in praise of the acaryas >-'aryabha"ti ?, the script'res >Srutabha"ti ?, the mendicant cond'ct >#aritrabha"ti ?, and so forth. -hey form the standard lit'r!ical te.ts 'sed by the Hi!ambaras in their daily rit'als and bear close resemblance to similar te.ts employed by the Svetambaras, s'!!estin! the possibility of their ori!in in the canonical period prior to the division of the comm'nity. -he second !ro'p comprises fo'r ori!inal %orks described as 9-he 8ssence9 >sara ?1 / "" / namely, the ,iyamasara >-he 8ssence of the :estraint, or the mendicant discipline, in 1$G verses?, the )an'asti"ayasara >-he 8ssence of the =ive 8.istents, in 1D" verses?, the Samayasara >-he 8ssence of Self(:eali,ation, in B"9 verses?, and the )rava'anasara >-he 8ssence of the -eachin!, in 7GD verses?, all of %hich, beca'se of their nonconventional or absol'te >nis'ayanaya ? approach, have e.erted a tremendo's infl'ence not only on the Hi!ambara psyche b't, as %ill be seen in Chapter A), even on some of the leadin! members of the Svetambara comm'nity, both old and ne%. -he last !ro'p consists of ei!ht short te.ts called )rabhrta >Pkt. pahuda , i.e., a !ift or a treatise?, probably compilations from some older so'rces, on s'ch topics as the ri!ht vie% >Darsanaprabhrta , in "E verses?, ri!ht cond'ct

>#aritraprabhrta , in BB verses?, the script're >Sutraprabhrta , in 7G verses?, and so forth. Hr. *. K. Upadhye in his critical edition of the )rava'anasara has e.amined at !reat len!th the problems concernin! the date and a'thor(ship of these and other %orks attrib'ted to @'ndak'nda and has placed him in the middle of the second cent'ry *.H. >iii? -he selection presented here is taken from the Prakrit Suttapahuda >Skt. Sutraprabhrta ?. )t is of special importance as it is the first e.tant Jaina te.t that not only challen!es the mendicant stat's of the clothed >sacelaka? mendicants b't also denies %omen access to the holy path e.plicitly on acco'nt of their biolo!ical condition. Ce do not kno% ho% old this controversy is or %ho mi!ht have initiated it prior to the time of @'ndak'nda. Both sects provide for the instit'tion of the comm'nity >san!ha? of n'ns and admit that at the death of 6ahavira there %ere more n'ns >all of them clothed? in his mendicant order than monks1the n'mber !iven is 1B,### monks and "E,### n'ns, the latter headed by the chief n'n >ganini ? Candana. >See )ntro., n. "9, and JS( )), p. "$G.? -here are many passa!es in the e.tant Svetambara canon that praise an acelaka >lit., 9one %itho't clothes9? monk >see J)) , p. 1"?0 b't there is no evidence of any attempt to portray a clothed monk, and more importantly a n'n, as deficient in ability to attain moksa >see note "? on acco'nt of the clothin!. )n the absence of an older Hi!ambara script're to co'nter the Svetambara evidence, one can ass'me that @'ndak'nda is merely voicin! an ancient belief held by the acelaka faction of 6ahavira that %omen do not 5'alify for the f'll mendicant stat's accorded to a naked monk. B't it is also possible to ar!'e that the prohibition of moksa to %omen is of a later date and derives from the acelakas+ denial of f'll mendicant stat's to monks %ho chose to remain clothed. Since both sects a!ree that %omen may never adopt n'dity, the mendicant stat's denied to the clothed monks m'st necessarily be denied to them also. Since moksa is to be achieved only by / "B / those %ho have attained to f'll mendicancy, %omen accordin! to the acelaka vie% came to be seen as 'nfit to achieve spirit'al liberation. )n the: co'rse of time this attit'de may have !ro%n s'fficiently stron! to emer!e by the time of @'ndak'nda as one of the ma2or do!mas of the Hi!ambaras. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that there is as yet no cate!orical denial of moksa to a %oman in this or other %orks of @'ndak'nda. B't his %ords reprod'ced here provide the necessary script'ral a'thority for the Hi!ambaras to concl'de that since a %oman is 'nable to ass'me the hi!her vo%s available to a man >see JG? she m'st be considered dis5'alified from attainin! moksa as %ell. -he controversy on the moksa of %omen th's be!ins in the present te.t, as the Hi!ambara @'ndak'nda post'lates the biolo!ical condition of %omen as the primary !ro'nd for his thesis. -he ens'in! debate provides repeated opport'nities for an e.amination of this vie% and its consistency %ith the rest of the Jaina teachin!s. )t also permits 's to determine %hether the t%o Jaina sects can resolve this problem thro'!h ar!'ments presented in a 9syllo!istic9 form >prayoga ? in accordance %ith the r'les of )ndian lo!ic. >iv? -he translation of the ei!ht verses of the Sutraprabhrta >Pkt. Suttapahuda ? is based on the te.t incl'ded in the Satprabhrtadisangrahah ., edited by Pandit Pannalal Soni and p'blished in 197#. -he printed edition also incl'des a Sanskrit commentary >ti"a ? by the Hi!ambara bhattara"a >cleric? Sr'tasa!ara >c. 1D##? that ) have 'sed in providin! some of the notes.

Tran%lation o& Ver%e% 7"/8

J1 -he s'preme Iords of the Jinas314 3i.e., the hi!hest a'thorities4 have ta'!ht that there is only a sin!le path of moksa >salvation?374 3characteri,ed by4 total n'dity3"4 and hands 3alone 'sed4 as bo%l3B4 for receivin! alms. *ll other 3modes of mendicancy4 are not 3tr'e4 paths.3D4 31#4

J7 * mendicant %hose emblem 3linga , i.e., the o't%ard si!n43E4 consists in acceptin! possessions >pari!raha?3G4 %hether they be fe% 3e.!., a piece of cloth4 or many 3e.!., be!!in! bo%l, stick4 is condemned in the -eachin! of the Jina, since only one %ho is free from all possessions is free from ho'sehold >niragara/3$4 life. 3194 J" &nly one %ho has 'ndertaken the five !reat vo%s >mahavrata?394 and 3is !'arded by4 the three protections >gupti ?31#4 is called 9restrained,9 that is, a mendicant >samyata/3114 ;e alone is on the path of moksa that is free from bonds >nir!rantha?3174 and so is praise%orthy. 37#4 JB -he second 3i.e., ne.t to the monk4 emblem is said to be of the / "D / 3advanced4 9listeners9 3srava"a , i.e., the lay people4 comprisin! the hi!her 3ut"rsta , called aila"a 4 and the lo%er 3avara , called "sulla"a 4.31"4 3-he latter4, %ell controlled in his !ait and speech, %anders silently for alms %ith a bo%l. 3714 JD -he 3third4 emblem is that of %omen. She is called arya31B4 3Koble Iady, i.e., a n'n4 and eats only one meal a day and %ears a sin!le piece of cloth. 3B't the ks'llika, a female novice, %ho keeps t%o pieces of clothin!4 %ears only one %hile eatin!.31D4 3774 JE *ccordin! to the -eachin! of the Jina, a person %earin! clothes cannot attain moksa even if he be a -irthankara.31E4 -he path of moksa consists of n'dity >nagna ?0 all other paths are %ron! paths. 37"4 JG )n the !enital or!ans of %omen, in bet%een their breasts, in their navels, and in the armpits, it is said 3in the script'res that4 there are very s'btle livin! bein!s. ;o% can there be the mendicant ordination >pravra%ya ?31G4 for them 3since they m'st violate the vo% of ahimsa4P 37B4 J$ Comen have no p'rity of mind0 they are by nat're fickle(minded. -hey have menstr'al flo%s. 3-herefore4 there is no meditation for them free from an.iety. 37D4

Note%
1. Jinavarendra, literally the s'preme Iord of the Jinas. -he %ord 9Jina9 is derived from the root %i to con5'er and means a spirit'al victor. -his is the desi!nation of a monk %ho has attained omniscience >called "evala%nana , kno%led!e isolated from karmic bonds? b't %ho is still alive and leads the normal life of a mendicant. )n Jaina terminolo!y s'ch a person is also called a @evalin >one %ho is endo%ed %ith kevala2nana? or an *rhat >one %ho is %orthy of %orship?. Unlike the -heravada B'ddhist *rhat, ho%ever, a Jaina *rhat m'st be an &mniscient Bein!. B't not all *rhats en!a!e in teachin!0 rather it is considered to be the prero!ative of a fe% so'ls >comparable to the Bodhisattvas in B'ddhism? like 6ahavira %ho ac5'ire, by practicin! vario's perfections, those fac'lties that confer 'pon them the stat's of a -irthankara >lit., one %ho b'ilds a ford to cross the river of transmi!ration, samsara ?. -hey are therefore called the Iords of the *rhats or Jinendra. )n practice, ho%ever, the %ord 9Jina9 has been applied to the -irthankaras as %ell, the follo%ers of %hom are called the Jainas. >=or a disc'ssion on the role of -irthankaras, see J)) , pp. 79("D. =or a comparison bet%een a Bodhisattva and a -irthankara, see Jaini, 19$1.? 7. -he %ord 9moksa9 is derived from the root mu' , to release, and means emancipation of the so'l from the state of embodiment. -he initial sta!e of this state is reached %hen the so'l becomes a @evalin as described in note 1. -he state of embodiment %ill, ho%ever, contin'e for the d'ration of the @evalin+s life. *t his death the @evalin+s so'l becomes totally free from all bonds of corporeality, and th's released it instantly rises like a flame to the s'mmit of the 'niverse >lo"a ? and abides

/ "E / there forever endo%ed %ith perfect p'rity and omniscience. ;enceforth this so'l %ill be called a Siddha, the Perfected Bein!. -his is the final !oal of a Jaina and is called moksa. ". ,is'ela , >lit., 9%itho't clothes9?. -he terms Hi!ambara and Svetambara disc'ssed in note 1 are conspic'o'sly absent both in the e.tant Svetambara canon and in the most ancient Hi!ambara te.ts incl'din! those by @'ndak'nda. -he canonical %ord that comes closest in meanin! to the term Hi!ambara is a'ela"a , 9%itho't clothes.9 Both sects a!ree that 6ahavira after reno'ncin! his ho'sehold had adopted total n'dity, b't they do not a!ree on %hether this practice %as re5'ired of all those %ho follo%ed his path. -he Svetambara te.ts e.plicitly state that the mendicant follo%ers of the -irthankara Parsvanatha >c. tenth cent'ry B.C. ?, the predecessor of 6ahavira, %ore clothes as did the ma2ority of 6ahavira+s o%n disciples incl'din! his !anadharas >see J)) , p. 1B?. -h's %hile the Svetambaras do not disp'te the fact of 6ahavira+s n'dity they assert that the cond'ct of the clothed monks is in f'll accordance %ith his teachin!s and leads to the same !oal of moksa. -he Hi!ambaras, ho%ever, as noted above, do not accept the a'thenticity of the Svetambara script're and insist that the vo% of n'dity is a necessary, altho'!h certainly not the only, condition of Jaina mendicancy. -hey therefore do not reco!ni,e the claim of the Svetambara monks to the stat's of mendicancy and vie% them as heretics, apostates from the tr'e mendicant path of 6ahavira. -he Svetambaras for their part maintain that altho'!h n'dity %as allo%ed d'rin! the time of 6ahavira, its practice %as proscribed for o'r de!enerate times >see Chapter )), J7"? and hence those %ho still adhere to n'dity are in violation of the script'ral in2'nctions and cannot be considered the tr'e mendicant follo%ers of 6ahavira. B. )anipatra . * Hi!ambara mendicant carries no be!!in! bo%l b't instead 'ses his 2oined palms to receive morsels of food and hence is called a panipatra >lit., 9one %ho 'ses his hands as a bo%l9?. ;e is allo%ed to eat or drink only once and only d'rin! the daytime, for %hich he visits a Jaina ho'sehold and eats, %hile standin!, the food that has been placed in his palms. )n contrast a Svetambara monk m'st not eat or drink after s'nset b't may partake of food more than once d'rin! the day. Iike his B'ddhist co'nterpart, he m'st keep a set of %ooden bo%ls for collectin! food and %ater from different, and if necessary even from non(Jaina, ho'seholds. ;e m'st brin! the food !athered to his residence and cons'me it seated in the company of his fello% mendicants. -he Hi!ambaras have claimed that the habit of eatin! in one+s palms !reatly red'ces the dependence on the ho'seholder and is a mark of tr'e ren'nciation of all attachments to s'ch %orldly possessions as bo%ls and the like. * Hi!ambara monk is, ho%ever, re5'ired to carry a !o'rd >"amandalu ? for keepin! %ater that may not be 'sed for drinkin! b't only for toilet p'rposes. D. -marga . @'ndak'nda does not specify the paths that he calls 9the %ron! paths90 b't it is evident that he is referrin! here to those %ho %ore clothes and carried be!!in! bo%ls, a description that characteri,es perfectly the Svetambara monks, in addition of co'rse to the mendicants of the Brahmanical and B'ddhist orders. E. Linga . -he %ord 9lin!a9 means an o't%ard si!n by %hich the identity of a mendicant+s order is indicated. * staff >danda ?, for e.ample, is the si!n of a certain !ro'p of Brahmanical %anderers >parivra%a"as ?, %hile the B'ddhist monks >bhi"sus ? are reco!ni,ed by their oran!e(colored robes >ra"tapata ?. )n the case of / "G / the Svetambara monks their %hite clothes >svetapata ? and the %hisk broom made of %oollen t'fts

>called ra%oharana ? %o'ld be considered the o't%ard si!ns of their sect. By contrast a Hi!ambara monk is totally naked and is not allo%ed anythin! %hatsoever that co'ld be desi!nated as his distinctive mark. @'ndak'nda is s'!!estin! here that those %ho carry s'ch marks are not free from attachments to these possessions and hence are not tr'e mendicants. )t sho'ld be remembered, ho%ever, that even a Hi!ambara monk carrries >in addition to the kamandal'? a small %hisk broom made of molted peacock feathers >called pin'hi ? by %hich he can !ently remove insects from his seat. -his can certainly be called a lin!a, b't the Hi!ambaras have contended that it is not indispensable and hence only his n'dity %o'ld distin!'ish his ren'nciation from that of the other ascetics. =or a disc'ssion on the 'se of the %ord 9lin!a9 to indicate the emblem of a reno'ncer, see &livelle >19$E, pp. 7E(79?. G. )arigraha . -he literal meanin! of pari!raha is physical property, anythin! one possesses by ri!ht of o%nership. * layman is said to possess his property, %hich incl'des his relatives and his %ealth. Chen he reno'nces the ho'sehold he is said to have reno'nced this pari!raha. -parigraha , the absence of s'ch possession, is th's considered by all Jainas as a prere5'isite of a Jaina monk and constit'tes one of his most important mendicant vo%s. -he term 9pari!raha,9 ho%ever, is not restricted only to the e.ternal possessions. )n the script'res it is applied also to passions s'ch as an!er, !reed, and pride, and hence it is defined as mur''ha , del'sion >of o%nership?, the tr'e ca'se of attachment. Chether everythin! other than one+s body >e.!., the clothes one %ears or the bo%ls in %hich one collects the alms? is also a pari!raha is a matter that %ill fi!'re prominently in these debates >see Chapter )), J""( "9?. $. ,iragara . -he %ord agara means a ho'sehold0 hence nira!ara is one %itho't a home, namely, a reno'ncer. -he conte.t s'!!ests that @'ndak'nda is 'sin! this term to demonstrate that the sacelaka monks have not tr'ly reno'nced the ho'sehold life and hence can only be called ho'seholders >sa!ara?. 9. ahavrata >lit., the !reat vo%s?. -hese constit'te the basic vo%s of both the Hi!ambara and the Svetambara mendicants and are believed to have been laid do%n by 6ahavira himself and appear in the first canonical te.t called the -'aranga-sutra . *n aspirant seekin! initiation >di"sa ? into the mendicant order 'tters the follo%in! vo%s >(alpasutra , Jacobi+s trans. 1$$B, pp. 7#7(71#? in front of his acarya: -himsa-mahavrata : 3Savvam panaivayam paccakkhami . . .4 ) reno'nce all killin! of livin! bein!s, %hether s'btle or !ross, %hether movable or immovable. Kor shall ) myself kill livin! bein!s 3nor ca'se others to do it, nor consent to it4. *s lon! as ) live, . . . in mind, speech, and body. Satya-mahavrata : 3savvam m'savayam paccakkhami . . .4 ) reno'nce all vices of lyin! speech arisin! from an!er or !reed or fear or mirth. ) shall neither myself speak lies, nor ca'se others to speak lies, nor consent to the speakin! of lies by others. . . . -steya-mahavrata : 3savvam adinnadanam paccakkhami . . .4 ) reno'nce all takin! of anythin! not !iven . . . livin! or lifeless thin!s. ) shall neither take myself . . . nor ca'se others . . . nor consent to their takin! it. Brahma'arya-mahavrata : 3savvam meh'nam paccakkhami . . .4 ) reno'nce all se.'al contacts, either %ith !ods or men or animals. ) shall neither . . . / "$ / -parigraha-mahavrata : 3savvam pari!!aham paccakkhami . . .4 ) reno'nce all pari!raha 3i.e., possessions or attachments to all possessions4, %hether little or m'ch, small or !reat, livin! or lifeless0 neither shall ) myself form s'ch attachments, nor ca'se others to do so, nor consent to their doin! so, and so forth.

-he term 9mahavrata9 means that the r'les are applied %itho't any e.ceptions %hatsoever and are in force for the d'ration of one+s life. )n contrast, the ho'seholder+s vo% of ahimsa does not re5'ire him to refrain from harm done to one(sensed bein!s >e"endriya ? s'ch as ve!etable life and hence is desi!nated an anuvrata or a 9minor vo%.9 )n the case of the monk, ho%ever, even the ekendriyas m'st not be harmed. Similarly a layman+s brahmacarya is called svadara-santosa or fidelity %ithin marria!e and his apari!raha consists not in the total ren'nciation of all belon!in!s b't in parigraha-parimana , that is, placin! vol'ntary limits on one+s property. -he an'vratas of the laity are th's vastly red'ced versions of the !lobal restrictions applied to the monks. >=or a detailed s'rvery of the an'vratas, see Cilliams, 19E", pp. DD(99?. -he mahavratas of the Jainas are comparable to the yamas of the Fo!a school: ahimsasatyasteyabrahmacaryapari!raha yamah0 2atidesakalasamayavacchinnah. sarvabha'ma mahavratam0 )atan%ala-*ogadarsanam , ii, "#("1. Both are probably derived from some common so'rce. 1#. -hese refer to the !'ardin! >!'pti? of the three doors of action: mind, speech, and body. 11. -he %ord 9samyata 9 >lit., restrained? is a synonym for a mendicant %ho is restrained by the five mahavratas. * layman %ho ass'mes the an'vratas is therefore called desasamyata >partly restrained?. 17. ,irgrantha >lit., free from bonds?. -his is the desi!nation by %hich ori!inally the follo%ers of 6ahavira %ere kno%n in ancient times, and it is attested to in the B'ddhist script're %here 6ahavira himself is referred to as Ki!antha Katap'tta >his clan name0 see 6alalasekera, 19E#?. -he %ord 9grantha 9 >derived from grath , to bind? refers to the internal and e.ternal pari!rahas by %hich the so'l is bo'nd. Since for the Hi!ambaras both the attachments as %ell as the ob2ects of attachments are pari!raha, even the clothes are bindin! >!rantha?. -his is beca'se freedom from clothes implies for him freedom from the resid'al se.'al feelin!s, e.pressed by s'ch %ords as shame or bashf'lness, that one seeks to overcome by %earin! clothes. )n the opinion of the Hi!ambaras a naked person need not necessarily be free from se.'al desires, b't anyone %ho %ears clothes m'st be considered s'b2ect to s'ch desires and hence not a tr'e nir!rantha. 1". Srava"a >lit., the 9hearer,9 i.e., one %ho listens to the sermons, a layman?. Unlike the B'ddhists %ho apply this term only to their *rhats, the Jainas 'se this term for a layman %ho has ass'med the five an'vratas. * lay%oman is similarly called a sravi"a . )n the case of the mendicant his vo%s are total and hence there is no pro!ression to%ard a hi!her set of vo%s b't only the task of perfectin! those that have been ass'med at the be!innin! of his career. Since the layman+s vo%s are only partial, the Jaina teachers have dra%n a pro!ressive path of %idenin! the scope of his initial vo%s. -his path is called pratima >lit., a stat'e in meditational post're? and consists of eleven sta!es thro'!h %hich a layman c'ltivates those spirit'al observances that %ill brin! him to the point of reno'ncin! ho'sehold life. -hese are / "9 / called >1? the sta!e of ri!ht vie%s >darsana ?, >7? the sta!e of takin! the vo%s >vrata ?, >"? the sta!e of practicin! meditation >samayi"a ?, >B? the sta!e of keepin! fo'r fasts in a month >posadha ?, >D? the sta!e of continence by day >ratribha"ta ?, >E? the sta!e of absol'te continence >brahma'arya ?, >G? the sta!e of reno'ncin! 'ncooked food >sa'itta-tyaga ?, >$? the sta!e of abandonment of all professional activity >arambha-tyaga ?, >9? the sta!e of transferrin! p'blicly one+s property to a son or other relative >parigraha-tyaga ?, >1#? the sta!e of leavin! the ho'sehold and refrainin! from co'nselin! in ho'sehold matters >anumati-tyaga ?, and >11? the sta!e of not eatin! food especially prepared for oneself, that is, the sta!e of seekin! alms thro'!h be!!in! like a monk >uddista-tyaga ?. >=or f'll details and variations in sta!es in the Hi!ambara and the Svetambara te.ts, see Cilliams, 19E", pp. 1G7(1$1.?

Aery fe% sravakas or sravikas reach as far as the si.th sta!e of celibacy. B't those %ho do so are enco'ra!ed to lead the life of a ren'nciant and !ive 'p their property and take their residence in a p'blic place >called upasraya ? especially maintained for s'ch p'rposes by the comm'nity. *mon! the Hi!ambaras the person at the tenth sta!e is called a "sulla"a , a novice. ;e %ears three pieces of clothin! and either collects his food in a bo%l or may eat by invitation at a Jaina ho'sehold. ;e is called here the avara or the 9lo%er layman.9 *t the eleventh sta!e he %ears only a loincloth and does not 'se even the be!!in! bo%l. )nstead he visits, only once a day, a Jaina ho'sehold in the manner of a monk b't takes the food he is offered in his 2oined palms, seated on a %ooden plank. -raditionally he has been called an aila"a >probably an *pabhramsa form of the Skt. alpa'ela"a >one %ith little cloth?, see JS( ), p. B99?. ;e is not a monk yet, as he is still %earin! a loincloth and th's cannot 5'alify to be called a nir!rantha or a Hi!ambara. *s stated by @'ndak'nda, his stat's is that of the hi!hest >ut"rsta ? sravaka, the most advanced layman, f'lly 5'alified to reno'nce the %orld and ass'me the mahavratas of a monk. 1B. -ryi"a >lit., a noble lady?. *n advanced lay%oman >sravika? of the Hi!ambara tradition on the eleventh pratima is called an arya or an aryika and also occasionally sramani and sadhvi %ords that indicate her e.alted stat's as a n'n. She %ears a sin!le article of clothin!, namely a %hite cotton sari Hespite this apparent 9pari!raha,9 at her initiation as an aryika she ass'mes the mahavratas of a monk, albeit in a conventional sense >upa'ara ?, since technically her stat's is still that of an 9advanced lay%oman9 >uttama-sravi"a ?. )n this respect her stat's is that of an ailaka, or probably a little better, since the latter+s vo%s cannot even conventionally be called mahavratas b't m'st bear the desi!nation of an'vrata 'ntil he reno'nces his loincloth. K'dity is forbidden to %omen, and the Hi!ambaras contend that since this is the hi!hest sta!e of ren'nciation she may aspire to reach in the body of a %oman her vo%s may be called mahavratas by co'rtesy >'pacara0 see Chapter )A, J11?. K'dity for %omen is forbidden amon! the Svetambaras also0 b't since they do not re5'ire n'dity even for men, their n'ns are administered the same mahavratas as their monks and th's their stat's is technically speakin! one of e5'ality, as far as the vo%s are concerned. 1D. (sulli"a , a female novice. @'ndak'nda does not 'se this %ord, b't the commentator Sr'tasa!ara s'pplies it in his !loss on the second line. She is the female co'nterpart of the ks'llaka described above. )n addition to her sari, she covers the 'pper part of her body %ith a lon! sha%l that she removes %hile takin! her meal >and th's cond'cts herself like an aryika for the d'ration of the meal?. / B# / 1E. * -irthankara, as noted above, is a person %ho in addition to bein! an &mniscient Bein! is also a teacher and becomes the fo'nder of a ne% comm'nity of mendicants. ;e is th's distin!'ished from the *rhats by certain e.traordinary events that attend his conception, birth, and ren'nciation1s'ch as the appearance of !ods, the sho%er of %ealth, and so forth. Since for the Hi!ambaras there is no mendicancy %itho't total n'dity, all -irthankaras m'st traverse the same mendicant path %itho't e.ception. -he Svetambara te.ts have claimed, ho%ever, that of the t%enty(fo'r -irthankaras of o'r time, only the first and the last, namely :sabha and 6ahavira, had ass'med the vo% of n'dity %hereas the other t%enty(t%o %ere clothed >see J)) , p. 1B, n. 7$?. @'ndak'nda seems to be re2ectin! here s'ch a heresy0 or alternatively he may be all'din! here to the case of 6alli, the nineteenth -irthankara, %ho is claimed by the Svetambaras as a female >see Chapter )A, J1", and Chapter A), JGG?, an anathema to the Hi!ambaras accordin! to %hom a %oman does not even 5'alify to ass'me the total vo%s of a monk for the reasons so !raphically described by @'ndak'nda in verses JG and J$. 1G. )ravra%ya , lit. !oin! forth from home >to become a mendicant?. )t sho'ld be noted that @'ndak'nda denies the mendicant ordination >pravra2ya? to a %oman, technically a sravika, not only on

the !ro'nds of her %earin! clothes as in the case of the Svetambara monks b't also and more f'ndamentally on the !ro'nds of her biolo!ical !ender. *ccordin! to him a %oman can never be totally free from harm >himsa? to the s'btle forms of life that her body inevitably prod'ces. -h's in @'ndak'nda+s vie% it is not the possession of clothes as m'ch as the himsa. inherent to her body that is the primary reason for a %oman+s inability to p'rs'e the hi!hest path of ren'nciation that alone can lead to moksa. )t sho'ld be noted that altho'!h the Svetambaras also share the notion that a %oman+s body en!enders s'btle life(forms >see Chapter A), JE9?, they do not thereby concl'de that the 'nintentional destr'ction of these bein!s constit'tes an obstacle to her ass'min! the mahavratas. *s for the clothin!, the Svetambaras do not re!ard it as a pari!raha, %hether for a monk or a n'n, and hence it sho'ld not prevent her from attainin! the same !oal available to a monk. / B1 /

Cha1ter II The Strinirvanaprakarana (ith the Svopa navrtti o& the Ya1ani'a A,ar'a Sa.ata'ana 2,. 8"9/8:;3
Introd-,tion
>i? )t is to be e.pected that @'ndak'nda+s challen!e to the le!itimacy of the clothed monk+s stat's %ithin the Jaina tradition %o'ld be met %ith a co'nterattack from the adherents of that !ro'p. -he first s'ch response comes from the si.th(cent'ry Svetambara acarya Jinabhadra >B$9(D9"?, %ho in his celebrated %ork the &isesavasya"a-bhasya led a spirited defense of the r'les that permitted the 'se of clothes and be!!in! bo%ls to Jaina monks >verses "#DG("#$$?. B't, stran!ely, Jinabhadra is silent on @'ndak'nda+s most provocative statement >Chapter ), JG($? in %hich he 5'estioned the very ability of %omen to ass'me the mendicant vo%s on acco'nt of their biolo!ical condition. -he conflictin! positions m'st have !enerated a !reat deal of disc'ssion in both Jaina sects, b't it is not 'ntil the middle of the ninth cent'ry that %e find a scholarly response in the form of an a'thoritative %ork called the Strinirvanapra"arana >* -reatise on the Kirvana of Comen?, a short treatise in some fifty verses >to!ether %ith a prose commentary, the Svopa%navrtti ?, dedicated solely to the defense of %omen+s ability to attain moksa. 8ven this belated response, ho%ever, did not ori!inate from the Svetambaras b't from an obsc're sect called the Fapaniyas and from one Sakatayana >c. $1B($EG? %hose name does not even appear in the lists of the mendicant linea!es of either sect b't %ho is revered by both as a !reat !rammarian, a Jaina Panini as it %ere, the a'thor of the Sabdanusasana >also called the Sa"atayana-&ya"arana ? and a vol'mino's commentary on it called the -moghavrtti . / B7 / >ii? -he ori!in of the Fapaniya sect, %hich became e.tinct by the fifteenth cent'ry, is shro'ded in mystery to s'ch an e.tent that the tenth(cent'ry Hi!ambara chronicler Hevasena in his Darsanasara >Upadhye, 19"B? calls it an offshoot of the Svetambaras, %hile the fifteenth(cent'ry Svetambara a'thor <'naratna in his commentary on the Saddarsanasamu''aya >p. 1E1? characteri,es it as a Hi!ambara s'bdivision. :esearch into the history and literat're of this sect is fairly recent and can be limited to the %orks of K. Premi >19DE, pp. DE($E?, H. :. Bir%e >19G1?, and *. K. Upadhye >19GB?. Upadhye has made a comprehensive chronolo!ical s'rvey of the inscriptions >from the fifth to fo'rteenth cent'ries

*.H. ? that record the names of scores of mendicants and a fe% laymen affiliated %ith the Fapaniya san!ha. )t can be ded'ced from these inscriptions that the lay members of this comm'nity %ere 5'ite affl'ent and also that its mendicants %ere very m'ch active in installin! ima!es of the Jinas >all of them depicted naked like those of the Hi!ambaras? in richly endo%ed temples in the area of northern @arnataka, especially in the present(day districts of Bel!a'm, Hhar%ar, and <'lb'r!a. -hey seem to have flo'rished in that re!ion for over a tho'sand years 'ntil their mendicants %ere !rad'ally assimilated %ith the s'rro'ndin! Hi!ambaras, probably becomin! the forer'nners of those %ho later came to be kno%n as the bhattara"as >clerics0 see Johrap'rkar, 19D$? in that tradition and lost their identity as a separate Jaina !ro'p. >iii? -here is do'bt abo't the correct spellin! and the possible meanin! of the term 9Fapaniya.9 )n the inscriptions the %ord also appears 'nder vario's spellin!s at different times >Japaniya, Fap'liya, Javiliya, Javali!eya, and so on?. Upadhye >19GB, p. 17? has s'!!ested that the term is probably an incorrect Sanskriti,ation of the canonical Prakrit %avani%%e >0yamaniya , as in imdiya-%avani%%e , i.e., those %ho control their senses?. &n the other hand the Pali form yapaniya >from ya 1 ape ? means 9s'fficient for s'pportin! one+s life,9 an ad2ective applied to the provisions >s'ch as food, clothin!, and shelter? for a monk. B't %e do not even kno% of any partic'lar emblem by %hich the monks of this comm'nity %ere identified, let alone any partic'lar 9provision9 that mi!ht have led to the desi!nation Fapaniya. )t is, ho%ever, certain that the ima!es of the Jinas they %orshiped %ere naked like that of the Hi!ambaras, and in one inscription >Upadhye, 19GB? a Fapaniya monk has even been described as %atarupadhara >lit., havin! the same form as %hen one is born, i.e., naked?. -his a!rees %ith the Svetambara acarya <'naratna+s description of the Fapaniyas as Hi!ambaras, since the t%o %o'ld be indistin!'ishable for %ant of an emblem. B't the Hi!ambaras sh'nned them as if they %ere a mi.ed breed, callin! them / B" / pse'do(Jainas >Jainabhasa? and acc'sin! them of imitatin! both sects. -h's the si.teenth(cent'ry commentator S'bhacandra says: Fapaniyas t' vesara ivobhayam api manyante, ratnatrayam p'2ayanti, (alpam ca vacayanti, strinam tadbhave moksam, kevali2inanam kavalaharam . . . ca kathayanti0 Satprabhrtadisangrahah , p. 11. -hat is to say: %hile the Fapaniya monks mi!ht have appeared as Hi!ambaras, they also accepted certain script'res of the Svetambaras, especially the te.ts on the mendicant discipline >the (alpa , i.e., the Brhat"alpa ? that laid do%n r'les on s'ch mendicant necessities as clothes, be!!in! bo%ls, food, medicine, and so forth. 6ost important, they shared the t%o Svetambara beliefs that the Hi!ambaras had condemned as heretical1namely, that %omen can, despite their clothes, attain moksa in that very body and that a person may contin'e to partake of food and %ater even after becomin! an &mniscient Bein! >see note " on "evali-"avalahara ?. -hese assertions abo't the Fapaniyas, fo'nd in the %orks of their opponents and hence liable to be incorrect, have been confirmed, ho%ever, by Sakatayana+s treatise the Strinirvanapra"arana >and its companion treatise the (evalibhu"tipra"arana ?. -he Fapaniya th's %o'ld seem to represent an ancient ec'menical movement that tried to combine some of the ma2or feat'res of the acelaka and sacelaka factions, b't as it has so often happened in )ndia, it %as re2ected by both and %as red'ced to the fate of becomin! 2'st one more Jaina sect that disappeared in the co'rse of time. Kevertheless, the term 9<opya9 >ca'sative from gup , to hide? 'sed by <'naratna as a synonym for the Fapaniyas ><opya Fapaniya ity apy 'cyante0 see Chapter A, ii? probably provides a cl'e to the ori!inal emblem or lin!a of the mendicants of this !ro'p that co'ld have once distin!'ished them from those of the other t%o sects. Certain rather late Hi!ambara narratives trace the ori!in of the Svetambaras to a !ro'p of monks called the *rdhaphalaka >lit., those

%ith half a strip of cloth?. *ccordin! to one s'ch version preserved in the Brhat"atha"osa of the tenth( cent'ry Hi!ambara a'thor ;arisena, these %ere ori!inally Hi!ambara monks >'nder the acarya Bhadrabah' of U22ain in central )ndia? %ho, d'rin! a period of dro'!ht that lasted t%elve years, %ere 'nable to s'stain themselves thro'!h the prescribed method of visitin! a sin!le ho'se and eatin! food offered in their 2oined palms >see Chapter ), n. D?. -hey therefore %ere pers'aded by some of their lay follo%ers to adopt the practice of 'sin! be!!in! bo%ls to collect food bit by bit from vario's ho'seholds d'rin! the ni!ht1instead of daytime so as to avoid the cro%ds that mi!ht follo% them1 and eat the !athered alms at their residence d'rin! the day. &ne ni!ht a certain emaciated monk visited a Jaina ho'sehold %ith his bo%l in hand, and the si!ht of that naked monk in the / BB / dark ca'sed s'ch a fri!ht to a yo'n! pre!nant %oman that she aborted the fet's. Seein! that tra!edy the Jaina laymen approached the monks ne.t day and said: 9& Sa!es, as lon! as this dro'!ht lasts yo' cannot practice yo'r vo%s 3of n'dity and eatin! from one+s 2oined palms4 properly. -herefore for the d'ration of this calamity yo' sho'ld visit the ho'seholds at ni!ht coverin! yo'rself %ith half a piece of cloth >ardhaphala"a ? held in yo'r left arm and the be!!in! bo%l in the ri!ht. Fo' may 'ndertake the necessary e.piation >prayas'itta ? %hen normal times ret'rn.9 -his, the narrative adds, is the ori!in of the 9Fapana(san!ha,9 the monks of %hich, 'nable event'ally to ret'rn to the vo% of n'dity, became f'lly clothed. >yavan na sobhanah kalo 2ayate sadhavah sph'tam, tavac ca vamahastena p'rah krtva +rdhaphalakam0 3D$4 bhiksapatram samadaya daksinena karena ca, !rhitva naktam aharam k'r'dhvam bho2anam dine. 3D94 Brhat"atha"osa 3Bhadrabah'(kathanaka, no. 1"14, p. "19?. Sectarian acco'nts of the ori!ins of one+s adversaries are al%ays s'spect and this one fares no better. 8ven so, the le!end may have preserved a kernel of tr'th in describin! the 9Fapana9 monks as those %ho tried to 9bide9 their time, that is, %ho remained naked accordin! to the vo%s and yet concealed their n'dity in p'blic1for %hatever reason1not by %earin! a loincloth b't by the clever device of the ardhaphalaka, an act that co'ld have earned them the cr'de title <opya. *rchaeolo!ical evidence from the e.cavations made at 6ath'ra confirms this con2ect're. -his consists of three sc'lpt'res of Jinas >Shah, 19$G, intro., p. G0 fi!s. 17, 1D, 71? datable to the @'sana period, on the pedestals of %hich are carved standin! Jaina monks each holdin! on his left forearm a short piece of cloth held in s'ch a %ay as to conceal his n'dity e.actly as described in the ardhaphalaka narrative in the Brhat"atha"osa . )t is si!nificant that this motif %as never a!ain repeated in the Jaina icono!raphy, indicatin! the possibility that the 9*rdhaphalakas9 or the Fapaniyas %ho had formed a ma2or !ro'p of Jaina monks in the second cent'ry *.H. declined after their mi!ration to the Heccan and probably discarded the practice, th's becomin! indistin!'ishable from the Hi!ambaras, or may have mer!ed f'lly %ith the Svetambaras of %estern )ndia. >iv? -he Hi!ambara %riter S'bhacandra+s statement that the Fapaniyas, 'nlike the Hi!ambaras, read >i.e., accept? the >Brhat ? "alpa , the Svetambara canonical te.ts of mendicant discipline, is confirmed by the %orks of Sakatayana, %ho 5'otes from them in s'pport of strimoksa >see, for e.ample, J7E, J"G, JB7?. -his %o'ld indicate that the Fapaniyas did not share the Hi!ambara vie% of the loss of the canon and probably possessed the same script'res, albeit %ith variant readin!s, that %ere e.tant in the / BD / Svetambara tradition. -he earliest evidence that the Fapaniyas had their o%n secondary script're is provided by the ei!hth(cent'ry Svetambara acarya ;aribhadra+s commentary >vrtti ? called the Lalitavistara on the #aityavandana-sutra , a Prakrit lit'r!ical te.t. )t is said in the third verse of this

te.t that even a sin!le reverential !reetin! >namas"ara ? to the Jinas from :sabha to 6ahavira carries one across the ocean of samsara, %hether the person be a man or a %oman >ekko vi namokkaro 2inavara Aasahassa Aaddhamanassa, samsarasa!arao tarei naram va narim va?. Commentin! on the %ord 9narim ,9 ;aribhadra says that the incl'sion of %omen is to sho% that even they can attain the destr'ction of samsara in that very life, that is, %itho't bein! born as males >stri!rahanam tasam api tadbhava eva samsaraksayo bhavatiti 2napanartham?, and then 5'otes a lon! Prakrit passa!e in s'pport of the doctrine of strimoksa from a te.t that he calls the *apaniya-tantra . -his %ork, of 'nkno%n date and a'thorship, is no lon!er e.tant0 and the title 9tantra9 applied to it is also 5'ite 'n's'al for a Jaina %ork. B't 2'd!in! by the content of the portion 5'oted by ;aribhadra, the term 9tantra9 probably means no more than a sastra or a polemical treatise in prose %ritten most probably a!ainst the Hi!ambaras like @'ndak'nda %ho, as %e have seen, had opposed the mendicant vo%s to %omen. )n this passa!e, no lon!er than a fe% lines, the Fapaniya a'thor seems to have been able to compile almost all the script'ral reasons, presented in a rather disor!ani,ed se5'ence, for not denyin! the attainment of the e.cellent dharma >i.e., moksa? to %omen. -his *apaniya-tantra th's probably served as the forer'nner of Sakatayana+s Strinirvanapra"arana and possibly for that reason %as not mentioned by him. ;ence the portion 5'oted by ;aribhadra may be reprod'ced here: yathoktam *apaniyatantre : no khal' itthi a2ivo, na yavi abhavva, no yavi damsanavirohini, no aman'sa, no anari'ppatti, no asamkhe22a'ya, no aik'ramai, no na 'vasamtamoha, no na s'ddhacara, no as'ddhabomdi, no vavasayava22iya, no ap'vvakaranavirohini, no nava!'natthanarahiya, no a2o!a laddhie, no akallanabhayanam ti kaham na 'ttamadhammasahi!attiP See Strinirvana-(evalibhu"tipra"arane , app. 7, pp. D$(E#. -his also contains ;aribhadra+s lon! commentary on this passa!e as %ell as a s'bcommentary >pan%i"a ? by the fifteenth(cent'ry Svetambara a'thor 6'nicandra. Citho't !oin! into the technical details %hich %ill be taken 'p in the debates? this passa!e co'ld be rendered: )t is not the case that a %oman is nonspirit 3i.e., matter4, or one %ho is predestined never to attain moksa >abhavya ?, or one %ho is opposed to the ri!ht / BE / vie% 3darsana 0 see n. B4, or a nonh'man bein! 3i.e., a !od or an animal0 see J"4 or a non( *ryan 3i.e., a mle''ha , a species of h'man bein!s %ith animal faces0 see JS( )ll, p. "DE4, or one %ho lives for co'ntless years 3like !ods, etc.4, or one %ho is invariably of cr'el mind, or one %ho may never totally pacify her passions, or one %hose cond'ct is never p're, or one %hose body is invariably imp're, or one %ho is devoid of e.ertion, or one %ho is inherently opposed to the apurva"arana 3see n. 174, or one %ho is devoid of the 3capability to reach the4 ninth gunasthana 3see n. 174, or one %ho is 'n%orthy of attainin! 3certain4 yo!ic po%ers, or one %ho is the be!etter of the ina'spicio's only 3since she !ives birth to the -irthankaras also40 so ho% can it be said that she may not attain the e.cellent dharma 3i.e., the mendicant vo%s or moksa4P Ce have seen that the Hi!ambaras %ere the first to initiate the debate on the mendicant stat's of %omen, b't %e do not kno% precisely %ho their adversaries %ere, for @'ndak'nda is silent as to their identity. -he fact that the hi!hly rep'ted ei!hth(cent'ry Svetambara scholar ;aribhadra sho'ld 5'ote rather cas'ally a te.t in s'pport of strimoksa, not from his o%n tradition b't from that of the Fapaniyas, can only mean that 'ntil his time the Svetambaras themselves had not dealt serio'sly %ith the

Hi!ambara challen!e on that point. -he name 9Hi!ambara9 is conspic'o'sly absent from the %orks of ;aribhadra or from the *apaniya-tantra 5'oted by him and also from the %orks of Sakatayana. )t is evident, ho%ever, from the portion of the *apaniya-tantra 5'oted above that the initial opponents of the Hi!ambaras %ere the Fapaniyas and that they %ere the first to form'late lo!ical ar!'ments in s'pport of strimoksa and had by the time of ;aribhadra become closely allied %ith the Svetambaras. >v? &ne other ancient %ork that probably once belon!ed to the Fapaniya sect may be mentioned here. )t is called the Siddhivinis'aya and is attrib'ted to one Sivasvamin by Sakatayana, %ho 5'otes t%o of its verses in his &rtti >see J"E?. -his te.t is also no lon!er e.tant, b't from the title1Hetermination of >the Kat're of? Siddhi , i.e., moksa1it too appears to have been a %ork that dealt %ith the topic of strimoksa. Kothin! more is kno%n abo't this Sivasvamin, %hom Sakatayana has referred to as bhagavad >lord? a'arya , a hi!hly distin!'ished title for a Jaina monk. Premi >19DE, pp. EG(G"? has s'!!ested the possibility that this Sivasvamin is identical %ith the acarya Sivarya >c. *.H. 7##G?, a'thor of the Bhagavati-aradhana >also called ularadhana ?. -his is a %ork of 7,7G9 *pabhramsa verses traditionally revered by the Hi!ambaras as their book of mendicant discipline >to!ether %ith another Prakrit te.t called the ula'ara of the acarya Aattakera, c. *.H. 1D#?. Premi has concl'sively proved that Srivi2aya >also called *para2ita, c. ei!hth cent'ry?, the a'thor of a Sanskrit / BG / commentary called the &i%ayodaya on the Bhagavati-aradhana , m'st have been a Fapaniya, beca'se this commentary contains a !reat many passa!es that deal %ith s'ch items as clothes, be!!in! bo%ls, and so forth, in a manner that is totally inconsistent %ith the Hi!ambara tradition b't also not entirely in a!reement %ith the Svetambara te.ts. ;is critical st'dy of the &i%ayodaya commentary has led Premi to s'rmise that the Bhagavati-aradhana also m'st have once belon!ed to the Fapaniyas before it %as assimilated %ith the Hi!ambara tradition and that its a'thor Sivarya %as none other than the bha!avad( acarya Sivasvamin mentioned by Sakatayana. >vi? -his brin!s 's to the only t%o e.tant te.ts of the Fapaniya school, namely the Strinirvanapra"arana and the (evalibhu"tipra"arana , to!ether %ith a commentary >vrtti ? on each, all fo'r %orks attrib'ted to the same a'thor, Sakatayana. *ltho'!h the name Fapaniya does not appear in them, a comparison of the contents of the Strinirvanapra"arana %ith the *apaniya-tantra disc'ssed above leaves no do'bt abo't the sect %here these co'ld have ori!inated. -hat the a'thor %as Sakatayana is kno%n from the colophon of a man'script of the Strinirvana-(evalibhu"tipra"arane >krtir iyam bha!avadacaryaSakatayanabhadantapadanam iti0 p. 17?. )t is no% accepted, thanks to the researches of H. :. Bir%e >19G1, intro.?, %ho has e.amined at len!th the vie%s of K. Premi, @. B. Pathak, and *. K. Upadhye amon! others, that this Sakatayana is identical %ith the Sakatayana %ho is kno%n as the a'thor of the Sabdanusasana and its commentary the -moghavrtti . Chether he %as the follo%er of the Fapaniya or some other sect is not 5'ite clear from the latter %orks. *t the be!innin! of the -moghavrtti he describes himself only as 9Sakatayana, the most venerable acarya of the !reat san!ha of the sramanas9 >sastram idam mahasramanasan!hadhipatir bha!avan acaryah. Sakatayanah prarabhate . . .0 Sa"atayana-&ya"arana , p. 1?, %hich only indicates his e.alted stat's %ithin the Jaina comm'nity b't does not name the sect of %hich he %as the spirit'al head. -his is a serio's omission since traditionally amon! the Jainas, divided as they have al%ays been amon! rival sects, an acarya is invariably the head of only one ecclesiastical !ro'p and not of all the mendicants of the entire comm'nity. B't in the colophons appearin! at the end of each section >pada ? of each chapter >adhyaya ? Sakatayana is called 9Sr'takevalidesiya(acarya,9 a title that, accordin! to Upadhye >19GB?, confirms his affiliation %ith the Fapaniyas prevalent in @arnataka. -here he %as contemporaneo's %ith the :astrak'ta @in! *mo!havarsa ) >c. $1B($GG?, after %hom he named his commentary on the

Sabdanusasana / B$ / the -moghavrtti . -his date is in keepin! %ith the internal evidence provided by the Svopa%navrtti , namely, a 5'otation from the )ramanavartti"a >see J91? of the seventh(cent'ry B'ddhist lo!ician Hharmakirti. -he 'pper limit is provided by the tenth(cent'ry Hi!ambara acarya Prabhacandra, %ho 5'otes a verse from the Strinirvanapra"arana >no. "#0 see J$G? in his ,yaya"umuda'andra >see Chapter ))), J7E?. -hese t%o Fapaniya treatises, consistin! respectively of BE and "G verses, %ere p'blished for the first time by 6'ni Jinavi2aya2i 'nder the title of Strimu"ti-(evalibhu"ti-pra"aranayugmam in 197B and %ere rep'blished as an appendi. to the 19G1 edition of the Sa"atayana-&ya"arana , intro., pp. 171(17G. -he credit for discoverin! the Svopa%navrttis >9*'tocommentaries9? !oes to the veteran Jaina scholar 6'ni P'nyavi2aya2i, %ho fo'nd in 19E" a sin!le palm(leaf man'script of it in the Santinatha >Svetambara? Jaina temple library of @hambhat, <'2arat. -his man'script %as copied and collated by 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i %ith three other man'scripts, t%o only of the verses and one a small fra!ment of the &rttis , the main so'rces for his critical edition, %hich %as p'blished in 19G1 by the Jaina *tmananda Sabha of Bhavana!ar, <'2arat. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i+s edition is remarkable for the acc'racy of his reconstr'cted verse portions and is enriched by his many critical footnotes as %ell as the appendi.es, %hich provide selections from the %orks of later Svetambara a'thors on the topics covered. -he appendi. on strimoksa >pp. D$($B? is e.tremely val'able as it reprod'ces complete sections on this topic from the #aityavandanasutra-vrtti by ;aribhadra >c. GD#? and a )an%i"a 'pon it by 6'nicandra >c. 1B1#?, the Sanmatitar"a-vrtti by *bhayadeva >c. 1#D#?, the +ttaradhyayanasutrabrhadvrtti by Aadivetala Santis'ri >c. 11##?, the ,yayavataravarti"a-vrtti by Santis'ri >c. 117#?, the *ogasastra-Svopa%navrtti by ;emacandra >c. 11E#?, the )ra%napanasutra-vrtti by 6alaya!iri >c. 11E#?, the )ramananayatattvalo"ati"a by :atnaprabha >c. 17D#?, and finally the prima facie portion >statin! the Svetambara position only? appearin! in the ,yaya"umuda'andra of the Hi!ambara a'thor Prabhacandra >c. 9$#(1#ED?. 6y translation of the Strinirvanapra"arana-Svopa%navrtti is based entirely 'pon this edition of 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i >pp. 1"("$?, %ith only t%o minor chan!es as indicated in n. 7$. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i+s scholarly footnotes have been inval'able to me in preparin! this %ork. ) have been 'nable to reprod'ce his te.t'al footnotes for %ant of space, b't ) hope readers %ill cons'lt them for !reater appreciation of this scholarly edition. )n the follo%in! translation, the verses of the Strinirvanapra"arana appear in boldface type, to enable the reader to easily distin!'ish the ori!inal te.t from the prose commentary >the Svopa%navrtti ?. / B9 /

Tran%lation
J1 <avin$ reverentiall' $reeted the Arhat314 %ho preaches the stainless dharma that confers happiness and salvation, ) %ill disc'ss in brief the spirit'al liberation >nirvana?374 of %omen >stri? as %ell as %hether an omniscient one >@evalin? eats.3"4 314 There i% nirvana &or (omen= be,a-%e= li.e men= the' are &-ll' endo(ed (ith the ,a-%e% >that brin$ abo-t that ,ondition?. For the ,a-%e o& nirvana i% the Three Je(el%

2ratnatraya3= and thi% i% not in,om1atible (ith (omanhood. >@? J7 Kondeficiency of the 3-hree Je%els of4 ri!ht vie%,3B4 kno%led!e, and cond'ct is the ca'se for freedom from the fever of the cycle of birth and death >samsara, i.e., transmi!ration?.3D4 )n those people %here there is perfection, there is release from samsara. 6oreover, it is not proved that any of these 3-hree Je%els4 are incompatible %ith %omanhood to the e.tent that there is in %omen ins'fficiency of the ca'se for nirvana and that th's there is no nirvana for %omen. J" 3-he opponent:43E4 The Three Je(el% are in,om1atible (ith (omanhood A-%t a% (ith $od%= and %o &orth. Ko%, one 3the opponent4 mi!ht ar!'e that the -hree Je%els are 'nattainable by %omen precisely beca'se of their bein! %omen0 for is it not the case that there is no 3script'ral statement to the effect4 that the -hree Je%els are attainable by everyone. -his is beca'se it is ackno%led!ed 3by both parties4 that there is s'ch incompatibility bet%een the 3perfection of4 -hree Je%els 3i.e., attainin! nirvana4 and !ods 3i.e., bein!s born in heavens4, hell deni,ens, animals, and h'mans born in earthly paradise >bhogabhumi ?, and so forth.3G4 3* similar case can therefore be made re!ardin! %omen.4 JB 3Fapaniya:4 )-t thi% i% mere verbia$e= &or it >i% not %-11orted? b' a valid mean% o& veri&i,ation= a %,ri1t-re derived &rom a reliable 1er%on= or an' other >&orm o& 1ro1er rea%onin$?. >B? -he claim 2'st made is mere verbia!e and is not s'pported by any valid means of verification. 8ven %hen the completion of ca'ses is present, yo'r claim 3that there is opposition bet%een %omen and nirvana4 beca'se somethin! else 3e.!., !odhood4 is incompatible %ith nirvana is %ron!. -he absence 3of a %oman+s capacity for nirvana4 has to be proved by some means of verification. JD -hat means of verification %o'ld have to be either perception, / D# / inference, or script'ral testimony. 3B't4 this 3incompatibility4 is neither perceived by perception nor by inference, beca'se of the nondiscernment of a si!n that %o'ld establish invariable concomitance 3bet%een %omanhood and the absence of the -hree Je%els4. JE Kor do %e find a sin!le script're 3statin! this4 that proceeds from ecclesiastical leaders %ho compile the script'res >ganadhara ?,3$4 the independently &mniscient Bein!s >pratye"abuddha ?,394 script'ral masters >sruta"evalin ?31#4 , or those %ho kno% the ten )urvas .3114 Chile for !ods and others the follo%in! statement applies, 9<ods and hell deni,ens have fo'r 3gunasthanas , i.e., sta!es of spirit'al development4,3174 %hereas animals have five931"4 3)an'asangraha , iv, 1#4, there is no s'ch statement %hereby it can be determined that there is s'ch incompatibility %ith %omen. JG J'st beca'se there is absence 3of liberation for !ods, etc.4 does not prove that there is also s'ch absence 3for %omen as %ell40 for 2'st beca'se there is absence of blackness in cranes does not mean that there is s'ch absence in cro%s. S'rely it is impossible to accept somethin! %itho't: its bein! established by verification, for it %o'ld be abs'rd. J$ A n-n -nder%tand% the JinaC% (ord%= believe% in them= and 1ra,ti,e% them &a-ltle%%l'D >there&ore there i% no in,om1atibilit' bet(een bein$ a (oman and the Three Je(el%?. :i!ht kno%led!e is the proper 'nderstandin! of the %ords of the Jina. :i!ht vie% is the faith in those 3%ords, as ill'strated by the statement,4 9)t is indeed like this.9 :i!ht cond'ct is p'ttin! these %ords

into practice appropriately. *nd these are precisely the -hree Je%els. Chen these are perfected, there is moksa, %hich is characteri,ed as total emancipation from all karmas 3matter that binds the so'l to corporeality40 as it is said, 9:i!ht insi!ht, kno%led!e, and cond'ct 3to!ether4 are the path to moksa9 3$attvarthasutra , i, 14. *ll these three are fo'nd in %omen 3s'ch as n'ns0 therefore %omen m'st be capable of moksa4. J9 Nor ,an 'o- ,laim that the%e are im1o%%ible &or a (oman. )t is never perceived that there is the impossibility of these three 3Je%els bein! present4 in %omen %hereby it co'ld be ackno%led!ed that they are incompatible %ith %omen. J1# 3&pponent:4 Iet 's admit the possibility of these 3-hree Je%els4 in %omen. 8ven so, moksa is not possible by that alone, beca'se 3if that %ere the case4 then everyone %o'ld achieve moksa immediately after initiation into mendicancy. ;o%ever, 3moksa is attained4 only %hen there is / D1 / attainment of the e.treme e.cellence of the -hree Je%els, and since that attainment is not to be fo'nd in %omen, it 3i.e., moksa4 is not possible 3for them4. J11 3Fapaniya:4 There i% no re,o$nition o& in,om1atibilit' (ith %omethin$ that ,annot be %een. >9? -he e.treme perfection of the -hree Je%els is the last moment of inactivity >ayoga ?,31B4 immediately after %hich there is moksa. -hat moment 3of e.treme perfection4 is not perceived by 's, and %e cannot comprehend the incompatibility 3of somethin! %hich4 in that manner 3is not preceptible4. )n the absence of perception of s'ch incompatibility, it is improper to assert the absence 3of moksa for %omen40 for 'nless opposition is established, its presence cannot be denied. J17 3-he opponent4 may say that %omen do not attain nirvana 3for the follo%in! reasons4: >1? beca'se they do not !o to the seventh hell0 >7? beca'se they lack s'pernat'ral po%ers >labdhis ? s'ch as that of %innin! debates and so on0 >"? beca'se their learnin! of script'res is limited0 >B? beca'se they are not s'b2ect to %ina"alpa 031D4 >D? beca'se they lack the direct a%areness of the tho'!ht forms of others >manahparyaya%nana ?031E4 >E? beca'se they are devoid of po%er to enforce 3the mendicant disciplines like4 e.p'lsion and e.piation. J'st as those %ho 3are s'b2ect to the fore!oin! conditions4 do not attain nirvana, s'ch as bein!s born from moist're 3insects4, so, in the same %ay, %omen are also 3s'b2ect to these4 conditions 3and do not attain nirvana4. J1" 3&pponent:4 3:e!ardin! %omen+s inability to !o to the seventh hell4, there is the follo%in! script're: Bein!s born of moist're can !o as far as the first hell0 bein!s %ho cra%l on their sho'lders !o as far as the second0 birds !o as far as the third0 5'adr'peds !o as far as the fo'rth0 snakes !o as far as the fifth0 %omen !o as far as the si.th0 fish !o as far as the seventh.31G4 3P4 J1B 3Fapaniya:4 -hat is not tr'e. -he learned say: The ab%en,e o& %-,h E-alitie% a% the abilit' to $o to the %eventh hell i% ,on%idered to have inadeE-ate 1erva%ion (ith the inabilit' >to attain? nirvana . J1D )nherence 3vyapi 0 pervasion0 invariable concomitance4 is the presence of the middle term

>sadhana ? in the ma2or term >sadhya ? 3s'ch that4 %henever the ma2or term is present, the middle term is also present. Chen that inference is proved by a means of verification, then the reason >hetu ? is said to be in inherence %ith the ma2or term, and that reason is / D7 / proved to be present in the ma2or term. )n that case, it indicates %hether the similarity is present or absent. =or e.ample: >1? there is fire here, beca'se there is smoke0 >7? this is a tree, beca'se it is a simsapa tree0 >"? there is no pot here, beca'se of the nonobtainment of anythin! %hich possesses that characteristic of attainment0 >B? there is no cool to'ch, beca'se of fire0 >D? there is no simsapa tree here, beca'se of the absence of trees0 >E? an ob2ect is neither absol'tely permanent nor impermanent, beca'se it performs an e.plicit f'nction. J1E Kor can somethin! that has no inherence 3%ith the ma2or term4, nor that is of indeterminate inherence, be considered an 3appropriate4 reason, beca'se of the fallacy of abs'rdity. )n the cases previo'sly cited, there is no inherence, since thin!s s'ch as !oin! to the seventh hell are in no %ay a ca'se leadin! to nirvana, nor are they in e.tensive inherence %ith it. Kor is !oin! to the seventh hell and so forth a ca'se leadin! to nirvana as are the -hree Je%els, nor is there e.tensive inherence bet%een the t%o as there is bet%een moksa and the ei!ht 5'alities of a Perfected Bein! >Siddha?,31$4 %hereby it co'ld be said that the absence of 3!oin! to hell4 %o'ld be indicative of an absence of 3attainin!4 nirvana. J1G Fo' cannot definitely assert the absence of nirvana 2'st beca'se in the absence of one thin! that is neither a ca'se, nor in inherence %ith it, nor indeterminate, there is the absence of the other thin!. =or e.ample, yo' cannot say that he possesses co%s 2'st beca'se he has no horses, or that he is an e.po'nder 3of dharma4 beca'se he has no attachments. -h's, there is no definite absence 'nderstood beca'se of the absence of inherence. J1$ -he ma2or terms listed above are not only of do'btf'l inherence, b't their reasonin! is definitely fallacio's. =or e.ample: Tho%e bein$% (ho have no neFt bod' do not $o there >the %eventh hell?. >5? -hose for %hom there is no body after the present one are called those %ho are in their final body0 they are those %ho are destined to attain liberation in that very birth. -hey cannot !o to the seventh hell, beca'se there is an opposition bet%een 3rebirth in hell4 and havin! no ne.t body0 nevertheless, they do attain moksa. -herefore, this reason19beca'se they do not !o to the seventh hell91involves the fallacy of the 'ndistrib'ted middle. J19 Fo'r premise is certainly incorrect1that is, 3the opponent+s claim that4 the absence of !oin! to the seventh hell is indeed d'e to 3a %oman+s4 inability to commit the actions %hich are capable of brin!in! abo't that res'lt of 3rebirth in the seventh hell4. J'st as a %oman %ho is incapable of s'ch accomplishment is incapable of prod'cin! mental states that are / D" / e.cessively imp're, she m'st be similarly incapable of prod'cin! mental states that are e.tremely p're 1and it is %ell kno%n that liberation is possible only thro'!h an e.tremely p're state. -his premise is indeed vain, for %e have already re2ected the alle!ed incapacity 3in verse D4. J7# 6oreover:

Altho-$h >the ,la%%e% o& bein$% li%ted 1revio-%l'? have -neE-al de%tination% (hen $oin$ do(n(ard >to hell?= (hen $oin$ -1(ard >tho%e %ame bein$%? ,an $o (itho-t di%tin,tion a% &ar a% the Saha%rara heaven. There&ore= (hat 'o- have %aid abo-t >a (omanC%? in,a1a,it' to $o do(n(ard i% not a rea%on >&or her not $oin$ -1(ard to mo.%a?. >:? J'st beca'se men and %omen have 'ne5'al capacities %ith reference to fallin! into the hells, it does not prove that there is no parity in their 'p%ard passa!e into a p're state of e.istence. -his is beca'se imp're mental states do not serve as a ca'se for p're mental states. -his is the same as for s'ch animals as cra%lers, birds, 5'adr'peds, snakes, and fish %ho have 'ne5'al do%n%ard destinations 3i.e., possibility of rebirth4 b't e5'al celestial destinations, beca'se all are bein!s %ho are spontaneo'sly reborn as far as the Sahasrara heaven.3194 *s a script'ral passa!e says: *nimals %ho are endo%ed %ith spirit'al discrimination >sam%nis ?37#4 may be born as !ods in heavens as far as the Sahasrara0 h'mans, ho%ever, are born in all the heavens. 3P4 -herefore, 2'st beca'se there is a deficiency re!ardin! birth in lo%er e.istences, it does not follo% that %omen have any similar deficiency re!ardin! the p're destiny, namely, nirvana. J'st as 3all4 animals have the same 3ma.im'm possible4 destination in heaven, so do men and %omen have the same 3ma.im'm possible4 p're destination, that is, nirvana. J71 There i% no nonattainment o& siddbi>i.e.= mo.%a? even in ,a%e% (here there i% nonattainment o& %-,h %-1ernat-ral 1o(er% a% %.ill in debate or tran%&ormation o& the bod' and %o &orth= or i& one i% in&erior in %,ri1t-ral >-nder%tandin$?= or i& one doe% not -nderta.e the Aina.al1a or have dire,t mental 1er,e1tion >(hi,h are all 1oint% a$reed -1on b' both %ide%?. >;? 9Skill in debate9 means the ability to e.po'nd the doctrine by s'ccessf'lly pointin! o't 3s'ch fallacio's practices of one+s opponent in debate4 as prevertin! the sense of terms >'hala ?, or 3en!a!in! in4 self( ref'tin! replies >%ati ?, even %hen the opponent is a teacher as !reat as Brhaspati 3the teacher of !ods4 or the arena is the co'rt of )ndra 3the kin! of !ods4 himself. 9-ransformation of the body9 is the po%er that enables one / DB / to ass'me the forms of )ndra and other 3!ods40 it is also kno%n as the s'pernat'ral po%er to transform oneself. -he %ords 9and so forth9 incl'de s'ch s'pernat'ral po%ers as %alkin! in the air0 %omen do not have these po%ers. 9Script'ral 3'nderstandin!49 3involves te.ts both4 incl'ded in the 3t%elve4 divisions 3of the canon, i.e., te.ts attrib'ted to the Jina himself and compiled by the !anadharas4 and not incl'ded therein >i.e., te.ts composed by the later acaryas, leaders of the mendicant order4. *mon! these, s'ch te.ts as the tenth )urva and so forth are not ta'!ht to n'ns. 9Jinakalpa9 is the mendicant restraint that is not dependent 'pon 3anyone else for confessions, etc.4. 9Hirect mental perception9 is divided into a 9strai!htfor%ard9 type 3%hich is restricted in both time and space4 and a 9c'rved9 type 3%hich can e.tend thro'!h inn'merable births and into all h'man abodes4. 3Hirect mental perception4 is possible only to a monk %ho has taken the total vo%s of a mendicant0 it is the kno%led!e of the ob2ects that are %ithin the minds of both animals and h'man bein!s %ho reside %ithin the confines of the 6an'sottara ran!e of mo'ntains. Comen do not possess it. -h's, even tho'!h %omen are incapable of these po%ers that are prod'ced thro'!h e.cellence in kno%led!e, cond'ct, and a'sterities, this does not mean that they are incapable of moksa. 6oksa is not dependent 'pon these alone, for:

)t is kno%n that an infinit'de of bein!s have become Siddhas thro'!h only a sin!le form'la called samayi"a .3714 3$attvarthasutra-sambandha"ari"a , 7Gcd4 J77 6oreover: I& an inabilit' to attain %-,h %-1ernat-ral 1o(er% a% %.ill in debate and %o &orth >,orre%1ondin$l' 1rove% an inabilit'? to attain mo.%a al%o= then the %,ri1t-re (o-ld have eF1re%%l' eF,l-ded that mo.%a A-%t a% it eF,l-ded the 1o%%ibilit' o& an'one livin$ a&ter the time o& >the Venerable? Jamb-. >8? )f, as yo' maintain, %omen %ill not attain moksa for the same reason that the mirac'lo's po%ers of skill in debate and so forth1%hich are prod'ced thro'!h e.cellence in a'sterities1are not fo'nd in them, then s'rely this %o'ld have been e.pressed in the script're, as %as 3the inability of %omen to attain4 the mirac'lo's po%ers of skill in debate and so forth. =or %e see no reason %hy 3mention of their inability to attain moksa4 %o'ld have been e.cl'ded from the listin!. J7" Kor is it the case that nonattainment of nirvana is never 3mentioned in the script'res 'nder partic'lar circ'mstances4. =or e.ample, there is a statement of the impossibility of attainin! nirvana: 9*fter 3the Aenerable4 Jamb', the attainment of Siddhahood is c't off9 3P4.3774 )f it %ere / DD / indeed the case that %omen do not attain nirvana, it %o'ld have said, 9Comen never attain nirvana.9 B't this is not said. -herefore, %e s'bmit that nirvana is possible for %omen. J7B Ko% 3the opponent4 mi!ht ass'me that 3nirvana for %omen4 %o'ld be prohibited only if %omen %ere capable of ass'min! the restraints of a mendicant that enable the attainment of nirvana. ;o%ever, since nirvana is impossible %here those 3restraints4 are not ass'med 3as is the case for %omen4, there is no 3need for an e.plicit statement prohibitin!4 nirvana for them. J7D 3Fapaniya:4 -his is not so, for if this %ere the case, then the script'res %o'ld not have denied the possibility of 3%omen4 attainin! s'ch po%ers as skill in debate and so forth, %hich are prod'ced thro'!h e.cellence of asceticism 3%hich %e both a!ree they do not have4. )n the same %ay, s'ch 3prohibition4 is en2oined even for those %ho do not accept the restraints. -herefore, it is kno%n that there is mendicant restraint 3for %omen and th's they can attain moksa4. J7E 6oreover: I& bein$ a (oman alone (ere to ob%tr-,t the dharma >o& a,,e1tin$ the mendi,ant re%traint%?= then the t(ent' de&e,t% that 1revent ordination (o-ld have in,l-ded Gbein$ a (oman=G a% it did Gbein$ a ,hildG and %o &orth= and (o-ld not merel' have %aid Gbein$ 1re$nantG or Ghavin$ a 'o-n$ ,hild.G >#? * child, an old man, a hermaphrodite, a retarded person, an impotent person, a diseased person, a thief, a rebel, a l'natic, a person %ith a %ron! vie%, a slave, a vicio's person, a st'pid person, a debtor, a cripple, an ill(mannered person, a fo'l(mo'thed person, a person %ho re2ects the teachin!s, a pre!nant %oman, a %oman %ith a yo'n! child: s'ch people sho'ld not be initiated into mendicancy. 3,isithabhasya , verses "D#E("D#$437"4 -h's, there are these t%enty types of people %ho cannot be initiated into the mendicant order. )f merely bein! a %oman %ere to be an obstr'ction 3in receivin! the mendicant restraints4, then instead of listin! 9a child, an old man,9 and so forth, it sho'ld have !iven 2'st 9bein! a %oman9 and merely said that 9%omen are not to be initiated9 rather than specifyin! 9a pre!nant %oman9 or 9a %oman %ith a yo'n! child.9 -his is beca'se re2ection of one s'btype is proper only %hen the %hole class is accepted. )f none

of that class is to be incl'ded, then merely a !eneric term %o'ld have 3been s'fficient to4 proscribe 3all of them4. -herefore, there is no obstr'ction of the dharma 3of acceptin! the mendicant restraints4 merely beca'se of bein! a %oman. -herefore it is said that bein! a %oman is not s'fficient ca'se for the nonattainment of nirvana. / DE / J7G I& (omen ,annot attain mo.%a be,a-%e >the' (ear? ,lothe%. . . Ko%, 3the opponent4 mi!ht claim that beca'se %omen possess clothes, they cannot attain moksa. People s'ch as ho'seholders, %ho are involved %ith possessions, do not attain moksa. )f it %ere not the case 3that %earin! clothes is tantamo'nt to havin! possessions4, then even males 3i.e., monks4 co'ld %ear clothes and reno'ncin! them %o'ld be meanin!less 3for attainin! moksa4. J7$ 3Fapaniya:4 -his is not so. >Then? the' ma' abandon them . )f 3as yo' maintain4 nirvana is 'nattainable beca'se of 3%earin!4 clothes, and by reno'ncin! them nirvana is attainable, then s'rely it %o'ld be permissible 3for %omen4 to reno'nce 3those clothes4. Clothes are not necessary to maintain life, and even 3one+s o%n4 life itself can be abandoned 3in the p'rs'it of nirvana41ho% m'ch more so in the case of mere clothesP )f moksa is attained only in the absence of those 3clothes4, then %hat foolish person strivin! for moksa %o'ld lose moksa 2'st to keep clothesP J79 )-t %-rel' it i% not 1ermitted to abandon them . 3-he opponent437B4 mi!ht say: Ko% it is said in the script'res19)t is not permitted that a n'n may !o %itho't clothes9 3Brhat"alpa , v, 7E4. -h's, the a'thorities 3the *rhats4 forbid the ren'nciation of clothes by %omen. ;ence, even tho'!h clothes can be reno'nced, since %omen are not permitted s'ch ren'nciation they cannot attain nirvana. J"# 3&pponent:4 Ko%, sho'ld she disre!ard the %ords of the a'thorities and reno'nce clothes4, then, in contravenin! the script'res, she %o'ld not be f'lfillin! 3her inc'mbent4 cond'ct1for s'rely 3!ood4 cond'ct means to act accordin! to the in2'nction of the a'thorities. -h's 3for a %oman %ho reno'nces her clothes there is, on the contrary,4 absol'tely no attainment of nirvana. J"1 3Fapaniya:4 -h's: > et ,lothe% be ,on%idered? a reE-i%ite &ormukti>i.e.= mo.%a?= li.e a (hi%. broom . Since the Iord *rhats, the !'ides on the path to moksa, en2oined that %omen sho'ld %ear clothes and prohibited them from reno'ncin! clothes, then it m'st be admitted that clothes are a re5'isite for moksa, like a %hisk broom >pratile"hana ?.37D4 / DG / J"7 Other(i%e= the Tea,her% (o-ld be at &a-lt. >"6? )f, ho%ever, 3clothes4 are not re5'isite for moksa b't are instead a possession >pari!raha?, then they are

an obstacle to moksa1and ren'nciation of that possession %o'ld s'rely be proper, 2'st like the ren'nciation of %ron! vie%s and so forth. * person %ho %o'ld then prevent 3the ren'nciation of clothes4 and force someone to %ear them %o'ld be like someone %ho advocates committin! in2'ry >himsa? and so forth, %hich is admittedly an obstr'ction to moksa. Chether it %ere the *rhats, the !anadharas, or other elders, anyone %ho !ave s'ch an in2'nction %o'ld be at fa'lt. *nd if it %ere the case 3that the teachers, i.e., the *rhats, etc., %ere at fa'lt,4 then no one %o'ld ever attain moksa. J"" Ko% 3in order to prove that the *rhats are not at fa'lt, the opponent4 mi!ht ass'me: The tea,her allo(% ,lothe% &or n-n%= even tho-$h the' are a 1o%%e%%ion= be,a-%e in abandonin$ ,lothe% there (o-ld be a total abandonment >o& all the mendi,ant re%traint%?= (herea% in (earin$ ,lothe% there i% onl' a minor de&e,t . )f clothes %ere abandoned by %omen, it %o'ld be tantamo'nt to the abandonment of the entire a!!re!ation of the mendicant restraints. -his is beca'se it is %ell kno%n that, as a !eneral r'le, %omen are overpo%ered by men %hose tho'!hts are a!itated by the si!ht of their naked body and limbs, 2'st as mares, %ho are nat'rally 'nclothed, are overpo%ered by stallions. *mon! cattle as %ell as horses, as a !eneral r'le, the nat're of the female is to be overpo%ered %hile the nat're of the male is to overpo%er. J"B 6oreover, 3the opponent mi!ht say:4 %omen from !ood families are e.tremely bashf'l by nat're and if 3there %ere a r'le that one m'st4 reno'nce clothes 3in order to lead the n'n+s life4, they %o'ld ref'se to be initiated 3as n'ns4. Beca'se clothes are a possession, there is a 3minor4 defect in %earin! them, b't at least thereby the entire mendicant re!imen is %ell protected. -h's, determinin! that there is more benefit and less of a defect in %earin! clothes than in abandonin! them, the holy *rhats ordered that n'ns sho'ld %ear clothes and forbade them from reno'ncin! them. ;ence, %hile the teachers are not at fa'lt, 3at the same time4 it m'st be emphasi,ed that %omen cannot attain nirvana, for possession itself is a defect. J"D 3Fapaniya:4 Thi% >obAe,tion? ,an a11l' to &ood and %o &orth. >""? 3Fo'r ar!'ment4 applies e5'ally to food and so forth, for it is possible to / D$ / say the same thin! abo't alms, implements 3e.!., "amandalu , a %ater pot for toilet p'rposes4, and seats. Since alms, %hisk brooms, and seats are considered to be possessions, 2'st like clothes, they %o'ld have to be accepted 3bearin! in mind that4 there is small defect as %ell as !reat benefit 3accr'in!4 from them. -herefore, 3by the opponent+s ar!'ment4 if even the implements of the mendicant life that are prescribed by the script're are possessions, even men 3i.e., monks4 %ho accept alms and so forth %o'ld be incapable of attainin! moksa. )t is impossible, therefore, to admit that the re5'isites of mendicant livin!1%hich are prescribed in the script'res and accepted in accordance %ith the script'res1are possessions. J"E )n this connection, %e 5'ote t%o verses from the Siddhivinis'aya37E4 of the venerable acarya Sivasvamin, %hich conforms %ith this reason: * re5'isite >upa"arana ? is that %hich is cond'cive to the mendicant restraints, for it is an instr'ment for keepin! the mendicant cond'ct. *ll else has been declared by the *rhat to be a possession. -h's is the r'le pertainin! to the keepin! of e.ternal re5'isites 3s'ch as a %hisk broom or a %ater pot4, namely, ob2ects that are not %orthy of bein! stolen, alms that are connected %ith

2'dicio's re!'lation of activities, and so forth0 for this is the in2'nction pertainin! to re5'isites that are not to be labeled possessions. J"G 6oreover: The titlenirgranthi>a (oman (itho-t 1o%%e%%ion%?= (hi,h a11ear% thro-$ho-t the %,ri1t-re% >re&errin$ to a n-n?= (o-ld not be a11ro1riate i& her reE-i%ite% (ere ,on%idered to be 1o%%e%%ion% . 8very%here in the script'res, incl'din! the Brhat"alpa , 3there appears this passa!e4: )t is not allo%ed for a nir!ranthi to receive a shoot of a %ine palm %hen it is tender, re!ardless of %hether it is broken or not. 3Brhat"alpa , ii, 1437G4 -h's, the title nir!ranthi is applied to a %oman 3i.e., a n'n4. )f 3the clothes that are4 the re5'isites 3of a n'n4 %ere considered to be a possession 3as yo' alle!e4, then, beca'se they are a possession, s'ch a title as nir!ranthi %o'ld be inappropriate for her, 2'st as it %o'ld be inappropriate for a ho'seholder. J"$ )' the %ame to.en= even a male ,o-ld not be ,alled anirgrantha>a man (itho-t 1o%%e%%ion%?. >"@? )f, indeed, the re5'isites >upadhi ? that are implements of restraint: are considered to be possessions, then it %o'ld be inappropriate to apply the / D9 / title nir!rantha 3one %itho't possessions4 even to a monk, since he too 'ses the three re5'isites, namely, a %hisk broom, a %ater pot, and a mat. J"9 -he follo%in! Collected Aerses37$4 3also clarify the tr'e meanin! of a possession4: 8ven tho'!h a man be adorned %ith clothes and ornaments, if he is free from a sense of possession he %o'ld indeed be considered possessionless. B't, even tho'!h naked, a man %ho retains a sense of possession %o'ld be considered one %ith possessions. -herefore, a %oman %ho is desiro's of moksa does not %ear clothes beca'se of attachment or her o%n 3%ill4 b't, rather, beca'se she has been so char!ed by her teacher. Clothes are not a possession for her, 2'st as clothes thro%n 3'pon a naked monk4 in order to dist'rb him 3%o'ld not be considered possession4.3794 * person %ho has a sense of possession re!ardin! even his o%n body is considered to have possession: 3even if he is naked, s'ch a one4 cannot attain moksa. B't 2'st as 3a real monk4 has no sense of possession even if the body is still attached to him, so are clothes 3to be considered in the case of a n'n4. 8ven tho'!h a monk be constantly absorbin! karmic matter that s'stains the body and the senses >no"arma ? %hen he enters a villa!e or a ho'se, he is not considered to be a possessor0 there is no other sense in %hich one can be re!arded as devoid of possession. JB# 3&pponent:4 8ven 3ass'min! for the sake of ar!'ment that clothes are not a possession for a n'n, %hich means there is no violation of the fifth mendicant vo% of not keepin! possession >apari!raha?4, as small creat'res >%antu ? %ill be born in those clothes, there inevitably %ill be in2'ry to those bein!s %hen 3a n'n4 sleeps on her bed and so forth. )n that case, the first vo%, %hich is specified as nonin2'ry >ahimsa?, %o'ld not be observed 3by the n'n40 ho% then %o'ld there be moksaP

JB1 3Fapaniya:4 )f this is the claim 3then %e say4: Even tho-$h there be ,onta,t >(ith %mall ,reat-re%?= the noble (oman 2arya= i.e.= a n-n? i% not im1li,ated in inA-r' be,a-%e o& her ,are&-l e&&ort% >a% ordained b' the %,ri1t-re?. Th-%= in thi% (orld (hi,h i% &-ll o& li&e= A-%t li.e a male mendi,ant= %he (ill not be the 1er1etrator o& an inA-r'. >"B? )t is not certain that merely by the act of %earin! clothes there necessarily is contact 3%ith small creat'res4. 3-his is beca'se4 it is kno%n that, %ithin a period of forty(ei!ht moments >antarmuhurta ?, an infinite n'mber of bein!s can come into e.istence 3inside even freshly cleaned clothes40 3therefore, there m'st be some point d'rin! that period %hen no bein!s %ere livin! in her clothes and she %o'ld not be c'lpable4. Kor is it the case that, merely beca'se there is contact %ith those bein!s, they %ill die then and there. *nd even sho'ld they die, 2'st as the death of a small creat're livin! on the body 3of a naked monk4 does not mean that there %as %illf'l takin! of life, in the / E# / same %ay, there %o'ld be no killin! d'e to these clothes either. *nd even sho'ld there be loss of life, a n'n %ho is free from carelessness perpetrates no in2'ry, beca'se she cond'cts herself accordin! to the efforts laid do%n by the *rhat0 this is beca'se carelessness itself is in2'ry. *s it is said, 9)n2'ry >himsa? is the severance of vitality d'e to activity ca'sed by carelessness9 3$attvarthasutra , vii, $4. &ther%ise, ho% can a mendicant 3receive4 food, re5'isites, and a bed0 3or en!a!e in s'ch bodily activities as4 standin!, lyin!, %alkin!, contraction, e.pansion, r'bbin!, and so forth, and th's e.perience his body, his immediate environment, and the %orld at lar!eP 3*s has been said:4 -here are bein!s in %ater, bein!s in soil, bein!s in space0 ho% can a monk not commit in2'ry in a %orld teemin! %ith infinite lifeP 3P4 ;ence, even if he commits in2'ry, activities 'ndertaken accordin! to the in2'nctions of the *rhat do not ca'se bonda!e0 bonda!e %o'ld occ'r %hen there is activity %itho't caref'lness. JB7 *s it is said: Chether a bein! lives or dies, there is certainly bonda!e for a person %ho behaves in an 'ncontrolled manner. &ne %ho is caref'l has no bonda!e, merely beca'se one is the ca'se of in2'ry. 3P43"#4 * mendicant %ho leads an 'ncontrolled life, and thereby commits in2'ry to vario's kinds of bein!s, is bo'nd by evil karmas that have bitter fr'it. 3P0 cf. Dasavai"ali"asutra , iv, 7B4 B't a mendicant %ho leads a mindf'l life, %atchin! %ith compassion, is not bo'nd by ne% karmic matter and shakes off the old. 3P4 -herefore, 2'st as one does not become c'lpable 3for in2'rin!4 those bein!s in the three %orlds %ho are constantly dyin! and bein! reborn, in the same %ay a n'n %ho is e.ertin! herself and %ho is free from a sense of possession 3is not c'lpable for killin! small creat'res that mi!ht be livin! in her clothes4. JB" 3&pponent:4 )f it is admitted that moksa is possible even %hen one %ears clothes, then %hy %o'ld not moksa be possible for laymen as %ell 3as for n'ns4P JBB 3Fapaniya:4 )e,a-%e a ho-%eholder ha% a %en%e o& 1o%%e%%ion= and be,a-%e he doe% not (ear >,lothe%? a% a mean% o& re%traint >-nli.e the n-n (ho (ear% them a% 1art o& in,-mbent di%,i1line?= he ,on%eE-entl' lead% a li&e (itho-t >total? re%traint= de&i,ient in 1ro1er

,ond-,tD there&ore= he ,annot attain mo.%a. >"9? * ho'seholder does not have the same cond'ct as a n'n, for he is not free / E1 / from sense of possession in re!ard to that matter 3of %earin! clothes4, nor does he accept clothes as a means of practicin! restraint, nor is he a person %ho is en!a!ed in activities that are en2oined in the script'res0 moreover, beca'se he ind'l!es in the %ron! vie% and so forth 3see JD#4, he does not attain moksa. )f a ho'seholder %ere to be as dili!ent as a n'n, he %o'ld not remain a ho'seholder b't %o'ld become a monk. *s it is said: 93* ho'seholder4 %ho s'ffers from feelin!s of shame mi!ht reno'nce the %orld by %earin! a sin!le piece of cloth and so forth.93"14 3P4 JBD 3-he opponent mi!ht claim here that, in s'ch an instance, that layman %o'ld still not be considered a mendicant, beca'se in fact he is still %earin! clothes. -o this the Fapaniya replies that, in certain circ'mstances, even monks can %ear clothes4: The %,ri1t-re mention% three %hort,omin$% >in a mon.? that allo( him to (ear ,lothe% -nder the &ollo(in$ three ,ondition% 1the inabilit' to bear a&&li,tion% 2parisaha3 >ari%in$ &rom n-dit'= %-,h a% eFtreme heat or ,old= the bite o& in%e,t%= et,.?D a %en%e o& %hame >at bein$ totall' n-de?D di%$-%t 1rod-,ed &or the >na.ed? bod' .3"74>"5? JBE 3&pponent:4 )f moksa is possible even %hen %earin! clothes, then %hy is n'dity en2oined for men 3as the follo%in! passa!es specify4P 3* monk sho'ld keep the follo%in! r'les:4 K'dity0 not acceptin! food especially prepared for him0 restrictions in obtainin! a d%ellin! place0 not acceptin! food from a royal palace0 fi.ed rit'als. 3 ula'ara , verse 9#94 -here are these fo'r comp'lsory r'les pertainin! to one %ho is marked as a mendicant: n'dity0 p'llin! the hair o't by the fistf'ls0 ass'min! the 9abandonin! the body9 post're 3i.e., standin! erect %ith hands han!in! do%n40 observation 3of the r'les4 for removin! insects 3from one+s seat and so forth4. 3 ula'ara , verse 9#$4 )t is not allo%ed for a nir!rantha to %ear clothes or to accept a c'rtain 3%ith %hich to hide his n'dity4. 3P43""4 JBG 3&pponent:4 )f it %ere to be admitted that %omen can attain moksa even %hile %earin! clothes, then it sho'ld be e5'ally possible for men as %ell. 3-herefore, %hy have these special r'les en2oined that men al%ays remain nakedP4 ='rthermore, if men cannot attain moksa %hile %earin! clothes, then it sho'ld be denied to %omen as %ell0 for %hat is so special abo't %omen that clothes have been en2oined for them b't prohibited for menP JB$ )f this claim is made, the 3Fapaniya4 reply is: The Arhat ha% 1re%,ribed that= &or (omen= ,ond-,t >that i% ,ond-,ive to mo.%a? i% im1o%%ible >to maintain? -nle%% %he (ear% ,lothe%. )-t= &or men= even (itho-t / E7 / >(earin$ ,lothe%= %-,h ,ond-,t i% 1o%%ible?D there&ore= he 1rohibited >them &rom (earin$ ,lothe%? . -he Iord has en2oined that %omen %ear clothes and has prohibited them from abandonin! them. *s far

as men are concerned, ho%ever, the Iord prohibited the acceptance of clothes by those %ho %ere capable of 'ndertakin! reli!io's practice %itho't clothes, 3beca'se they4 %ere not s'b2ect to these three conditions0 ho%ever, he prescribed 3clothes4 for those men %ho %ere still s'b2ect to the same three conditions. )ndeed, the Iord prescribed clothes to those men for %hom it co'ld serve as a valid means of reli!io's practice. &ther%ise, the Iord %o'ld not prescribe somethin! as acceptable %hen it is, in fact, either 'seless or antithetical to reli!io's practice0 for if he did that, then he %o'ld not be a spirit'al a'thority >apta ?. 3-he Iord4 has prohibited 3clothes4 to those for %hom they are 'seless or %o'ld be an impediment to the mendicant r'le0 and s'rely the Iord %o'ld not prohibit somethin! if it %ere a means of reli!io's practice. -here is no r'le that %hat is cond'cive to reli!io's practice for one individ'al is cond'cive for all, or that %hat is not cond'cive for one is not cond'cive for all, as can be seen %ith re!ard to s'ch practices as fastin! and so forth. JB9 3&pponent:4 ;o% can there be an identical res'lt 3i.e., the same type of moksa4 %hen yo' admit differences in the ca'se 3that leads to that moksa4P -his partakin! of contradictory properties is indeed the ca'se of differences and m'st be considered to be the ca'se for the difference in the effect. JD# )f this claim is made, 3then the Fapaniya ans%er is4: In %-,h a %it-ation= there (o-ld be mo.%a a% in the ,a%e o& one (ho &ollo(% thesthavira >kalpa? and %o &orth. >":? )n this re!ard, altho'!h the path1%hich consists of the ri!ht vie% and so forth, %hich prevent %ron! vie%s >mithyatva ?, nonrestraint >asamyama ?, carelessness >pramada ?, passions >"asaya ?, and activities >yoga ? of mind, speech, and body3"B4 1is distin!'ished accordin! to ca'se1that is, bet%een %earin! and not %earin! of clothes1the moksa that is attained by the application of that path is the same, beca'se those aspects of that path are similar. -his is 2'st like 3those mendicants4 follo%in! the sthavirakalpa %ho have taken the 5'alified restraints >sape"sa-samyama ? and those mendicants follo%in! the 2inakalpa %ho have taken complete restraint >nirape"sa-samyama ?0 3both attain the same moksa4.3"D4 )t is also like those mendicants %ho 3on the approach of death4 'ndertake !rad'al red'ction of food b't allo% themselves to be n'rsed by others, those %ho fast to death / E" / %itho't acceptin! n'rsin! from others b't still n'rse themselves, or those %ho fast to death %itho't permittin! n'rsin! even by themselves 3b't still all attain the same moksa40 it is also the same for those %ho skip si., ei!ht, ten, or t%elve meals at a time, or 3'ndertake fastin! for even lon!er, or at irre!'lar intervals as described by s'ch terms as4 <arland of Je%els >ratnavali ?,3"E4 or %ho do not fast at all 3and yet all still attain the identical moksa4. 3;ence, yo'r ar!'ment is not valid.4 JD1 3Fapaniya:4 ='rthermore, if yo' make a r'le that moksa is not possible if clothes are accepted, then 3yo' sho'ld have to admit that4: A mendi,ant (ho a,,e1t% ,lothe% >a% a dre%%in$ &or? hemorrhoid% and >anal? &i%t-la% (ill not attain mo.%a . *cceptin! a cloth is permitted 3as a dressin! for4 diseases like hemorrhoids or 3anal4 fist'las from %hich p's oo,es, for other%ise there is a possibility of nonrestraint 3d'e to killin! insects that mi!ht be attracted to the %o'nds4. -herefore, 3accordin! to yo'r ar!'ment,4 in that state even a f'lly restrained male %ho accepts clothes %ill not be released from the bonds of samsara. *s one %hose desire for emancipation is e.tremely stron! approaches pro!ressively hi!her sta!es of p'rity, it is only proper that he sho'ld attain Siddhahood0 and s'rely yo' cannot say that a banda!e prevents his p'rity of mind.3"G4 JD7 )t is similar to

a 1ie,e o& ,loth that i% -%ed to ,a-%e an ob%tr-,tion as in the e.ample of the monk 6r!adhva2a,3"$4 %ho, %hile seated in meditation, had clothes placed on him in order to annoy him0 3by yo'r ar!'ment4 he sho'ld not have attained moksa. JD" 3-he opponent4 mi!ht say: S'rely moksa is possible in that case, beca'se that piece of cloth %as not %illin!ly accepted by him0 rather, it %as placed on his body by force. Somethin! is not a possession merely beca'se it is in contact %ith the body0 in fact, it is attachment >mur''ha ? that makes for possession.3"94 JDB 3Fapaniya:4 )f that is so, then beca'se she has reno'nced all attachments, the n'n too is desiro's of moksa, has prepared herself for 3the attainment of4 moksa, and has s'rrendered herself to the a'thority of her teacher and cond'cts herself accordin! to his orders0 hence, it %o'ld not be proper to claim that she accepted clothes herself o't of attachment, abandonin! thereby the !oal of moksa. &n the contrary, her acceptance of clothes is in accordance %ith the in2'nctions of the *rhat and, therefore, cannot be called possession. / EB / JDD 6oreover: And at the time o& death= the bod' >and= ,on%eE-entl'= all her other 1o%%e%%ion%? are reno-n,ed. >";? 93-he ho'seholder4 co'rts 3vol'ntary4 rit'al death by fastin! >salle"hana ? at the point of death93B#4 3$attvarthasutra , vii, 1G4. *ccordin! to this statement, at the time of death all attachments, be!innin! %ith the body 3and incl'din! s'ch re5'isites as the %hisk broom and so forth4, are reno'nced. Chen a n'n %ho is desiro's of moksa is livin! in complete secl'sion and thereby has contact bet%een her body and those clothes, ho% can the clothes be an obstacle to moksa for herP S'rely 3if she is able to !ive 'p even her attachment to her body4 that 3attachment to clothes4 can be abandoned. -herefore 3yo' cannot assert4 that %omen are incapable of attainin! moksa simply beca'se of %earin! clothes. JDE Ko% 3the opponent4 mi!ht say: N-dit' m-%t be ,on%idered a 1rereE-i%ite &or mo.%aD i& thi% (ere not %o= it (o-ld not be obli$ator' &or male% al%o. )ein$ -n&it &or n-dit'= a (oman m-%t be ,on%idered -n&it &or Siddhahood= li.e an'one (ho i% -n&it to re,eive initiation. >"8? K'dity is a precondition for moksa, since it is en2oined 'pon those %ho are intent on moksa as somethin! that is to be 'ndertaken1similar to the abandonment of %ron! vie%s and so forth. &ther%ise, bein! 'seless for attainin! moksa, it %o'ld not be en2oined 'pon those men as %ell %ho are desiro's of attainin! moksa12'st as abandonin! the ri!ht vie% and so forth 3is not so en2oined4. * %oman is considered 'nfit to 'ndertake that n'dity %hich is the precondition for moksa, beca'se it has been prohibited to her. -herefore, a %oman %ho is 'nfit for the condition of moksa1and th's like a child and so forth, is not allo%ed to take f'll ordination1 cannot attain moksa. JDG 3Fapaniya:4 Thi% ar$-ment that one i% -n&it >&or mo.%a? be,a-%e one ,annot re,eive the Aina.al1a initiation >that reE-ire% n-dit'? ,an have -nde%irable ,on%eE-en,e% >&or the o11onent?H a,,ordin$ to thi% r-le= an ei$ht/'ear/old bo' and %o &orth >(ho i% ,on%idered b' tradition to be ,a1able o& attainin$ mo.%a? (o-ld be barred &rom

attainin$ it merel' be,a-%e the mendi,ant r-le 1revent% ado1tion o& n-dit' >at that a$e?. >"#? 36oreover4 this sort of claim leads to 'ndesirable conse5'ences for yo', beca'se the same r'le %o'ld e5'ally apply to the 2inakalpa and similar modes of mendicancy. -he three modes, namely the 2inakalpa, the time( / ED / bo'nd co'rse >yathalandavidhi ?, and the p'rificatory co'rse >pariharavisuddhi ?, are considered as leadin! to moksa.3B14 -hese have been en2oined as practices to be 'ndertaken by a person %ho is intent on moksa, as is the ri!ht vie% and so forth. &ther%ise, that 3restraint4 %o'ld never be en2oined 'pon a person intent on moksa beca'se it %o'ld be 'seless for moksa, as %o'ld be, for e.ample, the abandonment of the ri!ht vie% and so forth. * boy ei!ht years of a!e is 'nfit for the 2inakalpa and so forth,3B74 %hich is the prere5'isite for moksa, as are other 3similar practices4. *s it is said: &nly a man %ho is thirty years of a!e, or %ho has adopted mendicancy for at least nineteen years previo'sly, deserves to 'ndertake 3s'ch4 total ren'nciation 3i.e., one of the three modes described above4. 3P43B"4 -his bein! the case, it %o'ld appear to be a 'niversal r'le 3for the Hi!ambara4 that moksa cannot be attained by anyone 'nder thirty years of a!e, beca'se he cannot be initiated in 2inakalpa as he is incapable of f'lfillin! the preconditions of moksa. B't s'ch impossibility of moksa 3is not admitted in all cases4, beca'se moksa is allo%ed for a person at least ei!ht years of a!e.3BB4 -herefore, it is not a 'niversal r'le 3that %itho't ass'min! the 2inakalpa mode of mendicancy a person cannot attain moksa4. JD$ Kor is there any absol'te r'le that moksa is possible only for those %ho have taken the total ren'nciation of the 2inakalpa, and so on, and not for those mendicants %ho have follo%ed the 5'alified restraints of the sthavirakalpa0 nor vice versa. Similarly, yo' sho'ld abide by the script're %hich states that even those %earin! clothes 3can attain moksa, not simply naked ascetics4. JD9 3&pponent:4 )f, accordin! to yo'r interpretation, both those %ho %ear and do not %ear clothes and those %ho accept the 5'alified and total restraints are e5'ally capable of attainin! moksa, then %hy %o'ld the script'res en2oin the diffic'lt path 3like n'dity, %hen the easier path is 2'st as effective4P S'rely it is not lo!ical that a painf'l path be en2oined to attain somethin! that is obtainable by an easy path. JE# )f this claim is made, the 3Fapaniya4 ans%er is: In the %,ri1t-re%= there are >mentioned? a variet' o& a-%teritie% that are ,ond-,ive to 1reventin$ .armi, in&l-F and removin$ .armi, a,,-m-lation%. It i% li.e the a11li,ation o& an a11ro1riate medi,ine to ,-re a %1e,i&i, di%ea%e 1a ,ertain ,-re i% bene&i,ial to a ,ertain 1er%on in a ,ertain manner. >@6? -his is similar to script'res pertainin! to medicinal c'res prescribin! that partic'lar types of medicinal applications are beneficial to a certain person in a certain manner. )n all these cases, altho'!h the ob2ective is one and the same1namely, the restoration of health1the possible prescriptions are / EE / manifold, beca'se the c're varies accordin! to the type of disease, its ca'ses, and the timeliness of its 'se, and beca'se the properties of medicine are manifold, dependin! on their s'bstance 3i.e., %hether

they are herbal or 'n!'ents, etc.4, ran!e of application, timeliness, and condition. )t is the same for a script're pertainin! to spirit'al %ell(bein!. Chile it disc'sses vario's types of a'sterities that are distin!'ished by both the ability of the person 'ndertakin! it as %ell as the activities involved, these all have the same nat're0 that is, they remove karmic acc'm'lations and prevent f't're karmic infl'.es. JE1 3Fapaniya:4 Ce have established that there is no proof to s'pport the claim that %omen cannot attain nirvana0 ho% can the opponent no% say that %omen do not achieve nirvanaP 0e have ,om1rehen%ivel' %tated that there i% no im1o%%ibilit' o& mo.%a >to a n-n? %im1l' be,a-%e o& >(earin$? ,lothe%. +oreover= it i% ta-$ht b' the virt-o-% that there are no other 1rereE-i%ite% o& mo.%a be%ide% the Three Je(el%. >@"? -he ar!'ment 3of the opponent4 has been ref'ted1that is, that clothes are a possession and 3d'e to the in2'nction that they m'st %ear clothes4 %omen are not able even to accept the f'll restraints, let alone achieve moksa. Ko% 3%e Fapaniyas say that4 %hatever else is accepted as bein!: an aid to the attainment of moksa for men is e5'ally possible for %omen as %ell, and this specifically refers to the -hree Je%els. Ko shortcomin!s in re!ard to these are fo'nd in %omen. *nythin! else than that, s'ch as the fact of bein! a male, is certainly not the ca'se of moksa. -his is beca'se the noble ones have said that the -hree Je%els alone are the means of moksa: 9-he path of moksa consists of ri!ht vie%, kno%led!e, and cond'ct9 3$attvarthasutra , i, 14. @no%led!e is the lamp that ill'minates the ri!ht path. :i!ht faith helps one not to t'rn a%ay from that path. Cond'ct is that %hich stops the infl'. of karmas. *'sterities are the fire that destroys the karmas. 3P4 @no%led!e ill'minates, a'sterities p'rify, the restraints protect 3the so'l4. Chen all these three %ork in tandem, moksa is seen in the -eachin! of the Jina. )n this %ay, 3the path of moksa4 is complete. 3-vasya"a-niryu"ti , verse 1#"4 JE7 3&pponent:4 )f merely by this m'ch 3i.e., by the -hree Je%els4 there is moksa, then %hy are certain people1s'ch as thieves, traitors to the kin!, or 'ned'cated b'mpkins1%ho are capable of the -hree Je%els, still prohibited 3in yo'r tradition4 from receivin! initiation 3into monkhood4P Iet them also, havin! accepted the kind of initiation that leads to moksa, !o to moksa. Chy sho'ld yo' be!r'd!e them thisP -herefore, %e concl'de that there m'st be some other prere5'isite to moksa in addition to the -hree / EG / Je%els, in the absence of %hich, even %ere those %ho are prohibited from 3receivin!4 initiation finally !iven initiation, they %o'ld still not be able to attain moksa. JE" *s to this claim, 3the Fapaniya4 replies: On %ome o,,a%ion%= &or the %a.e o& the 1romotion o& the Tea,hin$ 2sasana3= even (hen the Three Je(el% are 1re%ent= initiation ha% been 1rohibited >to ,ertain t'1e% o& 1eo1le? b' tho%e (ho 1er,eive lo%% to the Tea,hin$ >in allo(in$ %-,h 1eo1le to be ordained? and $ain &or the Tea,hin$ >in 1rohibitin$ them?. >@@? )f certain people1s'ch as thieves, traitors, and so on1are initiated, then in2'ry may be inc'rred by those %ho have been ordained, by those %ho !ive ordination, and by the entire comm'nity. )f the 'ned'cated b'mpkins and servants %ere initiated, then the infl'ential people in the comm'nity %o'ld look do%n 'pon the Jaina monastic order thinkin! that all the monks are like them. -hereby, o't of disdain, no one from a !ood family %o'ld 'ndertake to practice 3Jaina mendicancy4. -h's, in this %ay,

there is loss to the -eachin! itself, %hereas if these are avoided there is !ain. -h's the Iords, the venerable teachers %ho perceived loss and !ain, proscribed initiation 3for s'ch people4. Kevertheless, apart from the -hree Je%els, there is nothin! else1incl'din! bein! a male1that is a means to moksa. B't if there sho'ld be any other means 3%hich, apart from the -hree Je%els, is inc'mbent for the attainment of moksa4, then let it apply only to those %ho %ere previo'sly specifically e.cl'ded from ordination, and not 3in other nonspecified cases, s'ch as all %omen4, for other%ise there %o'ld be overe.tension of lo!ical possibilities. JEB I& >an ar$-ment i% made that? n-n% ,annot attain mo.%a be,a-%e their reverential $reetin$% are not ret-rned eE-all' b' the $ro-1 o& mendi,ant%. . . -he opponent mi!ht no% think: if both men and %omen are e5'ally %orthy of moksa and are both e5'al in their virt'es beca'se they are restrained 3by the same mendicant vo%s4, then %hy is it that even %omen 3i.e., n'ns4 %ho have over a h'ndred(year vocation m'st still reverentially !reet monks %ho have been ordained only for one day and not have their reverential !reetin!s ret'rnedP3BD4 -his fact leads 's to believe that they cannot attain moksa. JED 3Fapaniya:4 >I& the' are in&erior A-%t be,a-%e o& that= then? $reet them 'o-r%el&. >@B? )f yo' maintain that, even %hen the -hree Je%els are complete, n'ns do not attain moksa merely beca'se their reverential !reetin!s are not ret'rned, then 3this %o'ld mean that4 !reetin! is also a prere5'isite of moksa, like the / E$ / ri!ht vie% and so forth. -hen, s'rely, yo' 3the opponents4 %ho believe this sho'ld !o ahead and respectf'lly !reet them 3so that they %ill be able to attain moksa4. -his is beca'se it is not proper for yo' to deny them moksa merely by this insi!nificant point of 3not ret'rnin! their4 reverential !reetin!s. -here is no loss to yo' merely by performin! this insi!nificant act. Ce, ho%ever, do not believe that havin! one+s reverential !reetin!s ret'rned is a prere5'isite for moksa0 to the contrary, %e believe that n'ns can achieve moksa precisely beca'se they reverentially !reet the !ro'p of mendicants1a !reetin! that ca'ses the removal of karma1and not beca'se they are !reeted in ret'rn. S'rely if it %ere other%ise, the Iord %o'ld not have stip'lated 3that r'le pertainin! to the !reetin!s bet%een monks and n'ns4 . . . 3te.t missin!4. JEE The ar$-ment that n-n% are in&erior to tho%e mon.% (ho re%emble the ord Tirthan.ara% in that >the' 1er&orm the d-tie%? o& admoni%hin$ >a di%,i1le? and 1reventin$ >an -nla(&-l a,t? i% not %-&&i,ient to 1rove that >n-n%? are in,a1able o& attainin$ mo.%a. >@9? >+oreover? the Arhat doe% not $reet an'oneD %imilarl'= the Aina.al1a mon.% do not $reet >the %thavira.al1aD %ee n. B5?. 0o-ld 'o- ar$-e then that the $anadhara% >and the %thavira.al1a mon.%? ,annot attain mo.%a P3BE4 3te.t missin!4 . . . -h's %omen can attain nirvana. JEG 3Fapaniya:4 -he !anadharas reverentially !reet the *rhat 3i.e., the -irthankara4, b't the *rhat does not ret'rn their !reetin!s. )t is %ell kno%n that, even %hile still livin! the ho'seholder+s life, the

-irthankaras do not %orship anyone e.cept the Siddhas, and they achieve the 3initiation into4 mendicancy merely by sayin!, 9&beisance to the Siddhas.9 Similarly, it is %ell kno%n that the 2inakalpa mendicants, as %ell as those %ho have adopted a meditative post're, are reverentially !reeted by others b't do not ret'rn those !reetin!s. -h's 3yo'r ass'mption4 %o'ld res'lt in the 'ndesirable conse5'ence of denyin! any possibility of attainin! moksa to the !anadharas and to the sthavirakalpa monks. -h's, only the -irthankaras and 3the 2inakalpa monks4 %o'ld attain moksa, 3%hich is not the case4. JE$ Ko% 3the opponent4 mi!ht ass'me: )t is %ell kno%n that the *rhat+s position is s'perior to that of the !anadharas, and also that the 2inakalpa monks are s'perior to the sthavirakalpa monks . . . . 3te.t missin!4 . . . )t is for this reason that the *rhats and 3the 2inakalpa monks4 do not ret'rn !reetin!s. JE9 3Fapaniya:4 )f this position is maintained, then it %o'ld mean that moksa is possible only for those %ho are !reeted 3the -irthankaras / E9 / and the 2inakalpa4, and not to those %ho are not !reeted in ret'rn 3the !anadharas and the sthavirakalpa0 since this is not the case, yo'r ar!'ment is4 fa'lty. *s is said in the Collected Aerses: 8ven those people %ho, altho'!h %orthy of !reetin!, are not !reeted 3by others4 do nevertheless attain moksa. )n their case there is no 5'estion of !reetin!s bein! ret'rned. -h's also 3it is proved that4 there is no absence of moksa merely beca'se of the absence of !reetin!.3BG4 JG# 3Fapaniya:4 6oreover, The %tat-% o& men and (omen >re$ardin$ the vo(%? i% eE-al. >@5? JG1 3&pponent: Kot so.4 *s far as men and %omen are concerned, it can be said that men have s'perior stat's, %hile %omen are inferior. *s it has been said 3in yo'r o%n script'res4: *dmonishin!, preventin! 3'nla%f'l acts4 and inspirin! 3for ren'nciation etc.4 are 'ndertaken by men 3i.e., monks4. 3P4,3B$4 JG7 3&pponent: 6oreover,4 In all (orldl' matter%= it i% ob%erved that (omen are in&erior to men in (orldl' %tat-%. 0h' not a11l' the %ame r-le &or >attainin$? mo.%a al%o P JG" 3Fapaniya:4 I& one (ere to di%1ara$e >(omen? (ith the%e (ord% , Some fools mi!ht say that %omen are perceived as bein! inferior to men in this %orld, in the same %ay that 3only males can have4 that !reat !lorio's stat's of )ndra %hich is fo'nd in heaven0 that %orldly eminence fo'nd on earth, s'ch as bein! a 'a"radhara 3i.e., a cakravartin or a 'niversal monarch, e.!., Bharata4, a baladeva 3e.!., Balarama4, a vasudeva 3e.!., @rsna4,3B94 or havin! royal or imperial po%er0 as %ell as beca'se of the fact that, in each ho'sehold, a'thority is e.ercised by men and not by %omen. -hey 3then ask4: %hy can yo' not admit that %omen m'st be inferior %ith re!ard to the !lory of moksa alsoP -his is beca'se in that matter 3of moksa4 also, %omen+s inferiority is obvio's, beca'se it has been observed to be so. ;ence, for this reason %omen cannot attain nirvana. JGB 3Fapaniya:4 *ll this has already been re2ected by o'r ar!'ment concernin! the 3possibility of attainin!4 moksa by the !anadharas and 3the sthavirakalpa monks %ho are both inferior to -irthankaras and 2inakalpa monks, respectively4 and yet attain moksa. )f, indeed, moksa is impossible for one %ho

has not attained the hi!hest !lory, then the !anadharas, and so on, are deprived of the !reat !lory of the -irthankaras 3and %o'ld not / G# / attain moksa4, and the imperial !lory of the cakravartins, and so on, is not available to Brahmans >brahmana ? and merchants >vaisya ?, b't only to the members of the %arrior >"satriya ? caste. 3-he script'res also say:4 Bein!s %ho have been reborn in the h'man e.istence from the seven hells, be!innin! %ith the :atnaprabha hell, can become a cakravartin, a rama 3i.e., a baladeva4, a "esava 3i.e., a vas'deva4, a Jina 3i.e., -irthankara4, a @evalin 3one %ho attains moksa %itho't bein! a -irthankara4, a monk, a layman, or one %ho only has the ri!ht vie% 3b't does not take the vo%s of a ho'seholder4, %itho't an intervenin! birth 3i.e., in that very life4. 3P4 )n this passa!e, moksa is ta'!ht even for those reborn as h'man bein!s from 3immediately previo's rebirths in4 the Pankaprabha 3the fo'rth4 hell,3D#4 b't they do not have the !lory of the -irthankaras and so on. -h's 3by yo'r ar!'ment4 there %o'ld be the 'ndesirable conse5'ence of denyin! moksa to 3all of4 them. JGD J'st as 3yo' admit4 that moksa is possible for those !anadharas %ho have not achieved the hi!hest fort'ne 3of the -irthankaras4, in the same manner %omen still can attain moksa 3even tho'!h their %orldly stat's is inferior to that of men4. Bein! %orthy of s'ch fort'nes is not the path of moksa0 it instead is the ri!ht vie%, kno%led!e, and cond'ct. )f these are perfected, %hat more is necessaryP -h's, moksa is possible 3even %itho't s'ch fort'nes4, for ca'ses that have mat'red do not remain dormant, failin! to prod'ce their res'lt. )f yo' %ant to brin! 'p deficiencies yo' sho'ld only mention deficiencies 3in these -hree Je%els40 %hat is the point of all other 'seless talkP JGE 6oreover: The Siddha% are neither male nor &emale . Fo'r statement that a %oman+s stat's is inferior to that of a man is valid only so lon! as the body e.ists as either male or female in the %orld. 3-his vie%4 is not valid in a ne% state of the so'l %here both these !enders have been abandoned. -he state of a Siddha is neither male nor female. -h's, yo'r ar!'ment amo'nts to nothin!. JGG 6oreover: >There i%? eE-alit' in their bein$ &ree &rom di%ea%e. >@:? -he !lory of moksa is total health, %hich is emancipation from the fever of %orldly e.istence. )t is not some e.ternal %ealth that arises as a res'lt of some meritorio's act prod'ced by the %holesome acts of charity and ren'nciation. *nd 2'st as, in this %orld, that health %hich is characteri,ed as complete freedom from fever, and so forth, is e5'al for both men and / G1 / %omen, it sho'ld be the same for moksa too, beca'se the ca'ses 3for attainin! moksa4 are identical 3for both men and %omen4. JG$ 3&pponent:4 B't are not %omen e.cessively crooked 3maya , deceitf'l, fickle4 and so onP =or that reason, they sho'ld not be able to attain nirvana.

JG9 >Fapaniya:4 -o this ar!'ment, %e say: +en too are ,roo.ed >de,eit&-l? and %o on . 6en too are deceitf'l, beca'se there is no distinction bet%een men and %omen re!ardin! the prod'ction of 3karma res'ltin! from4 del'sion 3of %hich deceit and passion are e.amples4. J'st as men have 3access to4 a path that has the nat're of ren'nciation and is the antidote to all the defects, so also do %omen. -herefore, on that acco'nt, yo' cannot claim that %omen cannot attain nirvana. &ther%ise, men too sho'ld not be able to attain nirvana, beca'se deceitf'lness, and so forth, are to be fo'nd amon! them as %ell. J$# 3&pponent:4 )f, as yo' claim, %omen can attain nirvana, then %hy is it that the holy places associated %ith their so2o'rns, the places %here they attained omniscience, the places %here they attained final death >nirvana?, as %ell as the times of these events, are never heard of, as they are for men1as, for e.ample, 6o'nt Sammeta, U22ayanta, Aada 3P4, :a2a!rha, and s'ch constellations as Svati and so forthP3D14 -herefore %omen do not attain nirvana. J$1 3Fapaniya:4 A% &or the ar$-ment that there are no &amo-% %ite% >dedi,ated to (omen?H %-,h an ar$-ment mi$ht al%o a11l' to men (ho %hare >(ith (omen? the %iF t'1e% o& bodil' ,on&i$-ration% and the three ,a%te/related %o,ial order%. >@;? -here is no invariable concomitance bet%een the attainment of nirvana by %omen and kno%led!e of the place 3and time of their liberation4. -h's, the possibility of %omen attainin! nirvana cannot be re2ected simply beca'se of the absence of s'ch thin!s. -his claim sho'ld be re2ected 2'st as is 3the 6imamsaka contention that4 the Aedas are not created by any a!ency beca'se there is no memory of their composition. 6oreover, certain holy places associated %ith %omen are %ell kno%n in the %orld, as, for e.ample, :amaka>'?lya.3D74 J$7 3&pponent:4 B't these are not even heard of by those of 's %ho do not accept the doctrine of nirvana for %omen. J$" 3Fapaniya:4 Ce respond that 3yo'r nonreco!nition of these places does not render the ar!'ment invalid for, as yo' %ell kno%,4 the 6imamsakas and Iokayatikas also do not reco!ni,e the places associated / G7 / %ith the nirvana of men either 3since they do not reco!ni,e the possibility of anyone attainin! moksa4. -herefore, nonreco!nition of the 3place and time of a %oman+s moksa4 is not a valid ar!'ment a!ainst the possibility of her attainin! nirvana. J$B 6oreover, the 3ar!'ment of4 nonreco!nition of places, and so forth, is e5'al to the si. bodily confi!'rations >samsthanas ?3D"4 and 3membership in one of4 the three types of caste(related social orders >varna ?. )t is not tr'e that the places of moksa of those %ho have attained nirvana are all %ell kno%n, beca'se there is no invariable concomitance bet%een the t%o. )f yo' %ere to assert that there is no nirvana 2'st beca'se of a lack of kno%led!e of s'ch places of moksa, then this %o'ld be an overe.tension of lo!ical applicability, for there are plenty of places that remain 'nkno%n even tho'!h nirvana has been attained there. -his is beca'se complete information is not available concernin! those %ho have attained nirvana1that is, pertainin! to this or that person+s 3attainment of nirvana4 in this or that place, or %hich of the si. confi!'rations he %as born %ith, or to %hich of the three caste(related social orders he belon!ed. )f men are able to attain moksa even in the absence of any kno%led!e of

these thin!s 3i.e., places etc.4, then %hat is yo'r reason for s'ch hostility to%ard n'nsP -herefore, it is proved that %hen the appropriate ca'ses are present, no one %ill be po%erf'l eno'!h to prevent the emer!ence of the effect. -his bein! the case, yo' sho'ld demonstrate only the deficiency in %omen of those ca'ses %hich brin! abo't nirvana, and that is impossible. J$D 3&pponent:4 -o this %e say: 0omen are indeed de&i,ient in %tren$th 2sattva3 and th-% the' la,. the &-ll ,om1lement o& the 1rereE-i%ite% o& mo.%a . Comen are indeed deficient in sattva 3physical and spirit'al stren!th, co'ra!e, steadfastness, and so forth4. Unlike men, they do not have a s'rpl's of stren!th. -hose %ho are deficient in stren!th 3are 2'd!ed accordin! to the r'le,4 98verythin! is based on stren!th.9 -h's ho% can the -hree Je%els, %hich are diffic'lt to penetrate by those %ho are fainthearted, be bro'!ht to perfection by themP J$E 3Fapaniya:4 <o( ,an that beI For >(omen? (ho have rea,hed the %hore o& the o,ean o& $ood ,ond-,t have 1lent' o& %tead&a%tne%%. >@8? )n the conte.t of moksa, %e advocate that sattva is the acceptance of vo%s and 'ndertakin! of a'sterities, and nothin! more, for nothin! else %o'ld be a prere5'isite 3of moksa4. -hat po%er of steadfastness is of no little amo'nt, as is seen amon! n'ns %ho bear the vo%s and a'sterities, / G" / %hich are e.tremely diffic'lt to maintain. K'ns are famo's for their sattva, as is recorded in the script'res: The ,hie& n-n% 1namel'= )rahmi= S-ndari= RiAimati= and Candana3DB4 1(ere (or%hi1ed even b' $od% and demon% and are &amo-% on a,,o-nt o& their $ood ,ond-,t and %attva. >@#? P're cond'ct %hich s'rpasses that of the %hole %orld is %ell kno%n for the venerable ladies Brahmi and so forth, as %ell as other n'ns %ho %ere %orshiped by the %hole %orld of men and !ods. =rom this %e can infer their !reat sattva also. J$G Even in the ho-%ehold li&e= there (ere ladie% li.e Sita and other% (ho (ere the be%t o& tho%e havin$ $ood ,ond-,t and (ere .no(n &or their $reat %attva. <o( ,o-ld %-,h (omen be de&i,ient in %attva &or 1er&ormin$ a-%teritie% 2 tapas3 and la,.in$ in hol' ,ond-,t >a&ter the' have be,ome n-n%?I >B6? 8ven in the %orld, it is %ell kno%n that there %ere s'ch %omen as Sita,3DD4 and so forth, %ho %ere 'ns%ervin! in !ood cond'ct and endo%ed %ith !reat sattva even %hen they remained in the ho'sehold life. &nce those same %omen accepted the noble initiation 3into mendicancy41%hich removes %itho't remainder the fever of samsara, %here there is the total abandonment of all %orldly pleas'res, %hich is the path that has been practiced by all !reat men, and %hich increases one+s stren!th1ho% co'ld they be devoid of sattva or cond'ctP J$$ 6oreover: <avin$ abandoned the ro'al &ort-ne= a% (ell a% their relation%hi1 (ith h-%band= %on%= brother%= and relative%= Sat'abhama3DE4and other% have borne ren-n,iation. <o( ,an 'o- %a' that thi% i% bein$ devoid o& %attvaI >B"?

-he e.ample %e s'bmit is that of the %ives of Karayana 3@rsna4, %hose !reatness in reno'ncin! the %orld is %ell kno%n and %ho have valiantly borne the %ei!ht of mendicant restraint. -his bein! the case, since yo' are not able to !ive an e.ample in s'pport of yo'r ima!ination concernin! their %eakness, %e re2ect the ass'mption that %omen are lackin! in stren!th. J$9 3&pponent4: Onl' a 1er%on (ho ha% ,ommitted %ome $reat evil a,,om1anied (ith (ron$ vie(% ma' be reborn a% a (oman .3DG4)-t not a 1er%on >(ho die%? (ith the ri$ht vie(. There&ore= in the bod' o& a (oman there ,annot be the total annihilation o& .arma . -he karma that prod'ces a %oman+s body is the res'lt of !reat evil. 3&b2ection by a st'dent: 8ven a person %ho holds the ri!ht vie% can be / GB / reborn as a %oman0 for e.ample, a person on the second r'n! of the !'nasthana ladder called sasvadana(samya!drsti can be reborn as a %oman.43D$4 3*ns%er:4 ;e is in fact the holder of the %ron! vie%, beca'se he is tendin! to%ard the %ron! vie% 3the first !'nasthana called mithyadrsti4. Since he inevitably %ill forsake the ri!ht vie% 3in the very ne.t moment4, s'ch a person 3in spite of the %ord 9samyagdrsti 9 employed in describin! this sta!e4 is desi!nated as a holder of the %ron! vie%, not one %ho has the ri!ht vie%. *s for those %ho are at the transitional sta!e bet%een the ri!ht and %ron! vie%s 3the third !'nasthana called samya!mithyadrsti4, and %ho are therefore ass'red to possess the ri!ht vie% at the ne.t moment, even they do not earn rebirth as females. 3)f this is so, then4 %hy m'st %e speak of the person %ho is endo%ed %ith the ri!ht vie%P 3=or, sho'ld he die in that state, he %ill not be reborn as a female in any kind of rebirth.4 3-his is beca'se of the karmic r'le that4 a so'l %hich is reborn as a %oman m'st perforce come to possess the %ron! vie% 3as is said in the follo%in! te.t4: * samya!drsti 3i.e., one endo%ed %ith the ri!ht vie%4 is precl'ded from rebirth in the follo%in! destinies: %omen0 female animals0 hells from the second level do%n%ard0 demi!ods 3s'ch as !hosts etc.40 and females of !ods. 3P43D94 -h's, in this female body that is derived as a res'lt of !reat evil, 2'st as are the hell bodies and so forth, it is not possible to brin! abo't the total destr'ction of karma 3%hich alone yields moksa4. J9# 3Fapaniya:4 Thi% >,laim? i% (itho-t a 1roo&. >B@? )f this claim is made, it is invalid, for there is no means of verifyin! that the destr'ction of karma is not possible in a %oman+s body. 6oreover, the destr'ction of karma is accepted 3for men4 in the physical confi!'rations >samsthana?, %hich are similar to those of %omen and %hich are e5'ivalent in s'stainin! one+s life. )t is not the case that a %oman+s body is any different from the symmetrical >sama'aturasra ? confi!'ration that characteri,es the other 3i.e., the male4 bodies, and if the -hree Je%els1%hich have the sole f'nction of 'prootin! the totality of karmas1have been perfected by a %oman, then those 3-hree Je%els4 cannot remain inactive on the heap of karma, 2'st as a fire %o'ld not sit 5'ietly on a heap of stra%. J91 6oreover: The moment the &i$ht vie( i% attained= all .arma% are red-,ed to a maFim-m d-ration o& one kotikotio& the Go,eanG 2sagara3 o& time. Th-%= the attainment o& the

&i$ht vie( alone i% the 1ath that de%tro'% totall' the entiret' o& .arma. >BB? / GD / -he moment a so'l 3person4 t'rns to%ard the ri!ht vie% thro'!h the increased p'rity of its self, then even before it has attained to the ri!ht vie% proper its karmas1%hich can have a ma.im'm d'ration of seventy "otis 3crores4 of 9oceans9 of time1are red'ced to a period of less than a sin!le koti of one 9ocean9 of time 3i.e., a seventyfold red'ction4.3E#4 Chen, ho%ever, that very path %hich is capable of b'rnin! the entire tree 3mass4 of karma %itho't remainder %ill have eclipsed %ron! vie%s, lack of ren'nciation, and the passions 3the three primary ca'ses of bonda!e4 thro'!h its development1then %hat need %o'ld there be to e.plain that there %o'ld be the complete destr'ction of karma %itho't any resid'eP )t is not the case that the ri!ht vie% can arise %itho't removin! %ron! vie%s0 that ri!ht kno%led!e can arise %itho't removin! %ron! kno%led!e0 or that ri!ht cond'ct can be manifest %itho't overcomin! %ron! cond'ct: rather, %hile one is passin! thro'!h 3pro!ressively p'rer4 states 3of the fo'rteen !'nasthanas4, these 3-hree Je%els4 cannot arise %itho't removin! non(restraint, passions, carelessness, and activities 3%hich are the ca'ses of bonda!e4. Kor is it possible 3to accept that4 a person %ho has 'prooted %ron! vie%s, nonrestraint, passions, carelessness, and activities %o'ld contin'e to accr'e f'rther rebirths. -his has been set do%n 3in the script're4: 9-he ca'ses of bonda!e are the %ron! vie%, nonrestraint, passions, carelessness, and activities9 3P0 cf. $attvarthasutra , vii, 140 9-he path of moksa involves the ri!ht vie% to!ether %ith ri!ht kno%led!e and ri!ht cond'ct9 3$attvarthasutra , i, 14. &thers 3non(Jainas4 also say: -he ca'ses of bonda!e are cravin! and perverted opinions re!ardin! 3the ca'ses of4 s'fferin!0 a person born in this %orld %ho does not possess these t%o 3ca'ses4 %ill not 'nder!o f'rther rebirth. 3)ramanavartti"a , i, $"4 -he %orld is devoid of li!ht 3kno%led!e4 and is filled %ith desires for sense pleas'res and the activities f'll of cravin!. -hey in %hom %ron! cond'ct has th's arisen are denied access to yo'r doctrine. *las, s'ch a person %anders in the forest of contin'o's rebirth beca'se of his del'sion. ;e does not attain yo', Siva, the savior, the so'rce of immortality. 3P4 3Chat is meant by these passa!es is that4 the -hree Je%els 3are the ca'se of moksa4. )f it is impossible for %omen 3to achieve these -hree Je%els4, then say so0 %hy disc'ss all these other thin!sP B't that is impossible, for there is no valid proof for s'ch 3statements4. J97 3&pponent:4 &b2ection: <ranted that there is no valid proof of the impossibility of nirvana for %omen. B't on the other hand %hat proof is there of its possibilityP S'rely this matter cannot be resolved merely by reco'rse to that path %hich is no% available 3in yo'r o%n sect, i.e., the presence of the so(called n'ns in yo'r order does not prove that s'ch n'ns / GE / can attain nirvana4. -his is so, beca'se the ca'se 3i.e., their bein! n'ns4 is so remote as to be virt'ally 'nassociated %ith the e.pected res'lt 3i.e., their !oin! to moksa4. &ther%ise, at this very moment, anyone 3%ho is any%here alon! the path to moksa4 %o'ld attain moksa. 3)n fact4 yo' do not have any proof %hatsoever of a %oman 3i.e., a n'n4 attainin! the e.treme limit of perfection1that state immediately after %hich moksa is attained1beca'se of the interminable abilities 3infinite variety of !rades or modes of operation4 possible to each so'l. J9" 3Fapaniya:4 Sho'ld someone make s'ch a claim, %e %o'ld ask: Chat proof is there then that even

men can attain nirvana, for it can also be said concernin! them 3that their so'ls have infinite modes of operation4P ='rthermore, if there is s'ch a possibility of men achievin! the e.treme limit of perfection, then there sho'ld be the same possibility for %omen as %ell. 6oreover, %e have script'ral a'thority concernin! this1an a'thority, t'rnin! a%ay from %hich a bein! sinks into the ocean of birth and death. Beca'se of o'r faith in this script'ral a'thority, %e concl'de 3that %omen can attain nirvana4. J9B 3&pponent:4 *nd %hat is this script'reP J9D 3Fapaniya:4 )t is the follo%in!: Thi% i% the 1rin,i1al %,ri1t-re re$ardin$ Siddhahood= (hi,h %a'% that in an' one moment ei$ht h-ndred men attain mo.%a and >t(ent'? (omen . 3*lso:4 )t has been declared that, in one moment, 3a ma.im'm of4 ei!ht h'ndred men and t%enty %omen 3strilingena lit., of female !ender4 and ten of the remainin! 3!ender, i.e., the hermaphrodites4 attain nirvana. -h's the r'le 3pertainin! to the n'mber of so'ls attainin! moksa4 sho'ld be 'nderstood. 3P43E14 -hese and other script'res are proof that %omen can attain nirvana J9E 3-he opponent4 mi!ht say: -r'e, there does indeed e.ist 3s'ch a script're4 that mentions the nirvana of %omen0 %e do not re2ect this.3E74 Ce s'bmit, ho%ever, that the %ord 9%oman9 here refers not to a %oman physically endo%ed %ith breasts and the birth canal, b't instead to a partic'lar type of male %ho 3temporarily4 possesses a %oman+s se.'al desire 3for a man4.3E"4 6oreover, the %ord 9%oman9 is 'sed conventionally by people for a man %ho has the nat're of a %oman. =or e.ample, seein! a e'n'ch %ho is devoid of manliness, people say that he is a %oman, not a man. J9G 3Fapaniya:4 -his is improper beca'se: A %e,ondar' meanin$ i% not to be a11lied (here the 1rimar' meanin$ i% a11ro1riate . / GG / 96ale9 is a secondary meanin! of the %ord 9%oman90 9female9 is its only primary meanin!. *nd !iven this primary meanin!, the impossibility of nirvana is not proved for %omen %ho are endo%ed %ith breasts and birth canals. )n this conte.t, the follo%in! r'le is applicable: 9Chere both the primary and secondary meanin!s are possible, the primary meanin! sho'ld be accepted.9 -herefore, it is inappropriate to constr'e 9%oman9 in its secondary meanin!. >Even i& the %e,ondar' meanin$ (ere to be a11li,able= it (o-ld %till not be 1ro1er? to abandon the 1rimar' meanin$. >BB? 8ven if yo' adopt the secondary meanin! in the absence of a conte.t %here the primary meanin! is inapplicable, it is still inappropriate to accept only this secondary meanin! and re2ect the primary meanin!. J9$ 3&pponent:4 Chy is the secondary meanin! 3inappropriate4 %hen the primary meanin! is also possibleP J99 3Fapaniya:4 -o this o'r ans%er is: +eanin$ i% im1li,it in a (ord. 0hen= ho(ever= be,a-%e o& ,ertain a%%o,iation% >in time and %1a,e?= the 1rimar' meanin$ i% not a11li,able= then it ma' ta.e on a meanin$ that i% not inherent in the (ord. )-t i& the 1rimar' meanin$ i% a11li,able= then ho( ,an the

other >%e,ondar' meanin$? o& that (ord be ,on%tr-edI >B5? * %ord 3is associated %ith4 the meanin! that is perceived to be primarily implicit, beca'se, accordin! to ancient lin!'istic convention, by 'niversally e.cl'din! 3all thin!s not implicit in the %ord4 and by invariably incl'din! 3everythin! indicated by the %ord4, it is e.pressive of a partic'lar ob2ect. -h's, one may say that the meanin! is inherent in the %ord. =or e.ample, the meanin! of the %ord 9b'll9 is that 3animal4 %hich possesses a de%lap and so forth. -his is beca'se a %ord cannot be e.pressive of its ob2ect 'nless it has its relationship established 3by convention4. &ther%ise, every %ord %o'ld e.press all meanin!s, as there %o'ld be neither association nor dissociation 3bet%een a partic'lar %ord and a partic'lar meanin!4. -his is %hat is meant by the primary meanin! of the %ord. -he kno%led!e 3of the ob2ect4 derived from this %ord is le!itimate, beca'se there is a relationship pertainin! bet%een the %ord and its ability to e.press a fi.ed ob2ect. ;o%ever, %here this is not applicable, then the %ord is not to be constr'ed in its primary meanin!. B't since this 3%ord4 is 'sed by a person deliberately 3and not at random4, then it m'st have a meanin!. 6oreover, it is perceived in the %orld that, in s'ch %ords, a different meanin! is ima!ined beca'se of pro.imity and other associations. *ltho'!h s'ch a meanin! is not necessarily inherent 3in that %ord4, it does not, ho%ever, trans!ress / G$ / associations conventionally accepted in the %orld. =or e.ample, 3the follo%in! 'sa!es are fo'nd:4 9-his Aahika 3a man of a co'ntry of that name4 is a b'll90 9the co%herds+ villa!e on the <an!es90 9a h'ndred arro%s 3archers4 r'n90 9a mi. of c'rds and c'c'mbers is fever incarnate.9 -hese are all secondary meanin!s, %hich arise on acco'nt of similarity and other s'ch 3conventions4. -his secondary meanin! cannot be constr'ed 'nless the primary meanin! is inappropriate beca'se 3the secondary meanin!4 is constr'ed only %hen the primary meanin! is inapplicable. J1## 6oreover: The 1rimar' meanin$ >o& a (ord? i% invariabl' a%%o,iated >(ith it% re&erent?. It i% -nim1aired= %1e,i&i,= and inherent= (hile the %e,ondar' meanin$ i% the ,ontrar'. 0here the 1rimar' meanin$ i% a11li,able= ho( (o-ld one a%%-me the %e,ondar' meanin$I >B:? )t is never the case that the primary meanin! of the %ord 9b'll9 3ever indicates4 anythin! other than b'll. -he referent of the %ord 9b'll9 is al%ays a b'll, beca'se of the invariable association of the characteristic indicated by the %ord, %hich is 9b'llness.9 8ven %hen the ob2ect 3of the %ord 9b'll94 is referred to by some other name1as, for e.ample, 9that 3b'll4 is an elephant beca'se of bein! %hite, lar!e, and e.tremely stron!91it still remains a b'll. )t is not the case that at s'ch a time there is no a%areness of its bein! a b'll. )t is, therefore, proved that the primary meanin! of the %ord is invariably associated 3%ith its ob2ect4, %hile the secondary meanin! is variable. =or e.ample, in reality the definin! characteristic of a b'll 3namely de%lap and so on4 is not to be fo'nd in the %ord 9Aahika9 and so on0 therefore, %hen the %ord 9b'll9 is employed 3%ith reference to a Aahika4, it re5'ires the s'perimposition of certain characteristics 3of the b'll on a Aahika4. -hat person 3i.e., the Aahika4 becomes the referent of the %ord 9b'll9 %hen and only %hen b'llness is s'perimposed on him by perceivin! in him s'ch characteristics as 'rinatin! %hile standin!, eatin! %hile %alkin!, and so forth1 characteristics that are inherent in the %ord 9b'll.9 Chen, ho%ever, there is the imposition of 9elephantness9 on him at the time one %ishes to refer to his e.cessive stren!th, then it %o'ld be said that 9this Aahika is an elephant9 or 9this Aahika is a horse.9 &n those occasions, he is not called a b'll beca'se there is no s'perimposition of b'llness on him. J1#1 -he 3applicability of the4 primary meanin! is never impaired, for %hen the primary meanin! 3is

constr'ed4, there is never any impairment of the characteristics that convey 3the tr'e meanin! of4 the %ord. -he secondary meanin!, ho%ever, accords only %ith one aspect of the tr'e / G9 / meanin! of the %ord and comes to be 3identical %ith the primary meanin!4 only thro'!h s'perimposition0 therefore, it is deficient in those characteristics that convey 3the tr'e meanin! of4 the %ord. J1#7 -he primary meanin! is specific 3to its o%n partic'lar referent4, for the primary meanin! 3of a b'll4 is 9b'll,9 never 9elephant9 or 9horse.9 ;o%ever, secondary meanin!s of the %ord 9b'll,9 like Aahika, can be constr'ed as 9elephant9 or 9horse.9 -herefore, this 3secondary meanin!4 shares common elements %ith vario's other %ords, b't this is not the case %ith the primary meanin!. J1#" -he primary meanin! is inherent 3to its referent4, for it does not denote other ob2ects. Chen the %ord 9b'll9 is 'sed, it is not the case that it denotes any other ob2ect 3other than its o%n referent4. Chen the secondary meanin! is also employed, ho%ever, it depends 'pon the 'nderstandin! of the primary meanin!, since it connotes only part of the primary meanin!0 therefore, it is noninherent. J1#B 3Conventionally4 in the %orld, %henever a %ord prod'ces comprehension, 3s'ch comprehension4 is achieved only %ith reference to that ob2ect %hich is derived from the %ord by s'ch means of kno%led!e as invariability and so forth. *s is evident, there is kno%led!e derived from the %ord, and %hen both the secondary and primary meanin!s 3are 'nderstood4, there is a conception of the primary meanin!. -herefore, in the present conte.t, d'e to the %ord 9%oman9 %hen the primary meanin!1 %hich is 9one %ho has breasts and the birth canal91is applicable, it is inappropriate to constr'e it in its secondary meanin!, as a 9man9 characteri,ed as 9one %ho has a beard and penis and so forth.9 J1#D 3&pponent:4 ;o% do yo' kno% that 3the %ord 9%oman94 has the primary meanin! of 9one %ho has breasts and the birth canal9 and not that of 9a man %ho has a feminine nat're 3i.e., the female libido49P J1#E 3Fapaniya:4 -o this %e respond: The (ord G(omanG i% -n.no(n in an' other %en%e eF,e1t that o& one (ho i% endo(ed (ith the 1h'%i,al ,hara,teri%ti,% o& brea%t% and the va$ina . )n the %orld, the only reco!ni,ed 'sa!e of the %ord 9%oman9 is in the meanin! of a female %ho has s'ch physical characteristics as breasts and the birth canal0 it is never applied similarly to a male possessin! the physical characteristics of beard and penis. Cords of %hich the meanin!s are %ell kno%n in the %orld sho'ld be 'nderstood, %herever possible, as referrin! to their appropriate referents0 other%ise, there %o'ld be an overe.tension 3of the possible referents of a %ord4. / $# / J1#G An' other meanin$ >o& the (ord G(omanG? i% %e,ondar'= a% in the eF1re%%ion G&ire/ bo'G >i.e.= ha-$ht'?. >B;? -he 'sa!e 9he is a %oman, not a man9 %hen applied to a male %ho is devoid of manliness is only d'e to a certain similarity pertainin! bet%een the t%o. -his is like the e.ample 9fire(boy9 3to indicate a ha'!hty boy4, %here there is the application of the %ord 9fire9 to the boy. )t is not the case, ho%ever, that 3%hen a man is called a %oman4 the %orld considers that male to be a female, %ho is invariably

perceived as bein! endo%ed %ith breasts and the birth canal. Kor is it the case that, in the 3Jaina4 script'res, the %ord 9%oman9 has been !iven this partic'lar technical meanin!1as, for e.ample, the %ord vrddhi 3increase4 has the technical sense of at and ai' in the !rammar of Panini, beca'se of the aphorism: 9vrddhi is at and ai' 9 3-stadhyayi , ),i,14. :ather, this meanin! is 'nderstood by ded'ction. -here is no s'ch technical meanin! for the %ord 9%oman9 %hereby one co'ld have ima!ined 3the %ord to mean 9man94, %hereas in the script'res 3the meanin! of the %ord 9%oman94 is kno%n to be none other than one %ho is endo%ed %ith breasts and so forth. J1#$ =or e.ample, 3in the script'ral passa!e %hich says that4 a (oman ,an &all a% &ar a% the %iFth hell= a (oman (ith %-,h 1h'%i,al ,hara,teri%ti,% a% brea%t% and %o &orth i% meant . 9Comen !o as far as the si.th hell9: in this and in all other script'res,, the %ord 9%oman9 al%ays refers to one %ho has breasts, and so forth, and this %ord 9%oman9 is 'nkno%n in any other meanin!. -herefore, if yo' %ere to ima!ine some other meanin! for the %ord in the absence of any indication to the contrary 3i.e., that is contrary to this primary meanin!4, then it %o'ld be the same for it also 3i.e., that secondary meanin! %o'ld also have to be set aside. B't this is not advocated by yo'4. )n this re!ard, there is a verse from an antholo!y that says: -he %ord 9%oman9 has not been 'sed in a technical sense in the script'res, nor is it 'nderstood in any other %ay in %orldly parlance. -his bein! the case, yo' cannot raise any ob2ections on the basis 3of the ar!'ment that 9%oman9 is 'sed in a technical sense4. ;o%, then, can yo' claim that %omen cannot attain nirvanaP 3P4 J1#9 3&pponent:4 &b2ection. S'rely in the e.pression %here it refers to 9striveda,9 the %ord 9%oman9 appears in a meanin! other than that of one %ho is endo%ed %ith breasts and so forth0 3instead, it is 'sed in the sense of4 the bhava 3internal passions4. Se.'al desire >veda? is that %hich is prod'ced / $1 / as a res'lt of the arisin! of the 3effect of4 mohaniya(karma0 it is a transformation of the mind 3i.e., the so'l4,3EB4 %hich has the nat're of se.'al desire. J11# 3Fapaniya:4 )f yo' ar!'e in this manner, %e re2ect this claim: >The (ord G%trivedaG? %im1l' mean% the %eF-al de%ire o& a (oman >a% o11o%ed to a (omanC% de%ire &or a man= a% 'o- had advo,ated.? )f the compo'nd 9striveda9 %ere to be constr'ed as a compo'nd in %hich there is case a!reement bet%een 9%oman9 and 9se.'al desire,9 then it %o'ld be possible to take the %ord 9%oman9 in a meanin! other than that 3of one %ho has breasts and so forth4. B't there is no a'thority for ass'min! that there is case a!reement in 3this compo'nd4. -he more reasonable analysis of this compo'nd is to constr'e it as a !enitive tatpurusa %here striveda means the se.'al feelin!s of a %oman1that is, of a %oman %ho has breasts and so forth. 3Constr'in! this compo'nd as a !enitive tatp'r'sa is preferable to the earlier "armadharaya analysis, beca'se4 %hen a meanin! is properly ascertainable that does not violate the most accessible meanin!, to !o ahead then and violate it nonetheless does not f'lfill the ob2ectives of those %ho kno% the !rammatical la%s. -he karmadharaya 3is not re2ected o'tri!ht4 b't may be 'nderstood in a secondary 3attrib'tive4 sense. J111 3&pponent:4 )n the script'res, there is a sentence that says: 9-he state of bein! a %oman, ho%ever, can last for h'ndreds of palyas .93ED4 8ven in this passa!e, the %ord 9%oman9 is 'sed in a nonphysical sense. )n a sin!le body, %omanhood cannot be said to last for a period of a h'ndred palyas, beca'se of

the phrase 9at the most, 3a !oddess4 can live for a ma.im'm of fifty(five palyas9 3P4. )t follo%s from this 5'ote that, in the first 5'otation, the contin'o's feminine se.'al feelin!, %hich has its basis in several bodies 3re!ardless of !ender4, can contin'e for this len!th of time 3not that the physical body of a %oman %ho is endo%ed %ith breasts and so on lasts this lon!4. J117 3Fapaniya:4 )f yo' ar!'e th's, then %e re2ect this claim beca'se: The %tatement that it la%t% &or a h-ndred 1al'a% re&er% to the ,ontin-it' o& >the 1h'%i,al bod' o&? a (oman. >B8? *ltho'!h there is the destr'ction of a !iven manifested form of a %oman, 3%hen that life comes to an end4 it does not follo% that it is the end of those karmas that prod'ce a female body. )mmediately after 3a %oman+s death4, she may a!ain ass'me a female body and th's contin'e to be reborn as a female %itho't any intervenin! male or hermaphrodite rebirths. -h's the statement19-he state of bein! a %oman can last for h'ndreds of / $7 / palyas91is properly 'nderstood. -his bein! the case, 3the %ord 9stri9 in this passa!e does not refer to anythin! b't a %oman+s body, tho'!h not necessarily the same female body4. J11" 6oreover, even if the fore!oin! passa!e means that %omanhood lasts for one h'ndred palyas thro'!h the s'pport of the internal 3female se.'al feelin!s, and not the physical body of a %oman as yo' alle!e4, then: There i% no 1roo& >&or 'o-r ,laim that? the &emale %eF-al de%ire ,an ari%e in a male . =or yo' the internal state >bhava? 3in this passa!e4 means the aro'sal of female se.'al feelin!. B't there is no proof that female se.'al desire e.ists in a male body. -herefore, based on the script'ral passa!e pertainin! to the nirvana of %omen, nirvana is proved only for those %ho have breasts, the birth canal, and so forth. J11B 6oreover: Internal &eelin$ 2bhava3 i% a mean% &or attainin$ Siddhahood . )f, as yo' admit, the se.'al feelin!s of a %oman can also occ'r to a man and s'ch a man can attain moksa thereby, then it follo%s that the internal feelin! of a female 3i.e., striveda4 does not obstr'ct moksa. ='rthermore, %e all a!ree that internal feelin! is the direct ca'se of moksa, for bein!s are released thro'!h their p'rity of tho'!ht. *nythin! else 3s'ch as the physical body4 is merely cond'cive to the attainment of that internal p'rity and is, therefore, 'sed only indirectly in attainin! moksa. -h's, in the same %ay that a man+s internal feelin! 3is instr'mental in his attainment of moksa4, so also is a %oman 3beca'se of her internal feelin!4 %orthy of moksa. Fo' have yet to prove by either ind'ctive or ded'ctive approaches that a %oman+s physical form is capable of preventin! her from attainin! moksa, as, for e.ample, fire can prevent cold0 3and only by provin! this4 can her incapability of 3attainin!4 moksa beca'se of that 3female4 form be established. J11D *ltho'!h yo' maintain that the destr'ction of karma is impossible in the case of female se.'al feelin! 3%hich is implicit in a female body4, yo' still 'phold the doctrine that the same 3female4 se.'al feelin!, if fo'nd in a body %hich is contrary to that 3female body, i.e., a male body, can en!ender moksa40 th's, even that ar!'ment does not s'pport the impossibility of %omen attainin! nirvana. -his is beca'se: J-%t a% a man ,an be,ome G(omanG >b' havin$ &emale %eF-al &eelin$%= and th-% ,o-ld

be ,alled G(omanG?= %o al%o a (oman . J'st as a man can have female se.'al feelin!, so too can a %oman / $" / e.perience male se.'al feelin!. -here is nothin! in even yo'r doctrine %hich demonstrates that a %oman may not have male se.'al feelin!. ;ence, even %hile remainin! in a female body, a %oman may become a 9man9 and th's attain moksa. 6oreover, yo' consider male stren!th >sattva? to be s'perior to female ener!y, and stren!th is the internal feelin! >bhava?. )f, as yo' maintain, a man may attain moksa even havin! e.perienced female se.'al feelin!, then %hy sho'ld not a %oman %ho entertains male se.'al feelin! also attain moksaP -h's, the possibility of %oman attainin! nirvana is proved. J11E 3&pponent:4 B't s'ppose in the script'ral passa!es referrin! to nirvana for %omen the %ord 9%omen9 is employed not in the sense of female !ender b't in the sense of female se.'al feelin!P J11G 3Fapaniya:4 )t %o'ld not be correct, since: There i% no %eF-al &eelin$ >at the time? (hen one attain% Siddhahood >or Arhat%hi1?. 3EE4 3"94 -he destr'ction of 3all three types of4 se.'al feelin! takes place on the ninth !'nasthana %hen the aspirant climbs the ladder leadin! to destr'ction >ksaya? %here the !ross types of passion are removed. 3EG4 -herefore, at the time of attainin! *rhatship, the 'se of those three types of se.'al feelin! in that te.t to desi!nate 3female, male, and hermaphrodite4 respectively is not correct. J11$ 3&pponent:4 I& a 1er%on >i.e.= a mon.? be$in% the a%,ent on the ladder o& de%tr-,tion o& the mohani'a/.arma >i.e.= at the %eventh $-na%thana? (ith &emale %eF-al &eelin$ 2%triveda3 >and be,ome% an Arhat?= then that >Arhat? ,an be ,alled a G(omanG in the %en%e o& Ga mode o& de%,ri1tion (ith re&eren,e to 1a%t %tat-% .9 )t may be said that, altho'!h at the time of attainin! *rhatship there is no se.'al feelin! >veda? beca'se s'ch feelin!s %ere eliminated at the ninth !'nasthana, a person 3i.e., a monk4 be!innin! to ascend the ladder 3at the seventh !'nasthana4 leadin! to the destr'ction 3of the mohaniya(karma4 may ascend it %hile e.periencin! female se.'al feelin!0 hence, he comes to be called a 9%oman.9 Beca'se of this, even %hen he has attained nirvana s'ch a person may be called a 9%oman9 %ith reference to his previo's state 3i.e., the seventh !'nasthana4. S'ch a description of the so'l s'bstance >dravya ? %ith reference to its previo's state is permissible, for the so'l encompasses many states. -his is similar to callin! a pot a 9pot of !hee,9 even lon! after !hee has been emptied from that pot. / $B / J119 3Fapaniya: -he interpretation of the %ord 9stri9 as referrin! to a past state is permissible4 in the %e,ondar' meanin$ onl' (hen it i% not allo(able in the 1rimar' meanin$= and not other(i%e. >96? &h, ho% f'tile it is to attempt to di! thro'!h somethin! that is impenetrableS -his is beca'se only %hen the primary meanin! of the %ord 9stri91namely, a bein! endo%ed %ith breasts, v'lva, and so forth1is inapplicable can one apply 3to the %ord 9stri94 the characteristics of masc'linity1namely, one

endo%ed %ith a m'stache and penis. B't this is not possible, since 3accordin! to the Fapaniya doctrine4 female se.'al feelin! is, first of all, impossible in a male. Fo' had claimed that there %as no inherent identity bet%een the masc'line biolo!ical !ender and male se.'al feelin!0 b't even !ranted this, there %o'ld be even less inherent identity bet%een the masc'line biolo!ical !ender and female se.'al feelin!. J17# 6oreover, it is not the case that an!er and so forth 3i.e., pride, crookedness, and !reed4, %hich appear in a male or a female %itho't any distinction, co'ld be distin!'ished as 9female9 an!er and so forth merely beca'se of their association %ith %omen0 3hence, there sho'ld also be no distinction bet%een 9male9 se.'ality and 9female9 se.'ality, for both are 2'st se.'ality4. =or the sake of ar!'ment, even if it %ere admitted that female se.'al feelin! co'ld arise in a male, it does not follo% that one co'ld then apply the %ord 9female9 to a male body, since the male body lacks s'ch characteristics as breasts and the birth canal, %hich are the ca'se for the 'sa!e of the %ord 9female.9 J171 )n the %orld too 3in conventional 'sa!e4, the %ord 9female9 is 'sed only %ith reference to the appearance of the female physical form, not %ith reference to se.'al feelin!s: 3for e.ample,4 portraits 3are e.plicitly either male or female4 %itho't any reference to se.'al feelin!s. 8ven yo' %ho claimed that %omen cannot attain nirvana had in mind only a %oman 3%ho possessed breasts and so forth4 beca'se yo' accepted that nirvana %as possible %ith 3female4 se.'al feelin!s. J177 6oreover, 3concernin! that female se.'al feelin! %ith %hich yo' admit a male can attain moksa, %e m'st point o't that4 the e.pression 9female se.'al feelin!9 in that male is itself a conventional 'sa!e, since it has the appearance of bein! similar to that of a female0 b't %hen 3striveda itself4 is absent 3at the time of attainin! *rhatship or moksa4, it is to pile one convention 'pon another to say that 3the man4 is then female, by referrin! to his previo's condition. *s far as the %ord 9stri9 is concerned, to take it to mean 9male9 in the conventional sense is itself inappropriate, since the / $D / primary meanin! is not inapplicable0 and the second convention 3i.e., applyin! the desi!nation female to a man by reference to a previo's condition4 is takin! it to e.tremes, for even if yo' resort to s'ch a convention, each 'sa!e is proper only %ith reference to the specific ob2ect %ith %hich it e.ists. J17" 3Fapaniya:4 Ce offer the script're itself as a'thority for the nirvana of %omen: That a-thoritative %,ri1t-re &or the mo.%a o& n-n% i% the %tatement that there are &o-rteen $-na%thana% available to both (omen 2manusi3 and men 2 manusya3 . =o'rteen !'nasthanas are laid do%n separately for both %omen and men. Ko%, if 3as yo' claim4 the %ord 9%omen9 3man'si in this passa!e4 meant only 9men9 >man'sya?, then it sho'ld have been eno'!h merely to say that fo'rteen !'nasthanas are available for men. )t is not the case that those men yo' have identified as 9%omen9 are not already incl'ded amon! men 3i.e., of the male !ender4S -herefore, the %ord 9%omen9 in the precedin! passa!e m'st mean 9nonmale9 %omen only, %ho are endo%ed %ith s'ch !ender(specific feat'res as breasts and the birth canal. J'st as in the %ord 9men,9 the 3male !ender4 is %hat is meant. -h's, the teachin! that the fo'rteen !'nasthanas are available for both men and %omen, as stated in the fore!oin! chapter on the states of the so'l >%ivasthana ?, is script'ral proof that n'ns can attain nirvana. J17B )f, ho%ever, it is claimed 3by the opponent4 that the e.pression 9men and %omen9 is delimited by the application of the se.'al feelin! >bhava?, then %e 3Fapaniyas4 say: That >%eF-al &eelin$? (a% alread' terminated in the &ormer $-na%thana% .

-hat internal feelin! >bhava? %hich yo' characteri,e as se.'ality >veda? is already terminated at the entrance to the ninth !'nasthana, %hich is desi!nated anivrttibadarasarnparaya 3i.e., the sta!e of nonreversible destr'ction of !ross passions4. )t does not e.ist at all beyond that sta!e0 so ho% then can the script'ral statement %hich says that the fo'rteen !'nasthanas are available 3for both men and %omen4 be e.plainedP J17D 3&pponent:4 -he terms 9man'sya9 and 9man'si9 do not refer to the se.'al feelin!s0 rather, the referent of these %ords is the so'l >dravya? characteri,ed by the se.'al feelin!. -here, %ith reference to the so'l, fo'rteen !'nasthanas are available. J17E 3Fapaniya:4 -o this claim, %e ans%er: Thi% %eF-al &eelin$ 2bhava3 i% tran%ient= and hen,e >the a11li,ation o&? a &i$-rative meanin$ i% al%o not invariabl' available. >9"? / $E / Ce both a!ree that the state 3of bein! male or female4 is not fi.ed forever in a so'l to the end of samsara, beca'se %e kno% 3from the script'res4 that males can be reborn as females, and females as males. )f, ho%ever, yo' propose that, in a sin!le body 3lifetime4, femininity is to be fo'nd thro'!ho't the %hole of a male+s lifetime 3by virt'e of th's entertainin! female se.'al feelin!4, then yo' sho'ld present yo'r proof. -his is beca'se %e kno% of no proof via perception, inference, or script'ral a'thority thro'!h %hich one co'ld fi!'ratively make the assertion that femininity is fo'nd in a male. *nd even if one may fi!'ratively call s'ch a man a 9%oman,9 s'ch an association is not fi.ed for his entire life. * man %ho is fi!'ratively called a 9%oman9 beca'se of some sort of similarity to a %oman, s'ch as impotence, mi!ht be called a 9lion amon! men9 at some other time %hen his masc'linity has been demonstrated. =or s'rely those very people %ho are sometimes co%ardly have later proved to be brave. -herefore, since femininity is 'ndetermined in a male, that alle!ed femininity %ill not persist for his entire lifetime, beca'se the partic'lar state 3that led to the s'!!estion of femininity, i.e., impotence4 is transient and %ill not last for his entire lifetime0 rather, that contrary 3male se.'al feelin!4 may also take place. -herefore, merely beca'se of impotence yo' co'ld not determine that s'ch a man has female se.'ality. 8ven %hen he e.periences male se.'ality, it is still possible conventionally to call him 9female9 by virt'e of some similarity 3%ith femininity40 b't even sho'ld he have 3female se.'ality4 it %o'ld be only transient. J17G 3&pponent:4 -here are t%o ma2or types of se.'ality, male and female, %hich are the res'lts of the 3mohaniya4 karma. * 3bo'nd so'l bein! a4 s'bstance m'st possess one of these t%o 3modifications40 conse5'ently, the se.'ality of that bein! 3as either male or female4 %ill be determined as either one or the other. J17$ 3Fapaniya:4 -o this claim, %e ans%er that it is abs'rd. <avin$ %een a ,o( mo-nted b' a b-ll or3E$4 T a co% mo'ntin! a b'll, this does not allo% 's to determine the se.'al feelin! >veda? of those animals as either male, female, or hermaphrodite. -his is beca'se s'ch behavior is not fi.ed 3i.e., it is transient4. 3B74 3-he script'ral 'se of the term 9man'si9 'nder the follo%in! topic >margana ? of h'mans m'st mean a person %ho is of female !ender and not a male %ith female libido. -his is beca'se 'nder this topic all fo'rteen !'nasthanas are mentioned.4 I& thi% treatment in the mar$ana3E94 on the h'mans %ere considered incorrect, then one %o'ld e.pect to see the fo'rteen !'nasthanas en'merated also in the case of

/ $G / the to1i, o& the heavenl' bein$%= a% (ell a% in the treatment o& the to1i, o& an$er and other 1a%%ion%. +oreover= in no other mar$ana i% a %e,ondar' meanin$ a11lied to the term Gman-%i .9 Al%o= in the mar$ana dealin$ (ith %eF-alit' 2veda3 1ro1er= the %,ri1t-ral a11roa,h i% di&&erent &rom the one 'o- have ado1tedJ >i.e.= there the %,ri1t-re %1ea.% onl' o& nine $-na%thana% be'ond (hi,h there i% no %eF-alit'?. >9B? -here 3in other mar!anas4 also fo'rteen !'nasthanas %o'ld have to be en'merated, as %as the case in the !ati(mar!ana. B't s'ch is not the case. )n no other mar!ana treatment is this practice seen 3i.e., of applyin! a secondary meanin! to the %ord 9man'si94. 8very%here the r'le is to 3!o by the4 act'al state >bhava? of the so'l. Chat is so special 3in the case of the se.'ality >veda? 4 that even %hen it is destroyed 3on the ninth !'nasthana4 it is nevertheless said 3by yo'4 to be referred to 3even in the fo'rteenth !'nasthana4, and %hy is this r'le not applied in the case of other mar!anasP -herefore, the p'rport of the script're sho'ld also be applied 3in 'nderstandin! the term 9man'si94. )n the veda( mar!ana 3i.e., the topic of e.amination %ith reference to se.'ality4 only nine !'nasthanas are en'merated. -herefore, it is proved that the statement 9fo'rteen !'nasthanas are available for both men and %omen9 is not based 'pon an e.amination of the internal se.'al feelin!s, b't is instead fo'nded 'pon the e.ternal physical form 3s'ch as male or female41and this physical form is available on all the fo'rteen !'nasthanas 3%hile internal se.'al feelin! is not4. J179 6oreover, all conventional 'sa!e %o'ld be impossible if %e distin!'ished men and %omen on the basis of se.'al feelin! 3instead of biolo!ical !ender4. I& a G(omanG (ere to eFi%t in a male bod' and a GmanG in a &emale bod'= then it (o-ld be 1o%%ible to have marria$e bet(een 1eo1le o& the %ame %eF. F-rthermore= mon.% (o-ld not be able to live to$ether . )f a person %ho is a %oman accordin! to e.ternal physical feat'res can become a man internally, or a man become %oman beca'se of the rise of female se.'al feelin!, then there %o'ld be loss in 3i.e., there %o'ld be no meanin! to4 m'ndane lin!'istic conventions or in s'pram'ndane activities. 3*nd %ere that to happen4 there %o'ld be the occ'rrence in the %orld of s'ch conventions in re!ard to marria!e as %omen marryin! %omen or men marryin! men. ='rthermore, s'ch s'pram'ndane 3i.e., monastic4 activities as monks livin! to!ether %ith one another %o'ld not be permissible, for accordin! to the monastic re!'lations it is not allo%able for men to live to!ether %ith 9%omen9 3i.e., monks %ho mi!ht e.perience 9female9 / $$ / se.'ality4. -herefore, it is proved 3that female se.'al feelin! is not possible in a man or male se.'al feelin! in a %oman4. J1"# 3&pponent:4 -he internal se.'ality of a person cannot be kno%n0 therefore, the se. of a person is to be kno%n by the physical !ender, and that is s'fficient to allo% conventional 'sa!e to contin'e. J1"1 3Fapaniya:4 -o this claim, %e ans%er: I& indeed >internal %eF-alit'? ,annot be .no(n= then that (hi,h 'o- de%ire to 1rove >namel'= that G(omanG in the &ore$oin$ 1a%%a$e mean% Ga man (ith &emale %eF-alit'G? i% (itho-t validit'. >99? )f this claim is made, then yo'r assertion that female se.'ality may arise in a male body, or vice versa,

is %itho't proof, beca'se 3by yo'r o%n admission4 internal se.'ality cannot be perceived. )n this case, there is no script're 3acceptable to 's both4 to prove yo'r point. ;o%ever, perception and inference, %hich are common to the %hole %orld, also have no access 3to internal se.'al feelin!4. 3)f the %orld co'ld in fact see the mind4, then there %o'ld indeed be the 'ndesirable conse5'ence of marria!e 3bet%een people of the same !ender4. J1"7 3&pponent:4 &b2ection. S'rely %e both a!ree that nama(karma 3%hich is a completely different sort of karmic matter4 is responsible for prod'cin! the !ender, %hereas 3the three types of4 se.'ality >veda? are the res'lt of the 3mohaniya4 karma that prod'ces the passions. ;o% can yo' therefore make s'ch a r'le restrictin! a partic'lar type of se.'ality to a partic'lar !ender, rather than allo%in! any type of se.'ality in any !enderP J1"" -he 3Fapaniya4 ans%er is: >J-%t a% the nama/.arma? i% re%1on%ible &or 1rod-,in$ the &ive %en%e or$an% 2indriyas3= %o i% it re%1on%ible &or 1rod-,in$ di&&erent .ind% o& birth% in di&&erent abode% %-,h a% heaven= hell= and %o &orth. SeF-alit' i% al%o an a%1e,t o& the 1h'%i,al bodie% one i% born (ith in the%e vario-% birth%. >For eFam1le=? there i% a r-le that in the hell abode% there i% onl' herma1hroditi, %eF-alit'. >95? *ltho'!h a different type of karmic matter is responsible for prod'cin! the sense or!ans >angopanganama-"arma ? on the one hand and the destinies 3!ati(nama(karma, i.e., realms of e.istence4 on the other, there is nevertheless a r'le that s'ch rebirths as those of heavenly bein!s and h'mans cannot be attained in the absence of those karmas that %ill yield all the five senses >pan'endriya-nama-"arma ?. )f this %ere not the case, it %o'ld be possible for bein!s like the !ods or the hell deni,ens to be born %ith less than 3the inc'mbent4 five sense or!ans, or even %ith only a sin!le sense or!an 3%hich is impossible4. )n the same %ay, there is a r'le for se.'ality also: 3for e.ample,4 %here the destiny of hell is prod'ced, only / $9 / hermaphroditic se.'ality %ill arise. )n the heavenly abodes also, there is a r'le that there are only t%o types of se.'ality, male and female. )n 3the hi!her heavenly abodes called4 *hamindra 3%here each bein! en2oys a'tonomo's po%er and %here there are no females %hatsoever4, only male se.'ality e.ists. So also is it the r'le that amon! the lo%er bein!s %ith only one sense or!an or %ith incomplete development of their sense or!ans, there is only hermaphroditic se.'ality. 3=rom these r'les4 %e may similarly concl'de that it sho'ld be possible to assert that male, female, and hermaphroditic se.'ality amon! h'mans 3is conditioned by their physical !enders4 and can arise only in a male, female, and hermaphrodite body, respectively, beca'se this is %hat is observed. -he 9u 9 in the fore!oin! verse is inserted for metrical reasons. J1"B J'st as the nama >/.arma? 1rod-,e% 2 nirvrtti3 the %en%e or$an% that ,orre%1ond to the obtainment o& the internal ,a1a,it' 2labdhi3 o& the %en%e% &or &-n,tionin$ >a% %eein$= hearin$= et,.?= %o it ,an be ar$-ed that >the %ame nama/.arma? (o-ld 1rod-,e the $ender% o& male= and %o &orth= (hi,h ,orre%1ond to the ari%in$ o& the a11ro1riate %eF-al &eelin$. Th-%= (e ar$-e that the %eF-al &eelin$ (o-ld not ari%e in an ina11ro1riate >i.e.= ,ontrar'? $ender. >9:? -he nama(karma prod'ces the vario's sense or!ans only 'pon the obtainment of the sense fac'lties that are prod'ced on acco'nt of the s'ppression(c'm(elimination of those karmas that prevent their

ori!ination.3G#4 )n the same %ay, it is possible to assert that the nama(karma %ill prod'ce s'ch bodies as male and female %hich correspond to the se.'al feelin!s 3!enerated by the mohaniya(karma4 that are consonant %ith it1that is, the se.'alities of male, female, and so forth. Beca'se s'ch a r'le 3of a correspondence bet%een se.'al feelin! and physical !ender4 is valid, it is incorrect to say that male se.'ality %ill arise in bodies that are not male and so forth. J1"D 3&pponent:4 )f, as yo' maintain, male se.'ality arises only in a male body and so forth, and not other%ise, then ho% is it that %e observe that men behave like %omen to%ard other menP J1"E 3Fapaniya:4 -o this claim, %e ans%er: I& there (o-ld be a man (ho behave% li.e a (oman to(ard another man= or a (oman >(ho behave% li.e a man? to(ard another (oman= >in both ,a%e%= %-,h %eF-al behavior? i% the re%-lt o& oneC% o(n %eF-alit'. Thi% i% A-%t a%= in the ab%en,e o& a l-%t' &emale= a h-man bein$ mi$ht a11roa,h an animal. >9;? -his male se.'al behavior %o'ld be the res'lt of the arisin! of their o%n male se.'ality, and not beca'se of the arisin! of female se.'ality. )n the / 9# / absence of a se.'ally aro'sed %oman, co%herds and other h'man bein!s mi!ht en!a!e in se.'al activities %ith animals o't of l'st0 that perverted behavior, ho%ever, cannot be said to be d'e to the presence of bestial se.'ality >tirya"-bhava ?, b't is instead a 3perverted e.pression4 of their h'man se.'ality. -he same thin! %o'ld apply here also 3in the case of a man behavin! like a %oman to%ard another man4, for the aro'sal of se.'al feelin!s can take vario's forms. -herefore, based solely on yo'r pres'mption concernin! the manifestation of a different type of se.'ality in a man %hose behavior is of that type, it is not proper to assert that the script'ral passa!e relatin! to the nirvana of %omen sho'ld be so constr'ed as to say that the %ord 9%omen9 there refers not to %omen b't to men %ho e.perience female se.'ality. J1"G 6oreover: The %,ri1t-ral a-thorit' &or the Siddhahood o& (omen= A-%t a% &or men= (o-ld be in the %tatement= GIn a h-man birth= >all? &o-rteen $-na%thana% are 1o%%ible.G Nor i% there an' inA-n,tion 1rohibitin$ >the nirvana o& (omen?= a% there i% &or bein$% (ho%e 1h'%i,al &ormation i% never ,om1leted 2 aparyapta3 and %o &orth. >98? -hese and other passa!es are proof of the nirvana of %omen: =o'rteen !'nasthanas are possible in the h'man destiny0 fo'rteen !'nasthanas are possible for bein!s endo%ed %ith five senses0 fo'rteen !'nasthanas are possible for bein!s %ho are mobile 3trasa , i.e., those %ith more than one sense or!an40 those %ho are capable of attainin! Siddhahood >bhavasiddhi"a ? also have access to all the fo'rteen !'nasthanas.9 3P4 3G14 -his is beca'se, like men, %omen too are incl'ded in the h'man birth and so forth 3i.e., amon! those bein!s %ho are endo%ed %ith the five senses, are mobile, and are capable of attainin! Siddhahood4. J1"$ 3&pponent:4 &b2ection. S'rely these statements are referrin! to h'mans >man'sya? in !eneral0 %hat proof do yo' have that 39h'man9 in this passa!e4 sho'ld be constr'ed specifically %ith reference to %omenP *ltho'!h the %ord 9h'man9 is a !eneral term, it has the specific meanin! of 9man,9 since the %ord 9man9 may incl'de a male %ho e.periences female se.'ality also.

J1"9 3Fapaniya:4 -o this claim, %e an%ser: )f this is so, then yo' %o'ld not be able to say that men either 3can attain moksa4, beca'se this 3%ord 9man94 is also a specific meanin! 3of the !eneral term 9h'man94. B't if yo' do admit this sort of specific meanin!, then %hy do yo' be!r'd!e 3n'ns the possibility of attainin! moksa by not allo%in! s'ch a specific meanin! to apply to females also4P S'rely an e.pression 3like 9h'man94 is / 91 / meanin!less if it has only a !eneral sense and does not apply to a specific ob2ect. ='rthermore, it is %ron! to s'!!est that the meanin! of the %ord 9h'man9 in this passa!e applies only to men and not to %omen, for this %o'ld lead to the lo!ical fallacy that the reverse proposition %o'ld be e5'ally valid 3i.e., this %o'ld contradict the la% of the e.cl'ded middle4. -herefore, %itho't implyin! any e.cl'sive meanin!, this script'ral passa!e states only that fo'rteen !'nasthanas are possible to %omen as %ell as men and, conse5'ently, is proof that %omen can attain nirvana. J1B# )n addition, 3if this interpretation is accepted4 it %o'ld not lead to the 'ndesirable conse5'ence of admittin! the possibility of attainin! nirvana for h'mans %hose physical formation is never completed >aparyapta? or for !ods, hell deni,ens, and animals0 this is beca'se the passa!e has no bearin! on them. -he reason for this is that e.ceptions are removed from consideration %hen a !eneral r'le is en2oined0 other%ise, no r'le %o'ld ever have any applicability. -he follo%in! te.t spells o't these e.ceptions: ;'man bein!s %hose physical formation is never completed >aparyapta? have only the 3first !'nasthana of4 %ron! vie%s. 3P4 ;eavenly bein!s and hell deni,ens may have 3'p to4 fo'r !'nasthanas, animals only 3'p to4 five. 3)an'asangraha , iv, 1#4 -here is no similar 3specific4 statement or proof pertainin! to n'ns that %o'ld set aside the !eneral r'le 3concernin! h'mans, as !iven above4. *nd in the absence of a specific e.ception to a !eneral r'le, there is no 2'stification for settin! it aside. -herefore, let these script'res that s'pport the nirvana of %omen remain e.plicitly as proof of the possibility of %omen attainin! nirvana. *ltho'!h this partic'lar script'ral passa!e refers to h'mans in !eneral, it is proof that, in the absence of somethin! %hich obviates its applicability, %omen can attain nirvana, 2'st like men. J1B1 3Fapaniya:4 S'mmari,in! the fore!oin! disc'ssion: There i% no tea,hin$ or %,ri1t-ral 1a%%a$e that (o-ld o11o%e mo.%a &or (omen. A %e,ondar' meanin$ >o& the (ord Gman-%iG? i% not valid (hen the 1rimar' meanin$ i% 1o%%ible. Th-% i% 1roved >the 1o%%ibilit' o& nirvana? &or n-n%. >9#? )t is not possible to hold to the doctrine that %omen cannot attain nirvana, beca'se there is no proof to the contrary, and a ne!ative statement 3s'ch as this4 %o'ld re5'ire a contrary proof. Ce have stated the proofs appearin! in the script'res pertainin! to 3the nirvana of %omen4. ='rthermore, in the absence of any valid reason to the contrary, the %ord 9%oman9 in the script'res 3%e have 5'oted above4 cannot be constr'ed as / 97 / anythin! other than a %oman. -his is beca'se the secondary meanin! can be applied only %hen the primary meanin! is invalid, and the meanin! 9man 3%ith female se.'al feelin!49 is a secondary meanin! of the %ord 9%oman.9

Conse5'ently, those %ho desire the state of spirit'al liberation and follo% the 'nperverted sense of the script'res %ill perforce accept that %omen can attain nirvana. -h's is completed the Section on the Kirvana of Comen.

Note%
1. *rhat >one %ho is %orthy of %orship, i.e., holy? is a synonym for a @evalin or a Jina as described in Chapter ) >n. 1?. 7. -he terms 9nirvana,9 9moksa,9 and 9m'kti9 are employed synonymo'sly in all Jaina te.ts, and all have the meanin! of total liberation or emancipation of the so'l from all forms of karmic bonda!e leadin! immediately to the stat's of the Siddha as described in Chatper ) >n. "?. -he term 9nirvana9 is additionally employed by the Jainas to indicate the death of a Jina(comparable to the 'se of the term 9parinirvana 9 amon! the B'ddhists(an event re!arded as a "alyana"a >an a'spicio's occasion, to!ether %ith his conception, birth, ren'nciation, and the attainment of kevala2nana?, and the places associated %ith this event are called nirvana-bhumis >see n. D1?, common pil!rima!e sites for both the Hi!ambaras and the Svetambaras. ". (evalibhu"ti is the title of the second treatise >in thirty(seven Sanskrit verses? composed by the Fapaniya acarya Sakatayana to!ether %ith an a'tocommentary >svopa%navrtti ? edited by 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i in his vol'me entitled the Strinirvana-(evalibhu"tipra"arane >pp. "9(D7?. Chether a person may contin'e to eat >bhu"ti ? after attainin! to the stat's of a @evalin, that is, an &mniscient Bein!, is a ma2or controversy bet%een the Fapaniyas >%ho shared this vie% %ith the Svetambaras? and the Hi!ambaras. -he latter have held that desirelessness >vitaragata ? and the accompanyin! omniscience >sarva%nata ? that characteri,e an *rhat are not compatible %ith the m'ndane practices of eatin! and drinkin! that can proceed only from some form of resid'al desire. *ccordin!ly they have maintained that the Jina 6ahavira ceased to partake of food and %ater >and conse5'ently ceased also to perform s'ch bodily f'nctions as s%eatin!, ans%erin! the calls of nat're, and even sleepin!? the moment he attained kevala2nana at the a!e of forty(t%o and yet lived the normal life of a teacher for thirty more years, for the d'ration of his life, %itho't becomin! %eak or s'b2ect to any disease. -he same r'le applied to all other *rhats %hose bodies 'nder%ent a similar mirac'lo's chan!e at the attainment of kevala2nana. -he Fapaniyas and the Svetambaras have ref'ted the Hi!ambara position by the co'nterar!'ment that h'n!er and thirst e.ist independent of desire and cannot be abated merely by removin! desire for food and %ater('nlike an!er, for e.ample, %hich can be overcome by c'ltivatin! its opposite, friendship. -hey have therefore ar!'ed that even a @evalin m'st be considered s'b2ect to the la%s of nat're and hence his partakin! of food co'ld not detract from his desirelessness or his omniscience. Ko Fapaniya bio!raphy of 6ahavira is e.tant0 b't the Svetambara / 9" / acco'nts of 6ahavira >as preserved in the canonical Bhagavatisutra and the postcanonical (alpasutra ? sho% that altho'!h no one sa% him eatin! or ans%erin! the calls of nat're he did eat food proc'red for him and also that he s'ffered from diseases and partook of medicine to c're himself. >See J)) , p. 7", n. DE.? -he Hi!ambaras have re2ected these acco'nts as blasphemo's and have maintained that, sim'ltaneo'sly %ith the attainment of kevala2nana, the body of a @evalin >%hether he be a -irthankara or an ordinary *rhat? 'nder!oes a mirac'lo's chan!e. ;is ordinary body >audari"a-sarira , lit., the !ross body? that had hitherto depended 'pon morsels of food >"avalahara ? is a'tomatically transformed into a s'premely p're !ross body >parama-audari"a-sarira 0 see Chapter A), n. 7$?, and the imp're bodily fl'ids s'ch as blood, 'rine, and semen chan!e into a milklike s'bstance. -his body of

the @evalin neither decays nor needs replenishment and is not s'b2ect to the normal la%s of nat're incl'din! di!estion and evac'ation. )nstead, it is s'stained for the d'ration of the remainder of his life by the infl'. of the most a'spicio's kind of karmic matter alone, called the no"arma-vargana , %hich ordinarily acco'nts for the invol'ntary biolo!ical f'nctions s'itable to the nat're of each species. -he Svetambaras, %hile they assert that the *rhat+s body is p'rer than that of the ordinary h'man bein!, emphatically re2ect the notion of s'ch a mirac'lo's body and contend that it r'ns co'nter to the doctrine of karma. =or a Hi!ambara reb'ttal, see ,yaya"umuda'andra , )), pp. $D7($ED. =or a critical disc'ssion on the nat're of the @evalin %ith partic'lar reference to this controversy, see H'ndas >19$D?. B. -he -hree Je%els to!ether constit'te the path to moksa as stated in the $attvarthasutra >i, 1?: samya!darsana2nanacaritrani moksamar!ah. &f these the first, namely the samyagdarsana , is defined as tattvarthasraddhana , faith >sradhhanam ? in the e.istents >tattva ?, %hich in fact amo'nts to holdin! the Jaina %orldvie% and hence is translated here as the 9ri!ht vie%.9 -he $attvarthasutra >i, 7? speaks of seven e.istents:2iva2ivasravabandhasamvaranir2aramoksas tattvam: >1? %iva >infinite n'mber of so'ls?0 >7? a%iva >nonso'ls?, %hich comprise the follo%in! five dravyas >s'bstances?:pudgala >the infinite n'mber of physical matter?, dharma >the principle of motion?, adharma >the principle of rest?, a"asa >infinite space?, "ala >infinite time?0 >"? asrava >infl'. of s'btle karmic matter into the space occ'pied by the so'l %ithin a !iven body?0 >B? bandha >bonda!e of the so'l by that karmic matter?0 >D? samvara >stoppin! of the ne% infl'. by the so'l?0 >E? nir%ara >dissociation of the so'l from the acc'm'lated karmic matter?0 and >G? mo"sa >total emancipation of the so'l from all karmic matter and th's freedom from all forms of embodiment?. * person %ho believes in the manner in %hich these seven tattvas are described by the Jina is said to be a tr'e Jaina endo%ed %ith the ri!ht vie%. Conversely, lack of faith in them or faith contrary to the teachin!s of the Jina is called mithyadarsana , the %ron! vie%. -he second Je%el, the ri!ht kno%led!e >samyag%nana ?, is not a ne% variety of kno%led!e b't merely the kno%led!e of these seven kno%ables accompanied by the ri!ht vie%. Corldly kno%led!e, even if correct from the conventional point of vie%, is therefore considered mithya%nana or %ron! kno%led!e if it is not accompanied by the ri!ht vie%. -he third Je%el, the ri!ht cond'ct >samya"'aritra ?, is the holy cond'ct of a person %ith the ri!ht vie%. -he partial holy cond'ct be!ins %ith the five minor vo%s >an'vratas? prescribed for the laity. -hese lead to the five !reat vo%s >mahavratas? of the mendicants, %hich are !rad'ally developed thro'!h meditational practices and c'lminate in the perfect / 9B / holy cond'ct of the *rhat. Cond'ct that is devoid of the ri!ht vie%, even if it is apparently in keepin! %ith the Jaina lay and mendicant practices, is considered %ron! cond'ct, mithya'aritra , as it is not cond'cive to moksa. D. =or details on the Jaina doctrine of samsara, a be!innin!less transmi!ration of so'ls in s'ch abodes as the heavens, hells, and h'man and animal e.istences, incl'din! the most s'btle ve!etable forms of life, see J)) , chap. B. E. Sakatayana does not identify the sect a!ainst %hich this treatise is %ritten. &ne cannot disco'nt the possibility that the Fapaniya a'thor may be disp'tin! %ith a faction %ithin his o%n sect, b't in the absence of any s'pportin! evidence one can fairly ass'me that his real opponents are the Hi!ambaras %ho, as %e kno% from the %ords of @'ndak'nda, re2ected a %oman+s ability to ass'me the five !reat vo%s of a mendicant. *ltho'!h no pre(Sakatayana Hi!ambara %ork devoted to the topic of strimoksa that mi!ht have served as the so'rce for Sakatayana+s prima facie vie% >purvapa"sa ? is e.tant, his presentation corresponds in many %ays %ith the a'thoritative Hi!ambara position as fo'nd in the

s'bse5'ent %orks of Prabhacandra and Jayasena, as %ill be seen in Chapters ))) and )A. G. *ll Jaina sects a!ree that moksa can be attained only by h'man bein!s and only from the re!ions called the "armabhumis >9the re!ions of action9? as opposed to the bhogabhumis >9the realms of en2oyment9?. -he bho!abh'mis are parts of the h'man abodes in the Jaina cosmolo!y >see J)) , chap. B? %here conditions like paradise prevail. -he bein!s there are believed to be free from all strife and s'bsist on %ish(f'lfillin! trees %itho't any control or competition. Beca'se of the ease that they en2oy %itho't interr'ption, they >like devas , the bein!s in the heavenly abode? are said to be incapable of ass'min! any vo%s and hence 'nable to attain moksa in that life. -he karmabh'mis >%hich incidentally incl'de o'r planet earth? 'nder!o !reat fl'ct'ations in the climatic and other conditions and hence are s'itable for the p'rs'it of moksa. 8ven in the karmabh'mis the attainment of moksa is possible only d'rin! certain specified times %hen the Jinas may appear and establish the Jaina mendicant order. =or details on the appropriate times for these events, see J)) , chap. 1. $. <anadhara >lit., a leader of the gana , i.e., a !ro'p 3of mendicants4? refers to the immediate mendicant disciples of a Jina, responsible for compilin! his sermons into or!ani,ed script're >agama ?. =or details on the eleven !anadharas >all &f %hom %ere Brahmans by birth? of the t%enty(fo'rth Jina, 6ahavira, see J)) , chap. 7. 9. Pratyekab'ddha is a mendicant %ho attains omniscience %itho't the direct aid of a teacher. ;e is comparable to the recl'se kno%n by the same desi!nation in the -heravada canon beca'se he %as able to achieve nirvana d'rin! the period %hen a B'ddha %as not aro'nd. 1#. Sr'takevalin is a mendicant %ho has mastered the entire Jaina canon comprisin! both the )urva and the -nga . ;e is not an &mniscient Bein!, b't ranks 2'st belo% the !anadhara in the Jaina hierarchy. Bhadrabah', the !reat acarya of the Jaina mendicant comm'nity prior to the sectarian division described in Chapter ) >i?, is re!arded by the Hi!ambaras as the last Sr'takevalin of o'r era. 11. -he )urvas constit'te an ancient, no% none.tant, part of the Jaina canon. See J)) , pp. B9(D1. -he tenth book of this collection is said to have contained instr'ctions on controllin! vario's occ'lt po%ers and their presidin! deities >vidya-devatas ? that an advanced mendicant mi!ht enco'nter in his yo!ic p'rs'it. * / 9D / dasapurvin >one %ho mastered the tenth )urva ? %as therefore considered a most holy mendicant, ne.t in a'thority to the Sr'takevalin in all matters of doctrine. See JS( )A, p. DD. 17. -he Jaina te.ts speak of !'nasthanas >lit., sta!es of spirit'al 5'ality? as a ladder of fo'rteen r'n!s that an aspirant m'st climb in order to reach the stat's of a Siddha, the Perfected Bein!. -he follo%in! fo'rteen sta!es mark the pro!ress of the so'l as it !rad'ally overcomes the vario's ca'ses of bonda!e: >1? mithyadrsti : the lo%est sta!e, the sta!e of %ron! vie%s. >7? sasvadana : the sta!e of 9mi.ed taste,9 reached only %hen the so'l falls from the fo'rth sta!e. >"? samya"-mithyadrsti : a mi.ed state of the ri!ht and %ron! vie%s, a transitional sta!e from the first to the fo'rth. >B? samyagdrsti : the sta!e of the ri!ht vie%, the first step in the direction of moksa. >D? desavirata >lit., the sta!e %here one refrains partially from evils?: the state attained by a samya!drsti %hen the partial vo%s >an'vrata and so forth? prescribed for the laity are ass'med. >E? sarvavirata >lit., the sta!e %here one reno'nces all evils?: the state attained %hen a layperson ass'mes the !reat vo%s >mahavratas? of a mendicant. -his sta!e indicates that s'ch a person has f'lly overcome the %ron! vie%s as %ell as all !ross forms of passions >"asaya ? s'ch as an!er >"rodha ?, pride >mana ?, crookedness >maya ?, and !reed >lobha ?. >G? apramattavirata >lit., the sta!e of refrainin! from carelessness, pramada ?: the sta!e of complete mindf'lness, a prere5'isite for en!a!in! in meditational activities. >$? apurva"arana . >lit., the sta!e of

'nprecedented meditational activity0 >9? anivrtti"arana >lit., the sta!e of irreversible meditational activity?0 >1#? su"sma-samparaya >lit., the sta!e %here only the most s'btle passions remain?: three meditational sta!es called the 9ladder9 >sreni ?, in %hich the aspirant may pro!ressively s'ppress >upasama ? even the s'btle passions >incl'din! the se.'al desires called the vedas? or destroy >"saya ? them completely. >11? upasantamoha >lit., the sta!e %here passions, moha , are s'ppressed?: this sta!e is reached only if one climbs the ladder of s'ppression, a fall from %hich is inevitable. >17? "sinamoha >lit., the sta!e %here all passions are destroyed?: this sta!e is possible only to those %ho have climbed the ladder of destr'ction and th's s'cceeded in totally eliminatin! all forms of passion. -his is an irreversible sta!e, and the aspirant no% proceeds immediately to the ne.t sta!e called >1"? sayoga"evalin >lit., @evalin %ith activities?. -his is the state of enli!htenment, %here the aspirant %ill become an *rhat or a @evalin, endo%ed %ith infinite kno%led!e >"evala%nana ?, infinite perception >"evaladarsana ?, infinite bliss >ananta-su"ha ?, and infinite ener!y >ananta-virya ?. *oga is a Jaina technical term that means activities of mind, speech, and body. -he @evalin beca'se of his omniscience has no 'se of the senses or the mind that coordinates their f'nctions0 b't he still is not free from the vocal and physical activities s'ch as preachin! and movin! from place to place. 8ven this last vesti!e of embodiment is removed d'rin! the fe% final instants immediately precedin! his death. Chen these activities are also bro'!ht to cessation, the aspirant reaches the last sta!e called >1B? ayoga-"evalin >lit., @evalin %itho't activities?. =reed from the totality of the bonds of karma the *rhat+s so'l rises a'tomatically and instantaneo'sly to the s'mmit of the Jaina 'niverse and resides there eternally in the state of the Siddha, the Perfected Bein!. -his is a brief o'tline of the !'nasthana scheme common to all Jaina sects. =or f'rther details and a chart, see J)) , p. 7G". / 9E / 1". -he second line of this verse reads: man'ya!adiye vi taha. ca'dasa !'nanamadheyani. -he p'rport of this passa!e >fo'nd in the Hi!ambara te.t )an'asangraha ? is that of the fo'r possible births accordin! to the Jaina doctrine, the bein!s in hell and bein!s in heaven can have no more than the first fo'r !'nasthanas. *nimals can have one more, namely the fifth !'nasthana, as certain sam%ni animals >those possessin! the mind and the five sense fac'lties, e.!., elephants and lions? may even ass'me certain minor vo%s of the laity. >=or a disc'ssion on this spirit'ality of animals, see Jaini, 19$G.? -he animals may not !o beyond the fifth sta!e, b't all fo'rteen !'nasthanas are possible for h'man bein!s. -he Fapaniya ar!'es that if %omen, as the Hi!ambaras alle!e, co'ld not rise to the si.th sta!e then this script're %o'ld have said so e.plicitly as it does in the case of animals. -herefore %omen m'st be considered capable of possessin! all the fo'rteen !'nasthanas that the te.t says are available to 9h'man bein!s.9 See notes E9 and G1. 1B. -he 9last moment of inactivity9 is the fo'rteenth !'nasthana, called ayo!akevalin, described above in note 17. 1D. &n the 2inakalpa, see note "D. 1E. -he manahparyaya2nana is not to be conf'sed %ith ordinary telepathy. )t is rather a special type of s'pernat'ral kno%led!e that is !ained only by the Jaina mendicants of the hi!hest p'rity, and it is believed that its ac5'isition also carne to an end %ith the death of the venerable Jamb' >see J7"?. )t m'st be noted, ho%ever, that one can achieve moksa even %itho't attainin! s'ch kno%led!e. =or details, see Sarvarthasiddhi , i, 7"(7D. 1G. =or the correspondin! Hi!ambara script're, see Chapter ))) >J11?. )n the Jaina cosmolo!y the hellish re!ion >called nara"a ? occ'pies the lo%er part of the 'niverse >adholo"a ?, immediately belo%

the terrestrial level >madhyalo"a ? inhabited by animals and h'man bein!s, and consists of seven tiers each darker than the one above. >=or a chart of the Jaina 'niverse, see J)) , pp. 17$(179.? :ebirth into the hells is not available to a heavenly bein! >deva ? or to one %ho is already an infernal bein! >nara"i ?. -he script're 5'oted above therefore !ives r'les only %ith re!ard to the species in the animal and h'man e.istences %ho alone may be reborn in the hellish abodes. -he te.t does not provide any rationale for the differences in the destinies available to the species mentioned. )t is !enerally a!reed that rebirth in a partic'lar abode is determined by the so'l+s intensity of volition, %hich to a !reat e.tent is determined by the amo'nt of physical stren!th and mental vi!or >virya or sattva? innate to a !iven state of embodiment. -h's it is e.plained that 5'adr'peds may !o to a lo%er hell than the birds and that snakes(pres'mably tho'!ht to be more cr'el beca'se of their venom(may !o to a still lo%er level. By the same token it is believed by all Jaina sects that %omen beca'se of their lack of stren!th, and the conse5'ent %eakness of their volition, may not fall into the seventh, the lo%est hell. -hat is the prero!ative of men alone, a proof of their physical and volitional stren!th(and, for the Hi!ambaras, a s're indication that men alone may reach the other e.treme of the cosmos, the Siddhaloka, the abode of the Perfected Bein!s. &ne can 'nderstand the disparity bet%een snakes and h'mans >beca'se of %hich the former %ere denied rebirth in hells lo%er than the fifth? and even !rant that %omen may be constit'tionally %eaker than men and th's incapable of committin! the most evil deeds deservin! retrib'tion in the lo%est hell. Chat is tr'ly bafflin!, ho%ever, is the sin!'lar e.ception the Jainas make of fish by admittin! the / 9G / possibility of their rebirth in the seventh hell, a fate denied even to %omen beca'se of their alle!ed lack of mental vi!or. -he belief that fish can be e.tremely %icked is 5'ite old and is attested to in the Bhavaprabhrta of the acarya @'ndak'nda, %here the a'thor ill'strates the importance of volition by the story of a fish called Salisiktha: maccho vi salisittho as'ddhabhavo !ao mahanarayam >$Ea?. >9-he fish called Salisiktha 3lit., +:ice <rain+4 of imp're intensions %ent to the !reat hell.9 >@'ndak'nda does not !ive the story, b't it appears in the tenth(cent'ry Brhat"atha"osa >no. 1BG, Salisikthakathanakam? of the Hi!ambara ;arisena and %as probably the so'rce of the si.teenth(cent'ry Sr'tasa!ara+s narrative in his commentary on the Bhavaprabhrta , %hich may be briefly s'mmari,ed here. )n the city of @akandip'ra there %as a kin! named Sa'rasena born in the family of a Jaina layman >srava"a"ula ?. *ccordin! to the tradition of his reli!ion he took the vo% of not eatin! meat. B't implored by his Saivite physician he conceived a desire to cons'me meat. =earf'l of people kno%in! his %eakness, he called his favorite cook named @armapriya >9Cork Iover9? and secretly informed him of his desire. *ltho'!h the cook proc'red meats of animals on land as %ell as in the %ater, the kin! did not !et an opport'nity to eat those dishes. @armapriya, the cook, died and %as reborn as the <reat =ish >6ahamatsya? in the !reat ocean called the Svayambh'ramana >%hich circles the middle re!ion of the Jaina 'niverse?. @in! Sa'rasena died cravin! for meat dishes and %as born in the same ocean as a fish called Salisiktha >:ice <rain? beca'se of its tiny si,e. Sa1isiktha took his residence in the ear of the <reat =ish livin! on the dirt that acc'm'lated there. &ne day Salisiktha sa% the <reat =ish sleepin! and the m'ltit'de of small and lar!e schools of fish movin! in and o't of its %ide(open mo'th and tho'!ht: 9*lasS ;o% 'nfort'nate of this <reat =ishS )t cannot eat them even %hen they fall into his mo'thS )f fate had !iven me as lar!e a body as his, ) %o'ld have rendered this entire ocean empty of all lifeS9 -hinkin! th's he died and by the force of his mental a!itation %as reborn in the seventh hell. -he !reat =ish also died and %as also reborn in the same hell as a conse5'ence of his devo'rin! the m'ltit'de of bein!s in the ocean >Satprabhrtadisangrahah , pp. 7"D(7"G?. )t seems possible that @'ndak'nda %as referrin! to the

story of the fish only to ill'strate the primacy of volition >bhava ? over action, b't his %ords 9!ao mahanarayam9 %ere 'nderstood by the later storytellers literally to mean the seventh hell. 1$. -he ei!ht siddhagunas : >1("? perfection of the -hree Je%els0 >B? infinite ener!y >ananta-virya ?0 >D? invisibility >su"smatva ?0 >E? ability to occ'py the same space >at the s'mmit of the Jaina 'niverse? %ith other Siddhas >avagahanatva ?0 >G? freedom from e.pansion and contraction of the so'l+s space points >agurulaghutva ?0 and >$? freedom from both pleas're and pain >avyabadhatva ?. -he former fo'r are attained %hen one becomes an *rhat0 the latter fo'r are attained %hen the *rhat dies and is forever released from the bonda!e of embodiment and th's becomes a Siddha. =or details on the last fo'r 5'alities, see J)) , pp. 17B(17G. 19. Sahasrara is the t%elfth heavenly abode in the Jaina cosmolo!y. See Sarvarthasiddhi , iv, 19. 7#. =or a disc'ssion on the definition of a sam2ni, see Sarvarthasiddhi , ii, 7B. 71. -he samayika here probably refers to the sin!le mendicant restraint ass'med by 6ahavira himself %hen he reno'nced the %orld sayin!, 9Ko evil actions are to be committed by me.9 See J)) , p. 1G. / 9$ / 77. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 1G, n. 1? that this is a very old verse and is 5'oted by the Svetambara acarya Jinabhadra in his Svopa%navrtti on the &isesavasya"abhasya . -he complete verse reads as follo%s: mana(paramodhi(p'lae ahara!a(khava!a('vasame kappe, sam2amatiya(kevala(si22hana ya Jamb'mmi vocchinna. 3verse "#GE4 -he Jaina tradition 'nanimo'sly believes that the mendicant Jamb' %as the last person to attain moksa in the c'rrent time called the avasarpini-pan'ama-"ala >the fifth period of the descendin! half of the time cycle? in the Jaina cosmolo!y. ;e %as the disciple of S'dharman, one of the t%o !anadharas >the other bein! <a'tama? %ho s'rvived 6ahavaira. -he Svetambara tradition believes that S'dharman relayed the t%elvefold Jaina canon >as received from 6ahavira? orally to the mendicant Jamb', %ho th's became the chief preserver of the holy script're. Jamb' is believed to have died in BE" B.C. , si.ty(fo'r years after the nirvana of 6ahavira. *ccordin! to the fifth(cent'ry acarya Jinabhadra+s &isesavasya"abhasya , referred to above, %ith the death of Jamb' the 2inakalpa >see note "D?(s'!!ested by the term 9"appa 9 in the verse 5'oted above(ceased to e.ist, as also the attainment of moksa by anyone, %hether a monk or a n'n. Jainas are 'nanimo's in their belief that moksa cannot be attained by either a monk or a n'n 'ntil the present time cycle is completed and a ne% era be!ins and a ne% Jina appears here >after a lapse of several tho'sand years?. )n vie% of this belief the controversy over %omen+s ability to attain moksa %o'ld appear to be irrelevant, aimed rather at assertin! the validity of the sectarian position on the tr'e definition of a mendicant. )t sho'ld be remembered, ho%ever, that the path of moksa is not alto!ether closed, since it is open for h'man bein!s %ho are reborn in an area called Aideha(ksetra. -irthankaras are believed to e.ist at all times in this blessed re!ion inhabited by h'man bein!s b't lyin! far o'tside o'r kno%n earth and inaccessible to h'mans e.cept thro'!h transmi!ration. -he earth %e inhabit forms part of the area kno%n as the Bharata(ksetra >the Iand of Bharata, named after the first Jaina 'niversal monarch or cakravartin of o'r time cycle? in the Jaina cosmolo!y. See J)) , chap. 1. =or f'rther details on Jamb', see 6ehta >19G#(19G7?. 7". -he verses 5'oted are to be fo'nd in the ,isithabhasya , a Svetambara te.t. Ko Hi!ambara te.t correspondin! to this is to be fo'nd, and the Svetambara te.ts are not a'thoritative to them. &ne %onders, therefore, if the Fapaniya a'thor may be confrontin! a faction %ithin his o%n mendicant comm'nity or if the U had once accepted the script'res 5'oted by him.

7B. )t is do'btf'l %hether the 9opponent9 here also is a Hi!ambara, since the script're 5'oted is fo'nd in the Svetambara Brhat"alpa only. -o the best of my kno%led!e there is no e.tant Hi!ambara script're that specifically forbids the vo% of mendicant n'dity to a %oman. B't s'ch a prohibition m'st have obtained in their tradition, as can be ded'ced from the follo%in! statement of the Hi!ambara acarya Airasena >c. $1G? in his commentary called the Dhavala on the Sat"handagama >5'oted in JS( )ll, p. D9G, from the Dhavala , .i, B, 7.E(.ii, 11B, 11?: na ca davvatthinam ni!!amtham atthi, celadipariccaena vina tasim bhavani!!amthabhavado. na ca davvatthinav'msayavedenam celadicca!o atthi, #hedasuttena saha virohado. >9-here is no state of total mendicancy 3the state of a nir!rantha4 for a person %ho is biolo!ically female, since there is absence of internal freedom from all / 99 / bonds %itho't the abandonment of s'ch e.ternal properties as clothes and so forth. Kor is the abandonment of clothes and so forth 3allo%ed4 for those %ho are biolo!ically female or hermaphrodite, as this 3n'dity4 is contrary to the #hedasutra 3the Hi!ambara book of mendicant discipline, %hich is no lon!er e.tant4.9? )t may be mentioned in this connection that the t%elfth(cent'ry Hi!ambara layman *sadhara, in his man'al for the laity called the Sagaradharmamrta , states that a n'n >%hom he also considers only to be an advanced lay%oman and not a 9mendicant9? may, if she so %ishes, be allo%ed to ass'me the vo% of n'dity, like a man, at the last moments of her life, as part of her salle"hana rit'al >vol'ntary fastin! to death, see J)) , p. 77G(7""?: yad a'tsar!ikam anyad va lin!am 'ktam 2inaih, striyah p'mvat tad isyate, mrty'kale svalpikrtopadheh >viii, "$?. *sadhara is 'ndo'btedly follo%in! here a very old tradition preserved in the ancient Bhagavati-aradhana : itthivi ya 2am lim!am dittham 'ssa!!iyam va idaram va, tam taha hodi h' lim!am parittam 'vadhim karemtie >verse $1?. ) am informed by Hi!ambara scholars that this verse sho'ld not be constr'ed as a sanction for n'dity as the dyin! n'n m'st remain in strict privacy and, moreover, that her vo%s do not thereby become the mahavratas of a Hi!ambara monk for the biolo!ical disabilities associated %ith the female body cannot be removed. ='rthermore, acarya Sivakoti, the a'thor of the Bhagavati-aradhana , is, as seen above in section >v?, probably a Fapaniya mendicant and hence does not necessarily represent the traditional Hi!ambara position as e.pressed in the Sutraprabhrta >see Chapter ) above? of @'ndak'nda and the Dhavala of Airasena. 7D. )n modern times, this %hisk broom is made of t'fts of %ool >called ra%oharana ? or peacock feathers >called pin'hi ?0 these are 'sed by mendicants of the Svetambara and Hi!ambara sects, respectively. 7E. -his %ork is not e.tant, b't the title Siddhivinis'aya >9Hetermination of Siddhahood,9 i.e., the attainment of moksa? indicates that it too dealt %ith the topic of strimoksa. =or a disc'ssion on the identity of this acarya Sivasvamin %ith the acarya Sivakoti, the a'thor of the Bhagavati-aradhana , see Premi >19DE, pp. EG(G"?. 7G. -his 5'otation is also fo'nd only in the Svetambara Brhat"alpa . -he tala-palamba , ho%ever, is mentioned in the >FapaniyaP? Bhagavati-aradhana >verse 117B? as an ill'stration to sho% that the %ord 9tala 9 stands not only for the palm tree b't also for all trees >shoots of %hich are also forbidden for monks?. Similarly, it is said, the %ord 9'ela 9 >clothes? in the compo'nd 9acelaka9 >lit., free from clothes? stands for other possessions as %ell that m'st be !iven 'p by a mendicant. See JS( ), p. "9. 7$. -he follo%in! fo'r verses as %ell as the verse be!innin! %ith the %ords 9ye yan na bh'ktibha2ah9 >see JE9? are called sangraha-aryas >collected verses? in the Svopa%navrtti and yet are co'nted as ori!inal verses >nos. 1"(1E and "#, respectively? in 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i+s edition. )n e.plainin! this he

notes >p. 1, n. 1? that in the man'scripts of the Strinirvanapra"arana the verses %ere not n'mbered at all, e.cept in one incomplete man'script %here only the last three verses %ere n'mbered respectively D7, D", and DB. *ss'min! therefore that the te.t ori!inally mi!ht have consisted of fifty(fo'r verses he decided to co'nt these five san!raha(aryas >n'mberin! them as 1"(1E and "#? also as the ori!inal verses of the Strinirvanapra"arana . ) have treated these five verses as 5'otations only, and hence the total n'mber of the Strinirvanapra"arana verses here is forty(nine instead of the fifty(fo'r / 1## / in his edition. )n this re!ard ) am follo%in! the earlier edition of the Strinirvanapra"arana >p'blished by 6'ni Jinavi2aya2i as reprinted in the Sa"atayana-&ya"arana , intro. app. )), pp. 171(17B?, %hich does not contain these five verses. 79. =or a Hi!ambara reply to this point, see Chapter ))) >JD$?. "#. See the )rava'anasara of @'ndak'nda, iii, 1G. "1. Compare this %ith the follo%in! passa!e from the Svetambara -'aranga-sutra , )), D, 1: 2e ni!!amthe tar'ne 2'!avam balavam appayamke thirasam!hayane se e!am vattham dhare22a, no bitiyam. >9)f a monk be yo'thf'l, yo'n!, stron!, healthy, and %ell set, he may %ear one robe, not t%o90 (alpasutra , Jacobi+s trans. 1$$B, p. 1DG.? Beca'se of the difference bet%een the t%o passa!es 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i >p. 1#", n. B? has s'!!ested that the present passa!e is not taken from the e.tant -'aranga-sutra b't can be traced to a non(Svetambara so'rce. -his is the famo's &i%ayodaya commentary by the Fapaniya *para2ita on the Bhagavati-aradhana of Sivakoti >%ho as noted above co'ld have been a member of the Fapaniya sect?. )n this commentary on verse B71 dealin! %ith the r'le of n'dity a 5'estioner asks: -'ara syapi dvitiyadhyayo Lo"avi'ayo nama, tasya . . . vatthesanae v'ttam: tattha 2e>P? se hirimane se!am vattham va dhare22a >Bhagavati-aradhana , p. E11?. -his sho%s that the Fapaniyas had a different recension of this canonical te.t and had interpreted the r'les pertainin! to clothes in a manner 5'ite different from that of the Svetambaras %ho advocated the 'se of clothes not as a concession to %eakness b't as a re5'irement for all Jaina mendicants. "7. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 71, n. 7? that this verse is missin! from t%o man'scripts and s'!!ests that as there is no commentary on it by Sakatayana it is probably a 5'otation from some 'nkno%n te.t. ;e !ives the follo%in! parallel passa!es from the Svetambara Sthananga-sutra : tihim thanehim vattham dhare22a, tam 2aha, hiripattiyam d'!'mchapattiyam parisahavattiyam >iii, ", 1G1?. )n this connection the e.planation !iven by the Fapaniya acarya *para2ita in his commentary on the Bhagavati-aradhana on the re5'irement of n'dity for a mendicant is %orth notin!. Commentin! on the verse >no. B71? that dealt %ith n'dity >a'ela"atva ?, *para2ita !ives a lon! disco'rse >in some forty lines? on the virt'es of n'dity and the defects inherent to %earin! robes. * 5'estioner, %ho co'ld be a proto(Svetambara, raises at this point a pertinent 5'estion as to %hy the script're directs a monk to seek robes and so forth >as 5'oted above in note "1? and ho% this command can be reconciled %ith the vo% of n'dity >evam s'tranirdiste cele acelata katham?. )n reply to this 5'estion *para2ita says: atrocyate, aryikanam a!ame +n'2natam vastram, karanapeksaya bhiks'nam(hriman ayo!yasariravayavo d'scarmabhilambamanabi2o va parisahasahane va +ksamah sa !rhnati. >9-he script're en2oins clothes for n'ns and for monks for the follo%in! reasons: a monk %ho is f'll of shame, or %hose body and limbs are not s'itable beca'se of !enital deformities, or one %ho is 'nable to bear the afflictions 3s'ch as cold4, takes clothes90 Bhagavati-aradhana , p. E17.? )t is note%orthy that *para2ita does not !ive any reason for en2oinin! clothes to n'ns, an omission that leaves room for the Hi!ambaras to 5'estion %omen+s ability to ass'me the !reat vo%s of the monks. *s for the concessions made to certain males, it m'st be noted that they r'n co'nter to the Hi!ambara r'les of mendicancy and hence are not

admissible to them. ) am informed that a person s'fferin! from !enital or other defects is not eli!ible to receive initiation into the Hi!ambara mendicant order, and sho'ld he develop them / 1#1 / s'bse5'ently he %ill be en2oined to ret'rn to the lo%er stat's of a layman. -his Hi!ambara position th's appears to be consistent %ith the position taken by the opponent in JBE. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that the Hi!ambara tradition has occasionally sho%n the ability to make concessions >s'b2ect to e.piations, etc.? 'nder diffic'lt political conditions. )n late medieval times, p'blic n'dity %as proscribed in areas r'led by 6'slims, makin! it diffic'lt for Hi!ambara monks to move freely. -he si.teenth(cent'ry commentator Sr'tasa!ara has left one record of a sit'ation %here the Hi!ambara monk Aasantakirti >of 'nkno%n date? of 6andapad'r!a >in modern :a2asthanP? allo%ed his monks an e.ceptional !arb or appearance >apavadavesa ?, namely, to cover themselves %ith a mat or a piece of cloth for the d'ration of their o'tin!s for meals and the like: kala' kila 6lecchadayo na!nam drstva 'padravam yatinam k'rvanti, tena 6andapad'r!e sri Aasantakirtina svamina caryadivelayam tattisadaradikena sariram acchadya p'nas tan m'ncatity 'padesah krtah samyaminam ity apavadavesah0 Satprabhrtadisangrahah , p. 71. Sr'tasa!ara, %hile reportin! this incident, does not fail to comment that s'ch an apavadavesa is nevertheless heretical >mithyavesa eva0 ibid.?. Pandit Premi >19DE, p. EE? has s'!!ested that this %as the be!innin! of the Bhattaraka tradition amon! the Hi!ambaras, a ne% !ro'p of resident >and clothed? 9monks9 %ho in medieval times presided over a lar!e n'mber of temples and libraries, remnants of %hose seats >called mathas and administered by the laymen of the ks'llaka rank? can still be fo'nd in parts of :a2asthan, 6aharashtra, and @arnataka. "". 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 1#", n. 1? a co'nterte.t in the Svetambara script're: kappai ni!!amthana va ni!!amthina va celacilimiliyam dharittae va pariharittae va0 Brhat"alpa , i. 1$. "B. Compare: mithyadarsanaviratipramadakasayayo!ah bandhahetavah0 $attvarthasutra , viii, 1. =or a disc'ssion on the nat're of these five ca'ses of bonda!e, see J)) , pp. 1DG(1D9. "D. -he %ords 9sape"sa 9 >5'alified? and 9nirape"sa 9 >'n5'alified or total? samyama >mendicant restraint, i.e., vo%s?, p'rportedly 'sed here to describe the sthavira"alpa >lit., Co'rse of the 8lders? and the %ina"alpa >lit., Co'rse of the Aictors?, respectively, do not ade5'ately e.press the precise distinctions bet%een the t%o co'rses of mendicancy as 'nderstood by the Fapaniyas. Both the Hi!ambaras and the Svetambaras accept these different co'rses, b't they disa!ree on the meanin! of the terms. *ccordin! to the Svetambaras, 2inakalpa is the co'rse of a monk %ho leads a life in the manner of the Jina 6ahavira, incl'din! the adoption of the practice of n'dity0 he is not bo'nd by the r'les of the ecclesiastical comm'nity. ;e is not obli!ated to abide by the r'les of con!re!ation or en!a!e in s'ch activities as preachin!. Ieadin! an isolated life >probably beca'se of his n'dity? is th's the ma2or characteristic of a 2inakalpa monk. -he sthavirakalpa, by contrast, is a co'rse %hich re5'ires that the mendicant %ear the prescribed n'mber of clothes >no more than three? and keep be!!in! bo%ls, the %hisk broom, and other s'ch si!ns of mendicancy. ;e is s'b2ect to the ecclesiastical la%s and m'st remain loyal and obedient to his spirit'al masters, the acaryas. Propa!ation of the -eachin! is one of his d'ties, and he is enco'ra!ed to initiate his o%n disciples and to impart the la% amon! the laity as %ell. Chile the Svetambaras th's 'phold the 2inakalpa as a le!itimate and even a s'perior mode of / 1#7 / mendicancy >since it %as practiced by 6ahavira himself?, they nevertheless believe that it is totally

'ns'itable and hence forbidden to %omen and also to the ma2ority of men, for %hom only the sthavirakalpa is recommended. K'dity is not an essential characteristic of mendicancy for them, and hence they believe that both co'rses are e5'ally capable of achievin! the !oal of moksa. -hey have f'rthermore maintained that the 2inakalpa came to an end %ith the death of the Aenerable Jamb' >see J7" and n. 77?, the last Jaina monk to have attained nirvana in the mendicant linea!e of 6ahavira, and that %hat s'rvives no% is only the sthavirakalpa. =or them the option of the 2inakalpa, or most important the practice of n'dity associated %ith it, is no lon!er available, and hence they 5'estion the le!itimacy of the c'rrent Hi!ambara order of monks. -he Hi!ambara definitions of these t%o terms, as can be e.pected, are strikin!ly different. =or the Hi!ambaras, n'dity is the essential characteristic of mendicancy, %itho't %hich a monk+s vo% of total nonpossession >apari!raha? is not complete. -herefore, in their tradition, monks of both 2inakalpa and sthavirakalpa co'rses m'st adopt n'dity. -he tr'e distinction bet%een the t%o is that a monk of the 2inakalpa order leads a solitary life %itho't belon!in! even formally to an ecclesiastical comm'nity0 he co'ld th's be described as an anchorite, en!a!ed in his o%n a'sterities and meditation. 6endicants of the sthavirakalpa order are distin!'ished by the fact that they live in a !ro'p directly 'nder the s'pervision of their acaryas and en!a!e in s'ch activities as the st'dy of the script're or preachin! the la% to the laity0 they are cenobites. -hey also believe that as a conse5'ence of the declinin! morality associated %ith the pancamakala, the 2inakalpa ended %ith the death of the Aenerable Jamb', b't they declare that it did not spell the end of monkhood, %hich of co'rse cannot be separated from the practice of total n'dity. -he Hi!ambaras th's claim that they are the tr'e follo%ers of the sthavirakalpa tradition, %hich has contin'ed 'ninterr'pted since the days of 6ahavira, and also that it may be e.pected to last 'ntil the very end of the pancamakala, an event that %ill not take place for some seventeen tho'sand years. Since there can be no mendicancy %itho't total n'dity, and since the latter is forbidden to a %oman, a 9n'n9 in the Hi!ambara tradition belon!s neither to the 2inakalpa nor to the shavirakalpa. ;er stat's in their tradition is that of an advanced lay%oman >'ttamasravika?, as pointed o't by @'ndak'nda >see Chapter ), JG(J$?. B't she is honored by the term 9aryika9 >noble lady?, as she has reached the hi!hest stat's available to a %oman, e5'ivalent to that of a Hi!ambara monk amon! men, and may therefore be conventionally said to belon! to the sthavirakalpa. *s for the Fapaniyas, it is evident from the te.t 'nder st'dy that they, like the Svetambaras, identified the practice of n'dity %ith the 2inakalpa only and approved of the stat's of the sthavirakalpa to clothed mendicants, %hether n'ns or monks. Probably they too considered the 2inakalpa to be s'perior to the other mode, since the 2inakalpa monks did not even ret'rn the !reetin!s of the sthavirakalpa monks as sho%n in JEG. -he ma2or difference bet%een the Svetambara and the Fapaniya seems to lie in the Fapaniya r'le that clothes may be allo%ed to men not as a re!'lar practice >as %as claimed by the Svetambaras, for %hich see Chapter A, J9? b't as an e.ception, applicable only to those %ho s'ffered from the three defects pointed o't in Sakatayana+s verse 1D. B't if the Fapaniyas, as indicated above >in J7"?, also believed that the 2inakalpa came to an end after the time of the Aenerable Jamb', then they %ill have no option b't to declare all men desiro's of becomin! / 1#" / mendicants as 9e.ceptional cases9 and consider their 'se of clothes not as a concession to %eakness b't as the only le!itimate practice. -his co'ld res'lt in removin! any essential difference that mi!ht have e.isted bet%een the monks and n'ns, as claimed by the Hi!ambaras, and render them e5'al1a position that they c'rrently en2oy, at least in theory, in the Svetambara tradition. =or f'rther details on the 2inakalpa and the sthavirakalpa in the Svetambara and the Hi!ambara traditions, see, respectively, -atia and @'mar >19$1, pp. B1(E9? and Jnanamati >19$7, pp. 1$E(1$9?.

"E. =or different varieties of these fasts, see JS( ))), p. B#D. "G. ) 'nderstand from Hi!ambara scholars that s'ch a person %ill cease to be a monk if he accepts the banda!es and %ill revert to the position of a layman. ;is case %ill be some%hat similar to the one described by Sr'tasa!ara as 5'oted above in note "7. "$. -his story of the monk 6r!adhva2a cannot be traced in e.tant Jaina literat're. =or a Hi!ambara response to this ar!'ment, see Chapter ))) >JD$?. "9. Compare: m'rccha pari!rahah0 $attvarthasutra , vii, 1G. 9Chat is m'rcchaP 6'rccha is activity relatin! to the ac5'isition or safe!'ardin! of possessions s'ch as the co%, the b'ffalo, 2e%els, pearls, and so on, and also in%ard tho'!hts like desire and so on. . .. )nfat'ation or attachment is at the root of all evils. )f a person has the idea +this is mine,+ he has to safe!'ard it. )n safe!'ardin! it, violence is bo'nd to res'lt. =or its sake he 'tters falsehood. ;e also commits theft and attempts cop'lation. *nd this res'lts in vario's kinds of pain and s'fferin! in the infernal re!ions90 Sarvarthasiddhi , vii, 1G, translated by S. *. Jain, p. 199. B#. &n the Jaina practice of vol'ntary death by fastin! called sallekhana, see J)) , pp. 77G(7"". B1. =or a disc'ssion on these t%o co'rses, %hich are differently described in the Svetambara script'res and in the &i%ayodaya commentary of the Fapaniya a'thor *para2ita >Bhagavati-aradhana , pp. "D7( "EG?, as -atia and @'mar >19$1, pp. E9(G$?0 see also Caillat >19ED, pp. D7(DD?. B7. )f by the term 92inakalpa9 in this passa!e the Fapaniya 'nderstands the practice of n'dity >in addition to other re5'irements?, then it %o'ld follo% that the vo% of n'dity co'ld not be administered to a boy of ei!ht and, as the follo%in! 5'otation states e.plicitly, to anyone 'nder the a!e of thirty. ) am 'na%are of a Hi!ambara te.t that stip'lates the minim'm a!e re5'irement of a person eli!ible to ass'me the vo% of n'dity. ) 'nderstand from my informants that it is c'stomary to !ive this initiation only to men in their advanced a!e and only to those %ho have spent years practicin! the an'vratas and other vo%s of a layman. *s a r'le, only a ks'llaka or an ailaka %o'ld be allo%ed to become a Hi!ambara monk, and therefore the c'stom of child initiation >baladi"sa ? that openly prevailed amon! the Svetambaras in medieval times %as totally 'nkno%n amon! them. =or details on this practice, see $he Life of .ema'andra >BVhler, 1$99?. B". -his verse, the so'rce of %hich cannot be traced and the meanin! of %hich is obsc're, merits comparison %ith the follo%in! verse in the Gommatasara >and its ;indi commentary?, %hich seems to preserve certain ancient r'les applicable to a mendicant of the 2inakalpa in the Hi!ambara tradition: tisam vaso 2amme, vasap'dhattam kh' titthayaram'le, paccakkhanam padhido, sam2h'nad'!a'yaviharo. / 1#B / >9Commentary: * person %ho is thirty years old and has after his initiation as a monk spent ei!ht years in the st'dy of the ninth book of the )urva 'nder a -irthankara comes to possess the cond'ct called pariharavisuddhi . S'ch a person travels every day, that is, he is not s'b2ect to the r'les of mendicant retreat d'rin! the rainy season and yet remains p're in his cond'ct90 Gommatasara 2Jiva"anda ?, verse BG"?. BB. ) have been 'nable to find a script'ral a'thority to s'pport the Fapaniya statement that an ei!ht( year(old person may attain moksa. )t is, ho%ever, a!reed by the Hi!ambara that only a person over the a!e of ei!ht may become eli!ible to receive the an'vratas of the laity. >!abbhado nikkhamtapadhamasamayappah'di atthavasses' !ades' sam2ama!!ahanappao!o hodi, hettha na hodi

tti eso bhavattho0 5'oted in JS( >from the Dhavala ?, )A, p. 1B1.? Compare in this conte.t the B'ddhist belief that a boy m'st be at least ei!ht years of a!e to attain *rhatship. -he Dhammapada--ttha"atha >)), p. 7B$0 B'rlin!ame, 1971? contains the story of an ei!ht(year(old boy named Samkicca %ho attained *rhatship d'rin! his ordination as a novice >samanera ?. *ltho'!h ) am 'na%are of a similar story amon! the Jainas, the tradition is 'nanimo's that Prabhasa >%hom the Hi!ambaras claim to be a naked monk?, the yo'n!est of 6ahavira+s eleven !anadharas, %as only t%enty(fo'r %hen he attained *rhatship. >See J)) , p. BB.? *ccordin!ly, the 9thirty(year(old9 a!e re5'irement for becomin! a naked monk as stated above in note B" %as not reco!ni,ed in ancient times1or, more probably, the a!e re5'irement applied only for 'ndertakin! additional a'sterities allo%ed to a >naked? monk %ho had chosen the mode of 2inakalpa. BD. )n the Hi!ambara comm'nity the 5'estion of monks ret'rnin! the !reetin!s of the n'ns does not arise, as the latter, bein! only advanced lay%omen, %ill not be treated as e5'als of the monks. )n the Fapaniya and the Svetambara comm'nities they sho'ld be treated as e5'als, yet the monks there do not ret'rn the !reetin!s of their n'ns. -he Fapaniya *para2ita in his &i%ayodaya commentary !ives the follo%in! reasons for the inferiority of the n'ns and the s'periority of monks over them: pancamahavratadharinyas cirapravra2itaya +pi 2yestho bhavaty adh'na pravra2itah p'man. ity esa saptamah sthitikalpah p'r'sa2yesthatvam. p'r'satvam namopakaram raksam ca kart'm samarthah. p'r'sapranitas ca dharma iti tasya 2yesthata. tatah sarvabhih samyatabhih vinayah kartavyo viratasya. yena ca striyo la!hvyah, paraprarthaniyah, pararakso>a?peksinyah, na tatha p'mamsa iti ca p'r'sa2yesthatvam. >9* man %ho reno'nces the ho'sehold life only today is senior to a n'n %ho keeps the five mahavratas and has reno'nced the ho'sehold life a lon! time a!o. . .. 6anhood means the ability to protect. 6oreover the dharma is ta'!ht by a man 3i.e., the -irthankaras are men only4 and th's his s'periority. -herefore it is the d'ty of all n'ns to respect a monk. Comen are inferior beca'se they are ob2ects of men+s l'st and re5'ire protection from others, b't not so a man0 this is the reason for his s'periority90 Bhagavati-aradhana , p. E1B.? )t %ill be noticed that the reasons provided are primarily of a social nat're and reflect the social attit'des prevalent in )ndia in ancient times. *para2ita makes no reference to the physiolo!ical disabilities stressed by the Hi!ambara @'ndak'nda in his Sutraprabhrta . =or this reson the Fapaniya >and the Svetambara? Jaina r'le abo't !reetin!s of monks by the n'ns bears comparison %ith the r'les laid do%n by the B'ddha for the initiation of %omen into his comm'nity of n'ns >bhiks'ni(san!ha?, for %hich see the )ntrod'ction >JB1(B7, n. ""?. / 1#D / BE. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 7D, n. D? that a complete folio is missin! at this point and that he has reconstr'cted these t%o verses >7B and 7Dabc? from the Svopa%navrtti . BG. -his verse appears as no. "# of the Strinirvanapra"arana in 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i+s edition. See note 7$ above. ) have also reordered the se5'ence of the te.t by placin! this verse ahead of verse 7Dd to maintain the contin'ity of ar!'ment pertainin! to the r'les of !reetin!. B$. -his 5'otation also appears in the ,yaya"umuda'andra 0 see Chapter ))) >JGE?. B9. Baladeva >or balabhadra ?, narayana >or vasudeva ?, and pratinarayana >or prativasudeva ? are three Jaina literary types to!ether %ith cakravartins >'niversal monarchs? and -irthankaras and are called the !reat ill'strio's bein!s >sala"apurusas ?. * baladeva is the elder brother and companion of a narayana. -he narayana is a hero, the chief destroyer of the villain called pratinarayana. -he Jaina P'ranas narrate the e.ploits of these !reat Jaina laymen %ho periodically appear %hen a cakravartin is not r'lin! the earth. -hese three cate!ories are modeled on the Brahmanical epic and P'ranic heroes, namely, :ama >of the !amayana ? and Balarama >of the ahabharata-.arivamsaparva ?, Iaksmana,

the brother of :ama, and @rsna, the brother of Balarama, and :avana and Jarasandha, the chief villains of the t%o epics, respectively. =or details on these ill'strio's Jaina heroes, see ;elen Johnson+s translation >19E7? of the $risastisala"apurusa'aritra of ;emacandra. D#. -he Jaina P'ranas have maintained that @rsna and Iaksmana as %ell as :avana and Jarasandha %ere reborn, as a res'lt of the violence they perpetrated, in the fo'rth hell. -hey are all destined to be reborn as h'man bein!s in their ne.t life and, havin! reno'nced the %orld in the manner of the Jaina monks, %ill attain moksa in that very life. See $risastisala"apurusa'aritra , vol. v. D1. *ll Jainas believe that of the t%enty(fo'r Jinas of o'r time, the first >:sabha?, the t%elfth >Aas'p'2ya?, the t%enty(second >Kemi?, and the t%enty(fo'rth >6ahavira? attained nirvana respectively at 6o'nt @ailasa, Campa >in Bihar?, U22ayanta >also called <iranar in <'2arat?, and Pava >in Bihar?. -he remainin! t%enty attained the nirvana from the holy 6o'nt Sammeta >called Parasnath ;ills? near the city of Patna in Bihar. :a2a!rha %as the ancient capital of 6a!adha %here 6ahavira preached his first sermon after becomin! the Jina. =or details on these pil!rima!e sites sacred to both the Hi!ambaras and the Svetambaras, see the &ividhatirtha"alpa by the fo'rteenth(cent'ry Jinaprabhas'ri and also Jain >19GB?. D7. -he identity of :amaka>'P?lya is not kno%n. Probably the a'thor has in mind some holy sprin!s, called Sitak'nda, or :amak'nda, %hich are located at vario's ;ind' pil!rima!e spots. D". Si. confi!'rations >samsthanas? refer to the physical conditions or str'ct'res of the h'man body: >1? perfectly symmetrical body >sama'aturasra-samsthana ?, meanin! symmetry of both the 'pper and lo%er parts of the body0 >7? 'pper body symmetry >nyagrodhaparimandala-samsthana ?0 >"? lo%er body symmetry >svatisamsthana ?0 >B? h'nchback >"ub%a ?0 >D? d%arf >vamana ?0 >E? deformed >hunda ?. -he heavenly bein!s have only the first and the hell bein!s only the last samsthana, %hereas h'mans and animals can have any of the si.. See also Chapter A) >J$D and n. B$?. DB. Brahmi and S'ndari %ere t%o da'!hters of the first -irthankara :sabha, %ho became n'ns %itho't enterin! the ho'sehold life. :a2imati %as the fiancWe of / 1#E / the t%enty(second -irthankara, Kemi0 on the eve of their %eddin!, her fiancW reno'nced the %orld, and :a2imati follo%ed him into mendicancy. Candana %as the head of an order of thirty(si. tho'sand n'ns in the mendicant order of 6ahavira >see 6ehta, 19G#(19G7, ), p. 7BE?. )t is to be noted that the Fapaniyas, %hile mentionin! the names of several %omen appearin! in the P'ranic literat're, have omitted the name of -irthankara 6alli, considered the only female Jina by the Svetambaras. ;er story appears in the Svetambara canonical te.t ,ayadhamma"ahao , %hich is re2ected by the Hi!ambaras, %ho declare 6alli to be a male Jina >see )ntrod'ction, J7B?. -he omission here co'ld si!nify that her story in the e.tant Svetambara canon %as not accepted as a'thentic in the Fapaniya tradition. See also Chapters )A >J1"? and A) >JGG, n. "$?. DD. Unlike her 'ltimate s'icide in the !amayana >of Aalmiki?, in the Jaina version of the epic, Sita, the %ife of the :ama, event'ally becomes a Jaina n'n. See $risastisala"apurusa'aritra , iv, 1#. DE. Satyabhama, the %ife of @rsna, also became a Jaina n'n accordin! to the Jaina .arivamsa-purana : :'kmini Satyabhamadya mahadevyo +sta sasn'sah, labdhan'2na ;areh stribhih sapatnibhih pravavra2'h >chap. E1, verse B#?. DG. Both traditions a!ree that a person %ho is in possession of samya!darsana >the ri!ht vie%? %ill not be reborn into a female body, %hether in the h'man or the deva realms. Chile it is admitted that s'ch rebirth mi!ht be possible for the upasama-samyagdrsti , %hose %ron! vie% >mithyadarsana? is only

temporarily s'ppressed, it is declared absol'tely impossible for the "sayi"a-samyagdrsti , %hose %ron! vie% has been permanently obliterated. )n either case, ho%ever, if a person dies %hile still endo%ed %ith samya!darsana, he or she %ill not be reborn as a female. *ccordin! to this r'le, therefore, at the time of their birth, all %omen %o'ld have to be considered as havin! %ron! vie%s, altho'!h this %o'ld not precl'de them from developin! the samya!darsana d'rin! their lifetimes. -he tradition is 'nanimo's in declarin! that the s'rest %ay to avoid rebirth as a female is to be in possession of samya!darsana at the time of death. By this same r'le, even %omen %ho are destined to become the mothers of the -irthankaras %o'ld have to be considered mithyadrstis at the time of their conception as a female embryo. D$. -he debate here foc'ses on the 5'estion of %hether a person on the second !'nasthana, the sasvada( samya!drsti1%ho has left behind the fo'rth sta!e of samya!drsti and is h'rtlin! ine.orably to%ard the lo%er sta!e, the mithyadrsti1or the person on the third sta!e, the samya!mithyadrsti1%ho has left the mithyadrsti sta!e and is on the transition sta!e to samya!drsti1%o'ld be reborn as a %oman. -he disc'ssant declares that the second !'nasthana is, in fact, a state of %ron! vie%, and a person on that level sho'ld be treated identically to the one on the first !'nasthana, the mithyadrsti. -he third !'nasthana is, ho%ever, a state %here the ri!ht vie% is not yet firm0 even so s'ch a person can be re!arded as if he %ere a samya!drsti. ;ence, a person on the second !'nasthana %o'ld be reborn as a female, %hile a person on the third %o'ld not. D9. -his compares %ell %ith the follo%in! Hi!ambara te.t: samya!darsanas'ddha narakatiryannap'msakastritvani, d'sk'lavikrtaipay'rdaridratam. ca vra2anti napy avratikah. >9-hose %ho are p're on acco'nt of the ri!ht vie%, even if they are %itho't the vo%s of a layman, %ill not be reborn in the hells, in animal e.istences, or / 1#G / as hermaphrodites, or as females0 nor %ill they be born %ith deformed bodies, nor in families that are poor or lo%90 !atna"arandasrava"a'ara , verse "#.? E#. =or these Jaina desi!nations for vario's 'nits of time, see JS( ), p. 71G. E1. -his verse is also 5'oted in the ,yaya"umuda'andra 0 see Chapter ))) >J7G?. E7. -his is one more occasion %here one do'bts that the opponent here is a Hi!ambara. *s %ill be seen belo%, the Hi!ambara a'thor Prabhacandra re2ects this evidence as 'na'thentic. See Chapter ))) >J$1?. E". Both Jaina sects a!ree that there is no necessary correlation bet%een the biolo!ical !ender >called linga or dravyaveda ? of a person and that person+s se.'al desires, or libido >called bhavaveda or only veda ?. -he Jainas have classified se.'al desire into three types, %hich are not physical b't mental states: >1? striveda , the desire of a female to mate %ith a male0 >7? pumveda , the desire of a male to mate %ith a female0 and >"? napumsa"aveda , the desire of a hermaphrodite to mate %ith another hermaphrodite. *t one e.treme, accordin! to the Jaina doctrine of karma, the heavenly bein!s, %ho are distin!'ished only as male or female, have only the libido appropriate to their !ender. *t the other e.treme, all deni,ens of hell are only hermaphrodites and may have the hermaphroditic libido only. ;'mans and animals, ho%ever, can be born %ith any one of the three biolo!ical !enders, %hich they %ill retain for the d'ration of their lifetime, b't their libidos are not fi.ed. -hey may e.perience, at different times, any of the three libidos, irrespective of their physical !ender. Beca'se of this doctrine, the opponent claims that the %ord 9stri9 >%oman? in this passa!e refers to a man >p'r'sa? at the moment of his e.periencin! the female libido >striveda?, %ho can therefore be called, psycholo!ically, a 9%oman9 altho'!h biolo!ically he is a man. *s %ill be seen belo%, the Fapaniya, or at least

Sakatayana, the a'thor of this te.t, seems to hold a vie% that is not shared by the mainstream Jaina tradition1that one+s libido cannot be contrary to one+s biolo!ical !ender. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this problem, see Chapter A) >J7(G?. EB. #itta-vi"ara: 'itta is a synonym for manas >mind?. -he physical basis of manas consists of s'btle atoms of matter and is therefore called dravya-manas . -he nonphysical basis of manas, ho%ever, thro'!h %hich the so'l e.periences happiness or 'nhappiness, is a fac'lty of the so'l itself and is called the internal mind >bhava-manas ?. -he citta(vikara in this passa!e %o'ld therefore indicate the modification of the so'l that ind'ces se.'al desire. ED. )alya : *ccordin! to the Jaina doctrine of karma, a %oman can contin'e to be reborn as a female for from three to nine h'ndred palyas1an immense len!th of time stretchin! into millions of years. -he Hi!ambara is attemptin! to sho% here that beca'se no physical body can possibly last this lon!, the %ord 9female9 in this passa!e cannot refer to a %oman+s body b't to the internal se.'al feelin!. EE. *ltho'!h Siddhahood is a state achieved after the final death of an *rhat, the %ord here refers to the thirteenth !'nasthana, %here that *rhat is still alive. EG. -he ninth !'nasthana can be characteri,ed by either s'ppression >'pasama? or destr'ction >ksaya?. -he destr'ction of all three types of se.'al desire1namely, striveda, p'mveda, and nap'msakaveda1 alon! %ith the other s'btle passions takes place only %hen the aspirant enters the path leadin! to destr'ction. ;ence, attainment of this path, %here !ross passions are destroyed, en!enders a state of nonretro!ression. E$. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. "E, n. B? that an entire folio is missin! at this / 1#$ / point and that he has reconstr'cted the portion %hich appears here in an!le brackets >i.e., verses B7 and B"?. E9. 6ar!ana refers to a Jaina method of e.amination of the states of the so'l by foc'sin! on the follo%in! fo'rteen aspects d'rin! its state of embodiment: destiny, that is, birth >gati ?, senses >indriya ?, body >"aya ?, activity >yo!a?, se.'al desire >veda?, passions >kasaya?, co!nition >%nana ?, restraint >samyama ?, perception >darsana ?, mental colorin!s >lesya ?, the capacity to attain moksa >bhavyatva ?, ri!ht vie% >samya"tva ?, mental fac'lties >sam%na ?, and intake of food >ahara ?. )n e.aminin! these aspects, the te.ts ask s'ch 5'estions as, %hich !'nasthanas are possible for a bein! in a partic'lar birthP -he ans%er here, for e.ample, is that the bein!s born in hell and heaven can have only the first fo'r !'nasthanas, as they are 'nable to ass'me any of the restraints. )n the animal births, it is possible to attain even the fifth !'nasthana. *ll fo'rteen !'nasthanas are possible, ho%ever, for h'man bein!s. -his same analytical method is employed in e.aminin! the remainin! thirteen mar!anas. G#. -his refers to the %nanavaraniya >the kno%led!e(obsc'rin!? and the darsanavaraniya >the perception(obsc'rin!? karmas. See J)) , p. 11D. G1. -hese te.ts can be compared %ith the follo%in! s'tras of the Hi!ambara Sat"handagama : man'ssa coddass' !'natthanes' atti micchaitthi . . . a2o!ikevalitti >i, 1, s'tra 7G?0 man'sinis' micchaitthi( sasanasammaitthitthane siya pa22attiyao siya apa22attiyao >s'tra 97?0 sammamicchaitthi( asam2adasammaitthisam2a(dasam2adatthane niyama pa22attiyao >s'tra 9"?0 5'oted in JS( ))), p. 7$D. / 1#9 /

Cha1ter III The !yayakumuda"andra o& the *i$ambara A,ar'a Prabha,andra 2,. #86/"6:53
Introd-,tion
>i? -he ne.t te.t in the debate on strimoksa is dra%n from the concl'din! portion of the ,yaya"umuda'andra >lit., -he 6oon 3-hat Ca'ses4 the 3Ki!ht4 Iot's of Io!ic 3to Bloom4? of the Hi!ambara *carya Prabhacandra and is based on the edition by 6ahendra @'mar Kyayacarya, pp. $ED( $G$. -he ,yaya"umuda'andra , altho'!h it has the ma!nit'de of an independent %ork, is technically called a commentary >alan"ara 0 lit., an ornament? on the Laghiyastraya and its vivrti >lit., an e.position? by the Hi!ambara lo!ician *kalanka >c. EB#(E$#?. -he Laghiyastraya , as the title indicates, is a collection of three short man'als. -hese are treatises on Jaina lo!ic >nyaya ? called )ramanapravesa, ,ayapravesa , and )rava'anapravesa , comprisin! a total of ei!hty(ei!ht verses. -hese verses and their vivrtis serve as the table of contents for Prabhacandra+s %ork. ;e is also the a'thor of an earlier %ork called )rameya"amalamarttanda >lit., -he S'n 3-hat Ca'ses4 the 3Hay4 Iot's of the @no%ables 3to Bloom4?, also edited by 6ahendra @'mar Kyayacarya, %here a shorter version of this debate appears on pp. "7$(""B. -he editor in his critical introd'ction to the ,yaya"umuda'andra has e.amined all available evidence and has proposed the dates 9$#(1#ED for the a'thor of these t%o %orks. >ii? Prabhacandra is th's separated from @'ndak'nda by more than seven h'ndred years. Stran!e as it may seem, there is d'rin! this lon! period of time not a sin!le Hi!ambara %ork devoted to strimoksa1 either to re2ect it on the basis of ar!'ments va!'ely foreshado%ed in the Suttapahuda >Skt. / 11# / Sutraprabhrta ? of @'ndak'nda or to disp'te its validity as claimed in the *apaniya-tantra mentioned above >Chapter )), JB?. B't the controversy %as certainly kno%n to the Hi!ambaras, as is evident from several passa!es in the Dhavala commentary of the acarya Airasena >c. $##? on the Sat"handagamasutra >c. 1D#?. Kotable in this conte.t are the t%o s'tras >man'sinis' micchaitthi( sasanasammaitthitthane siya apa22attiyao 3i, 9740 sammamicchaitthi ( asam2adasammaitthi ( sam2adasam2ada ( sam2adatthane niyama pa22attiyao 3i, 9"4? that cate!orically affirm thro'!h the %ord 9sam%adatthana 9 >samyatasthana , i.e., the !'nasthana sta!es from the si.th to the fo'rteenth a %oman+s >man'sini? ability to attain moksa, contrary to the Hi!ambara do!ma that %omen may not !o beyond the fifth !'nasthana, the sta!e of the laity. Airasena+s ans%ers to the hypothetical 5'estions raised in his commentary on these t%o s'tras may be reprod'ced here. -hey not only prove his ac5'aintance %ith the controversy b't also provide, probably for the first time, the script'ral a'thority for the s'bse5'ent Hi!ambara a'thors like Prabhacandra: 3 : -his script're s'pports the moksa of a person %ho is of female !ender 3dravya-stri , i.e., a %oman4. - : Kot so. Beca'se of their clothes %omen can reach 'p to the fifth !'nasthana only0 the mendicant vo%s are not available to them. 3 : Chat ob2ection can there be in allo%in! those %ith clothes the possibility of mentally >bhava ? ass'min! the mendicant vo%sP - : -hat is not possible, since s'ch internal mendicancy is invariably inconsistent %ith the

donnin! of clothes. 3 : ;o% do yo' then reconcile yo'r position %ith the s'tra te.t 3no. 9"4 %hich says that all fo'rteen !'nasthanas are possible for a %omanP - : -he %ord 9man'sini9 in the s'tra means a man %ho is characteri,ed as psycholo!ically female >bhavastrivisista-manusya ?0 he may be called a %oman beca'se he e.periences the female libido >striveda?. 3 : B't libido does not e.ist beyond the ninth !'nasthana, %hile the s'tra is talkin! abo't fo'rteen !'nasthanas, and hence yo'r interpretation sho'ld not apply. - : Kot necessarily, since in this conte.t libido is not the most important factor b't birth as a h'man bein! >manusya-gati ?, and that aspect is not destroyed earlier 3than the end of the fo'rteenth !'nasthana4. 3 : )n that case, %hy characteri,e the h'man bein! in this s'tra as e.periencin! a partic'lar libidoP - : 8ven %hen a partic'lar 5'alifier is inapplicable beyond a certain sta!e 3i.e., the ad2ective 9%ith libido9 cannot be applied beyond the ninth !'nasthana4, one may yet 'onventionally say that all fo'rteen !'nasthanas are available to h'man bein!s 3and th's the s'tra is consistent %ith the position that only men !o beyond the fifth !'nasthana4. 3asmad evarsad dravyastrinam nivrttih siddhyed iti cet, na, savasatvad apratyakhyana!'nasthitanam samyaman'papatteh. bhavasamyamas tasam / 111 / savasasam apy avir'ddha iti cet, na tasam bhavasamyamo +sti, bhavasamyamavinabhavivastrady'padananyathan'papatteh. katham p'nas tas' cat'rdasa !'nasthanani, iti cet, na, bhavastrivisistaman'sya!ata' tatsattvavirodhat. bhavavedo badarakasayan nopary astiti na tatra cat'rdasa!'nasthananam sambhava iti cet, na, atra vedasya pradhanyabhavat, !atis t' pradhana na sarad vinasyati. vedavisesanayam !ata' na tani sambhavantiti cet, na, vinaste +pi visesane 'pacarena tadvyapadesam adadhanaman'sya!ata' tatsattvavirodhat. 3Dhavala , i, s'tras 97(9", 5'oted in JS( ))), p. D9G0 see also Satprarupanasutra , pp. E7(E".4 *s Airasena is the first kno%n a'thor to make s'ch a prono'ncement on this topic, it is not possible to ascertain %hether he %as merely presentin! here the traditional Hi!ambara e.e!esis on these t%o ancient s'tras or offerin! his o%n interpretations to co'nter the ne%ly developin! heresy of strinirvana as propo'nded in the *apaniya-tantra 5'oted by ;aribhadra >c. GD#0 see Chapter )), iv?. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that even the Hi!ambaras have not fo'nd it possible to accept this interpretation %itho't some reservation. )n the 19B#s %hen the Dhavala commentary %as p'blished for the first time, there %as a faction amon! the Hi!ambara pandits and monks that fo'nd Airasena+s interpretation of this partic'lar s'tra 'nsatisfactory. -hey had even 'r!ed that the %ord 9sam2ada9 be deleted from the Sat"handagama-sutra , for it seemed to them to s'pport strimoksa and hence %as probably a tendentio's interpolation committed by a non(Hi!ambara scribe. =or this len!thy debate >three vol'mes in ;indi? see the Digambara-Jaina-Siddhanta-Darpana , edited by the leadin! pandit :amprasad Sastri >19BB(19BE?. Since Airasena >c. G97($D"? and the Fapaniya a'thor Sakatayana >c. $1B($EG? are near contemporaries, it is diffic'lt to assert that the latter had access to these %ords of the Dhavala . B't there is no do'bt

that in his len!thy rep'diation >see Chapter ), J9G(1#$? of the 'se of the secondary meanin! of the %ord 9stri9 >in the sense of 9a man9 in the place of its primary meanin! of 9a %oman9?, Sakatayana %as respondin! precisely to this kind of attempt of his opponents to deny script'ral s'pport for strinirvana. *ltho'!h the Fapaniyas declined after his time, the controversy on strinirvana came to occ'py the central sta!e in the sectarian disp'tes bet%een the Svetambaras and the Hi!ambaras, challen!in! the latter to respond to the ar!'ments contained in the Strinirvanapra"arana . *nother h'ndred years %ere to pass before a forcef'l Hi!ambara rep'diation of this %ork %o'ld emer!e in the ,yaya"umuda'andra of the lo!ician Prabhacandra. >iii? 8ven a cas'al readin! of the section dealin! %ith the debate on strimoksa in the ,yaya"umuda'andra %ill sho% that Prabhacandra %as / 117 / 'sin! the Strinirvanapra"arana %ith its commentary as the primary tar!et for his scholarly reb'ttal. -%o of his verse 5'otations >see J7E and J7G? can be directly traced to the Strinirvanapra"arana , and 5'ite a fe% half(lines of this te.t form part of his prose. ;e also borro%s heavily from the te.t of the Svopa%navrtti in preparin! the prima facie vie% >the purvapa"sa 0 see J1(7G?, %itho't of co'rse mentionin! even once the name Sakatayana and his Fapaniya sect or the te.t that he is committed to ref'te point by point in the remainder of his %ork >J7$(GD?. &nly once does he refer to the opponent by name as Sitambara >i.e., the Svetambara0 see J"9?(a s're indication that by his time the Svetambaras had so appropriated the Fapaniya position that the latter had lost its individ'al identity. Prabhacandra in the co'rse of his ref'tation introd'ces some ne% e.amples and several novel ar!'ments that had either escaped the notice of Sakatayana or had not yet been presented by anyone else. ;e is probably the first to provide the e.ample >udaharana ? of the hermaphrodite >nap'msaka?, a necessary component of the ar!'ment %itho't %hich the lo!ical statement >prayo!a0 see J1? concernin! a %oman+s inability to attain moksa %o'ld not have been complete. )t proved to be a valid e.ample( con!enital hermaphrodites are forbidden mendicant initiation amon! the Hi!ambaras and the Svetambaras(and %as th's an acceptable e.ample to both sides. &ne can detect a similar ori!inality in his ans%er to the persistent ob2ection of the Fapaniya a'thor that there %as no invariable concomitance >vyapti? bet%een a %oman+s inability to !o to the seventh hell, or to ac5'ire yo!ic po%ers >labdhis? and so forth, and her attainin! moksa. Prabhacandra clearly sa% the fallacy in the ar!'ment of concomitance based on the relationship of ca'sality >"arya-"arana ? or that of pervasion >vyapya-vyapa"a ? and came 'p %ith the novel idea of the gamya-gama"a-sambandha >see J"E? by %hich it co'ld be ar!'ed that a %oman+s inability to attain moksa can be lo!ically implied by her inability to be reborn in the seventh hell. ;is responses to the opponent+s claim that the n'n+s clothes are similar to the %hisk broom >ra2oharana? of a naked monk >and hence not a possession?, or to the comparison of the n'n+s clothes to the clothes thro%n on the head of a naked monk >a proof of her nonattachment?, are e5'ally in!enio's. 6oreover, he sho'ld be credited for e.aminin! in detail the nat're of shame or bashf'lness >la%%a 0 see JEB(EG?, %hich %as admitted even by the Fapaniya and the Svetambara as the real reason for denyin! the vo% of n'dity to %omen. =or the Hi!ambaras, la22a is invariably associated %ith se.'al desire and, as is evident from the statements of @'ndak'nda >Chapter ), JG($?, it is essentially connected %ith a %oman+s biolo!ical condition incl'din! the menstr'al flo%. Prabhacandra stron!ly artic'lates / 11" /

this pec'liar Hi!ambara perception of the female se. and ar!'es that clothes are a s're proof of a %oman+s con!enital inability to eradicate se.'al passion, that is, to become vitaraga >see JEG?, a prere5'isite for attainin! moksa. >iv? Unfort'nately Prabhacandra does not respond to all the ar!'ments raised by the Fapaniya a'thor. &ne %o'ld have liked to find an ans%er, for e.ample, to the 5'estion %hether the 2inakalpa mode of mendicancy can be allo%ed for an ei!ht(year(old boy >see Chapter )), JDG?. Prabhacandra does not even 'se the terms 92inakalpa9 and 9sthavirakalpa90 instead he employs a sin!le e.pression, namely a'elasamyama >restraint %itho't clothes?, to cover both modes of mendicancy and calls the 9alternative9 mode, namely sa'ela-samyama >restraint %ith clothes0 JE$?, fit only for the laity in the traditional Hi!ambara manner. 85'ally disappointin! is his silence over the interpretation of the script'ral passa!es 5'oted by Sakatayana in defense of strinirvana. &nly once does Prabhacandra cate!orically declare a certain passa!e >%hich !ives the ma.im'm n'mber of men, %omen, and hermaphrodites that may attain moksa at a !iven moment? as ina'thentic >see J$1? and th's 'nacceptable to the Hi!ambaras. )t sho'ld be noted that in Sakatayana+s %ork the opponent does not re2ect that te.t b't strives only to prove that the term 9%oman9 there %as 'sed to describe metaphorically a man %ho had e.perienced the female libido. Sakatayana ref'tes this interpretation at !reat len!th >see Chapter )), J9E(1#$? by sho%in! ho% abs'rd it is to apply the secondary meanin! %hen the primary meanin! is available and ho% especially inappropriate it is in the present conte.t. Prabhacandra co'ld have chosen to accept the script'ral passa!e and ar!'e a!ainst Sakatayana, b't he simply i!nores the entire disc'ssion >abo't the %ord and its meanin!s? as if it %ere irrelevant to the debate on strinirvana. *s pointed o't earlier, Sakatayana %as merely follo%in! the lead s'pplied by Airasena, the a'thor of the Dhavala , %ho had applied precisely this secondary meanin! to the %ord 9man'sini.9 Prabhacandra, for %hatever reasons, chooses not to resort to this manner of interpretation b't instead finds a more s'itable passa!e >see J$7? that 5'ite effortlessly conforms to the Hi!ambara vie%. )t %o'ld not be an e.a!!eration to say that by %ritin! the )rameya"amalamarttanda and the ,yaya"umuda'andra he s'cceeded in s'pplantin! Airasena as the a'thoritative spokesman for the Hi!ambara sect. *ll s'bse5'ent Svetambara %riters have treated him as the most formidable rival and the seventeenth(cent'ry a'thor 6e!havi2aya >see Chapter A), J97? even condemns his t%o %orks as the forked ton!'es of the deadly Hi!ambara snake. / 11B / >v? 6y translation corresponds to the te.t of the Strim'ktivada chapter of the ,yaya"umuda'andra , edited by Pandit 6. @. Kyayacarya >19B1?, pt. )), pp. $ED($G$. -he Sanskrit te.t is reprod'ced in the *ppendi..

Tran%lationH The *ebate on the +o.%a o& 0omen

J1 3Hi!ambara:4 6oksa havin! the characteristics 3of the =o'r )nfinities, kno%led!e, perception, bliss, and ener!y4314 is possible only for men and not for %omen. -his is beca'se, like the hermaphrodite, she is 'nfit for it and beca'se of the impossibility of establishin! any proof for the e.istence of that moksa. J7 3Fapaniya:4374 &b2ection. -he follo%in! syllo!ism establishes it: -here is nirvana for %omen0 beca'se all the necessary conditions 3for moksa4 are fo'nd there 3lit., there is no lack of the appropriate conditions40 as in the case of men.3"4

-he conditions for attainin! nirvana are the -hree Je%els, as described in the aphorism: 9:i!ht vie%, ri!ht kno%led!e, and ri!ht cond'ct constit'te the path to moksa9 3$attvarthasutra , i, 14, and those are fo'nd in %omen. :i!ht vie% is faith 3of the sort4 9it is e.actly like that9 re!ardin! the e.istents pointed o't by the &mniscient Bein!. :i!ht kno%led!e is the 'nderstandin! of those e.istents as they tr'ly are. :i!ht cond'ct is the appropriate practice of the restraints laid do%n 3by the &mniscient &ne4. -hese are the -hree Je%els.3B4 Since all three are fo'nd in %omen, it proves that they are capable of 3attainin!4 moksa, %hich is characteri,ed as a total emancipation from all karmas. -his is beca'se there is no opposition in any manner %hatsoever bet%een bein! %omen and the -hree Je%els, %hereby one co'ld disprove their capacity for salvation 3lit., that the totality of conditions is not available4. J" 3Hi!ambara:4 Ce maintain that %omen are 3inherently4 in opposition to 3the perfection of4 the -hree Je%els, beca'se they are different from men, as are the !ods, 3animals, and the deni,ens of hell, %ho also are incapable of attainin! moksa4. )t is %ell kno%n that heavenly bein!s, hell bein!s, animals, and men born in the paradise realms >bho!abh'mi? are inherently opposed to the -hree Je%els, beca'se they are !ods, and so forth. )n the same manner, bein! a %oman is itself in opposition to 3the perfection of4 the -hree Je%els. JB 3Fapaniya:4 Fo'r claim is not %ell considered, since the ins'fficiency of those conditions that are re5'ired to attain moksa in one 3bein!, i.e., heavenly bein!s, etc.4 does not a'tomatically apply to another 3i.e., / 11D / %omen4. ;ence, ho% can yo' s'pport 3this claim that4 there is opposition 3bet%een a %oman and moksa4 merely beca'se of the absence 3of it in the heavenly bein!s, etc.4P3D4 JD 6oreover, ho% %o'ld yo' ascertain the absence of the -hree Je%els in a %oman: by perception, inference, or script'ral testimonyP S'rely it cannot be ascertained by perception, since the -hree Je%els are not accessible to the senses. )t cannot be ascertained by inference either, since there is no si!n invariably associated %ith the absence 3of the -hree Je%els in a %oman4 that %o'ld lead to s'ch an inference. )t also cannot be ascertained by script'ral testimony, since there is no script're that %o'ld declare that the -hree Je%els are not fo'nd in a %oman comparable to the script'res that establish this in the case of heavenly bein!s and the deni,ens of hell. -his is beca'se there is no script'ral passa!e that describes the impossibility 3of moksa for %omen4 like those that have been declared for the heavenly bein!s and the deni,ens of hell.3E4 JE 3Hi!ambara:4 &b2ection. Ce of co'rse do not re2ect the mere presence of the -hree Je%els in a %oman0 rather, 3%e claim that the mere presence of those -hree Je%els4 is not itself eno'!h to brin! abo't moksa, since %e maintain that only %hen the -hree Je%els have been completely perfected %ill they prod'ce moksa. S'ch perfection is not fo'nd in %omen and, conse5'ently, moksa is impossible for them.3G4 JG 3Fapaniya:4 -his is not proper, beca'se of the impropriety of denyin! 3the e.istence of4 somethin! that is inaccessible to the senses. -he complete perfection of the -hree Je%els 3i.e., an &mniscient Bein! in %hom these are perfected4 is of co'rse not visible to 's, and it is not possible to determine the absence of somethin! that is not accessible to the senses, beca'se of the res'ltin! abs'rdity. By the same token, it is not possible to ascertain the absence of 3the complete perfection of the -hree Je%els in a %oman4(and to deny somethin! that has not first been ascertained 3to e.ist or not e.ist4 is improper, beca'se of the same lo!ical fallacy.3$4 J$ ;ere 3the Hi!ambara4 mi!ht contend: it is not proper to assert the presence of nirvana in %omen, since it is possible to ascertain via inference the absence of nirvana in %omen. =or e.ample:

-here is no nirvana for %omen0 beca'se they cannot be reborn in the seventh hell0 like moist're(born bein!s and so forth 3%ho also cannot be reborn in the seventh hell or attain moksa4.394 J9 3Fapaniya:4 S'ch a statement is inconsistent, since the ne!ative concomitance >vyatire"a-vyapti ? bet%een the t%o is not proved(that is to say, there is no pervasion of 3the domain of4 the absence of the fallin! into / 11E / the seventh hell by 3the domain of4 the absence of nirvana. ;ere 3in this %orld4, %hen one thin! is invariably related to somethin! else, the latter+s absence implies the absence of the former. =or e.ample, %hen 3the domain of4 fire pervades 3the domain of4 smoke, 3the domain of4 the absence of smoke pervades 3the domain of4 the absence of fire. Similarly, %hen 3the domain of4 treeness pervades 3the domain of4 simsapaness, 3the domain of4 the absence of simsapaness pervades 3the domain of4 the absence of treeness. S'ch ne!ative concomitance bet%een the t%o absences is not fo'nd in this case. -he absence of nirvana 3in %omen4 is not proved, beca'se the ability to be reborn in the seventh hell, and so forth, is not the ca'se of nirvana and does not pervade 3the domain of the absence of nirvana4. =allin! into the seventh hell is not the ca'se of nirvana, as are the -hree Je%els, nor does it pervade 3the nirvana4, as in the case of the ei!ht 5'alities 3of omniscience etc.4,31#4 %hich are invariably associated 3%ith nirvana4. 3;ence, there is no means4 %hereby, in the absence of bein! reborn in the seventh hell, yo' mi!ht prove the absence of nirvana. )n the absence of that %hich is not the ca'se of somethin!, it is %ron! to deny that %hich is not its effect. Similarly, in the absence of that %hich does not pervade the other, it is %ron! to deny the absence of that %hich is not pervaded, for other%ise there is an overe.tension of lo!ical convention. -herefore, the reason !iven by yo' is s'b2ect to do'bt %hether it is e.cl'ded from vipa"sa 3i.e., those %ho are capable of attainin! moksa4.3114 J1# 6oreover, 3the relationship that yo' seek to establish bet%een the t%o4 is absol'tely violated %ith respect to those %ho are in their last life 3and destined to attain moksa4. -hey attain moksa in that very life %itho't bein! reborn in the seventh hell 3i.e., they are nevertheless liberated4.3174 J11 6oreover, 3as has been said:4 *ltho'!h 3the classes of bein!s listed previo'sly4 have 'ne5'al destinations %hen !oin! do%n%ard 3to hell4, %hen !oin! 'p%ard 3those same bein!s4 can !o %itho't distinction as far as the Sahasrara heaven. -herefore, %hat yo' have said abo't 3a %oman+s4 incapacity to !o do%n%ard is not a reason 3for her not !oin! 'p%ard to moksa4. 3Strinirvanapra"arana , verse E431"4 -his proves that 3yo'r reasonin! that there is a correlation bet%een rebirth in the seventh hell and attainin! moksa4 is invalid0 for merely beca'se the potential of males and females to be reborn in hellish abodes is dissimilar, that is not itself eno'!h to concl'de that they are not e5'al in their capacities to attain the !ood destinies as %ell. -his is beca'se an imp're attit'de of the so'l is not the ca'se of a p're state. 3-he script'res4 state, for e.ample, that creat'res s'ch as cra%lers 3e.!., li,ards4, birds, 5'adr'peds, snakes, and fish are dissimilar in their do%n%ard destinies. Bein!s cra%lin! / 11G /

on their chests that have five sense fac'lties and mind, for e.ample, may fall as far as the first hell0 birds as far as the third0 5'adr'peds as far as the fifth0 snakes as far as the si.th0 and fish as far as the seventh. B't all these bein!s are e5'al %ith respect to their births in a'spicio's heavens, since they all may be reborn 3in heavens as hi!h as4 the Sahasrara heaven.31B4 J17 &ne also cannot assert %omen+s incapacity for moksa merely beca'se of their lack of skill in debate and so forth, for there is no r'le that only 3thro'!h the presence of s'ch skills4 is moksa possible. -here is a te.t that states: )t is %ell kno%n that infinite n'mbers of so'ls have attained to moksa merely by ass'min! the samayika vo%s.31D4 3$attvarthabhasya-sambandha"ari"a , verse 7G4 J1" )f %omen are indeed said to lack e.cellence in debate(%hich is considered to be a res'lt of e.traordinary a'sterities(and beca'se of that are rendered incapable of attainin! moksa, then the script'res %o'ld have e.plicitly declared as m'ch, as indeed they declare their lack of e.cellence in debate. Ce do not see any reason %hy the script'res %o'ld not e.plicitly e.cl'de them 3from nirvana4 if s'ch %ere the case.31E4 J1B 3Hi!ambara:4 Comen cannot attain moksa beca'se of the presence of possessions(that is, clothes. 31G4 J1D 3Fapaniya:4 3)f, as yo' alle!e, their clothes %ere a possession,4 then %hy %o'ld they %ho are desiro's of moksa have not abandoned that possessionP S'rely clothes are not life, and people desiro's of moksa %o'ld abandon even their o%n lives, let alone clothesS31$4 J1E 3Hi!ambara:4 Script're, of co'rse, is opposed to a %oman+s relin5'ishment 3of clothes4: )t is not permitted for a n'n to be %itho't clothes. 3(alpasutra , section 743194 J1G 3Fapaniya:4 Cell, in that case, their clothes m'st be considered an aid to moksa, like s'ch re5'isites as the %hisk broom and so forth. &mniscient Bein!s, the preachers of the path to moksa, have prescribed 3'se of4 the %hisk broom, and it is therefore not a possession b't an aid to moksa0 in the same %ay sho'ld clothes be considered, since there is no difference 3bet%een the t%o4.37#4 )f thin!s that are cond'cive to the holy path and prescribed by the script'res %ere to become 9possessions,9 then yo' m'st admit that, like clothes, the alms, medicines, and a sleepin! place 3obtained from a layperson4 %o'ld all become possessions too.3714 -his %o'ld then res'lt 3in the acceptance of the %ron! theory4, and that %o'ld imply the impossibility of moksa for all those %ho receive s'ch thin!s 3incl'din! men4. / 11$ / J1$ 3Hi!ambara:4 )f yo' admit moksa even %hile %earin! clothes, then %hat %o'ld restrict a ho'seholder as %ell from attainin! moksaP3774 J19 3Fapaniya:4 3* ho'seholder may not attain moksa4 beca'se of 3the presence of an4 attachment 3to his clothes4. * ho'seholder is not free from attachment to clothes, and attachment itself is possession. 8ven a naked person comes to have possessions if he has attachment. )n the case of a n'n, ho%ever, her clothes are not possessions beca'se of her lack of attachment, like a naked monk 'pon %hom clothes have been thro%n 3b't %ho remains yet 'nattached and th's %itho't possessions4.37"4 J7# 6oreover, even in the case of a 3naked4 monk, %hen he enters a villa!e or a ho'se, his freedom from possessions cannot be asserted %itho't reco'rse to the ar!'ment that he remains detached from those places. -his is analo!o's to his 3contin'ed4 freedom from possession of the karmic matter that flo%s into his so'l on acco'nt of his actions and the variety of s'btle karmic matter that s'stains the body and the senses >nokarma?.37B4

J71 3Hi!ambara:4 B't s'rely insects are born in clothes and violence 3i.e., in2'ry4 to%ard them is inevitable 3on the part of the n'n %ho %ears those clothes4. Beca'se of this violence, there is no possibility of 3a %oman developin! perfect4 cond'ct0 so ho% can she attain moksaP37D4 J77 3Fapaniya:4 -his is not correct, since 3s'ch incidental4 violence does not res'lt from carelessness. Carelessness itself is violence0 as the script're says: 9Aiolence is takin! the life of a bein! on acco'nt of careless actions9 3$attvarthasutra , vii, 1"4. )f this %ere not the case, then even a 3naked4 monk %o'ld be committin! violence in 3receivin!4 alms, medicines, and a d%ellin! place.37E4 J7" )f it is maintained that the monk is not !'ilty of violence beca'se he is abidin! by the r'les prescribed by the *rhat, and is therefore free from carelessness, then n'ns too m'st be considered to be en!a!in! in nonviolence, for their case is not different 3from that of the monks4.37G4 *s it is said: Chether a bein! lives or dies, violence is inevitable for one %ho is of 'nrestrained cond'ct. =or a restrained person there is no bonda!e, since he has restrained himself from all forms of in2'ry. 3)rava'anasara , iii, 1G437$4 J7B Comen 3i.e., n'ns4 also cannot be said to be incapable of moksa merely beca'se they are not !reeted by men 3i.e., monks40 for if this %ere to be the case, then the !anadharas %o'ld also not be able to attain moksa, as they too are not !reeted by the -irthankaras.3794 Since they do attain moksa, it is clear that bein! !reeted or not !reeted is not a condition for moksa. :ather, only the possession of the -hree Je%els is 3a condition for moksa4. / 119 / J7D )t also cannot be said that %omen %ill not attain moksa beca'se of e.cessive deceitf'lness, beca'se s'ch e.cessiveness is also to be fo'nd in men.3"#4 Heceitf'lness is ca'sed by the arisin! of the mohaniya(karma, and s'ch karma is fo'nd in both 3se.es4 %itho't distinction. J7E )t also sho'ld not be claimed that %omen are of little stren!th >sattva? and therefore do not attain moksa. -his is beca'se, in 3a reli!io's4 conte.t, stren!th sho'ld be 'nderstood as the ability to 'ndertake a'sterities and keep the precepts 3of mendicancy4. Ko other type of stren!th is implied, since that %o'ld not be cond'cive to nirvana. -he former type of stren!th is %ell kno%n to e.ist in n'ns. *s it has been said: 8ven in the ho'sehold life, there %ere ladies like Sita and others %ho %ere the best of those havin! !ood cond'ct and %ere kno%n for their !reat stren!th. ;o% co'ld s'ch %omen be deficient in stren!th for performin! a'sterities and lackin! in holy cond'ct 3after they have become n'ns4P 3Strinirvanapra"arana , verse "#43"14 J7G 6oreover, it is said: )n one moment, 3a ma.im'm of4 ei!ht h'ndred men >p'r'sa? and t%enty %omen 3strilingena 0 lit., of female !ender4 and ten of the remainin! 3!ender, i.e., the hermaphrodites4 also attain nirvana. 3Cf. Strinirvanapra"arana , verse "B43"74 -his and other script'res are the a'thority for the 3pres'mption that4 nirvana 3is possible4 for %omen. J7$ 3Hi!ambara:4 B't the %ord 9%omen9 >stri? in this passa!e refers to 3a male e.periencin!4 female se.'ality.3""4 J79 3Fapaniya:4 ;o% can that be constr'ed to deny nirvana to %omenP )t cannot be, beca'se, 2'st as a man may attain Siddhahood havin! 3at the start of the ascent of the !'nasthana ladder4 e.perienced female se.'ality, so too can %omen attain 3moksa havin! similarly e.perienced male se.'ality4, for the

ca'se of attainin! Siddhahood is the inner state of the so'l 3and not the e.ternal state of the body4.3"B4 J"# 6oreover, 2'st as a person %ho is of male !ender b't is internally female and hence comes to be considered a 9%oman9 may attain nirvana, so too may a person %ho is of female !ender b't internally male 3be able to attain nirvana4. Chy sho'ld she not attain nirvana, since 3the t%o sit'ations4 are indistin!'ishableP3"D4 J"1 )n fact, se.'ality is irrelevant to the state of the Perfected Bein! >Siddha?, since se.'ality in any form 3%hether as male, female, or hermaphrodite4 is totally eliminated at the 3ninth spirit'al sta!e called the4 anivrttibadarasamparaya.3"E4 / 17# / J"7 3Hi!ambara:4 3-he verse 5'oted above, %hich cites the n'mbers of each se. that attain moksa at a !iven time, describes the liberation of males4 %ith reference to the initial state of se.'ality %ith %hich they be!an to climb the 3!'nasthana4 ladder leadin! to the e.tinction of the karmas. B't this is a conventional description of a liberated so'l by referrin! to a condition that is lon! past.3"G4 J"" 3Fapaniya:4 B't %hy resort to s'ch interpretation applyin! a secondary meanin! %hen this verse can be constr'ed literally as referrin! to a %oman %ho is physically endo%ed %ith breasts and the birth canalP ;ence, nirvana is possible for %omen.3"$4 J"B 3Hi!ambara:4 Ko% be!ins the a'thor+s reb'ttal 3to the opponent+s position4. =irst, concernin! the statement 93%omen are able to attain moksa4 beca'se they do not lack any of the s'fficient conditions 3for attainin! moksa4 and so forth,9 %e respond that this partic'lar reasonin! concernin! the s'fficiency of conditions is not proved. -he 3immediate4 condition of moksa is 'ndo'btedly the -hree Je%els, b't 3the cr'cial point is4 %hether this means merely any 3de!ree of development4 of the -hree Je%els or only 3-hree Je%els4 %hen they have achieved absol'te perfection. )f it is maintained that mere possession 3i.e., the lo%est !rade of the -hree Je%els4 is s'fficient, then yo' m'st admit that even ho'seholders 3%ho possess only the r'diments of !ood cond'ct4 co'ld also 3immediately4 attain nirvana. B't if it is maintained that the -hree Je%els become a s'fficient condition only %hen they have attained absol'te perfection, then a %oman cannot 3be said to attain moksa4, beca'se %omanhood is incompatible %ith the state of attainin! to absol'te perfection. -his can be described in the follo%in! syllo!istic manner: -he absol'te perfection of kno%led!e, and so forth, %hich is the immediate condition of nirvana, is not fo'nd in %omen0 beca'se 3that nirvana re5'ires4 absol'te perfection0 2'st as 3%omen4 lack the 'ltimate e.treme of demerit, %hich is the immediate ca'se of rebirth in the seventh hell. J"D Similarly, it is e5'ally %ron! to claim that 9a ref'tation is not admissible %ith reference to somethin! that cannot be seen9 and so forth. *s far as a thin! that is invisible is concerned, %e also admit that a ref'tation by means of perception abo't s'ch thin!s cannot be proved. B't this does not le!itimately deny the applicability of inference 3in the cases %here perception is not possible4. &ther%ise, ho% else %o'ld yo' admit the possibility of ref'tin! a %oman+s rebirth in the seventh hell, %hich is the res'lt of the 'ltimate e.treme of demeritP J"E Concernin! the statement, 9-he absence of fallin! into the seventh / 171 /

hell does not imply the absence of nirvana,9 and so forth, this also is not correct, beca'se in t%o thin!s that are not in the relationship of ca'se and effect, a co!nition 3linkin!4 these t%o thin!s is possible. -his is 3d'e to the invariable relationship pertainin! bet%een them41as, for e.ample, 3the co!nition relatin!4 the rise of 3the asterism4 @rttika 3the Pleiades4 %ith the rise of Sakata 3the five stars formin! the asterism :ohini4. *n invariable relationship is a condition in %hich t%o thin!s not ca'sally related are related as indicator 3e.!., @rttika4 and indicated 3e.!., Sakata4.3"94 S'ch a relationship does e.ist in the e.ample 3of not fallin! into the seventh hell and not reachin! the abode of the Siddhas0 therefore, %e can accept the fact that %omen do not fall into the seventh hell as bein! a valid condition for inferrin! that they do not attain nirvana4. )t also cannot be said that s'ch an invariable relationship is ascertainable only bet%een thin!s that are either identical 3as %ere tree and simsapa4 or ca'sally related 3as %ere smoke and fire41for, if this %ere so, there %o'ld be the 'ndesirable conse5'ence of 3denyin!4 the indicator indicated relationship bet%een the rise of @rttika and the rise of Sakata. Ce have disc'ssed this matter at !reat len!th in o'r e.amination of the B'ddhist theory of concomitance >vyapti?.3B#4 -h's is ans%ered yo'r contention that 9fallin! into the seventh hell is 'nrelated to the attainment of nirvana, beca'se it is neither ca'sally related nor related by means of pervasion.93B14 J"G ;o% does the opponent, %ho ref'ses to accept the indicator indicated relationship based on invariable concomitance, e.plain the absence of the latter part %hen there is an absence of the former partP 8specially 3in this case,4 the 3temporal4 relationship pertainin! bet%een the former and latter parts is based neither 'pon identity 3as %ere tree and simsapa4 nor 'pon ca'se and effect 3as %ere smoke and fire4. J"$ 3&pponent:4 )n this e.ample 3of the temporal relationship bet%een @rttika and Sakata4, there obtains a relationship called inherence >samavaya ? %ith reference to a sin!le %hole. -herefore, on this acco'nt, that 3inherence4 alone serves to e.plain their relationship of the indicator and indicated. J"9 3Hi!ambara:4 &b2ection. B't this 3doctrine of inherence4 is s'rely the vie% of the 3heretic4 Kaiyayika,3B74 not that of the Sitambara 39Chite(Clothed,9 i.e., the Jaina of the Svetambara sect4P3B"4 Citho't establishin! the 3validity4 of inherence 3as an independent cate!ory of e.istence >padartha ?4, it is improper for 3the Svetambaras %ho profess to be Jainas4 to advocate the ar!'ment of the inherence of parts in the %hole0 for this ar!'ment 3of inherence in a sin!le %hole4 is %orkable only %hen the ar!'ment via inherence has first been established. / 177 / JB# Iet 's !rant 3for the sake of ar!'ment4 validity 3to the vie% that there is inherence of both parts in a sin!le %hole40 even then, 3the Svetambara4 m'st admit the validity of the indicator indicated relationship that pertains bet%een the t%o 3parts4. )f that is admitted, then yo' m'st also admit that the same relationship of indicator and indicated e.ists bet%een the t%o parts 'nder disc'ssion 3namely, the capacity to fall into the seventh hell and the ability to attain moksa4. -his is beca'se, in the case of these t%o 3capacities4, there is inherence in a sin!le %hole 3%hich is the so'l of the individ'al aspirant4. S'rely, in the same so'l %here the capacity to fall into the seventh hell is inherent the capacity to attain moksa %o'ld also be inherent. JB1 Ce 3the Hi!ambaras4 do not %ish to establish the incapacity of %omen to attain nirvana merely on the !ro'nds of their incapacity to fall into the seventh hell. So yo' cannot fa'lt 's on that 3for all %e are claimin! is that there is an indicator indicated relationship pertainin! bet%een the t%o, not a ca'sal one4. JB7 3Svetambara:4 Chat are yo' tryin! to prove, thenP

JB" 3Hi!ambara:4 Ce %ish to establish that there is an absence of the ca'ses leadin! to nirvana a 3in %omen41namely, their inability to attain the absol'te perfection 3of the -hree Je%els4. -his 3lack of achievin! the 'ltimate e.treme in anythin!4 is e5'ally applicable in the e.ample 3of fallin! into the seventh hell4 and in the !oal 3of attainin! moksa4. )n the absence of that 3ca'se leadin! to nirvana, %hich is the absol'te perfection of the -hree Je%els4, the impossibility 3of %omen attainin!4 nirvana %ill perforce be proved, for if the res'lt %ere to appear %itho't an initial ca'se, there %o'ld be the overe.tension of lo!ical applicability. -herefore, yo'r claim that 9fallin! into the seventh hell is not the ca'se of nirvana, 'nlike the -hree Je%els9 is incorrect. JBB Concernin! the earlier statement, 9-he concomitance bet%een !oin! to the seventh hell and attainin! moksa is absol'tely violated %ith respect to those %ho are in their last life9 3see J1#4, the e.pression 9the absence of fallin! into the seventh hell9 act'ally refers to the absence of the capacity to acc'm'late those kinds of karmas that are capable of prod'cin! s'ch 3a rebirth4. -hat absence s'rely e.ists only in %omen and not in those %ho are in their last state of embodiment. )t is %ell kno%n that s'ch cakravartins as Bharata,3BB4 and so forth, %ho %ere in their last state of embodiment 3i.e., %ho attained moksa in that body4 still had the capacity to acc'm'late karmas that co'ld have led them to the seventh hell at the time of their marchin! o't on military campai!n. )t is e5'ally %ell kno%n that 3%hen they en!a!ed in %holesome actions like4 %orshipin! the Jina 3they / 17" / had the capacity to acc'm'late karmas that co'ld have res'lted in a rebirth4 in the hi!hest heaven, called Sarvarthasiddhi. -his is beca'se the e.treme form of both the meritorio's and demeritorio's states of the so'l is that %ith %hich 3a person4 'ndertakes an action and this res'lts, respectively, in e.tremely meritorio's or demeritorio's rebirths. -he capacity to initiate 3s'ch e.treme4 states of the so'l is fo'nd only in men, not in %omen. J'st as a %oman lacks that capacity for e.tremely demeritorio's states of the so'l, so too is she incapable of e.tremely a'spicio's states0 and since moksa is possible only by means of the most a'spicio's 3subha , i.e., p're43BD4 state of the so'l, 3a %oman4 is inherently incapable of attainin! moksa. JBD By this 3response4 is also ans%ered the 3Fapaniya4 statement: 9*ltho'!h there is ine5'ality in the do%n%ard destinies of animals, 3s'ch ine5'ality does not affect their potential 'p%ard destinies, %hich are identical4.93BE4 -his is beca'se the capacity to attain moksa is possible only for a person %ho is able to acc'm'late those actions that %ill be cond'cive to brin!in! abo't the most e.treme forms of destinies, and not for one %ho is incapable thereof.3BG4 Chat %e maintain is that only the person %ho has the capacity to attain to the most a'spicio's form of 'pper destiny 3of a Siddha, i.e., moksa4 has the concomitant capacity to fall to the most ina'spicio's lo%er destiny 3i.e., the seventh hell4, as is possible for a man. Fo' %ho %ish to admit the capacity of %omen to attain to the most a'spicio's state 3of moksa4 m'st also ackno%led!e their capacity to attain to the most ina'spicio's state of e.istence as %ell. B't if yo' admit this, yo' %ill be in conflict %ith yo'r o%n script're, %hich says, 9Comen are not reborn lo%er than the si.th hell.93B$4 JBE 6oreover, yo' also said: 96oksa cannot be denied to 3%omen4 merely beca'se they lack the po%ers of skill in debate and so forth.93B94 -his too is frivolo's talk. Chere there is not even the special kind of p'rity !ained thro'!h restraint that serves as the direct ca'se of s'ch %orldly po%ers as skill in debate, transformation of the body, and movin! 3thro'!h the air4, %hat intelli!ent person %o'ld believe that they %o'ld be capable of that 3restraint4 %hich is cond'cive to moksaP *bility in debate is the talent to e.po'nd one+s doctrine even in a co'rt presided over by )ndra and in the presence of opponents as learned as Brhaspati. By e.posin! the deceitf'l practices perpetrated by one+s opponent1 s'ch as fallacio's reasonin! >chala? and self(conf'tin! replies >2ati?1one demonstrates the ability to

e.po'nd one+s doctrine.3D#4 -he po%er of transformation refers to the ability to ass'me a form like that of )ndra, the kin! of the !ods.3D14 -he ability to move 3thro'!h the air4 is the talent to %alk thro'!h the sky. -he %ords 9and so forth9 incl'de s'ch yo!ic po%ers as the ability to create a kitchen / 17B / %here there is an 'nlimited 5'antity of food.3D74 -he Jaina script'res do not refer to that kind of e.traordinary cond'ct on the part of %omen %hich co'ld serve as the ca'se of s'ch po%ers0 3therefore, if %omen cannot even attain these m'ndane po%ers, ho% can they ever hope to attain moksa4P JBG )t also %as said: 9-he script'res %o'ld have e.plicitly referred to the impossibility of moksa for %omen if s'ch %ere the case, as indeed they refer to the absence of skill in debate and so forth.93D"4 -his too is sheer verbosity, since by denyin! a specific type of restraint, the script're can be proved to have ref'ted in kind the attainment of moksa. )t is %ell kno%n that the script'res ordain that specific kinds of restraints %hich lead to moksa, s'ch as n'dity, can be prescribed only for men and not for %omen. S'rely, there can be no effect 3moksa4 %itho't a ca'se 3the restraints4, for other%ise there %o'ld be an overe.tension of lo!ical possibility. *dmittedly, %omen may be capable of some de!ree of restraint, b't this is not eno'!h to brin! abo't moksa 3in that very life4, as is also the case for the restraints ass'med by animals and ho'seholders.3DB4 -h's, it can be concl'ded that %omen are incapable of attainin! moksa beca'se they have possessions, like the ho'seholders. JB$ )t %as also said: 9Clothes are cond'cive to moksa, as is the case %ith the %hisk broom and so forth.93DD4 -his statement is also incorrect, since the %hisk broom is en2oined by the Iord for the sake of protectin! one+s mendicant restraints 3that is, the vo% of nonviolence by !'ardin! a!ainst the inadvertent killin! of small insects4. =or %hat p'rpose are clothes en2oinedP JB9 3Fapaniya:4 Ce maintain that clothes are also stip'lated in order to protect one+s mendicant cond'ct. =or e.ample, !enerally speakin!, %omen %ho are 'nclothed are overcome by men %hose minds are aro'sed by passions incited at the si!ht of the n'de parts of a %oman+s body, as a mare is overcome by stallions.3DE4 JD# 3Hi!ambara:4 Pray tell 's, then, ho% only n'de %omen are overcome by men and not n'de men overcome by %omen. JD1 3Fapaniya:4 Comen are overcome beca'se they possess only a little stren!th. )t is %ell kno%n that there is s'ch a division bet%een male and female. )t is seen even amon! animals like cattle and horses, for e.ample, that it is the nat're of the female to be overcome and that of the male to overcome.3DG4 JD7 3Hi!ambara:4 )f so, it is s'rely !reat del'sion to ass'me that females %ho can be overcome even amon! animals beca'se of their deficiency in stren!th sho'ld be able to attain moksa1a state that is characteri,ed by the total destr'ction of the heap of karmas that have / 17D / overcome the %hole three %orlds and is achievable only by 3those endo%ed %ith4 !reat stren!th. JD" *s for %hat %as said, 9)f those thin!s that serve as aids in keepin! the dharma >ri!hteo'sness0 precepts? are to be considered possessions and so forth,3D$4 then %hat is this dharma that is attained by %earin! clothesP )s that 3dharma4 a type of merit or a type of restraintP )f it is the first 3i.e., a type of merit4, then ho% can merit be the ca'se of moksaP Clothes that are accepted accordin! to the r'le set do%n by the script'res can only be the ca'se for merit, as is the case for ho'seholders. )f the ca'se of merit %ere also to be the ca'se of moksa, then one co'ld attain moksa even by s'ch acts as charity

3%hich are 'ndertaken only by ho'seholders4.3D94 JDB )t is hard to demonstrate that 3clothes4 serve as an instr'ment in s'pportin! specific kinds of 3mendicant4 restraints. -he 3mendicant4 restraints refer act'ally to the ren'nciation of internal possessions 3s'ch as passions4 and e.ternal possessions 3s'ch as clothes4. ;o% is s'ch 3restraint4 possible if one accepts clothes, %hich invariably ca'se a!itation of mind beca'se of the need to be! for them0 to stitch, %ash, and dry them0 to lift them 'p and p't them do%n0 and be an.io's abo't them bein! stolenP &n the contrary, clothes are destroyers of the 3mendicant4 restraint, since they are the adversaries of that state of mendicancy >nairgranthya ? that is free from both internal and e.ternal possessions. JDD 3Fapaniya:4 &b2ection. S'rely then, 3by yo'r ar!'ment,4 even acceptin! food and medicines and so forth %o'ld have to be considered as 3acceptin!4 possessions. )f so, ho% co'ld there be moksa for those %ho receive s'ch thin!sP3E#4 JDE 3Hi!ambara:4 -his 3ar!'ment4 too has no s'bstance, since food and medicines, %hen they are accepted %itho't inc'rrin! any of the blemishes attached to their ori!ins, become means for the increase of the -hree Je%els. Bein! received accordin! to the r'les prescribed by the script'res, those 3food and medicines4 do not brin! abo't the destr'ction of the ca'se of moksa. &n the contrary, if food and medicines are not accepted, then death may res'lt before its time, %hich %o'ld amo'nt to s'icide. B't no s'ch blemish accr'es in the nonacceptance of clothes. )ndeed, even the intake of food is red'ced by devo't aspirants of moksa in a !rad'al manner, by restrictin! themselves to eatin! only once every third or fo'rth day. *nd some mendicants %ho have attained to the hi!hest form of detachment even !ive 'p carryin! the %hisk broom also.3E14 B't it is never permitted for a %oman to relin5'ish her clothes. JDG Kor sho'ld it be said that n'ns are practicin! nonpossession %hen they receive clothes beca'se they do not entertain s'ch tho'!hts as 9this is / 17E / mine.9 -his is inconsistent. * %oman %ho intentionally picks 'p a fallen piece of cloth and %ears it co'ld not be %itho't attachment >m'rccha? to%ard it. -his is beca'se: Chenever a person intentionally picks 'p anythin! that has fallen, that pickin! 'p cannot be devoid of attachment to%ard that ob2ect0 as %ith 3the pickin! 'p of4 a piece of !old and so on0 s'ch is the case %ith %omen 3i.e., n'ns4 %ho accept clothes 3and, hence, arc not free from attachment to%ard them4.3E74 JD$ By this 3ar!'ment4 has been ref'ted the 3Fapaniya4 statement, 9Clothes are not possessions 3for %omen4, beca'se they are like the clothes that have been forced 'pon 3a naked mendicant in meditation4.93E"4 -his is beca'se, in the latter case, %here the clothes have been thr'st it is impossible that 3those clothes4 %hen fallen %ill be picked 'p intentionally by that monk. JD9 3-he Fapaniya4 mi!ht say: 9)f yo' insist that %omen m'st also abandon clothes 3in order to receive the mendicant restraints4, then %omen from !ood families %ho are f'll of shame and modesty %o'ld never %ant to be initiated 3into the mendicant order4. )f they are allo%ed to keep their clothes, ho%ever, s'ch %omen co'ld be held c'lpable of only the small defilement 3i.e., blemish4 of keepin! clothes, b't 3at the same time4 the virt'e of keepin! the complete precepts %o'ld res'lt. -h's, by observin! the relative advanta!e and little disadvanta!e in acceptin! clothes rather than discardin! them, the Iord has prescribed clothes for %omen.93EB4

JE# 3Hi!ambara:4 -his very thin! is advocated by 's also0 %e do not disa!ree %ith 3the Fapaniyas4 in this matter. &'r disp'te is only over %hether %omen are act'ally capable of attainin! moksa. *ll %e maintain is that: -heir moral restraint >sila ? is not s'fficient to achieve moksa0 since it is based on possession0 as is the moral restraint of a ho'seholder. -he Iord indeed has prescribed a 3partial ren'nciatory4 cond'ct s'itable for the ho'seholders, havin! considered the relative advanta!es to them in 3allo%in! certain4 possessions over the disadvanta!es of not !ivin! 'p any possessions at all. B't 3the ho'seholder+s partial ren'nciation4 is not considered to be able to accomplish moksa, as is also the case for the matter 'nder disc'ssion.3ED4 JE1 3Fapaniya:4 &b2ection. -he moral restraint of the ho'seholder is tainted by violence0 it is, therefore, 'nable to brin! abo't moksa.3EE4 JE7 3Hi!ambara:4 B't this applies e5'ally %ell to the cond'ct of the / 17G / n'n. )s it not the fact that the restraint associated %ith the n'ns is tainted by violence since, like the restraint of the ho'seholder, it is fo'nded 'pon the acceptance of clothes, %hich are the abode of lice and their e!!sP )f yo' contend that, despite the fact that clothes harbor insects born of moist're, they are not cond'cive to in2'ry, then yo' m'st admit that 3the obli!atory practice of4 removin! the hair from the scalp 3of a monk to prevent the breedin! of insects there4 is also not necessary. JE" )t %as also claimed 3by the Fapaniya4, 9*s there is no carelessness 3in n'ns4 there is no 3ca'se for the4 rise of violence and so forth.93EG4 -his also is not felicito's, beca'se dili!ence 3i.e., freedom from carelessness4 is not possible for 3%omen4 beca'se 3there is the inevitable4 transformation of the so'l by the passion of coveto'sness 3associated %ith the %earin! of clothes40 indeed, carelessness is nothin! other than this comin! 'nder the infl'ence of those 3passions4. *s it is said: )dle talk as %ell as passions, sense 3activities4, sleep, and se.'al activity: respectively fo'r, fo'r, five, one and one. -hese are fifteen forms of carelessness.3E$4 3)an'asangraha , i, 1D4 =rom the fact that 3the n'ns4 intentionally accept clothes, it can be determined that they come 'nder the infl'ence of the passion of coveto'sness. JEB Ko%, 3the Fapaniya mi!ht claim4 that %hile remainin! free from s'ch 3alle!ed4 desires, it is still possible for them to accept clothes solely in order to dispel shame >la%%a/43E94 it is not therefore proper to concl'de that they come 'nder the infl'ence of coveto'sness. JED 3Hi!ambara:4 &b2ection. S'rely, then, %hy not also allo% them to take a lover in order to combat the torment of conc'piscence, for there is no distinction 3bet%een dispellin! shame and dispellin! se.'al desire4P3G#4 JEE 3Fapaniya:4 B't %hen s'ch torment is present, they %o'ld not be free from attachment0 for 3s'ch conc'piscence4 is contrary to their freedom from desire. JEG 3Hi!ambara:4 -he same can be said abo't the presence of shame. )t is not proper to say that shame is compatible %ith freedom from desire, for it is the nat're of shame to %ish to cover the loathsome parts of the body %hen one is aro'sed by desire.3G14 * person %ho is free from desire %ill not feel shame0 like a child0

yo' consider n'ns to be free from desire. 3;o%ever, since yo' maintain that n'ns %ear clothes in order to dispel shame, they therefore cannot be free from desire.4 / 17$ / JE$ )f 3in spite of this4 yo' still insist that for a male his 3mendicant4 restraint consistin! of n'dity is a means of attainin! moksa, b't in the case of %omen that restraint m'st be %ith clothes, then yo' m'st admit that this %o'ld res'lt in the 'ndesirable conse5'ence of 3there bein! a 5'alitative4 difference bet%een the types of moksa that each achieves, beca'se the ca'ses 3necessary for the achievement of moksa4 %o'ld be different 3for the t%o se.es4. -hat mendicant restraint 3of n'ns4 %hich differs from another type of mendicant restraint 3i.e., that of monks4 m'st yield an effect that is also of a distinctly different nat're. =or e.ample, the restraint ass'med by a ho'seholder leads to heaven and so forth 3i.e., rebirth in !ood abodes4 %hile the restraint of a ren'nciant leads to moksa0 th's their respective !oals are totally distinct from one another. -he mendicant restraint that is intended by yo' to serve as the ca'se of moksa for monks differs from that of n'ns: the latter demands the %earin! of clothes0 the former does not. JE9 Kevertheless, yo' ref'se to accept that there is any 5'alitative difference bet%een the moksa of the t%o, since yo' ackno%led!e that both the monk and the n'n attain the same moksa1that is, that %hich is characteri,ed by the total destr'ction of all the karmas. 3S'rely, this is inconsistent.4 JG# 6oreover, if it is admitted that the mendicant restraint %hich involves the %earin! of clothes also serves as a ca'se of moksa 3as yo' claim to be the case for %omen4, then there %o'ld s'rely be no point in en2oinin! the comp'lsory ren'nciation of clothes 3to those men %ho4 are desiro's of moksa. B't since it is so en2oined, clothes m'st be ass'med to be not cond'cive to moksa.3G74 -his can be sho%n via a syllo!ism: Clothes are not cond'cive to moksa0 beca'se ren'nciation of clothes is comp'lsory for those %ho desire moksa0 like%ise %ron! vie%s 3are to be abandoned and4 cannot therefore be a condition for moksa. Fo' do admit that abandonin! clothes is laid do%n as comp'lsory for those 3%ho %ish to attain moksa4. Conversely, that %hich is cond'cive to moksa is not to be abandoned and is comp'lsory to those %ho desire3moksa4, as, for e.ample, ri!ht vie%s. JG1 )t %as also said: 9-he ar!'ment of 3%omen+s incapacity for attainin! moksa beca'se of the fact that she4 is not reverentially !reeted by men is inapplicable, as in the case of the !anadharas 3%ho similarly are not !reeted by the -irthankaras4. . . .93G"4 -his statement too is irrelevant, since the *rhats 3i.e., the -irthankaras4 have attained to that e.tremely e.alted state kno%n as 9attainin! the body of a -irthankara9 3%hich is characteri,ed by vario's a'spicio's marks and attended by assorted miracles40 hence, / 179 / it is only fittin! that they sho'ld be reverentially !reeted by all other people 3s'ch as the !anadharas4 %hile not ret'rnin! those !reetin!s. -here is no one in this %orld %hose stat's is %orthier than theirs and therefore no one %hom the -irthankaras may !reet. &n the other hand, the !anadharas do not attain that hi!h stat's beca'se of the absence of that sort of 3s'preme4 merit0 therefore, they do not have that stat's %hich is %orthy of bein! reverentially !reeted by the entire %orld, as do the -irthankaras. *s far

as the conditions leadin! to moksa are concerned, ho%ever, there is no distinction %hatsoever in the type of moksa achieved, %hether that person is a -irthankara or other%ise. B't in the case of n'ns, there is s'ch a distinction, since they do not possess any of the ca'ses leadin! to moksa1namely, the 3perfection4 of the -hree Je%els. JG7 -herefore 3%e propose the follo%in! syllo!ism4: Comen do not attain the state of nirvana0 beca'se they are 'n%orthy of that stat's %hich is deservin! of the reverential !reetin!s of mendicants, ho'seholders, and !ods0 as in the case of hermaphrodites. -here are, for e.ample, t%o stat'ses that are %orthy of the reverential !reetin!s of mendicants: the primary and the secondary. )n the case 3of mendicants4, the primary stat's is that of the -irthankaras, %hile the secondary stat's is that of the acaryas 3leaders of the mendicant order4 and so forth 3i.e., the preceptors >upadhyayas ? and other monks >sadh's?4. Both these stat'ses are said to be assi!ned to men alone, not %omen. Similarly, there are also t%o stat'ses1primary and secondary1that are %orthy of the !reetin!s of ho'seholders and !ods: respectively, the primary stat's is that of cakravartins 3earthly r'lers4 and indras 3kin!s of the !ods40 the secondary is that of provincial !overnors and 3!ods4 of e5'al rank. B't even these are kno%n to be only for men, not %omen. JG" ='rthermore, the a'thority in each and every ho'sehold resides in men and not %omen:3GB4 as is %ell kno%n, %hether the father is alive or not, in all matters the a'thority of a son alone prevails, even if he is yo'n!er and '!ly, and never of a da'!hter, even if she is older and bea'tif'l. -herefore, it is tr'ly astonishin! to ass'me that those 3%omen4 %ho do not even have a'thority over m'ndane fort'nes %o'ld have any mastery over 3the s'pram'ndane4 fort'nes of moksa. JGB 3Fapaniya:4 &b2ection. )f %omen do not attain moksa merely beca'se they are 'n%orthy of !reat m'ndane fort'nes, then, as there %o'ld be no difference in the lo!ic, yo' m'st also admit that the !anadharas and other mendicants co'ld not attain moksa beca'se they too are 'n%orthy of attainin! to the !reat !lory of -irthankarahood.3GD4 / 1"# / JGD 3Hi!ambara:4 -hat assertion too is not felicito's. -his is beca'se %hat is permitted or prohibited in one case does not necessarily apply to another. 3&r, in this case, specific individ'als %ithin a !ro'p cannot be 'sed to form a 'niversal r'le.4 )t is the prero!ative of the male se. 3to en2oy4 the !reat !lory 3of -irthankarahood4, not of the female se.. ;ence, moksa sho'ld be admitted only for the male se., and females sho'ld be e.cl'ded. 3-he opponent re2ects this claim and says:4 -his claim of variability 3i.e., that a specific individ'al of the male se. may attain moksa and yet remain incapable of attainin! to the !lory of a -irthankara4 does not hold, since even %itho't en2oyin! the !lory e.cl'sive to the -irthankaras, a !anadhara may attain moksa. 3Hi!ambara:4 )t is not proper 3for yo'4 to brin! 'p this fa'lt of variability and claim that %omen are the e5'al of the !anadharas. 3=or e.ample,4 s'rely %hen the eldest prince inherits the kin!dom and the other princes do not, one may admit that the latter are inferior to the former0 even so, it %o'ld be %ron! to then claim that those other sons are the e5'als of the princesses. 3Similarly, the !anadharas may not en2oy the !lory of the -irthankaras, b't that does not make their position e5'al to that of the n'ns.4 )t is %ell kno%n that, in all activities in the %orld, sons are totally different from da'!hters. -herefore: Comen do not attain moksa0

for they are inferior to men0 like hermaphrodites. Kor is it that this inferiority of %omen has not been proved, for this 3inferiority4 %as 2'st no% established. JGE 6oreover, this 3inferiority4 is also proved by the fact that it is the men %ho remind 3them of their d'ties4, prevent 3them from committin! %ron!s4, and e.hort 3them to abide by their responsibilities40 %omen do not do these thin!s for men. 6oreover, it is a male %ho becomes endo%ed %ith the body of a -irthankara, not a female.3GE4 *s it has been said: 6en remind, prevent, and e.hort, not %omen.3GG4 35ghaniryu"ti-ti"a , verse BB$4 JGG 3Fapaniya:4 &b2ection. S'ch s'periority and inferiority are not a means of attainin! moksa0 it is instead the endo%ment %ith the -hree Je%els, as in the case of a disciple and a teacher. =or e.ample, disciples are inferior to teachers and teachers are s'perior to disciples, b't both may attain moksa. Similarly, both monks and n'ns may attain 3moksa irrespective of the inferiority of the n'ns4. JG$ 3Hi!ambara:4 -his is nothin! b't %ishf'l thinkin!, for if it co'ld / 1"1 / be proved that the -hree Je%els, %hich are 'ndo'btedly the ca'se of moksa, can be attained by %omen to the same e.tent as they are attained by men, then both men and %omen co'ld attain moksa, 2'st as disciples and teacher 3can both attain moksa4 in spite of their respective inferiority and s'periority. ;o%ever, s'ch 3attainment of the -hree Je%els to the same e.tent as men4 is not fo'nd in %omen, beca'se that %hich is the ca'se of attainin! the -hree Je%els 3i.e., total restraints of a monk4 has been re2ected in detail %ith respect to %omen. &f co'rse, the mere e.istence of the -hree Je%els 3in their r'dimentary form4 in %omen 3%hich is not disp'ted4 is not a s'fficient ca'se for moksa. &ther%ise, yo' %o'ld have to admit that ho'seholders 3%ho also possess the r'diments of the -hree Je%els4 also co'ld attain moksa. )t is impossible even in a dream to ima!ine that a lamp can have the capacity to accomplish somethin! that is possible only to the bla,in! s'n. JG9 6oreover, concernin! the fore!oin! statement, 98ven in their ho'sehold life 3Sita and the other %omen4 %ere endo%ed %ith !reat sattva 3stren!th4,93G$4 even that s'!!estion is felicito's only so lon! as it is not critically e.amined. -his is beca'se only in men does that !reat stren!th e.ist %hich, by virt'e of its capacity to bear manifold and severe afflictions, is capable of 'prootin! the totality of karmas. 8ven in a dream, %omen cannot have s'ch !reat stren!th. *s for 3the description of4 Sita and the other ladies as bein! 9possessed of !reat sattva,9 this %as spoken only %ith reference to their ability to attain the hi!hest de!ree of stren!th possible to %omen0 in no activity %hatsoever do they have the e.cellence in stren!th as is fo'nd amon! men. Bein! th's deficient in that kind of e.cellence of stren!th, ho% can %omen have that ca'se of moksa1that is, the total perfection of the -hree Je%els1 that is possible only to one %ho has the s'preme stren!thP -herefore: * female body is not the s'pport of a so'l that can be considered to be endo%ed %ith the totality of the -hree Je%els, %hich is the ca'se of moksa0 beca'se it has been prod'ced by !reat evil 3i.e., by the aid of %ron! vie%s40 like the bodies of hell deni,ens and so forth. J$# 6oreover, only that body by the s'pport of %hich one can be!in the total destr'ction of the totality of karmas can be considered a means for attainin! moksa0 and it is not the case that a female body can be a means for be!innin! s'ch a destr'ction of karmas.3G94 -his can be stated syllo!istically:

* female body is not a fittin! means of even be!innin! the destr'ction of the totality of karmas0 beca'se that body is earned by the assistance of !reat evil 3i.e., %ron! vie%s40 like the bodies of hell deni,ens and so forth. / 1"7 / -he karma that prod'ces a female body is e.tremely evil, since 3a female body4 is not earned by anyone e.cept a person on the 3first r'n! of the !'nasthana ladder called4 mithyadrsti, the %ron! vie%. *ltho'!h 3technically speakin!, even a person dyin!4 in the 3second !'nasthana called4 sasvadana( samya!drsti may also attain a female body, in act'ality he m'st be considered a person endo%ed %ith %ron! vie%s, since he is in the process of forsakin! the ri!ht vie%. ;e is, therefore, desi!nated as 9one %ho is endo%ed %ith %ron! vie%s,9 since he is tendin! to%ard the first !'nasthana, called mithyadrsti. * female body is not attained even by a person %ho is in the transitory sta!e1namely, the third !'nasthana called samya!mithyadrsti1let alone by one %ho is %ell established in the fo'rth !'nasthana called samya!drsti. * so'l that has been born as a female m'st by necessity be born possessed of %ron! vie%s >mithyatva?. *s has been said: &ne endo%ed %ith ri!ht vie%s is not reborn in the si. lo%er hells nor in the 3lo%er4 heavenly e.istences, namely, Jyotiska, Ayantara, and Bhavanavasi0 nor in any female bodies0 nor in the t%elve kinds of lo%er animal births that are 3invariably4 associated %ith %ron! vie%s.3$#4 3)an'asangraha , i, 19"4 Chat !reat skillf'lness in reasonin! is re5'ired to maintain that %omen %ho cannot even attain the hi!hest heavenly sta!es of e.tremely lon! d'ration can, nevertheless, attain moksaS J$1 6oreover, so far as the statement 9ei!ht h'ndred in one moment . . .9 bein! a proof for the moksa of %omen is concerned,3$14 that too is a manifestation of considerable i!norance. -his is beca'se the te.t that yo' cite is not a'thoritative for 's.3$74 )ndeed, its lack of a'thority is %ell kno%n, beca'se it advocates materials that are contradicted by all means of verification. 3Specifically,4 %e have already demonstrated in detail ho% the nirvana of %omen is opposed to any means of verification. J$7 3Fapaniya(Svetambara:43$"4 &b2ection. B't s'rely there is the follo%in! verse: -hose men >p'r'sah? %ho have climbed the ladder of the destr'ction of the karmas %hile e.periencin! male se.'ality >p'mvedam?, as %ell as those in %hom other se.'alities arise >'daya?, also %ill attain to Siddhahood if they en!a!e in 3the re5'isite4 meditation. 3)ra"rta-Siddhabha"ti , verse E4 -his is an a'thoritative te.t that advocates the moksa of %omen. ;o% can yo' therefore state that the former te.t 39ei!ht h'ndred at a time94 advocates somethin! that is invalidated by the means of verificationP ;o% can yo' make a flat claim that the nirvana of %omen is impossible accordin! to all script'resP / 1"" / J$" 3Hi!ambara:4 -his too is %ishf'l thinkin!, beca'se it is impossible that the te.t yo' referred to 39-hose men %ho . . . %hile e.periencin! male se.'ality90 J$74 %o'ld declare that %omen may attain nirvana. -hat te.t indeed mentions moksa only %ith reference to males, since it not only speaks of the rise of male se.'ality in those %ho are males by !ender b't also states that the remainin! t%o types of se.'ality 3of females and hermaphrodites4 also arise only in one %ho is of male !ender. *s sho'ld be

apparent, the %ord 9males9 >p'r'sah? in the fore!oin! verse is connected %ith both 3of the other t%o types of se.'ality4. -his is beca'se 9se.'ality9 >veda? refers to a specific type of desire and a passion of the mind, either of %hich are born d'e to the rise of the mohaniya(karma. *s is %ell kno%n, the e.pression 9rise9 3'daya in the fore!oin! verse4 can be applied only to mental states, not to the !ender 3of the aspirant4. J$B 3Hi!ambara:4 )t also %as said: 9J'st as a person %ho is male by !ender 3b't internally female comes to be considered a 9%oman9 and may attain nirvana, so too may a person %ho is female by !ender b't psycholo!ically 9male9 attain moksa4,93$B4 this too is 'ns'bstantiated talk. *s %e have already e.po'nded 'pon the inability of a person %ho is of female !ender to attain moksa, ho% co'ld it be admissible that s'ch a female co'ld attain moksa thro'!h e.periencin! 9male9 se.'al feelin!sP * bein! that is 'nable to attain moksa beca'se it is physically 'nfit to do so m'st necessarily be 'nable to attain it mentally also0 as, for e.ample, animals and 3other nonh'man bein!s403$D4 and a %oman is 'nable to attain moksa beca'se of her female body. 3-herefore, she cannot attain it mentally either.4 Conse5'ently, re!ardless of the type of se.'ality a person may e.perience psycholo!ically, only a person %ho is male by !ender at the time of ascendin! the ladder of the path 3from the seventh !'nasthana on%ard4 may be admitted to have the ability to van5'ish the totality of the hosts of karma. -his is in conformity %ith %orldly 'sa!e also. *s is %ell kno%n even to children, a man %ho is endo%ed %ith !reat stren!th, havin! mo'nted %hatever mo'nt is available to him, %hether elephant, horse, and so forth, and havin! taken hold of some s'perh'man %eapon in the battlefield, defeats the entire host of enemies0 this is not done by a %oman, %ho is appropriately called 9po%erless9 3abala , a synonym for %oman4. Similarly, only a person %ho is of the male !ender, havin! e.perienced one of the three internal se.'al feelin!s and havin! taken hold of the incomparable %eapon called 9p'rest meditation9 >su"ladhyana ?,3$E4 eradicates the host of karmas and e.periences the hi!hest !lory. / 1"B / J$D 3Hi!ambara:4 )t %as also said: 9Se.'ality >veda? is irrelevant to the attainment of Siddhahood and so forth.93$G4 Ce too do not admit that one attains moksa %hile still in possession of se.'ality0 %e advocate that the former and latter moksas3$$4 are both made possible only thro'!h the intense fire of the p'rest form of meditation >s'kladhyana?, %hich alone is able to b'rn completely the totality of karmas.

Note%
1. Prabhacandra commences the topic of strimoksa at the end of his ref'tation of kevali(kavalahara >see Chapter )), n. "? on the !ro'nd that it is inconsistent %ith the *rhat+s possession of the =o'r Perfections 1namely, infinite kno%led!e >ananta-%nana ?, infinite perception >ananta-darsana ?, infinite bliss >ananta-su"ha ?, and infinite ener!y >ananta-virya ?. ;e no% makes the f'rther claim that the state of moksa, characteri,ed by these fo'r infinite 5'alities, is possible only to men and not to %omen. -echnically speakin!, moksa is achieved only at the end of the *rhat+s life at the time of attainin! Siddhahood0 b't the term can be applied to the earlier sta!e of the @evalin also %hen these fo'r 5'alities are perfected. See also Chapters ) >n. 7? and )) >n. 19?. 7. Prabhacandra does not mention the Fapaniya by name, b't as %as seen above >section iii? he certainly dra%s very heavily 'pon the Strinirvanapra"arana and its Svopa%navrtti in %ritin! this section of the ,yaya"umuda'andra . -he %ord 9Sitambara9 does appear once in the te.t >see J"9?, b't

Prabhacandra probably 'ses that desi!nation as a !enetic term that %o'ld incl'de the Fapaniya also, the chief proponent of strinirvana. ;ence it is possible to identify the opponent in this section as the Fapaniya. ". See Chapter )) >J7?. B. &n the -hree Je%els, see Chapter )) >n. B?. D. See Chapter )) >JG?. E. See Chapter )) >JD(E?. G. See Chapter )) >J1#?. $. See Chapter )) >J11?. 9. See Chapter )) >J17?. 1#. See Chapter )) >J19?. 11. See Chapter )) >J1D?. 17. See Chapter )) >J1$?. 1". See Chapter )) >J7#?. 1B. See Chapter )) >J7#?. 1D. See Chapter )) >J71?. 1E. See Chapter )) >J7E?. )t sho'ld be noted that Prabhacandra here i!nores both the reference to the 2inakalpa mode of mendicancy, %hich came to an end after the time of Jamb' >Chapter )), J7"?, and the ,isitha-bhasya script're >Chapter )), J7E?, %hich lists t%enty cases 'nfit for mendicancy incl'din! 9a pre!nant %oman9 and 9a %oman %ith a yo'n! child.9 1G. See Chapter )) >J7G?. / 1"D / 1$. See Chapter )) >J7$?. &n the Hi!ambara r'le allo%in! n'dity for a n'n on her deathbed, see Chaper )) >n. 7D?. 19. See Chapter )) >J79?. -he r'le 5'oted here is from a Svetambara script're, yet Prabhacandra allo%s it to be placed in the mo'th of the Hi!ambara, s'!!estin! the possibility that this s'tra %as once common to both sects. )n the )rameya"amalamarttanda , ho%ever, he merely states that the naked mendicancy for %omen is neither en2oined in the script're nor %itnessed in the %orld >na hi strinam nirvastrah samyamo drstah pravacanapratipadito va?, p. "79. 7#. See Chapter )) >J"1?. 71. See Chapter )) >J"D and J"$?. 77. See Chapter )) >JB"?. 7". See Chapter )) >JBB?. Prabhacandra i!nores here the Fapaniya ar!'ment that a n'n+s case is similar to that of the monk %ho is allo%ed clothes beca'se he is s'b2ect to one of the three defects reco!ni,ed as valid !ro'nds for not !oin! naked >see Chapter )), JBD(BG?. ;e also passes in silence the entire ar!'ment >Chapter )), JD#(E#? that the 2inakalpa is not s'itable for all1for an ei!ht(year(old boy, for e.ample1and that the sthavirakalpa >i.e., mendicancy %ith clothes, as 'nderstood by the Svetambaras? is an e5'ally valid mode available to %omen.

7B. Compare Chapter )) >J"9?0 see the san!raha(arya 5'oted. 7D. See Chapter )) >JB#?. 7E. See Chapter )) >J"D?. 7G. See Chapter )) >JB1?. 7$. See Chapter )) >JB7?. 79. See Chapter )) >JEE?. "#. See Chapter )) >JG9?. "1. See Chapter )) >J$D?. "7. See Chapter )) >J9D?. "". See Chapter )) >J9E?. Prabhacandra i!nores the entire disc'ssion >Chapter )), J9G(11"? on the relationship bet%een %ord and meanin! in determinin! the tr'e meanin! of the %ord 9stri,9 as %ell as the Fapaniya doctrine that the se.'al desire >veda? m'st correspond to the biolo!ical !ender >lin!a?0 see Chapter )) >J1#$(11"?. "B. See Chapter )) >J11B?. "D. See Chapter )) >J11D?. "E. See Chapter )) >J11G?. "G. See Chapter )) >J11$?. "$. See Chapter )) >J119(17E?. "9. Prabhacandra appears to be the first to present the ar!'ment of the invariable relationship derived from the !amya(!amaka relationship in the conte.t of strimoksa0 it is not fo'nd in the %orks of Sakatayana. B#. -his e.amination of the B'ddhist theory on concomitance is fo'nd on pp. BBE(BB$ of the ,yaya"umuda'andra . B1. See Chapter )) >J1E?. B7. )n the Kaiyayika vie%, independent parts are related to a %hole by the separate element kno%n as inherence >samavaya ?. -he Jainas re2ect samavaya as bein! a separate entity, for in their vie% there is merely a 95'alified identity9 bet%een the part and the %hole. B". -he %ord 9Sitambara9 is not fo'nd in the earlier %ork, the )rameya"ama/ 1"E / lamarttanda , and this is the only time it is mentioned in the ,yaya"umuda'andra . ) have been 'nable to identify the partic'lar Svetambara %riter %ho mi!ht have raised this so(called Kaiyayika ar!'ment. 6ost probably Prabhacandra himself anticipates s'ch an ob2ection and p'ts it in the mo'th of the opponent. BB. Bharata, the eldest son of :sabha, the first -irthankara, is the first of the t%elve cakravartins %ho r'led the earth d'rin! the c'rrent half of the time cycle accordin! to the Jaina cosmolo!y. See Chapter A >n. 1$?. Bharata is said to have attained moksa in that very life. =or the le!end of Bharata, see J)) , p. 7#B.

BD. -he %ord 9s'bha9 >a'spicio's? m'st be 'nderstood here as suddha >p're?. Both sects have maintained that a'spicio's >i.e., meritorio's? deeds take one to heaven b't do not lead to moksa. Spirit'al liberation is possible only thro'!h p're actions1that is, actions %hich do not !enerate ne% karmas. )n the pop'lar literat're the %ord 9s'bha9 has often been 'sed to represent both the s'bha and the s'ddha cate!ories of action. =or a disc'ssion on these t%o cate!ories, see Jaini >19$D?. BE. See Chapter )) >J7#?. BG. * passa!e in the te.t >JBD, lines "($? that correlates in detail %hich bein!s are reborn in %hich hellish or heavenly abodes is omitted in the translation. B$. See Chapter )) >J1"?. B9. See Chapter )) >J71(77?. D#. See Chapter )) >J71?. D1. * Jaina monk may e.ercise s'ch s'pernat'ral po%ers in order to protect other Jaina mendicants from calamities %ro'!ht by cr'el kin!s or demi!ods. See, for e.ample, the story of the Hi!ambara monk Aisn'k'mara in the Brhat"atha"osa >no. 11?. D7. -his is pres'med to be the res'lt of s'ch !ood deeds as !ivin! alms to monks %ho have performed !reat a'sterities. )t is said that s'ch a person+s alms vessel %ill never r'n o't of food, even if a cakravartin+s army %ere to feed from it for an entire day. =or details on this and other yo!ic po%ers attained by Jaina monks, see JS( ), pp. BGD(B$G. D". See Chapter )) >J71?. DB. -he Jainas believe that animals possessed of reasonin! po%er and the five senses >sam2ni? are capable of reali,in! the ri!ht vie% >samya!darsana? as %ell as ass'min! specific types of minor restraints >an'vrata?, s'ch as refrainin! from killin!. *nimals are th's considered to be able to attain the fifth !'nasthana, a stat's identical to that of the Jaina laity. See Chapter )) >n. 1"?. DD. See Chapter )) >J"1?. DE. See Chapter )) >J""?. DG. See Chapter )) >J"", last line?. D$. See Chapter )) >J"D?. D9. 6ost )ndian reli!io's schools a!ree that the acts of charity only lead to rebirth in a'spicio's e.istences. 6eritorio's actions themselves are never the direct ca'se of moksa0 c'm'latively, ho%ever, they may enhance one+s opport'nities to ass'me the mendicant restraints, th's indirectly helpin! the achievement of moksa. E#. See Chapter )) >J"D("E?. E1. -he Hi!ambara tradition maintains that the %hisk broom is !iven 'p by @evalins, as %ell as by monks in meditation. -here %as also a >heretic? Hi!ambara / 1"G / sect based in the city of 6ath'ra >6ath'rasan!ha? called nispi''hi"a >see Chapter A, ii? that !ave 'p the 'se of the %hisk broom in the belief that it %as not essential for leadin! the life of a mendicant. See JS( ), p. "BE. E7. -his ar!'ment of a Hi!ambara monk not liftin! the fallen piece of cloth >thro%n over him? is ne%.

Compare in this connection the Svetambara story of 6ahavira that after his ren'nciation he had carried a sin!le piece of cloth on his sho'lders for a year b't did not care to pick it 'p %hen it fell on thorns and th's he happened to become a naked >acelaka? monk. See J)) , p. 1". E". See Chapter )) >JD7?. EB. See Chapter )) >J"B?. ED. See Chapter )) >J"B, last line?. EE. See Chapter )) >JBB?. EG. See Chapter )) >JB1?. E$. -he fo'r types of idle talk incl'de conversation abo't family and so forth. -he fo'r passions are an!er, pride, deceitf'lness, and coveto'sness. See Gommatasara-Jiva"anda , verse "B. E9. See Chapter )) >J"B?. )n the Strinirvanapra"arana , it is the Hi!ambara and not the Fapaniya %ho ar!'es that %omen are re5'ired to %ear clothes in order to dispel shame and hence the Jina is not to be fa'lted for forbiddin! n'dity to them. G#. )n the correspondin! section of the )rameya"amalamarttanda >pp. ""1(""7? Prabhacandra 5'otes ei!ht verses that ridic'le the claim of the clothed monks that they are free from desire >vira"ta ? despite the %earin! of clothes. -he ei!hth verse s'ms 'p the Hi!ambara position: only those %ho are broken by the afflictions arisin! from %omen and those %ho are bo'nd by attachment to the body accept clothes. )t is proved thereby that they are not free from either the internal or e.ternal bonds. >striparisahabha!nais ca baddhara!ais ca vi!rahe, vastram adiyate yasmat siddham !ranthadvayam tatah.? G1. -he Hi!ambaras maintain that shame >la22a? is a virt'e for lay people >bein!, in their case, the basis for appropriate modesty? b't a hindrance for those follo%in! the hi!her path of mendicancy. -hey do not consider nakedness to be invariably associated %ith freedom from desire, b't assert only that the %earin! of clothes al%ays indicates the presence of desire. -hose made 'ncomfortable by p'blic n'dity mi!ht ar!'e, therefore, that the mendicant sho'ld retain his clothes 'ntil he is free from all desire >i.e., 'ntil he act'ally becomes vitara!a at the t%elfth !'nasthana?, since the e.ternal act of !oin! naked does not itself make one free from internal desire. -he Hi!ambaras %o'ld ans%er that %hile discardin! one+s clothes is not e5'ivalent to abandonin! one+s shame >the latter involves eradication of the libido itself?, takin! the vo% of n'dity at the initial sta!es of mendicancy is nevertheless important as it amo'nts to a total ren'nciation of the ho'sehold life and its %orldly possessions. G7. See Chapter )) >JB$?. G". See Chapter )) >JEB(EE?. GB. See Chapter )) >JG"?. GD. See Chapter )) >JE9?. GE. *ll Jainas have traditionally believed that only a man can become a -irthankara. *n e.ception to this r'le is to be fo'nd in the Svetambara belief that the nineteenth -irthankara, 6alli, %as a female. See Chapter )) >n. DB?. / 1"$ / GG. See Chapter )) >JG1?. )t sho'ld be noted that Prabhacandra is 'sin! this Svetambara te.t >5'oted also by the Fapaniya a'thor? to make the point that n'ns are e5'al to monks.

G$. See Chapter )) >J$G?. G9. See Chapter )) >J$9?. Both sects believe that the process of the destr'ction of karmas be!ins at the ei!hth !'nasthana, %hich is not accessible to anyone b't a mendicant. >=or e.ceptions to this r'le in the Svetambara tradition, see Chapter A), n. 1".? =rom this doctrine flo%s the Hi!ambara claim that a %oman %ho is barred from takin! the mendicant vo%s1that is, from reachin! the si.th !'nasthana1 cannot rise to the ei!hth !'nasthana. -h's in their vie% a %oman+s anatomy itself is obstr'ctive in initiatin! the process of the destr'ction of karmas. $#. Compare the verse 5'oted in Chapter )) >J$9?. $1. See J7G and Chapter )) >J9D?. $7. -he reason for re2ectin! the a'thenticity of this verse is evidently the %ord 9lin!a,9 %hich can only mean the physical si!n of !ender >as opposed to the %ord 9veda9 in J$7, %hich can mean both the !ender as %ell as the internal se.'al feelin!? and hence is not acceptable to the Hi!ambaras. =or an alternative te.t, see Chapter A) >J$ and n. $?. $". -he Prakrit Siddhabha"ti is attrib'ted to @'ndak'nda >see )rava'anasara , intro., p. 7D? and is daily recited by the Hi!ambara monks. )t sho'ld be noted that this verse %as not 5'oted by Sakatayana, b't Prabhacandra offers it as an alternative te.t to s'pport the Hi!ambara theory that only men can attain moksa. $B. See Chapter )) >J11D?. =or an additional ar!'ment that %omen do not have the necessary samhanana >2oints of the bones? to achieve the hi!her states of meditation, see Chapter )A >J1#?. $D. Both sides a!ree that animals1%ho can also e.perience any of the three kinds of se.'ality re!ardless of their biolo!ical !ender1are incapable of attainin! moksa, since they do not possess the necessary h'man body. $E. *ccordin! to the Hi!ambaras, one cannot attain s'kladhyana, a necessary antecedent to moksa, in a female body. =or additional 5'alifications, see Chapter A) >JG9 and n. 71?. =or details on the s'kladhyana, see J)) , pp. 7DD(7D9. $G. See Chapter )) >J11G?. $$. -he former and the latter moksas refer to the attainment of *rhatship and Siddhahood, respectively. See note 1. / 1"9 /

Cha1ter IV The #atparyavrtti o& the *i$ambara A,ar'a Ja'a%ena 2,. ""863 A Commentar' on the $rava"anasara o& 4-nda.-nda
Introd-,tion
>i? *ltho'!h Prabhacandra+s treatment of the strimoksa topic is 5'ite comprehensive, it cannot be denied that the script'ral evidence provided by the Dhavala >see Chapter ))), ii? on this iss'e %as anythin! b't concl'sive. -his m'st have led to the !eneral perception even amon! Hi!ambaras that they needed a more a'thoritative script're %ith %hich to s'pport that doctrine. -he $atparyavrtti >i.e., * Commentary 8ntitled 9-he P'rport9? of the t%elfth(cent'ry acarya Jayasena >see )rava'anasara ,

intro., pp. 9G(99? %o'ld seem to be an attempt to reinforce Prabhacandra+s concl'sions %ith the re5'isite script're that %o'ld once and for all dispel any do'bts abo't the official Hi!ambara vie%. -he $atparyavrtti is a commentary on @'ndak'nda+s )rava'anasara >Pkt. )avayanasara ?, a %ork of some t%o h'ndred and seventy(five verses divided into three chapters. )n the t%enty(fifth verse of the third chapter >%hich deals %ith the mendicant la%? @'ndak'nda states that the only 9re5'isite9 >upa"arana ? prescribed for a Jaina mendicant is his n'dity, the condition that characteri,ed him at birth >yatha%atarupam ?. )n Jayasena+s $atparyavrtti , this t%enty(fifth verse >see J19? is preceded by t%elve Prakrit verses that p'rport to be the ori!inal verses of @'ndak'nda, all of them devoted to 9the e.plicit ref'tation of moksa for %omen as propo'nded by those of the Svetambara sect9 >see J1?. ;o%ever, these t%elve verses do not appear in an earlier commentary, entitled $attvadipi"a , by the Hi!ambara a'thor *mrtacandra >c. tenth cent'ry?. *. K. Upadhye, the editor of the )rava'anasara >intro., p. 9D? has / 1B# / therefore s'!!ested that these t%elve Prakrit verses are probably 9later accretions9 >pra"sipta ? to the recension of that te.t 'sed by Jayasena for his commentary. :e!ardless of %ho mi!ht have added these verses to the ori!inal te.t of the )rava'anasara , it is evident that they %ere pres'med to s'pplement another te.t of @'ndak'nda, the Sutraprabhrta >see Chapter ), JG($?, %hich had initially declared that %omen %ere 'n%orthy of mendicant vo%s b't had stopped short of sayin! that there is no moksa for %omen. -%o of the t%elve additional verses in Jayasena+s te.t >JG and J$? are directly lifted from the Sutraprabhrta , and they are the ones that describe the bodies of %omen as breedin! places for s'btle forms of life. *s %e sa% in the comments of Sakatayana, the Fapaniyas >or the Svetambaras? had no disp'te %ith this description b't did not consider it an obstr'ction in %omen+s ass'min! the mahavratas and achievin! moksa. -he additional verses in Jayasena+s version make e.plicit %hat %as only implicit in the earlier %ork of @'ndak'nda by openly declarin! >J7? that there is no moksa for %omen in that very life and therefore the Iord *rhats have prescribed for them a mendicant emblem %ith clothes appropriate to their biolo!ical !ender >J1$?. >ii? Jayasena+s commentary is interestin! for certain additional information that is not fo'nd in earlier %orks. Sakatayana had stated that a %oman+s biolo!ical condition can be compared to an ailin! monk+s body >Chapter )), JD1?, %hich also can be infested %ith %orms, and hence there sho'ld be no difference in the r'les applied to them. Jayasena admits that even the body of a man is not e.empt from bein! the breedin! !ro'nd for vermin and so forth, b't he maintains >JG? that in the case of man this is insi!nificant1like a drop of poison compared to that of a %oman %hose entire body is s'ff'sed %ith poison. Sakatayana had also ta'ntin!ly asked that if a man >accordin! to the Hi!ambaras? can attain moksa even if he had e.perienced the female libido >striveda, i.e., desirin! a man?, then %hy cannot a %oman %ho has e.perienced the male libido >p'mveda, desirin! a %oman? be !ranted the same privile!e >Chapter )), J11D?P Jayasena ar!'es that the cases are not e5'al, beca'se 'nlike the %oman the man can have the best physical str'ct're >samhanana 0 see J1#? %ith %hich alone moksa can be attained. B't the traditional %orks on the doctrine of karma, %hich are accepted by both sects, do not contain s'ch a r'le and the Svetambara pointedly asks for Jayasena+s evidence. Jayasena 5'otes a verse that restricts the best samhanana to %omen born only in the bho!abh'mi >J1#?, renderin! it 'seless for attainin! moksa >see Chapter )), n. G?. *s %ill be seen belo%, the Svetambara a'thor 6e!havi2aya %ill re2ect it as sp'rio's and hence 'nacceptable >see J$D?. / 1B1 /

>iii? =inally, Jayasena+s commentary is remarkable for his 5'estion to the Svetambaras: if the -irthankara 6alli %as indeed a %oman, as they alle!e, then %hy do they %orship a male ima!e of herP -his is an important piece of evidence for the st'dy of Jaina icono!raphy %hich confirms that the Svetambara practice of 'sin! a male ima!e for the female 6alli is not of modern ori!in and conforms to the Svetambara canons of decency in iconic representation as e.plained by 6e!havi2aya in Chapter A) >JGG?. >iv? 6y translation corresponds to the te.t of the $atparyavrtti in Upadhye+s edition >19EB? of the )rava'anasara , pp. 7GD(7$#. -he verses of the )rava'anasara appear in boldface type in the translation, to enable the reader to easily distin!'ish the ori!inal te.t from the prose commentary >the $atparyavrtti ?.

Tran%lation
J1 3p. 7GD, line "4 Ko% the commentator e.plains this verse by emphasi,in! the prohibition of nirvana to %omen. -he disciple %ho follo%s the vie%s of the Svetambaras offers this prime facie assertion: The *harma 1rea,hed b' the ord o& the a%,eti,% >Jina? doe% not %ee. thi% (orld or the neFt. 0h' i% it= then= that >in the %ame Tea,hin$? a di&&erent .ind o& mendi,ant emblem 2lin$a3 >i.e.= that o& (earin$ ,lothe%? ha% been advo,ated a% an o1tion &or (omenI >K:?314 -his -eachin! does not seek this %orld1that is, s'ch thin!s as fame, honor, and !ain, %hich brin! abo't the destr'ction of that practice thro'!h %hich one obtains forever one+s o%n p're conscio'sness that is freed from all passions. 8.cept for the attainment of moksa, %hich is one+s o%n nat're, this dharma preached by the Iord of the Jinas, the -irthankara 3does not seek4 even the heavenly %orld, let alone this one. -his means that both heaven and the means for obtainin! pleas'res in the ne.t life are also not desired. Separate from the mendicant emblem of total nonpossession 3i.e., n'dity4, there has been established 3another emblem4, %hich is that %omen are to be covered by clothes. Chy is thisP -his verse has p't for%ard the prima facie assertion. J7 )n ans%er to this it is said: In realit'= mo.%a &or (omen i% not 1er,eived to o,,-r in thi% ver' li&e. There&ore= an o1tional mendi,ant emblem >allo(in$ her to (ear ,lothe%? ha% been enAoined= be,a-%e it i% a11ro1riate &or them. >K;? 36oksa4 is not possible for those 3%omen in that very body4 beca'se it is opposed to s'ch destinies as hell and to the nat're of infinite happiness and / 1B7 / so forth. =or this reason, a mendicant emblem has been en2oined separately that allo%s the %earin! of clothes and is therefore different from the emblem of n'dity. =or %homP =or %omen. J" Ko% the a'thor sho%s that %omen have e.cessive ne!li!ence >pramada ? that prevents the attainment of moksa: The nat-re o& (omen i% &-ll o& ne$li$en,e= and hen,e the' are de%i$nated a% 1ramadaD there&ore the%e (omen are %aid to be eF,e%%ivel' ne$li$ent. >K8? By nat're %omen are born f'll of ne!li!ence. -heir mental transformations lend %omen the appellation pamada >Skt. pramada?, %hich is fo'nd in le.icons as a synonym for %omen. -herefore, %omen are

said to be those in %hom are destroyed those practices by %hich one attains that hi!hest state %hich is free from all ne!li!ence. JB -he a'thor no% e.plains the e.cessive del'sion and so forth that %omen have: There i% no nirvana &or (omen be,a-%e the' are invariabl' %-bAe,t to the &ollo(in$H del-%ion= an$er= &ear= and di%$-%tD and their mind% are &illed (ith vario-% &orm% o& ,roo.edne%% 2ma'a3. >K#? -here invariably e.ist in %omen s'ch passions as del'sion and so forth, %hich are obstr'ctions to the ca'ses leadin! to moksa1namely, the reali,ation of one+s o%n nat're consistin! of infinite bliss, %hich arises only %hen one is freed from del'sion and so forth. -here also e.ists in %omen vario's forms of maya 3e.!., feminine !'ile4, %hich are contrary to the transformation of the so'l that leads to the hi!hest kno%led!e %hich is free from s'ch defects as crookedness and so forth. -he p'rport of the verse is that %omen cannot have nirvana, that state %hich is the s'pport for s'ch 5'alities as infinite bliss free from all s'fferin!. JD -he a'thor reinforces the same vie%: In the (hole (orld= there i% not a %in$le (oman (ho i% (itho-t even one o& tho%e >1a%%ion%?. 0omenC% limb% are not ,overed >at birth?D there&ore= the' need to ,over them%elve% >(ith ,lothe%?. >K"6? *mon! those vario's passions described above that destroy the reali,ation of the hi!hest self freed from all imp'rities, there is not one that is not to be fo'nd in %omen. 6anifestly their bodies or limbs are not covered 3at birth4. -herefore, it is en2oined in their case that they be covered %ith clothes. JE -he a'thor a!ain e.plains the imp'rities inherent in %omen that prevent their attainment of nirvana: 0omen are %-bAe,t to the %-dden ooLin$ o& blood >i.e.= the men%tr-al &lo(? , / 1B" / (hi,h brin$% abo-t both &i,.lene%% o& mind a% (ell a% (ea.ne%% o& bod' and $enerate% eFtremel' %-btle h-man or$ani%m%. >K""?374 -here e.ists in %omen that kind of moistness of mind, as it %ere, %hich is prod'ced by the flo% of desire. -his is beca'se of their e.cessive libido, %hich destroys the mind that is capable &f e.periencin! the p're conscio'sness of the self freed from all desires. Comen also have that fickleness of mind %hich is a state lackin! in the mental stren!th and firmness that make one %orthy of attainin! moksa in that very life. -hey also are s'b2ect month after month to the oo,in! of blood in the form of menstr'al flo%, %hich can start s'ddenly and last for three days0 it is capable of destroyin! their p'rity of mind. 3H'rin! that time,4 their bodies !enerate s'btle or!anisms capable of reachin! completion of their potential as h'man bein!s 3'nder certain circ'mstances4. JG -he a'thor describes the places %here these or!anisms are born: It i% %aid >in the %,ri1t-re%? that %-btle or$ani%m% $ro( in the &emaleC% or$an o& $eneration= in bet(een her brea%t%= and in her navel and arm1it%. <o( ,an %he ob%erve the mendi,ant vo(%I >K"@? *ccordin! to the script'res, the prod'ction of s'btle h'man or!anisms and so forth takes place in the %oman+s or!an of !eneration, in bet%een her breasts, and in her navel and armpits. 3 : *re not men also s'b2ect to the same fa'lts 3in that similar or!anisms may also be !enerated in similar places in their bodies4P

- : &ne sho'ld not say so, beca'se s'ch or!anisms are born in e.cessive 5'antities in %omen. -here is no e5'ality bet%een the t%o se.es 2'st beca'se these or!anisms are fo'nd also in men. )n the case of 3men4, there is only a speck of poison0 b't for the others 3i.e., %omen4, that poison is 'bi5'ito's. So ho% can e5'ality e.ist bet%een themP 6oreover, beca'se of the stren!th of the first 3three4 2oints >samhanana? in the case of men, these blemishes may be removed0 therefore, they have those 3mendicant4 restraints that res'lt in the attainment of moksa 3in that very life4. -his bein! the case, ho% can %omen practice similar restraintP J$ Ko% the a'thor re2ects any possibility of %omen destroyin! the totality of karmas, %hich alone can brin! abo't moksa in that very life: Even i& (omen are in 1o%%e%%ion o& 1-re &aith= en$a$e in %,ri1t-ral %t-d'= and 1ra,ti,e a %evere ,o-r%e o& ,ond-,t= >the %,ri1t-re%? do not mention their abilit' to brin$ abo-t the ,om1lete eFha-%tion o& .arma%. >K"B? *ltho'!h %omen are p're by virt'e of havin! the ri!ht vie% and en!a!e in st'dyin! the canonical te.ts 3the -nga-sutras 4, or even if they practice / 1BB / severe a'sterities, s'ch as fastin! for a fortni!ht or t%o and so forth, even so, the script'res do not proclaim that %omen have the ability to e.ha'st the karmas completely in that very life. J9 6oreover, 2'st as %omen are not reborn in the seventh hell on acco'nt of the absence of the first samhanana, so 3for the same reason4 they do not attain moksa. 3 : B't %hat abo't the follo%in! verse, accordin! to %hich yo' admit that nirvana is possible for 3a male4 %ho is psycholo!ically female >bhavastri? 3i.e., a male %ho e.periences female libido and desires a male4P -hose %ho have climbed the ladder of destr'ction of the karmas %hile e.periencin! male libido, as %ell as those in %hom the other libidos occ'r1they too, en!a!ed in meditation, %ill attain moksa. 3)ra"rta-Siddhabha"ti , verse E4 - : -hose 3males4 %ho are psycholo!ically female can attain nirvana beca'se they possess the first type of samhanana 3the va%ra-vrsabha-nara'a-samhanana , i.e., the adamantine or perfect 2oint of bones noted for e.traordinary st'rdiness and stren!th4. )n the absence of biolo!ically female bodies they are not s'b2ect to the severe manifestations of se.'al desire that obstr'ct the attainment of moksa in that very life. J1# >Svetambara:4 Chy is it not stated in the script'res that a person %ith a female body does not possess 3the first type of4 samhananaP3"4 3Hi!ambara:4 3)t is so stated as4, for e.ample, in the follo%in! verse: )t has been declared by the Jinas that %omen born in the karmabh'mi have only the last three samhananas0 they cannot have the first three samhananas. 3Gommatasara(arma"anda , verse "743B4 J11 3Svetambara:4 )f indeed there is no moksa for %omen, then ho% do yo' acco'nt for the fact that the n'ns >aryikas? of yo'r sect ass'me the mahavratasP3D4 3Hi!ambara:4 *ns%er: Comen ass'me mahavratas in only a conventional sense >'pacara?, in order to establish them in the 9family9 3i.e., the !ro'p of those %ho reno'nce the %orld4. S'rely a conventional 'sa!e does not deserve to be taken as an absol'te one, as, for e.ample, in the sentence 9-his Hevadatta

is fire,9 %hich can only mean that 3Hevadatta4 is cr'el 3and not that Hevadatta is literally fire4. 6oreover, it is said that a conventional meanin! prevails in the absence of the primary meanin! and %hen that is the intention of the speaker. J17 6oreover, if indeed 3as the Svetambaras believe4 a n'n may attain moksa in that very life, then ho% is it that in yo'r mendicant order a monk %ho has been ordained only that very day is %orthy of bein! reverentially / 1BD / !reeted by a n'n %ho %as ordained a h'ndred years earlierP Chy is it that she is not to be reverentially !reeted first by himP3E4 J1" )n yo'r doctrine, it is also said that the -irthankara 6alli %as female.3G4 B't that too is not proper. &ne becomes a -irthankara by havin! first practiced in a former life the si.teen practices3$4 be!innin! %ith the p'rification of the ri!ht vie% >darsanavisuddhi ? and not other%ise. * person %ho possesses the ri!ht vie% can never bind those karmas that %ill prod'ce a female body.394 S'ch bein! the case, ho% can a -irthankara be born as a femaleP J1B 6oreover, if indeed the -irthankara 6alli or anyone else attained moksa %hile havin! been born as a female, then %hy is it that yo' do not %orship a female ima!e of herP31#4 J1D 3Svetambara:4 )f indeed, as yo' alle!e, the fore!oin! blemishes do e.ist in %omen, then %hat abo't 3the statement in the script'res that4 s'ch %omen as Sita, :'kmini, @'nti, Hra'padi, S'bhadra, and others %ere ordained as Jaina n'ns, practiced e.traordinary a'sterities, and %ere born in the si.teenth heavenP3114 J1E 3Hi!ambara:4 *ns%er: -his is not a problem. ;avin! ret'rned from that heaven, s'ch %omen %ill be reborn as males and then %ill attain moksa in that life0 it is 2'st that there is no moksa for a %oman in that very life. B't if %omen attain moksa in some other life 3%hen they are reborn as men4, then %hat fa'lt %o'ld there beP J1G -his is the p'rport of the disc'ssion. &ne sho'ld 'nderstand the tr'e nat're of thin!s for oneself and sho'ld not en!a!e in disp'tes %ith others. Chy soP )n disp'tes there arise attachment and aversion, %hich destroy the contemplation on the p're self. J1$ Ko%, as a concl'sion, the a'thor presents the definitive position 3on this topic4: There&ore= the Jina% have 1re%,ribed a mendi,ant emblem 2lin$a3 &or (omen that i% a11ro1riate to them >i.e.= that the' m-%t (ear ,lothe%?. Tho%e (omen (ill be ,alled &emale a%,eti,% >%ramani= i.e.= n-n%? (ho have >$ood? &amil'= >1ro1er? &orm and a$e= and (ho 1ra,ti,e the vo(%. >K"9? Since %omen cannot achieve moksa in that very life, the -irthankaras have declared an appropriate mendicant emblem for them1that is, coverin! their bodies %ith clothes. By the %ord 9family9 is meant that %hich is not considered disrep'table in the %orld0 hence, she is %orthy of bein! initiated as a n'n. -he %ord 9form9 means the e.ternal feat'res 3of body4 that sho% no blemishes1that is, that %hich conveys the p'rity of mind that is born of internal freedom from passions, or that %hich is free / 1BE / from any deformities of the body. 9*!e9 means that %hich is free from s'ch inade5'acies as bein! too old, too yo'n!, or mentally deficient. * n'n sho'ld therefore be one %ho has proper family, form, and

a!e. S'ch %omen are called n'ns beca'se they practice the cond'ct that has been laid do%n in the books of mendicant discipline as bein! appropriate for them. . .. 3Xp. 7G$, line 7"(p. 7G9, line 1B43174 J19 Ko% the acarya 3@'ndak'nda4 describes in specific terms the e.ceptions made to the !eneral proposition re!ardin! possessions: In the 1ath o& the Jina >i.e.= in the Jaina mendi,ant order?= the a,,e1table a%,eti, reE-i%ite% are %aid to be the emblem ,on%i%tin$ o& the 1h'%i,al &orm in (hi,h one (a% born= namel'= total n-dit'. Similarl'= the (ord% o& the tea,her% >i.e.= the %,ri1t-re%?= the a11ro1riate de&eren,e to the tea,her% >i.e.= 1er&ormin$ the &ormal rite%?= a% (ell a% %,ri1t-ral %t-d'= are al%o to be ,on%idered the reE-i%ite% &or the mendi,ant li&e. >$rava"anasara= iii= @5?31"4

Note%
1. -he editor of the )rava'anasara 'ses an asterisk to indicate that these verses are later accretions >pra"sipta ? to the ori!inal te.t. See section >i?. 7. Aerses 11, 17, and 1" are probably taken from the Sutraprabhrta of @'ndak'nda. See Chapter ) >JE( $?. ". -he Jaina karma te.ts speak of si. types of bone 2oints >samhanana?. -he first is the perfect 2oint >called va2ra(vrsabha(naraca(samhanana?, noted for its adamantine 5'ality of !reat st'rdiness and stren!th. -he remainin! five are pro!ressively %eaker. 8ach h'man bein! is born %ith one of these si. samhananas, %hich remain the same for the d'ration of one+s life. ;'man bein!s born %ith one of the first three samhananas are said to be capable of 2oinin! the mendicant order. B't moksa is possible only for those %ho are born %ith the first samhanana. -his is beca'se only persons endo%ed %ith s'ch adamantine 2oints are said to be capable of %ithstandin! the ri!ors of a'sterities that lead to the hi!hest form of meditation called the s'kladhyana >see Chapter )ll, n. $E? %itho't %hich moksa cannot be achieved. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that birth in the seventh hell is also possible only to those bein!s >namely, men and fish0 see Chapter )) n. 1$? %ho are endo%ed %ith the first samhanana. =or details see JS( )), p. "71, and -atia and @'mar >19$1, p. $"?. B. -he 5'estion of the opponent here is that if %omen too can have the first three samhananas, then the Hi!ambara prohibition a!ainst their ass'min! the mendicant vo%s or even attainin! moksa is not s'pported by their o%n script're. Jayasena therefore cites this verse as the a'thority in s'pport of the Hi!ambara vie%. -he verse declares that the first three samhananas are available only to the %omen born in the bho!abh'mi >see Chapter )), n. G? and not to those %ho are born in the karmabh'mi. Both sects have believed that bein!s born in the bho!abh'mi cannot be reborn in hells or practice mendicancy or attain moksa0 these are possible only from a birth in the karmabh'mi. -h's accordin! to this verse %omen are barred from enterin! mendicancy and from attainin! moksa, and hence it serves as / 1BG / script'ral evidence for the Hi!ambara vie%. Jayasena is here 5'otin! from the eleventh(cent'ry Kemicandra+s Gommatasara-(arma"anda >verse "7?. *s %ill be seen, the Svetambara %riter 6e!havi2aya >see Chapter A), J$D? re2ects this 5'otation as 'na'thentic and hence 'nacceptable to his sect. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this passa!e see Aakil >19ED?, %ho has ar!'ed that this verse co'ld be an interpolation to 2'stify the Hi!ambara position on strimoksa. D. See Chapter ) >nn. 9 and 1B?.

E. See Chapter )) >JEB?. G. =or the le!end of 6alli, see the )ntrod'ction >J7B?. $. =or a list of the si.teen observances leadin! to rebirth as a -irthankara, see $attvarthasutra , vi, 7B. =or a comparison %ith the B'ddhist doctrine of the practice of paramitas >perfections?, see Jaini >19$1?. 9. See Chapter )) >n. DG?. 1#. =or a disc'ssion on the icono!raphy of 6alli, see Chapter A) >JGG?. 11. Since the possibility of a %oman+s !oin! to heaven is not disp'ted, this ob2ection is probably sp'rio's. 17. Aerse 3X1D4 deals %ith ordination of men and hence is omitted here. 1". -his is @'ndak'nda+s ori!inal verse and serves as the script'ral a'thority for the Hi!ambara claim that n'dity is a prere5'isite for a tr'e member of the Jaina mendicant order. )t may be noted that @'ndak'nda does not even mention the %hisk broom >pinchi? or the %ater !o'rd >kamandal'? as the re5'isites, altho'!h in practice these serve to identify a Hi!ambara monk and distin!'ish him from the Svetambara mendicants %ho in addition %ear clothes and keep bo%ls for collectin! food as %ell as carry a %ooden staff. / 1B$ /

Cha1ter V The #arkarahasyadipikavrtti o& the Svetambara A,ar'a G-naratna 2,. "B9B/"9"83 A Commentar' on the Saddarsanasamu""aya o& <aribhadra
Introd-,tion
>i? -he ne.t selection is from the $ar"arahasyadipi"avrtti >i.e., * Commentary entitled 9-he )ll'minator of the Secret of *r!'ments9? by the fo'rteenth(cent'ry Svetambara acarya <'naratna on the Saddarsanasamu''aya of the ei!hth(cent'ry Svetambara acarya ;aribhadra >see Chapter )), iv?. )n this compact %ork of only ei!hty(seven verses, ;aribhadra, for the first time, or!ani,ed the doctrines of the si. philosophical schools >darsanas ?1namely, the B'ddhist, the Kaiyayika, the Samkhya, the Jaina, the Aaisesika, and the Jaiminiya, in that order1tr'ly a forer'nner of the Brahmanical Sarvadarsanasangraha of the fo'rteenth(cent'ry 6adhava. <'naratna+s commentary th's amo'nts almost to an independent %ork consistin! of a vast amo'nt of descriptive as %ell as polemical material, p'rportedly an elaboration on the themes listed in the verses of ;aribhadra. &n many occasions, ho%ever, <'naratna, in the tr'e tradition of the )ndian commentator, takes on the additional task of coverin! many controversial topics that mi!ht have been i!nored by the ori!inal a'thor as only of sectarian interest and therefore of little val'e in a man'al of philosophy. Strimoksa may be considered one s'ch topic that is not mentioned in ;aribhadra+s te.t b't o%es its treatment to <'naratna+s initiative. )t !ives <'naratna an opport'nity to respond to the Hi!ambara e.amination of the strimoksa theory as contained, for e.ample, in the ,yaya"umuda'andra and to establish the Svetambaras as the tr'e representatives of the Jaina tradition.

/ 1B9 / >ii? <'naratna+s %ork is also distin!'ished for bein! the first Jaina %ork of this !enre to provide information on the contemporary Jaina sects and their essential characteristics. )ntrod'ctin! the 9Jainamata,9 or the tradition of the Jainas, he says: =irst %e %ill describe the monastic emblems 3lin!a0 see Chapter ), n. E4, the dress >vesa ? and the mendicant cond'ct >caritra?, and so forth, of those %ho belon! to the Jaina tradition. Jainas are t%ofold: the Svetambara and the Hi!ambara. -he emblem of the Svetambara 3mendicants4 consists of the ra2oharana 3the %hisk broom0 see Chapter ), n. E4, the mu"havastri"a 3a piece of cloth held in front of the mo'th %hile preachin! or readin!4, and lo'a 3the pl'ckin! o't of one+s hair by hand4, and their dress consists of 3three4 lon!, 'nstitched pieces of cloth. -heir mendicant cond'ct consists of five samitis 3caref'lness in %alkin!, speech, eatin!, liftin! and layin! do%n, and depositin! %aste prod'cts4 and three guptis 3c'rbin! the activities of body, speech, and mind4. -heir guru 3monastic teacher4 is the nir!rantha >see Chapter ), n. 174, one %ho has control over the five sense fac'lties >indriya ?, has con5'ered an!er and so forth, and is endo%ed %ith the mendicant vo%s 3Chapter ), n. 94 of nonviolence, tr'thf'lness, nontheft, celibacy, and nonpossession 3a"in'anya , lit. nothin!ness4. -heir food consists invariably of alms collected 3from different ho'seholds4 in the manner of a bee 3%hich !athers honey from different flo%ers4 and %hich is p're in nine %ays 3not prepared by oneself or !ot prepared by others, or prepared %ith the consent of the receiver, each m'ltiplied by the three modes of action, namely, the body, speech, and mind4. -hey %ear clothes and carry the patra 3bo%l for collectin! food4 only for the sake of maintainin! their vo%s, and %hen !reeted 3by the lay people4 they respond by sayin! 9dharma-labha 9 3may there be !ain of ri!hteo'sness4. -he Hi!ambara 3mendicants4, ho%ever, are characteri,ed by n'dity >nagnya ? and 'se only their 2oined palms to receive food 3panipatra0 see Chapter ), n. B4. -he Hi!ambaras are fo'rfold as they are divided into the fo'r mendicant linea!es called the @asthasan!ha, the 6'lasan!ha, the 6ath'rasan!ha, and the <opyasan!ha. )n the @asthasan!ha the %hisk broom is made of the hair of the yak tail, in the 6'lasan!ha and the <opyasan!ha it is made of peacock+s feathers, %hile the 6ath'rasan!ha has from the be!innin! 3of their linea!e4 not kept any %hisk broom. -he first three !ro'ps %hen reverentially !reeted by others 3i.e., the lay people4 respond 3by the %ords4 9dharma-vrddhi 9 3may there be increase in ri!hteo'sness4. -hey do not believe that a %oman can attain moksa, or that a @evalin eats food, or that a clothed person even if he has ass'med the !reat vo%s 3e.!., a monk of the Svetambara sect4 can attain moksa. B't the <opyas 3like the Svetambaras4 %hen !reeted respond by sayin! 9dharma-labha 9 and believe that %omen can attain moksa and also that the @evalin eats food. -he <opyas are also called Fapaniya 3see Chapter )), iii4. *ll these 3Hi!ambara4 monks stop %anderin! for food or eatin! that day %hen confronted by any of the thirty(t%o kinds of obstr'ctions 3antaraya 0 e.!., the si!ht of a dead animal4 or fo'rteen kinds of dirt 3mala 0 e.!., a strand of hair fo'nd in food4. 3=or details on these see Saddarsanasamu''aya , p. 1E1, nn. B(D.4 / 1D# / *s for the rest, in all matters pertainin! to the teachers >!'r'? as %ell as the Heity 3deva, i.e., the Iord Jina4, they are comparable to the Svetambaras0 there is no distinction in their

doctrinal >sastra ? or lo!ical >tar"a ? treatises. 3Saddarsanasamu''aya , pp. 1E#(1E14 >iii? <'naratna+s acco'nt of the Jaina sects a!rees %ith the one provided by the si.teenth(cent'ry Hi!ambara bhattaraka Sr'tasa!ara, a follo%er of the 6'lasan!ha, %hich traced its linea!e to the acarya @'ndak'nda himself. Sr'tasa!ara declares that only the 6'lasan!ha is the ori!inal >mula ? path of moksa and cites a verse that condemns the follo%in! five as pse'do(Jainas >Jainabhasa?: the <op'cchika >i.e., the @asthasan!ha?, the Svetambara, the Hravidasan!ha >a So'th )ndian !ro'p not noticed by <'naratna?, the Fapaniyaka, and the Kispiccha >i.e., the 6ath'rasan!ha?. >'ktam ca1 <op'cchikah Svetavasa Hravido Fapaniyakah, Kispicchas ceti paRcaite Jainabhasah prakirtitah0 Satprabhrtadisangrahah , p. 11.? &f the fo'r non(Svetambara sects mentioned here only the 6'lasan!ha s'rvives today, b't the inscriptional evidence >see Johrap'rkar, 19D$? sho%s that the @asthasan!ha >named after @astha, a place near Helhi? and the 6ath'rasan!ha >named after the city of 6ath'ra near *!ra? contin'ed to e.ist almost to the end of the nineteenth cent'ry. *s for the Fapaniyas, it is not clear %hether Sr'tasa!ara co'nted them amon! the Hi!ambaras0 b't as disc'ssed earlier >Chapter )), J"? by his time they %ere probably assimilated %ith the Hi!ambaras, a concl'sion that is s'pported by <'naratna+s acco'nt. B't this does not prevent <'naratna, as %as the case %ith several of his predecessors >*bhayadeva, Santis'ri, ;emacandra, 6alaya!iri, and :atnaprabha0 see Chapter )), JE?, from 'sin! the so(called Hi!ambara(Fapaniya ar!'ments in favor of strimoksa a!ainst the other Hi!ambaras %ho re2ected it as a heresy. <'naratna+s strimoksa section opens %ith a declaration that 9the Hi!ambaras display their line of reasonin!9 and be!ins %ith the syllo!istic statement >prayo!a? offered by Prabhacandra >%itho't mentionin! his name?, b't the rest of his debate is heavily indebted to the >'nackno%led!ed? Fapaniya a'thor Sakatayana+s Strinirvanapra"arana and its Svopa%navrtti . >iv? 6y translation corresponds to the te.t of the $ar"arahasyadipi"avrtti in the edition of the Saddarsanasamu''aya , pp. "#1("#$, by Pandit 6ahendra @'mar Jain >19G#?.

Tran%lation
J1 ;ere the Hi!ambaras display their o%n line of reasonin!: %e a!ree on yo'r definition of moksa, b't %e maintain that this is possible for men / 1D1 / b't not for %omen. *ccordin!ly %e state the follo%in! ar!'ment: Comen are not eli!ible for moksa0 beca'se they are inferior to men0 like a hermaphrodite.314 J7 ;ere %e 3the Svetambaras4 ask: %hy do yo' consider %omen inferiorP )s it beca'se yo' think: >i? they are incapable of 'ndertakin! the hi!hest form of ren'nciation0 >ii? they are deficient in physical and mental vi!or0 >iii? they are devoid of 3yo!ic4 po%ers of en!a!in! in debates and so forth0 >iv? they are not !reeted by men 3e.!., the monks do not !reet n'ns40 >v? they lack the ability to teach and !'ide others0 >vi? they lack the splendor and ma2esty 3s'ch as one associates %ith kin!s40 >vii? or beca'se they are considered e.cessively c'nnin! 3beca'se of their innate feminine !'ile and so forth4P374 J" &f these, the first ar!'ment cannot stand 'p to scr'tiny. )s this alle!ed lack of 3total4 ren'nciation d'e to her %earin! clothesP &r is it beca'se her nat're has a deficiency 3that prevents her from ass'min! the vo%s of total ren'nciation4P JB )f it is beca'se of the first, that is, beca'se she %ears clothes, then %e m'st ask yo' %hether the clothes themselves merely by bein! %orn are a ca'se for s'ch inability to attain ren'nciation, or do

they become a ca'se only %hen they are cherished as possessions 3as in the case of a layman4P JD )f they become a ca'se merely by their 'se, then do the n'ns 3havin! abandoned everythin! else4 retain their clothes beca'se they are 'nable to abandon them alto!ether, or beca'se they 'se them as an aid to their holy lifeP JE -he first alternative, that they are 'nable to reno'nce clothes, is not admissible, since nothin! is dearer than life, and one can see these %omen abandonin! even their lives0 %hy even talk of their 3insi!nificant4 clothesP3"4 JG )f, ho%ever, clothes are %orn as an aid to a holy life, then %e maintain that they are no %orse than o'r monks 3%ho %ear clothes and still1beca'se they are male1are able to attain moksa4.3B4 J$ 3Hi!ambara:4 3B't s'rely the cases are not identical.4 =or %omen are po%erless and 3if they are not clothed4 v'lnerable to attack and rape by men. -heir lack of clothes can, therefore, be a hindrance to their leadin! a holy life. S'ch is not the case, ho%ever, %ith men. Ce maintain, therefore, that a man does not need clothes at all and m'st abandon them 3in order to attain moksa4.3D4 J9 3Svetambara:4 Ce do not accept the position that clothes, per se, are / 1D7 / detrimental to moksa. &n the contrary, %e consider them to be helpf'l, 2'st like, for e.ample, food and so forth 3i.e., d%ellin!, be!!in! bo%l, and so on4.3E4 J1# *s for yo'r ar!'ment that clothes, %hen %orn, m'st become cherished possessions, 3%e m'st ask yo'r reasons for holdin! s'ch a vie%4. )s it beca'se of attachmentP )f so, is merely %earin! them ca'se for attachment or is even 2'st contact %ith them also ca'se for attachmentP &r is it beca'se yo' consider clothes to be a so'rce for the !ro%th of vermin 3th's leadin! to the necessity of harm >himsa? bein! done to them by the %earer4P J11 )f the first1that is, yo' think that clothes per se are a ca'se for attachment1then yo' m'st also admit that the body, also, is a ca'se for attachment.3G4 J17 3Hi!ambara:4 Ce maintain that s'ch is not the case, since body and clothes are not identical, beca'se one is internal and diffic'lt to obtain and the other is e.ternal and easily obtained. J1" 3Svetambara:4 -hat is all the more reason to believe that the body %ill be a !reater so'rce of attachmentS J1B )f the body is a so'rce of attachment, then %hy is it not forsaken to start %ithP )s it beca'se, like clothes, it is diffic'lt to abandon, or is it beca'se it is considered an aid to attainin! moksaP J1D )f the first alternative, then is it diffic'lt for everybody to abandon his body or only for some peopleP J1E Certainly it is not diffic'lt for all. Fo' %ill admit that there are many 3non(Jaina ascetics4 %ho abandon their lives by self(immolation and so forth.3$4 J1G )f, therefore, it is only diffic'lt for some people to abandon their bodies, then like%ise yo' m'st admit that it is only diffic'lt for some people to abandon their clothes. J1$ 3Hi!ambara:4 S'rely the body is a so'rce of attachment, b't it is also a means of livin! a holy life, leadin! to moksa. 3-herefore it sho'ld not be discarded.4 J19 3Svetambara:4 )f so, %e s'bmit that even clothes, for some people %ho lack that kind of stren!th 3needed for total n'dity4, are a means to leadin! a holy life, since they 3the clothes4, like the body,

s'stain them in their st'dy and so forth. J7# 3Svetambara:4 :et'rnin! to the second alternative1namely, that one becomes attached to clothes merely by %earin! them1ima!ine a sit'ation in %hich a naked monk 3of yo'r sect4 is seated in meditation d'rin! a cold %inter and a pio's man comes across him in that position, / 1D" / thinks that it is too cold, and thro%s a piece of cloth over him. S'rely yo' %o'ld not, at this point, consider him to be attached to that !armentP394 J71 6oreover, if one becomes attached to somethin! merely by contact, then yo' m'st admit that even the -irthankara, the holy Jina, %o'ld be !'ilty of s'ch attachment 3beca'se he constantly comes into contact %ith the earth, and so forth, beca'se he moves from place to place to preach the Ia%4. -h's, desirin! profit, yo' have tr'ly s5'andered yo'r capitalS31#4 J77 *s for the last ar!'ment, that clothes are liable to become the breedin! !ro'nd of vermin and so forth, %ho does not kno% that the body is the breedin! !ro'nd of co'ntless lice, crab lice, and so forth, and therefore m'st also be considered a possession 3that %o'ld prevent the attainment of moksa4P J7" 3Hi!ambara:4 Ce admit that the body is the breedin! !ro'nd for insects, b't 3since it cannot be literally discarded4 %e c'ltivate e.treme detachment to%ard it, and therefore it ceases to be a so'rce of impediment to the monk. J7B 3Svetambara:4 B't %hy does this r'le s'ddenly disappear %hen it comes to clothesP 3Iiterally, ;as the r'le been eaten by cro%sP4 )t is certainly possible to prevent the !ro%th of vermin and so forth by caref'lly stitchin! and %ashin! the clothes. -herefore it cannot be maintained that complete ren'nciation is not possible for %omen beca'se they %ear clothes. J7D 3Svetambara:4 Kor can yo' say that they are deficient in physical and mental vi!or >sattva?, since by vi!or %e 'nderstand the ability to take on vo%s and a'sterities, and plenty of that vi!or is to be fo'nd in those %omen %ho are endo%ed %ith !reat virt'es and have 'nder!one severe a'sterities 3s'ch as fastin!4.3114 -herefore it is %ron! to say that they are inferior d'e to lack of 3mendicant4 restraints. J7E 3Hi!ambara:4 Ce admit that %omen are capable of ass'min! ordinary 3i.e., minor4 restraints 3or vo%s s'ch as are ass'med by the lay(men4, b't not the restraint that has reached its peak and is kno%n as yatha"hyata.3174 )ts absence in a %oman is proof of her inferiority to men. J7G 3Svetambara:4 *s for this alle!ed absence of the hi!hest form of holy cond'ct in %omen, %hat is it d'e toP )s it d'e to the total absence of conditions cond'cive to its presence, or is it d'e to adverse factors that prevent its reali,ationP -he first alternative %ill not do, since the hi!hest form of p're cond'ct depends on none other than the lo%er forms of reli!io's and ascetic practices, %hich yo' have 2'st admitted %omen can f'lfill. *s for the act'al attainment of the yatha"hyata-'aritra 3the p'rest form of the holy cond'ct4, s'rely %ho of 's can be 2'd!e of thatP 3-hat is, it / 1DB / is not verifiable by anyone e.cept the &mniscient Jina.4 Ce therefore re2ect yo'r claim that %omen are inferior beca'se they lack the p'rest cond'ct. J7$ 3Hi!ambara:4 3-hey m'st be considered inferior and incapable of attainin! the hi!hest cond'ct4 beca'se they are devoid of the special capability 3i.e., they are mediocre4.

3Svetambara:4 Ho yo' hold this vie% beca'se of their inability to !ain rebirth in the seventh, the lo%est, hell, or beca'se they are devoid of s'ch 3yo!ic4 po%ers 3that enable a man4 to en!a!e in debates and so forth, or beca'se of their little er'dition 3in the script'res1all three points over %hich there is no disp'te bet%een the t%o sects4P31"4 J79 3Svetambara:4 -he first reason does not s'pport yo'r position, since the absence of %omen+s ability to !o to the lo%est hell is spoken %ith reference to that life in %hich they attain moksa1or is it merely a !eneral statementP J"# )f the first alternative, then men also %ho are destined to attain moksa in a partic'lar life lack 3in the same life4 the ability to be reborn in the seventh hell, and hence they too, lackin! that ability, %ill not attain moksaS J"1 )f the second alternative, then probably this is %hat yo' 3the Hi!ambaras4 think: -he attainment of any e.treme state 3%hether !ood or evil4 is possible only by hi!hest endeavor. Ko% there are only t%o s'ch e.treme states, namely, the seventh hell, the abode of the most e.treme form of pain, and moksa, the abode of the most e.treme form of happiness. J'st as the rebirth for %omen in the seventh hell is prohibited in the script'res, beca'se of the absence in them of that kind of 3imp're4 mental stren!th %hich is capable of leadin! to that e.tremely 'nhappy abode, similarly, moksa %ill not be possible for them, since they lack that perfect %holesome stren!th 3%hich alone brin!s abo't the attainment of moksa4. -o present it in syllo!istic form: -he hi!hest form of the p'rest mental stren!th, %hich is the ca'se for moksa, is not fo'nd amon! %omen0 beca'se it is the hi!hest e.treme0 as in the case of their lackin! the hi!hest e.treme of the most imp're mental stren!th, %hich 3alone4 leads to the lo%est, namely, the seventh, hell.31B4 J"7 3Svetambara:4 -his is incorrect, beca'se of the absence of invariable concomitance 3bet%een attainin! moksa and bein! born in the lo%est hell4. * reason does not become concl'sive merely by e.trinsic pervasion b't by 3the presence of4 an intrinsic pervasion0 other%ise a reason similar to 93- is black4 beca'se he is the son of him 3i.e., B 49 %ill also be concl'siveS -he intrinsic pervasion is proved only by the force of the invariable concomitance, and in this case there is none of it. -herefore yo'r fore!oin! reason 3i.e., a %oman+s inability to !o to the seventh hell4 is of a / 1DD / d'bio's nat're, since it is do'btf'l %hether or not it is e.cl'ded from all dissimilar instances. J"" 3Svetambara:4 Fo'r reason, moreover, definitely !oes a!ainst those cases of bein!s %ho are in their final incarnation 3i.e., those %ho m'st attain moksa after their death4. -hey have the ener!y to prod'ce conditions re5'ired for attainin! salvation, b't they do not have the kind of ener!y that %ill lead them to the seventh hell.31D4 Conversely, the script're speaks of a species of fish %hich is credited %ith that e.treme form of 3'n%holesome4 mental ener!y %hich can ca'se rebirth in the seventh hell,31E4 and yet they do not have that e.treme form of %holesome mental ener!y %hich leads to attainment of moksa 3in that life4. J"B Kor is there a r'le that bein!s %hose capacity to be reborn in the lo%er %orlds 3i.e., in the hells4 is small m'st necessarily possess a similar small capacity for rebirth in 'pper abodes 3i.e., in the heavens4, since s'ch a pres'mption is contrary to the script'ral passa!e that reads: -hose bein!s that cra%l on their sho'lders may be reborn in the second hell and no f'rther0 birds as far as the third0 5'adr'peds as far as the fo'rth0 snakes as far as the fifth 3hell4. *nd

yet all these bein!s may be reborn in all the heavens, 'p to the Sahasrara heaven.31G4 -herefore the absence of 3%omen+s4 ability to !o to the seventh hell does not prove the absence 3in them4 of the e.cellence of that partic'lar capacity 3essential for the attainment of moksa4. J"D 3Svetambara:4 Kor is the ar!'ment that %omen are devoid of the 3yo!ic4 po%ers 3of control over demi!ods and so forth4 %ith %hich to en!a!e in debates or in preachin! and so forth 3prove that they are inferior to men4, since the ass'mption 3that there is a correlation bet%een preachin! and attainment of moksa4 !oes contrary to the class of &mniscient Bein!s %ho prefer to remain silent, that is, do not preach >mu"a-"evalins ? 3and yet attain moksa4. J"E 3Svetambara:4 *s for the ar!'ment that %omen have little learnin! 3and hence are inferior to men4, it sho'ld not even be mentioned. )t %ill be at variance %ith the case of those 3liberated4 monks %ho 3merely by4 seein! the difference bet%een chaff >tusa ? and !rain >masa ? %ere able to distin!'ish bet%een the body and the so'l.31$4 &ne can certainly infer that they had the re5'isite capacity to attain moksa 3despite their little ed'cation4. -h's yo'r ar!'ments to prove that %omen lack the special capacity to attain moksa are not valid. J"G Kor can the ar!'ment of not bein! !reeted by men prove the inferiority of %omen. *re yo' 3i.e., the Hi!ambaras4 makin! this a !eneral statement 3that no man ever !reets a %oman %ith reverence4 or are yo' / 1DE / sayin! that only men %ho are of hi!her rank by virt'e of their p're cond'ct 3do not !reet %omen %ith reverence4P J"$ *s for the first alternative, that is patently %ron!, since the mothers of the -irthankaras are %orshiped not only by men b't even by the kin!s of !ods and so forth 3%ho it is believed descend to earth at the time of the birth of a -irthankara4. J"9 Kor is the second alternative viable. Consider the e.ample of the chief 3male4 disciples of the -irthankara, the !anadharas. -hey are not !reeted by their s'perior, the -irthankara0 by yo'r ar!'ment the !anadharas also bein! inferior 3to the -irthankaras4 sho'ld not attain moksaS JB# 6oreover, it is not really tr'e that n'ns are not !reeted by their s'periors. =or it is an established fact that the -irthankaras 3%hile they do not %orship any partic'lar individ'al4 do, 3ho%ever,4 !reet the fo'rfold assembly of the Jaina order >san!ha?, %hich by definition incl'des the n'ns 3to!ether %ith monks, laymen, and lay%omen4. Since the n'ns are th's !reeted by the -irthankaras, ho% can yo' maintain that %omen are inferior 3to men beca'se they are not !reeted by their s'periors4P JB1 3Svetambara:4 ='rthermore, if yo' consider %omen 3i.e., the n'ns4 to be inferior 3and hence 'nable to attain moksa4 beca'se they cannot receive confessions 3from monks4 and admonish 3them4, then only the learned teachers of the monastic order >acaryas? %ill attain moksa, and not the 3'nfort'nate4 disciples 3%ho neither teach nor !'ide4S JB7 3Svetambara:4 *s for the ar!'ment that 3%omen are inferior beca'se4 they lack splendor and ma2esty 3%hich are fo'nd amon! men4, that too is ill considered, since it is %ell kno%n that sometimes even the poorest, most miserable people attain moksa, %hile even the most prospero's persons and s'ch di!nitaries as the cakravartins do not.3194 JB" 3Svetambara:4 -he ar!'ment that %omen cannot attain moksa beca'se they are e.cessively c'nnin! and so forth is also not proper, since it cannot be applied to men s'ch as the Sa!e Karada37#4

and @in! Hrdhapraharin,3714 %ho attained moksa 3despite the fact that the former %as e.tremely treachero's and the latter e.cessively violent.4 JBB 3Svetambara:4 -h's it is clear that the reason of inferiority yo' have employed 3for denyin! moksa to %omen4 cannot be established. -herefore, %itho't f'rther ado, yo' sho'ld accept the same possibility of moksa for %omen as yo' do for men. )n concl'sion %e offer the follo%in! lo!ical statement: -here is moksa for %omen0 beca'se there is no lack of the ca'ses necessary for its attainment0 as in the case of men. / 1DG / -he ca'ses of moksa are ri!ht vie%, ri!ht kno%led!e, and ri!ht cond'ct, and all these in their perfect form are fo'nd in %omen. JBD -h's it has been properly established that, like men, %omen too can attain moksa.

Note%
1. -his syllo!istic ar!'ment, as %ell as the co'nterar!'ment that appears at the end >JBB?, can be traced to the ,yaya"umuda'andra >Chapter ))), J7 and JGD? and hence it is conceivable that <'naratna had access to Prabhacandra+s %ork. 7. -he Fapaniya is no lon!er the defender of strimoksa as he %as in Chapter )). By the time of <'naratna the Svetambaras have become the champions of this doctrine and are 'sin! the Fapaniya ar!'ments almost verbatim as they %ere presented by Sakatayana in the Strinirvanapra"arana and the Svopa%navrtti . Compare the items listed here %ith Chapter )) >J17?. ". Compare Chapter )) >J7$?. B. -his seems to be a Svetambara attempt to claim that there is no basic difference bet%een men and %omen in their reason for %earin! clothes. Sakatayana, ho%ever, restricts clothes only to those men %ho are s'b2ect to the three defects elaborated in Chapter )) >J1D?. D. See Chapter 11 >J""?. E. See Chapter )) >J"D?. &nce a!ain <'naratna i!nores the Fapaniya restrictions that applied to the 'se of clothes by men. G. See Chapter )) >J"9?. $. -he only method of vol'ntary death approved by the Jaina script'res is by fastin! called sallekhana >see Chapter )), JDD?. -he Jainas have condemned all other forms of death, incl'din! those practiced by Brahmanical yo!ins s'ch as enterin! fire, or dro%nin! in %ater, or 2'mpin! from a hill. See J)) , p. 1DB. 9. See Chapter )) >J"9?. <'naratna i!nores Prabhacandra+s response to this ar!'ment as in Chapter ))) >JD$?. 1#. See Chapter )) >JB1?. =or a co'nterar!'ment %ith the 'se of this metaphor, see Chapter A) >n. 1E?. 11. See Chapter )) >J$D($$?. 17. -he yatha"hyata-'aritra , the hi!hest form of mendicant cond'ct, is achieved only by those %ho

have reached perfect p'rity %ith the destr'ction of all forms of mohaniya(karma. ;ence it is possible only for those bein!s %ho have attained the t%elfth and the thirteenth !'nasthanas. -he Sarvarthasiddhi >i., 1$? e.plains it as that cond'ct the description of %hich conforms to the tr'e nat're of the self >yathatmasvabhavo +vasthitas tathaivakhyatatvat?. 1". See Chapter )) >J17?. 1B. -his seems to be in response to Prabhacandra+s ar!'ment in Chapter ))) >J"B?. 1D. See Chapter )) >J1$?. <'naratna i!nores Prabhacandra+s response to this ar!'ment in Chapter ))) >JBB?. 1E. =or the story of the fish that %ent to the seventh hell, see Chapter )), n. 1G. 1G. Compare Chapter )) >J7#?. / 1D$ / 1$. <'naratna is probably referrin! here to the story of a Hi!ambara monk named Sivabh'ti mentioned in @'ndak'nda+s Bhavaprabhrta : t'samasam !hosamto bhavavis'ddho mahan'bhavo ya, namena ya Sivabh'i kevalanani ph'dam 2ao 3D"4. Sr'tasa!ara, commentin! on this verse, narrates the follo%in! story. -here %as a certain monk called Sivabh'ti of p're heart. H'e to %eak memory he co'ld not remember the technical terms 'sed for so'l and body >namely, %iva and sarira ? that %ere necessary for distin!'ishin! them accordin! to the Jaina teachin!. &ne day he sa% a %oman %ashin! lentils and asked her %hat she %as doin!. ;er ans%er that she %as separatin! lentils >masa ? from the chaff >tusa ? made him repeat the form'la 9p'lses are separate from chaff,9 %hich led him to the reali,ation, even %itho't 'sin! the technical terms, of the separation of his so'l from the body and he instantly achieved kevala2nana0 Satprabhrtadisangrahah , p. 7#1. <'naratna is 'sin! this Hi!ambara story of the 96asat'sa9 monk to prove the point that the lack of formal learnin! of the sacred te.ts need not prevent %omen from attainin! moksa. =or a disc'ssion on the relevance of the st'dy of the )urva te.ts >forbidden to %omen? in attainin! moksa, see Chapter A) >n. B1?. 19. &f the t%elve cakravartins %ho r'led d'rin! the c'rrent half of the Jaina time cycle, ten attained moksa at their death %hile t%o >S'bha'ma, no. $, and Brahmadatta, no. 17? %ere reborn in the seventh hell. See JS( )A, p. 17. 7#. -his is probably a reference to Karada >a contemporary of @rsna the 9narayana90 see Chaper )), n. B9? %ho is said to have attained moksa in the .arivamsapurana of the ei!hth(cent'ry Hi!ambara acarya P'nnata Jinasena: Karado +pi narasresthah pravara2ya tapaso balat, krtva bhavaksayam moksam aksayam sam'peyivan0 sar!a ED, verse 7B. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that the term 9narada 9 appears in the Jaina P'ranas as a desi!nation of a literary type, an imitation of the Brahmanical sa!e Karada, %ho %ith his c'nnin! nat're brin!s abo't the conflict bet%een the narayana and the pratinarayana >see Chapter )), n. B9?. -he Hi!ambara tradition describes the naradas as contemporaries of the vas'devas, fond of 5'arrelin! b't also occasionally leadin! ri!hteo's lives0 they are %orthy of attainin! moksa, b't d'e to the defect of violence >%hich they help to perpetrate? they are reborn in hell: kalahappiya kadaim dhammaraha vas'devasamakala, bhavva niraya!adim te himsadosena !acchamti0 $rilo"asara , verse $"D, 5'oted in the .arivamsapurana , p. $##, n. 1. )n vie% of this te.t, Pandit Pannalal Jain, the editor of the .arivamsapurana , has 5'estioned the acc'racy of the statement that Karada attained moksa >ibid.?. =or vario's entries 'nder this name in the Svetambara canon, see 6ehta >19G#(19G7, 1, "71?. 71. ;emacandra in his *ogasastra-svopa%navrtti narrates at len!th the story of Hrdhapraharin >lit., &ne Cho ;its ;ard?. ;e %as a chieftain of the thieves and had killed a co%, a Brahman, and his pre!nant

%ife and th's deserved to be reborn in the seventh hell. ;o%ever, he repented his evil deeds, became a Jaina monk, practiced severe penances, and attained moksa in that very life: brahma(stri(bhr'na(!o( !hata(patakan narakatitheh, Hrdhaprahariprabhrter yo!o hastavalambanam0 i, verse 17. =or other references, see 6ehta >19G#(19G7, ), p. "DD?. ;is story is not fo'nd in the e.tant Hi!ambara literat're. / 1D9 /

Cha1ter VI The %uktiprabodha (ith the Svo1aAnavrtti o& the Svetambara U1adh'a'a +e$haviAa'a 2,. ":5B/";693
Introd-,tion
>i? -his final selection is taken from the *u"tiprabodha by the seventeenth(cent'ry Svetambara a'thor upadhyaya >preceptor? 6e!havi2aya, to!ether %ith his commentary Svopa%navrtti , p'blished in 197E. -his is tr'ly a comprehensive %ork e.pressly %ritten for the ref'tation of a %hole ran!e of Hi!ambara positions0 the strimo"sa topic occ'pies nearly fifty of the total t%o h'ndred and t%enty pa!es >pp. GE( 17D?. -he %ork is also kno%n by another title, &aranasiya-Digambaramata-"handana , that is, a ref'tation of the Hi!ambara vie%s held by the follo%ers of Pandit Banarasidas >1D$E(1EBB?. )n the concl'din! portion of this %ork, 6e!havi2aya >c. 1ED"(1G#B0 see *. P. Shah+s introd'ction to his other %ork, the Digvi%ayamaha"avya ? !ives a brief acco'nt of the reasons that led him to 'ndertake this polemic a!ainst the Hi!ambaras. Banarasidas >see :ath, 19$1? %as a Svetambara Jaina layman %hose family had traditionally been devotees of 6e!havi2aya+s spirit'al linea!e, %hich %as called -apa!accha. ;e came 'nder the infl'ence of the %orks of the Hi!ambara acarya @'ndak'nda thro'!h his friends residin! in the city of *!ra. ;e abandoned his faith and became a propa!ator of @'ndak'nda+s teachin!s contained in the Samayasara >translated by Chakravarti, 19G1?, notable for its emphasis on the nis'aya-naya >nonconventional point of vie%?. ;e %rote a ;indi poetical composition entitled Samayasara-nata"a >a kind of 9drama9 in %hich the aspirin! so'l plays the role of hero and defeats the enemy called karma?. -his %ork attracted a !reat many Svetambaras to the Hi!ambara / 1E# / faith. 6e!havi2aya set o't not only to correct %hat he termed the 9one(sided9 >e"anta ? vie% of @'ndak'nda on the nat're of the so'l b't also to demonstrate the fallacio's character of the Hi!ambara vie%s on as many as ei!hty(si. doctrinal points, of %hich strimoksa %as the most debated topic. -his e.plains the choice of his title, *u"tiprabodha >-eachin! -hro'!h *r!'ments?, and a reason for presentin! it as a 9drama9 >nataka0 e.!., the entry of the Hi!ambara in J1?. -he victorio's hero represents, of co'rse, the Jaina -eachin! as propo'nded by the Svetambara order >see J97, verse B?, and the villains are the 9mis!'ided9 Hi!ambaras, both old and ne%. >ii? )n his len!thy e.position of the Svetambara position on strimoksa, %hich is f'ndamentally identical %ith that of the Fapaniyas, 6e!havi2aya matches almost all the rival ar!'ments p't forth by Prabhacandra and Jayasena >as contained in Chapters ))) and )A?. Prabhacandra, his main tar!et, is referred to t%ice by name, and his t%in %orks, the )rameya"amalamarttanda and the ,yaya"umuda'andra , are all'ded to as the forked ton!'e of the deadly Hi!ambara snake >paksam dvi2ihvabharanasya manda(Prabhend'd'stasya Hi!ambarasya0 J97?. Prabhacandra had responded

vi!oro'sly to the ma2or iss'es of the debate initiated by the Fapaniya a'thor Sakatayana a!ainst the Hi!ambara position on strimoksa. ;o%ever, he had also chosen, 5'ite deliberately it %o'ld seem, not to ree.amine, in li!ht of the Fapaniya criticism, the traditional Hi!ambara interpretation of the term 9man'syini9 >a 9%oman9 in its secondary meanin! as a 9man90 see Chapter )), J9G(1#9 and J17"?. -he Svetambara s'ccessors to the Fapaniyas1notably the t%elfth(cent'ry :atnaprabha >%ho mentions Prabhacandra in his !atna"aravatari"a , reprod'ced in the Strinirvana-(evalibhu"tipra"arane , pp. G$( $1?, the fifteenth(cent'ry <'naratna >Chapter A?, and the seventeenth(cent'ry lo!ician Fasovi2aya, %ho e.amines several of Prabhacandra+s 9prayo!as9 in his Sastravartasamu''ayavrtti >pp. B7D(B"#? and the -dhyatmamatapari"sa >pp. B"1(BE1?1had concentrated more on Hi!ambara syllo!istic ar!'ments than on the validity of that school+s interpretation of the term 9man'syini.9 6e!havi2aya takes 'p this 'nfinished task in earnest and devotes a ma2or portion of his %ork to prove that the Hi!ambara interpretation contradicted their o%n position on the doctrine of karma and !'nasthana, as e.plained in the a'thoritative %ork, the Gommatasara , of the eleventh(cent'ry Kemicandra. -he openin! portion of the strimoksa section of the *u"tiprabodha-Svopa%navrtti is th's replete %ith a lar!e n'mber of len!thy 5'otations and charts >of the !'nasthana scheme? from the Gommatasara and its commentary. ;e then makes an inventory of all the kno%n Hi!ambara ar!'ments >fifteen in all0 see J7D("9? and sets o't to ref'te them one by one. / 1E1 / -hese are of co'rse reform'lations of the same co'nterar!'ments, albeit presented %ith additional details, that had appeared earlier in the %orks of Sakatayana and <'naratna disc'ssed above. Iack of space and my %ish to avoid tiresome repetition have led to the omission of both the len!thy 5'otations and the ref'tations of the old ar!'ments. B't his ne% ar!'ments, or si!nificantly ne% form'lations of the old ar!'ments, have been retained in a sli!htly abrid!ed form and add considerably to the on!oin! debate on strimoksa. >iii? 6e!havi2aya+s presentation of the Hi!ambara vie% of strimoksa is masterly. ;e cannot be acc'sed of misrepresentin! the opponent+s vie%, altho'!h occasionally he does employ %orldly observations >of non(Hi!ambara ori!in?, especially on the fickleness of %omen and so forth, to stren!then the p'rvapaksa. ;e not only reprod'ces @'ndak'nda+s verses describin! the imp'rity of a %oman+s body >J1#? b't f'rnishes f'rther details, fo'nd only in the Jaina script're, on the millions of bein!s >%ith t%o or three senses? that inhabit the birth canal or on the millions of sperm that are destroyed in a sin!le act of coit's >JE9?. ;e even makes a s'!!estion(not vent'red even by the Hi!ambaras(that the menstr'al flo% is not merely a biolo!ical f'nction b't is directly connected %ith a %oman+s libido >see J$9?, comparable to the seminal dischar!e of a man. >iv? 6e!havi2aya is also 'ni5'ely informative on the Jaina position re!ardin! the hermaphrodite >nap'msaka?, %ho is introd'ced into this debate as an e.ample >udaharana ? since s'ch a person shares the same disability the Hi!ambaras attrib'te to a %oman in attainin! moksa. -he Svetambaras cannot re2ect this e.ample, for they too believe that a hermaphrodite does not 5'alify to be a mendicant. B't 6e!havi2aya takes this opport'nity to point o't that this disability is not so m'ch d'e to the physical !ender of the hermaphrodite as to the insatiability of his libido, and hence he ar!'es >JE#? that this case is 5'ite dissimilar to that of a %oman %hose libido is comparable to that of a man. ;e also e.cl'des from this cate!ory those %ho are not con!enitally hermaphrodites >e.!., the e'n'chs0 see n. "D?, as %ell as those %ho may be born %ith deformed bodies >hunda , n. B$?, and allo%s them entry into the Jaina mendicancy, a privile!e denied by the Hi!ambara sect, th's deemphasi,in! the physical re5'irements for attainin! moksa. ;is ref'tations of the syllo!istic ar!'ments are precise and methodical, b't he is selective in choosin! to respond to the opponent+s s'!!estion on a variety of points hi!hly relevant to

the debate. ;e is silent, for e.ample, on the Hi!ambara ar!'ment of concomitance based on the relationship of the indicated and indicator >!amya(!amaka(sambandha0 Chapter ))), J"E?. ;e also fails to e.amine Prabhacandra+s observation that / 1E7 / a %oman is incapable of overcomin! shame >la22a?, and th's se.'al desire, and hence is 'nfit for mendicancy >Chapter ))), n. G#?. *t the same time he has no hesitation in defendin! the Svetambara practice of %orshipin! their female -irthankara 6alli+s ima!e in a male form >JGG? on the !ro'nds that sho%in! her breasts %o'ld be a!ainst the code of decency. 6e!havi2aya may finally be credited for offerin! a ne% syllo!istic ar!'ment >prayo!a? for strimoksa based on the ability of a %oman to 'ndertake the vo%s of the eleven pratimas >J9#?. )t is 5'ite si!nificant that his disc'ssion concl'des %ith the statement that 9clothin! and other re5'isites of monks are not possessions9 >J91?. -he Fapaniya acarya Sakatayana so'!ht only to establish the mendicant stat's of %omen a!ainst the Hi!ambara claim that they cannot pro!ress beyond the sta!e of 9advanced lay%omen.9 -he Svetambara a'thors, over the cent'ries, as seen earlier in the portion from <'naratna+s %ork, not only endorsed the Fapaniya position b't stren!thened it to fi!ht a!ainst their sectarian rivals, the Hi!ambaras. 6e!havi2aya, the last a'thor to e.plore the topic of strimoksa in either tradition, can be said to have had the last %ord in the debate as he finally employs the strimoksa ar!'ments to le!itimi,e the mendicant stat's of the Svetambara order, a stat's that %as first challen!ed by the Hi!ambara acarya @'ndak'nda in his Suttapahuda >Chapter ), J1("?.

#ranslation& Arguments for 'oksa of Women

J1 3Xpp. 1(GD, p. GE, lines 1(714314 Ko% the Hi!ambara enters the sta!e: <e believe% that there i% no attainment o& mo.%a &or (omen= that the Omni%,ient One doe% not eat or drin.= and that there i% no 1o%%ibilit' o& mo.%a &or a ho-%eholder or a mendi,ant (ho%e emblem i% other >than that o& n-dit'?. 2 %uktiprabodha= ver%e @"? 3Hi!ambara:4 Comen, namely, those bein!s %ho have the physical si!n of the h'man female, do not attain moksa in that very life, for their so'ls do not manifest that p're transformation %hich is called 9a Perfected Bein!9 >Siddha?. -he specific 'se of the %ord 9dravyatah 9 3i.e., biolo!ically4 indicates that males %ho possess the female libido >bhavatah ? 3and th's can be considered psycholo!ically, female4 are not inherently opposed to the attainment of moksa. 3Xp. GE, line E(p. G$, line D4374 J7 3Y'estion by a st'dent:4 Chat do yo' mean by a person %ho is biolo!ically female or psycholo!ically femaleP ;o% are these to be / 1E" / distin!'ished from one anotherP &n %hat !ro'nds do yo' maintain that a person %ho is biolo!ically female may only attain five !'nasthanas, b't a person %ho is 3biolo!ically male b't4 psycholo!ically female may attain 3all4 fo'rteen !'nasthanasP J" 3Hi!ambara:4 -here is no 3room for do'bt here4, since the term 9veda 9 has been e.plained in both %ays 3namely, as both biolo!ical !ender and libido4. =or it has been said in the Gommatasara :3"4 Chen there is the rise of the male, female, or hermaphrodite libido, there is the internal

>bhava? state called male, female, or hermaphrodite, respectively. B't %hen there is the rise of the karma responsible for prod'cin! the body, then it means biolo!ical >dravya? !ender. -here is a direct correlation bet%een the biolo!ical !ender and libido in most cases, b't there are cases %here the t%o may differ. 3verse 7D94 -he three libidos >veda?, namely, the male, the female, and the hermaphrodite, are prod'ced by the comin! into fr'ition of that karmic variety of minor passions, comprised 'nder the r'bric of 'aritramohaniya"arma , that prevent proper cond'ct.3B4 -he psycholo!ical transformation th's derived desi!nates that person as 3psycholo!ically male, female, or hermaphrodite4. Similarly, the biolo!ical !ender of a person, %hether male, female, or hermaphrodite, is a partic'lar physical transformation of the material that forms the body. -his happens as a res'lt of the fr'ition of several specific types of karmas, notably the nirmana 3!eneral bodily shape4 and an!opan!a 3primary and secondary si!ns, s'ch as male and female4, %hich are comprised 'nder the cate!ory called the nama(karma. JB -h's, a person can be called psycholo!ically male >bhavapurusa ? %hen his mind is overcome by that se.'al desire %hich is desiro's of a %oman d'e to the arisin! >'daya? of the male libido >p'mveda?. Similarly, a person can be called psycholo!ically female >bhavastri ? %hen that person is overcome by that se.'al desire %hich is desiro's of a man d'e to the arisin! of the female libido >striveda?. )n the same manner, %hen there is the se.'al desire for both d'e to the arisin! of the third type of libido >nap'msakaveda?, and there is the 3sim'ltaneo's4 se.'al desire for both 3males and females4, that person is said to be psycholo!ically hermaphrodite >bhavanapumsa"a ?. JD Similarly, a person is called biolo!ically male >dravyapurusa ? %hen a so'l ac5'ires a body marked by s'ch male si!ns as m'stache, beard, and male member as a res'lt of the fr'ition of p'mveda( mohaniya and the nirmana and an!opan!a nama(karmas0 this is a biolo!ical !ender that remains the same from the first moment of one+s !iven e.istence to the last moment of that life. * person is called biolo!ically female >dravyastri ? %hen / 1EB / a so'l ac5'ires a body marked by s'ch female si!ns as hairless face, breasts, and the birth canal, as a res'lt of the fr'ition of the striveda(mohaniya and the nirmana and an!opan!a nama(karmas0 this is a biolo!ical !ender that remains the same from the first moment of one+s !iven e.istence to the last moment of that life. * person is called biolo!ically hermaphrodite >dravyanapumsa"a ? %hen a so'l ac5'ires a body marked by a !ender that is different from both 3male and female4 as a res'lt of the fr'ition of the nap'msakaveda and the nirmana and an!opan!a nama(karmas0 this is a biolo!ical !ender that remains the same from the first moment of one+s !iven e.istence to the last moment of that life. JE -hese biolo!ical and psycholo!ical differences for the most part remain in e.act correlation to each other amon! the !ods, hell bein!s, and all the animals and h'man bein!s of the realm of pleas're >bho!abh'mi? 3i.e., the libido corresponds to the biolo!ical !ender4.3D4 B't in other places, namely amon! those h'man and animal bein!s fo'nd in the realm of action 3karmabh'mi, %hich incl'des o'r earth4, the biolo!ical !ender and the libido can be either identical or different. -h's the follo%in! combinations are possible: the biolo!ically male person can be either psycholo!ically male, female, or hermaphrodite0 the biolo!ically female person can be either psycholo!ically male, female, or hermaphrodite0 the biolo!ically hermaphrodite person can be either psycholo!ically male, female, or hermaphrodite. -h's there is no invariable correspondence bet%een the biolo!ical !ender and the libido %ith reference to men and %omen 3and the hermaphrodite4 in the karmabh'mi. )t has been said in the holy script'res that a person %ho is biolo!ically male may have all tree types of

libidos, 'ntil s'ch time as he eliminates all of them by reachin! the 3ninth !'nasthana called4 anivrttikarana 3via the process of climbin! the ladder of destr'ction >"sapa"a-sreni ? of the libido and other passions:4 )n the same manner, those 3males4 %ho are s'b2ect to the fr'ition of the other 3female and hermaphrodite libidos4 may also attain moksa if they contin'e in meditation. 3)ra"rtaSiddhabha"ti , E0 see J$ belo%4 -his verse sho%s the possibility 3that a male mendicant may e.perience even female or hermaphrodite libidos at the commencement of the climbin! of the ladder of destr'ction4. 3Xp. G9, line 11(p. $, line $4 3E4 JG 3Clarification so'!ht by a st'dent: *s ) 'nderstand it, this te.t that yo' 5'oted implies that even a female and a hermaphrodite may also attain moksa in the same manner as do men.4 -hat bein! the case, a female m'st also be able to attain fo'rteen 3!'nasthanas4. 3<iven yo'r stated vie% that %omen do not attain moksa,4 ho% then can this be soP / 1ED / J$ 3Hi!ambara:4 & lot's 3i.e., best4 amon! those %ho aspire for moksa and %ho are desiro's of kno%in! the tr'e doctrineS Fo' have indeed asked a very pertinent 5'estion. )n this partic'lar conte.t 3i.e., in the passa!e from the script're 5'oted above4, the %ords 9may also attain >si22hanti? the fo'rteen !'nasthanas9 %ere spoken %ith reference to a person %ho %as 3biolo!ically male b't4 psycholo!ically female. B't a person %ho is biolo!ically female may only attain the first five !'nasthanas, be!innin! %ith the first, mithyadrsti 3%ron! vie%s4. )f it is asked ho% this can be so, %e say that the occ'rrence of the term 9man'syini93G4 3lit., female of the h'man species4 in the script're 3describin! those %ho can have fo'rteen !'nasthanas4 is applied to a person %ho is biolo!ically male b't %ho e.periences female libido %hen he be!ins to climb the ladder 3of destr'ction, i.e., the ei!hth !'nasthana4. *s has been said in the Siddhabha"ti : -hose men %ho have climbed the ladder of destr'ction %hile e.periencin! male libido %ill attain to Siddhahood if they maintain their meditation. -he same is tr'e of those 3men4 %ho e.perience the other t%o libidos as %ell. 3Xp. $1, line 1"(p. $", line D4 Similarly, 3in the follo%in! te.t too the %ords 9%oman9 and 9hermaphrodite9 sho'ld be 'nderstood to refer to males %ho e.perience that type of libido4: )n one moment, t%enty persons %ith hermaphrodite libido, forty %ith female libido, and forty(ei!ht %ith male libido %ill attain Siddhahood.3$4 3P4 -he meanin! of this verse becomes consistent only if %e take it refer 3to persons %ho are biolo!ically males, for ho% co'ld one acco'nt for s'ch a lar!e n'mber of biolo!ical hermaphrodites %ho in reality constit'te only a ne!li!ible percenta!e of h'manity4P Ce therefore maintain that there is no moksa possible for those persons %ho are biolo!ically female, beca'se crookedness >ka'tilya? is their very nat're.394 3Xp. $", lines G(94 *s it is often said in the %orld: =alsehood, rashness, deceitf'lness, foolishness, e.cessive !reed, lack of affection, and pitilessness are the innate fa'lts of %omen. 3P4 J9 3Svetambara:4 -his ar!'ment of yo'rs 3that these fa'lts are to be fo'nd in a person %ho is biolo!ically female4 is of no conse5'ence, since they can also be fo'nd %ith e5'al fre5'ency in males %ho are psycholo!ically females as %ell. *nd yet yo' maintain that even tho'!h fa'lts are fo'nd in s'ch men, they are nevertheless %orthy of attainin! moksa in that very life. 3Xp. $", line 17(p. $B, line

E4 / 1EE / J1# 3Hi!ambara:4 -his sho'ld not be said, for altho'!h crookedness may be common to both the biolo!ically female and 3male b't4 psycholo!ically female, the biolo!ically female is distin!'ished 3from a male havin! female libido4 by the fact that she has an imp're body, as is evident by the flo% of 3menstr'al4 blood each month. =or that very reason it has been said in the Sutraprabhrta by 3the Hi!ambara4 acarya @'ndak'nda: Comen have no p'rity of mind0 by nat're they are fickle. -hey have monthly 3menstr'al4 flo%s. 3-herefore4 there is no meditation for them free from an.iety. 37D4 3See Chapter ), J$.4 8lse%here too it has been said: -he !enitals of a %oman, flo%in! 3%ith blood4 and %et %ith 'rine, are like the oo,in! tip of an elephant+s tr'nk. *las, this despicable form has been made m'ch of by certain distin!'ished poetsS31#4 3Bhartrhari-Sata"atrayam , iii, 71cd4 J11 Similarly, %omen are e.cessively bashf'l. *s is said in the Gommatasara : She is called stri 39%oman,9 as derived from the root str , to cover4 beca'se she is herself covered %ith blemishes and covers others 3i.e., men4 %ith the same. Since it is her very nat're to cover over, she is called stri. 3Jiva"anda , verse 7GB4 3Xp. $B, lines 1#(114 -his bein! the case, %omen by their very nat're are prone to !'ilef'l crookedness. ;o% can they en!a!e in any 3mendicant4 cond'ct %hen their very nat're is contrary to moksaP. . . *nd in the absence of mendicant cond'ct, %hence can there be kevala2nana or moksa 3in that very life4P 3Xp. $B, lines 17( 1"4 J17 6oreover, it is said in the script'res that on acco'nt of the constant flo% of the menstr'al blood, vario's types of min'te bein!s are !enerated in the !enitals of %omen0 this also occ'rs on other parts of her body, s'ch as her breasts. =or this reason, %omen s'ffer from constant itchin! ca'sed by these bein!s 3%hich does not allo%4 them ever to have any cessation of se.'al desire. ;arm also occ'rs to those min'te bein!s d'e to the destr'ction bro'!ht 'pon them. ;o% therefore can a %oman ass'me the mahavratas 3of a mendicant %hen she cannot be totally free from se.'al desire or ca'sin! in2'ry to livin! bein!s4P *s has been said by @'ndak'nda in the Sutraprabhrta : )n the !enital or!ans of %omen, in bet%een their breasts, in their navels, and in the armpits, it is said 3in the script'res that4 there are very s'btle livin! bein!s. ;o% can there be the mendicant ordination >pravra2ya? for themP 37B4 3See Chapter ), JG.4 / 1EG / J1" 3St'dent:4 )f indeed mendicant initiation is not allo%ed for %omen, then ho% do yo' e.plain the fact that they are administered the five mahavratas at the time of their initiation as n'ns 32'st as are male mendicants4P3114 J1B 3Hi!ambara:4 -r'e, the mahavratas are administered to n'ns, b't only conventionally to indicate that they belon! to the holy family 3of mendicants4(that is, it is a symbolic act. -he re5'isites of a monk, s'ch as the peacock broom and %ater !o'rd, are also !iven to her as a symbol of that stat's. B't in fact there is no attainment by a n'n of the fr'its accr'in! from the ass'mption of the mahavratas,

s'ch as the overlordship of the !ods 3in the ne.t life, a stat's that is said to be possible for male mendicants4.3174 )f indeed the vo%s a n'n ass'med %ere tr'ly mahavratas, then she sho'ld be able to attain that stat's too0 b't this is not the case. ;ence, her vo%s are not the tr'e mahavratas 3of the monks4. )f indeed they %ere tr'ly the mahavratas then the n'ns sho'ld also be able to attain that stat's0 this is the ar!'ment %hich destroys the position that %omen have mahavratas. J1D 6oreover, %hen the mahavratas are ass'med, possessions 3i.e., property4 even as little as can fit on the tip of a hair m'st be reno'nced. ;o%ever, beca'se %omen m'st %ear clothes, it is easy to prove that they can have no total ren'nciation. =or that reason, 3%e maintain that s'ch famo's4 %omen as 6ar'devi31"4 and Hra'padi31B4 did not attain moksa 3as is alle!ed by the Svetambaras4 b't attained heaven only. J1E )f it is admitted that %omen attain moksa, then this %o'ld lead to the 3'ndesirable4 conse5'ence that a 3Jina4 ima!e in a female form %o'ld become as %orthy of %orship as an ima!e in a male form. 31D4 J1G )n the same %ay, female n'dity %o'ld brin! abo't an attit'de of dis!'st in the %orld. =inally, many other fa'lts %o'ld arise, s'ch as the destr'ction of the ri!ht vie% >bodhi ?, the demise of celibacy, and slander of the 3Jaina4 -eachin!. -herefore, it is only proper that n'ns sho'ld %ear clothes, accordin! to the r'les laid do%n by the *rhat. 3&f co'rse, %omen %o'ld still not be able to attain moksa in that life,4 since the %earin! of clothes !enerates lice and their e!!s, as %ell as bein!s %ith three sense fac'lties 3to'ch, taste, and smell4. ;arm %o'ld come to those bein!s %ith each step, by the acts of %ashin! the clothes or placin! them do%n some%here. )t follo%s from this that the mahavratas of the n'ns are not real 3mahavratas, b't are so desi!nated only as symbolic of their stat's4. So too %o'ld it be for the Svetambara monks 3%ho also %ear %hite clothes like the n'ns4, and this 3Svetambara ar!'ment claimin! the mahavrata stat's for the vo%s of n'ns4 %o'ld be like the loss of capital invested in order to !ain profit.31E4 / 1E$ / J1$ 6oreover, %hen n'ns and other %omen !reet a monk, a blessin! is 'ttered by him in s'ch %ords as, 9Iet there be meditation0 let yo'r karmas be destroyed90 they do not en!a!e in the eti5'ette of m't'al reverential !reetin! that takes place bet%een monks. )f indeed, as yo' believe, n'ns do ass'me the mahavratas, then ho% is it that bet%een yo'r monks and n'ns there is no m't'al reverential !reetin! of one another accordin! to rank 3as there is bet%een monks4P )ndeed, this has been prohibited even in yo'r script're. *s is said in the +padesamala : 8ven if a n'n %ere initiated for a h'ndred years and a monk %ere initiated 2'st this day, he is still %orthy of bein! %orshiped by her thro'!h s'ch acts of respect as !oin! for%ard in reverential !reetin!, sal'tation, and bo%in! do%n.31G4 J19 By this is also re2ected the Svetambara belief that in the teachin! of the second thro'!h the t%enty( third -irthankaras 3i.e., from *2ita to Parsva4 the -irthankaras %ore clothes of any color and their disciples %ore 3similar clothes4. 3-his also co'nters their belief that4 the first and last -irthankaras and their mendicant disciples %ore %hite clothes of meas'red len!th and yet %ere considered acelaka, that is, %itho't clothes.31$4 -his is beca'se the mahavratas do not admit of any variation 3as %o'ld be the case %ere yo'r beliefs tr'e4.3194 J7# Similarly, in the verse be!innin! %ith the %ords 9a'ela""uddesiya ,937#4 %hich lays do%n the r'les of cond'ct for a monk, n'dity alone is set forth 3not the %earin! of %hite clothin!4. )t is not proper, as has been alle!ed by the Svetambaras, to take the %ord 9acelaka9 in this verse as s'pportive of a secondary meanin! 3i.e., alpa'ela"a >9fe% clothes9? as opposed to the literal meanin! of acelaka >9no

clothes9?4. S'ch fi!'rative meanin!s are inapplicable %hen one disc'sses the tr'e nat're of thin!s 3i.e., the path of moksa4, especially %hen there is clear opposition bet%een n'dity and the %earin! of clothes. 3Xp. $E, lines 1("4 J71 -h's, it is clear that %omen are heedless, vain, filled %ith pride, of fickle senses, and %eak. ;o% can they be fit for moksaP *s it is said in 3yo'r o%n4 &isesavasya"a-bhasya 3verse DB94: Comen are vain, f'll of pride, of fickle senses, and %eak in body and mind. -hey sho'ld be ta'!ht only the minor te.ts and not the )urvas 3e.!., the Drstivada 4.3714 )t is also said else%here in the %orld 3cf. *ogasastra-Svopa%navrtti , )), 1#D, verse "#4: )f, by some divine miracle, li!htnin! %ere not to flash and the %ind %ere not to blo%, even then the minds of %omen %o'ld forever remain 'nstable. / 1E9 / J77 Similarly, %omen are not %orthy of attainin! to the hi!hest state 3moksa4 beca'se of their e.cessive se.'al desire0 beca'se their birth 3as a %oman4 is the res'lt of heaps of demerit0 and beca'se they are 'nable to attain to those e.traordinary states s'ch as that of becomin! a -irthankara or cakravartin or to the s'pernat'ral po%ers attained by s'ch bein!s. *s is said in the %orld: Comen eat t%ice as m'ch as men do and sleep fo'r times as m'ch0 si.fold more are their activities and ei!ht times stron!er is their se.'al desire. 3Cf. #ana"yaniti , verse GE4 -he 3Jaina4 script'res also say: & <a'tama, a person is born as a %oman only %hen an 'nlimited amo'nt of evil karmas comes to fr'ition. @no% this %ellS 3P4 J7" 8ven in yo'r o%n tradition %omen are not allo%ed to attain certain s'pernat'ral po%ers >labdhis?. *s is said in the Labdhistotra : Comen, %ho are capable of attainin! moksa, may still not !ain those ten labdhis. By the %ords 9ten labdhis9 in this verse %e sho'ld 'nderstand the attainments !iven in the follo%in! verse: -he s'pernat'ral po%ers available to a cakravartin, a Jina, a narayana, a baladeva,3774 the po%er of movin! in the sky, st'dyin! the )urvas , bein! a !anadhara, a pula"a 3one of speedy !ait4, and an ahara"a 3a monk %ho can pro2ect an astral body4. 3P4 J7B 6oreover, beca'se of the fickleness of their nat're, it is impossible for %omen to have any 3perfection4 of meditation and, conse5'ently, they cannot be reborn in the Sarvarthasiddhi, the hi!hest of the heavenly abodes 3%hich is attained only thro'!h meditation4. -his bein! the case, ho% co'ld it be that %omen %o'ld ever attain the abode of the Siddhas,37"4 %hich is even hi!her than that heavenP 8ven sho'ld s'ch attainment of moksa be considered possible 3merely for the sake of ar!'ment4, then s'rely the names of the places %here s'ch %omen attained kevala2nana or nirvana %o'ld be attested in some script'res.37B4 J7D Similarly, the follo%in! inferences >anumana ? s'pport o'r point of vie%: -here is no moksa for %omen0 beca'se of the absence of valid proof. 3Svetambara:4 S'rely yo'r reasonin! is invalid, beca'se %e have s'ch proof in the follo%in! 3inference4:

/ 1G# / -here is moksa for %omen0 beca'se of the absence of any deficiencies in the conditions 3that lead to moksa40 as is the case %ith men. 3Hi!ambara:4 Fo'r reasonin! is invalid, beca'se femininity is itself opposed to 3perfect mendicant4 cond'ct. -his is d'e to the fact that %omen cannot reno'nce clothes, beca'se their minds are overcome by e.cessive bashf'lness and th's they are inherently opposed to 3perfect cond'ct4. Similarly, as has been sho%n earlier, %omen do not totally refrain from all forms of harm >himsa?, since there is the destr'ction of those life(forms that are born in their reprod'ctive or!ans, as %ell as of lice and their e!!s that are !enerated in their clothes. J7E -here is no moksa for %omen0 eca'se they are inferior to men0 as is the case %ith hermaphrodites. J7G -here is no moksa for %omen 3i.e., n'ns40 beca'se they are not reverentially !reeted by men 3i.e., monks40 as is the case %ith animals and so forth 3also not !reeted by men4. J7$ -here is no moksa for %omen0 beca'se they are not reborn in the seventh hell0 as is the case %ith lo%er life(forms born of moist're. J79 -he s'preme perfection of that kno%led!e, and so forth, that leads to moksa is not fo'nd in %omen0 beca'se moksa 3involves4 s'preme perfection0 as is the case %ith their inability to attain that e.treme form of demerit %hich is capable of leadin! to the seventh hell or that e.treme form of merit %hich is capable of leadin! to rebirth in the Sarvarthasiddhi heaven. J"# -here is no moksa for %omen0 beca'se of their possessions0 as is the case %ith lay people. J"1 -here is no absence of attachment to clothes in %omen 3i.e., n'ns40 beca'se they deliberately pick 'p clothes that have fallen. / 1G1 / -here is no lack of attachment in deliberately pickin! 'p somethin! that has fallen0 as is the case %ith !old 3bein! picked 'p4 and so forth.37D4

J"7 -he holy cond'ct of %omen 3i.e., n'ns4 is ins'fficient to brin! abo't moksa0 beca'se that cond'ct depends 'pon possessions 3s'ch as clothes40 as is the case %ith the cond'ct of laymen. J"" -he t%o types of holy cond'ct 3namely, that of monks and n'ns4 that are alle!ed to lead to moksa involve n'dity and the %earin! of clothes, respectively, and they en!ender totally different res'lts0 beca'se those t%o types of holy cond'ct are completely contrary0 as is the case %ith the holy cond'ct of a monk and a layperson, %hich en!ender t%o different !oals, namely moksa and heaven, and so forth, respectively. J"B Clothes are not a means of attainin! moksa0 beca'se those %ho aspire to moksa are en2oined to reno'nce clothes0 as is the case %ith 3the ren'nciation of4 %ron! vie%s. J"D Comen do not attain the hi!hest state 3i.e., moksa4: beca'se they are 'n%orthy of attainin! any of the most e.alted states0 as is the case %ith hermaphrodites. J"E * female body is not cond'cive to moksa0 beca'se the -hree Je%els are not perfected in that biolo!ical state0 as is the case %ith the body of a deni,en of hell. J"G * female body is 'nable to destroy the karmas totally0 beca'se the female body has been !enerated thro'!h the accompaniment of %ron! vie%s, the most evil 3of karmas40 as is the case %ith the body of a deni,en of hell. J"$ * %oman is 'nable to achieve moksa, even if she e.periences male libido 3and th's becomes psycholo!ically 9male940 beca'se her biolo!ical state is incompatible 3%ith moksa40 as is the case %ith animals. / 1G7 / J"9 Comen 3i.e., n'ns4 cannot attain moksa0 beca'se 3n'ns4 are considered to be 'nfit either to admonish 3monks4 or to participate in s'ch mendicant disciplinary actions as s'spension 3from the san!ha, 'nlike monks4 or e.piations. -hese and other s'ch ar!'ments sho'ld also be considered.

JB# -he neo(Hi!ambaras add this f'rther point.37E4 )t is accepted by both 3sects4 that %hen the liberated so'ls arrive 3instantaneo'sly after their death4 at the abode of the Siddhas 3at the s'mmit of the 'niverse4, they remain 3forever4 a si,e that is one(third that of the mass of their final physical body. Comen, ho%ever, have t%o lar!e holes in their earlobes >for earrin!s?, t%o breasts, and !enital cavities. Since s'ch prot'berances and cavities %o'ld have to be taken into acco'nt in the space points >pradesa ? occ'pied by the so'ls of 3alle!ed4 female Siddhas,37G4 yo' 3Svetambaras4 may have to admit that, even in the Siddha abode, the male and female characteristics %o'ld remain. B't this is contrary to script'ral a'thority, %hich says that the Siddha has the shape of a man >p'r'sa?. JB1 Similarly, accordin! to yo'r vie%, a %oman may attain kevala2nana anytime after the a!e of ei!ht. *t that a!e, it %o'ld be possible for there to be se.'al development of her fleshy parts and breasts, and even for s'ch a 3female4 @evalin to have menstr'al periods. -his bein! the case, people may feel dis!'st even to%ard a @evalin 3beca'se she %o'ld menstr'ate. S'ch an 'ndesirable conse5'ence co'ld be miti!ated4 if yo' had, like 's Hi!ambaras, believed that the ordinary >a'darika? body of a person attainin! kevala2nana invariably comes to possess a s'premely p're !ross 3i.e., the biolo!ical4 body >parama(a'darika(sarira?37$4 at that moment. ;o%ever, since yo' profess that the body of a @evalin remains the same as the !ross body as it %as before, yo' cannot escape the fa'lt sho%n by 's 3namely, the dis!'st felt by the %orld to%ard a menstr'atin! @evalin4. JB7 6oreover, if %omen do attain the state of a @evalin, then %e sho'ld e.pect to find s'ch 'sa!es as female @evalin, a female Siddha, a female sayo!a(kevalin 39%ith activities,9 the thirteenth !'nasthana4, and a female ayo!a(kevalin 39%itho't activities,9 the fo'rteenth !'nasthana4. B't s'ch 'sa!es are not proper. JB" By this is also ans%ered the Svetambara claim that the Iord 6alli %as female, since this %o'ld compel 's either to call her a female -irthankara or to %orship her in the form of a male ima!e, %hich %o'ld be inappropriate. B't even leavin! this ar!'ment aside, o'r e.perience does not indicate that a person 3s'ch as a %oman4 %ho is a vessel of imp'rity is / 1G" / %orthy of bein! %orshiped as a @evalin or that she co'ld be considered celibate even %hile bein! to'ched by males1!ods, titans, and men1in the co'rse of %orship 3that is c'stomarily offered to a -irthankara at the time of birth and other a'spicio's >kalyanaka? occasions4. JBB 3Xp. $$, lines D(G4 * %oman+s mere smile on her lot'slike face brin!s abo't the enslavement of the Iords of the 8arth. 6erely by obsession to%ard her a person is driven to love, fear, immorality, calamity, and folly. )n association %ith her the entire %orld of bein!s comes 'nder the s%ay of l'st, an!er, and hostility and loses its senses. * sl't %hose intentions are in this %ise cr'el may not attain the !lories of a'spicio's moksa. 37.4 *s lon! as the %orld remains a%ake by virt'e of the l'mino's rays 3i.e., %ords4 of 3the acarya4 Prabhacandra 3lit., Shinin! 6oon4, %hich reflect all e.istents accordin! to the script'res of the Hi!ambaras, %hich have searched o't and destroyed all fa'lts 3fo'nd in non(Hi!ambara te.ts4, and %hich are like the rays of the moonli!ht spreadin! thro'!ho't the eastern firmament, ho% then can one believe that a %oman %ho is al%ays e.ha'sted by constant erotic ind'l!ence may attain moksa 3forsakin! her ass'red rebirth in the heavenly abodes4 'nless one %ere to ass'me that the dili!ent protector of heavens, the !od Hhana 3i.e., @'bera4, %o'ld not look at her lovin!ly and %o'ld not %ed herP3794 3"4

JBD Ko% follo%s the co'nterstatement 3of the Svetambaras4. *s to %hat %as said above, 9* %oman, that is, a female by biolo!ical !ender, is 'n%orthy of attainin! moksa in that life,9 this statement stands ref'ted beca'se it !oes a!ainst 3the Hi!ambara+s4 o%n script'res, %hich state that a man'syini 3lit., a 9%oman94 may attain fo'rteen !'nasthanas. JBE )t is incorrect to claim that the term 9man'syini9 here means a male by biolo!ical !ender %ho is psycholo!ically female. -his is beca'se s'ch 3e.perience of any kind of libido, incl'din! that of the female libido4 can e.ist only 'p to the ninth !'nasthana and not beyond. 3Xp. $$, line 17(p. 91, line 1"4 3"#4 JBG )f, thro'!ho't her life, a %oman %ill never ascend beyond the fifth !'nasthana 3i.e., the stat's of the laity4 beca'se of her afflicted nat're, as 3the Hi!ambara4 claims, then yo' m'st e.plain ho% it is possible that a male 3i.e., a monk4 %ho e.periences female libido 3striveda1and th's becomes psycholo!ically female4 may ascend past the fifth !'nasthana0 for s'rely he %o'ld be more afflicted in nat're 3than a %oman, beca'se of e.periencin! a libido that is at variance to his biolo!ical !ender4P3"14 3Xp. 91, line 1D(p. 97, line 14 JB$ 3-he fore!oin! e.amination4 makes it clear that yo'r 3Hi!ambara4 interpretation of the %ord 9man'syini9 as meanin! a male %ho is psycholo!ically female is %ron!. -his bein! the case, yo'r f'rther claim that / 1GB / this script're %as describin! the former state 3of that so'l at the ei!hth !'nasthana4 thro'!h reco'rse to the descriptive style called bhutapurvanyaya is also %ron!.3"74 -his 3forced4 interpretation of yo'rs is do!matic and sho%s that yo' are not free from bias. 3Xp. 97, line 7(p. 9$, line B4 JB9 Kor does there e.ist a separate species of man that co'ld be constr'ed as havin! the nat're of bein! biolo!ically male b't psycholo!ically female. 3Xp. 9$, line D(p. 1#7, line 14 JD# 3Hi!ambara:4 =emales by biolo!ical !ender cannot attain moksa, beca'se %e have direct e.perience of their e.cessive crookedness, imp'rity, and bashf'lness. -herefore %e interpret the %ord 9man'syini9 in that te.t to have a secondary meanin! 3i.e., not an act'al female b't a male %ho is psycholo!ically female4. JD1 3Svetambara:4 -his is not correct. Crookedness and so forth are %ords that are conventionally 'sed to describe the nat're of a person. =rom a strictly technical point of vie%, %hat yo' call crookedness is derived from the passion kno%n as maya0 imp'rity is the res'lt of the karma that has prod'ced the !ross body0 e.cessive bashf'lness too is derived from a variety of mohaniya(karma 3and th's is only a temporary res'lt of karma4 and is not born from the nat're of the so'l. )f these afflictions %ere all born from the feminine nat're 3as yo' maintain4, then a male %ho has not yet attained samya!darsana 3the ri!ht vie%4 %o'ld be inferior to a female %ho has the ri!ht vie%, since he has not yet destroyed the first !rade of maya and the rest of the passions >kasaya?.3""4 *re yo' !oin! to s'!!est that he too %ill not attain moksa in that life beca'se he has e.cessive deceitf'lnessP JD7 3Hi!ambara:4 Ce maintain that as lon! as a man e.periences crookedness, he may not attain moksa0 rather, thro'!h vario's meditational processes, that crookedness and other passions can be totally eliminated in that very life by him. -hen he %o'ld be able to attain moksa. JD" 3Svetambara:4 -hen it %o'ld be the same in the other case 3of %omen4 as %ell. JDB 3Hi!ambara:4 B't men have the ability to brin! abo't the destr'ction 3of those passions4, %hile %omen do not.

JDD 3Svetambara:4 -here are no valid !ro'nds 3for yo'r claim40 2'st statin! yo'r premise does not mean yo' have proved it. Fo' admit that a %oman has the ability both to destroy >ksaya? and to s'ppress >'pasama? the first and second !rades of passions, and since she practices s'ch severe forms of a'sterities as accompany the most advanced sta!e of lay discipline1namely, the eleventh sta!e >pratima?, %hich is allo%ed of a n'n even by the Hi!ambara1she may attain to a p'rity 3of no mean order4, as is perceived by 's from the fact that %omen attain and ass'me the lay vo%s / 1GD / 3an'vratas, pratimas, and so forth4. 3)t stands to reason that4 those %omen %ho have absol'te e.cessiveness of feminine !'ile %ill not ass'me those vo%s, as %o'ld be the case as %ell %ith a person %ho is incapable of ever attainin! moksa >abhavya?.3"B4 )t is 'ndo'btedly diffic'lt here to have the ability 3to s'rpass the sta!e of the lay vo%s4 and then !rad'ally to develop the ability to overcome the third or fo'rth !rade of the passions of maya and so forth. B't yo' yo'rself accept the position that even a male %ho e.periences female libido mi!ht be able to overcome them. )f s'ch a male co'ld have the ability to destroy the e.cessive and more severe form of maya, then %omen 3%ho e.perience a female libido4 m'st also have a similar ability to destroy a maya that is comparatively less and mild 3bein! consistent %ith her biolo!ical !ender4. -his can be stated in a syllo!istic manner: -he e.cessiveness of maya !enerated by the third and fo'rth !rades of passions, 'nder disc'ssion here, can be destroyed by %omen in that very life0 beca'se that e.cessiveness of maya is not invariably concomitant %ith bein! con!enitally a hermaphrodite 3or a female40 it is the same %ith the e.cessiveness of maya prod'ced by the first and second !rades of that passion 3%hich can be destroyed accordin! to both schools by either hermaphrodites or by %omen4. -he same r'le %ill apply to the e.cessiveness of the remainin! passions as %ell, namely, an!er, pride, !reed, bashf'lness, and so forth. JDE 3Hi!ambara:4 Conditions are fo'nd in %omen that prevent the destr'ction of these t%o hi!her !rades of passions 3and th's prevent them from ass'min! the mendicant vo%s4. JDG 3Svetambara:4 )f so, tell 's %hat s'ch a condition mi!ht be. Co'ld it be a birth 3in a !iven e.istence4, s'ch as amon! the !ods, that prevents itP &r co'ld it be a lack of discrimination 3bet%een !ood and evil4, as %o'ld be the case %ith lo%er animalsP &r is it rather the afflictions of their minds born of e.cessive se.'al desire, as is the case as %ell %ith a con!enital, hermaphrodite >%ati"liba ?P JD$ )t cannot be the first alternative, since a %oman is a h'man bein! 3and not a !od4, and her physical and mental mat'ration is complete. )t is not the second, since %e perceive that %omen, like men, are able to en!a!e in the reli!io's activities that are associated %ith the eleventh pratima and so forth, and s'ch discrimination is not fo'nd in animals. )t is finally not the third alternative either, since there is a !reat difference bet%een 3a hermaphrodite %ho4 desires both se.es 3sim'ltaneo'sly4 and 3a %oman %ho4 desires only one. JD9 3Hi!ambara:4 Ce m'st ask yo' in this re!ard %hat it is that / 1GE / determines that a con!enital hermaphrodite has the ability to overcome the passions to s'ch an e.tent that he may ass'me the partial vo%s of the layman >an'vrata?, and yet he may not have the ability to

destroy those passions 3of the hi!her !rade4 that prevent him from receivin! the !reater vo%s >mahavrata? 3of the mendicant4. -he condition of birth and the absence of discrimination are not the reasons for this, since these reasons are eliminated by the very ar!'ments 2'st p't forth in connection %ith %omen. )n the absence of any other alternative, yo' m'st admit that the biolo!ical !ender of that hermaphrodite is the determinin! factor 3in denyin! him the mendicant initiation4. -he same r'le sho'ld apply to %omen also. JE# 3Svetambara:4 )t is not the case 3that there is any comparison bet%een a hermaphrodite and a %oman4. * hermaphrodite is like an animal, %hich may in certain rare circ'mstances ass'me a modic'm of the an'vratas thro'!h havin! a memory of its past lives thanks to specific temporal conditions 3s'ch as the presence of a teacher, etc.4. B't even in those cases, %e do not accept that the reason for his inability to ascend any hi!her r'n!s of the ladder of vo%s is d'e to his biolo!ical !ender 3as yo' Hi!ambaras s'!!est40 rather, it is beca'se of his afflicted mind, %hich has a cons'min! desire for both se.es, 2'st as a fire ra!es thro'!h a city. -his may be proved by perception. Fo' certainly cannot say that this is the same in the case of %omen, for even in yo'r doctrine a %oman is considered to be %orthy of practicin! the cond'ct inc'mbent to the eleventh pratima, %hich is possible only to those %ith the hi!hest aspirations. *nd yo' admit: too that it is proper to administer the mahavratas to a %oman, albeit conventionally. =or this reason it is said in 3the Hi!ambara te.t4 Jnanarnava : S'rely, there are in this %orld of h'man bein!s certain %omen %ho are endo%ed %ith p'rity, morality, and restraint0 %ho have become the crest 2e%el of their families, and %ho have accomplished both kno%led!e and veracity. 3.ii, DG4 *nd there are some %omen %ho are ornaments to this %orld by virt'e of their chastity and ma!nanimity and their vo%s, modesty, and discrimination. 3.ii, D$4 Comen have been cens'red by those men %ho have had eno'!h of transmi!ration, %ho are learned in script'res, entirely free of desires, %ith peace alone as their %ealth, and %ho adhere to the vo%s of celibacy. B't even then they have not cens'red %omen %ho have been the very embodiment of p'rity in this %orld, %ho are characteri,ed by stainless st'dy and cond'ct that is contin'o'sly maintained, and %ho lead a meritorio's life, inspired by dispassion and passivity. 3.ii, D94 JE1 ;o%ever, no s'ch con!enital hermaphrodite 3similar to those %omen4 has been either seen or heard of0 he does not ascend the ladder of / 1GG / the !'nasthanas any hi!her 3than the fifth r'n!4, beca'se of his inability to pacify his se.'al desires. 8ven yo'r o%n doctrine proclaims that his se.'al desire is al%ays smolderin!, 2'st as is the slo% heat of a brick kiln. *s is said in the Gommatasara : -here are bein!s %ho are %itho't those libidos that are comparable to a fire of !rass 3the male libido, %hich b'rns s%iftly4, a d'n! heap 3the female libido4, and a brick oven 3the hermaphrodite libido4 and are th's so'ls %ho no lon!er e.perience se.'al desire. S'ch bein!s attain to that perfect and infinite bliss that is prod'ced in oneself. 3Jiva"anda , verse 7GE4 -he meanin! of this te.t is that bein!s %ho attain moksa beca'se of the absence of these three kinds of se.'al desire are endo%ed %ith the infinite bliss that is prod'ced in oneself. 3-herefore, the position of %omen is not the same as that of the con!enital hermaphrodite.4 )n fact, it is perceived that %omen s'rpass men even in s'ch !ood cond'ct as celibacy. -herefore, commentin! on the verse 3be!innin!

%ith the %ords4 9she covers9 3'hadayati , J114, the Gommatasaravrtti makes this clarification: 8ven tho'!h s'ch %omen as the mothers of the -irthankaras and others %ho are endo%ed %ith the ri!ht vie% are free from these fa'lts 3described in this verse4, since s'ch %omen are rather rare as compared to the ma2ority of %omen, it is valid to call these characteristics of %omen in !eneral. JE7 -he follo%in! syllo!ism 3is therefore offered4: -he %omen 'nder disp'te 3i.e., the n'ns4 are %orthy of ass'min! the mendicant vo%s >mahavratas? in that very life0 beca'se they are considered to be fit to receive those vo%s that lead them to the eleventh sta!e of the lay discipline >pratima? in that very life0 as is the case %ith laymen. &'r ar!'ment is not vitiated in the case of a noncon!enital hermaphrodite >"rtrima"liba/,3"D4 beca'se in o'r doctrine s'ch a person is also allo%ed to ass'me the mendicant vo%s. )n yo'r doctrine, ho%ever, both the thin! to be proved 3i.e., the mahavratas for %omen4 and the e.ample 3of the krtrimakliba4 do not apply. JE" 3Hi!ambara:4 &b2ection. )f yo' admit that a con!enital hermaphrodite may not ascend to the hi!her !'nasthanas beca'se of his insatiable se. desire, then a noncon!enital hermaphrodite m'st be s'b2ect to the same destiny also. So ho% %o'ld he be able to attain moksaP JEB 3Svetambara:4 -his is not a problem, beca'se of the varied nat're of the mental capacities of bein!s. =or the most part, noncon!enital hermaphrodites e.perience the male libido alone. Ce are 'na%are of any reason that %o'ld prevent the noncon!enital hermaphrodite from attainin! / 1G$ / the same stat's of destroyin! the karmas that is permitted to a male by biolo!ical !ender %ho e.periences psycholo!ically the hermaphrodite libido. 3Xp. 1#B, lines E($4 *s for the con!enital hermaphrodite, it is easy to establish the absence of the mahavratas for him d'e to his 'n%orthiness to participate in the mendicant rit'als 3e.!., confessions4 as a!reed by both parties to the disp'te. JED 3Hi!ambara:4 38ven %ere %omen to ass'me the mendicant vo%s,4 s'rely the imp'rity inherent in %omen %o'ld corr'pt her mahavratasP JEE 3Svetambara:4 -hat is not so, since that imp'rity %o'ld be either psycholo!ical or biolo!ical. B't 3the imp'rity4 cannot be the former, beca'se it is born of defiled states of mind in the presence of e.cessive passions 3the first t%o !rades of the kasayas4, and these are not present 3%hen the mahavratas are accepted4. ='rthermore, is biolo!ical imp'rity that %hich is prod'ced in the birth canal, and so forth, or thro'!h some 3evil actions4P )t co'ld not be the former, beca'se the destr'ction of the internal mahavratas cannot: be bro'!ht abo't by e.ternal imp'rity. -his is comparable to the imp'rity of a monk that is bro'!ht abo't by s'ch diseases as diabetes or an e.cess of phle!m, %hich occ'r on acco'nt of his advanced a!e 3b't %hich do not invariably lead to the destr'ction of the mahavratas4. )t is not the case that monks are free from imp'rities, beca'se d'rin! sickness these are bo'nd to be present. 3Xp. 1#B, line 17(p. 1#D, line "4 JEG *s re!ards the menstr'al flo% in the va!ina of a female and the birth and destr'ction of many lo%er forms of life therein, s'rely this is somethin! that is impossible to avoid and therefore cannot be considered an impediment to her initiation as a mendicant. -his is the same as the case of a monk %ho

may also be!in to bleed 3d'e to hemorrhoidsP4, or the flo% of phle!m %hen there is an e.cess of phle!m 3d'e to a sin's condition4, or the flo% of p's d'e to boils0 despite 3those conditions, ho%ever,4 that monk remains heedf'l in treatin! those illnesses in a proper manner. 3Xp. 1#D, lines "(E4 JE$ 6oreover, tape%orms and so forth are born and die in the stomach of a monk as %ell, b't that fact does not ca'se the destr'ction of his vo%s. )n the same manner, %omen too sho'ld be treated e5'ally. &ther%ise, it %o'ld be impossible even to consider that %omen tr'ly practice the lay vo%s of the eleventh pratima, beca'se at that sta!e one refrains from all forms of in2'ry >himsa?, as is the case %ith a monk 3altho'!h not from all pari!raha4. 3*ny in2'ry that may occ'r at that sta!e4 can be compared to a monk %ho is %alkin! mindf'lly b't s'ddenly tramples an insect 'nderfoot. *ltho'!h in2'ry has occ'rred in that case, the mendicant vo%s are not / 1G9 / broken thereby. -his %e have already noted above 3and the same analo!y holds !ood for a n'n as %ell4. JE9 -his same r'le sho'ld apply 3in the follo%in! matter as %ell4: -he &mniscients have said that %hen a man is overcome by se.'al passion and en!a!es in se.'al activity, he kills 9##,### min'te bein!s 3i.e., the sperm cells in the e2ac'late4. &ne sho'ld al%ays tr'st these %ords. 3P4 )n the va!ina of a %oman also, bein!s %ith t%o or more senses 3i.e., able to to'ch, taste, etc.4 are born, n'mberin! from 1##,### to 7##,###, 'p to a ma.im'm of "##,###. 3P4 Chen a man and a %oman 'nite se.'ally, these bein!s in the va!ina are destroyed, 2'st as if a red(hot iron %ere inserted into a hollo% piece of bamboo 3filled %ith sesame seeds4.3"E4 3P4 -hese bein!s are considered to be t%o(sensed %hen they are in the o'ter !enital area. B't bein!s %ho are born from the contact of the sperm and the menstr'al blood may be even five(sensed 3i.e., able to to'ch, taste, smell, hear, and see4. *s has been said: )n the 'ter's of a %oman %ho has been once 'nited %ith a man, as many as 9##,### five( sensed h'man bein!s can be conceived at any one moment. 3P4 &f these 9##,###, only one or t%o %ill be s'ccessf'l in bein! born as f'lly developed h'man bein!s, %hereas all the rest %ill simply perish then and there. 3P4 3Cf. verses 5'oted in the Syadvadaman%ari , verse 7"4 -he destr'ction of livin! bein!s that takes place 3in the va!ina of a %oman d'rin! menstr'ation4 sho'ld also be treated as above 3in that it too is 'navoidable in2'ry4. Comen 3i.e., n'ns4 have themselves reno'nced all s'ch 3se.'al4 activities, have refrained from enco'ra!in! others in those actions, do not s'pport anyone %ho en!a!es in s'ch cond'ct, and maintain e.treme skillf'lness and presence of mind. -h's %hat %as said above in the verse 9'itta sohi 9 3see J1#4, and so forth, sho'ld be 'nderstood in this manner. JG# 3Hi!ambara:4 Clothes are essential for %omen, and therefore there is no total freedom from possessions 3apari!raha, leadin! to n'dity4 in their case. JG1 3Svetambara:4 -his is not so, beca'se yo'r ar!'ment does not stand 'p to scr'tiny. Iet 's consider the follo%in! alternatives. *re %omen born %ith clothes 3so that it %o'ld be impossible for them to abandon them4P &r are their clothes intended to protect their vo% of celibacyP -he first alternative is not tr'e, since it is contradicted by perception. *s for the second alternative, that %hich is cond'cive to

the maintenance of vo%s is not a possession, as is the case %ith feather brooms 3'sed by the Hi!ambara monks4. -his has been dealt %ith in detail before. / 1$# / JG7 6oreover, is the fact that %omen %ear clothes d'e to the impossibility of abandonin! them or beca'se 3clothes4 ca'se the prod'ction of %orms and th's destroy the vo% 3of ahimsa4 P -he first alternative is not tr'e, beca'se even no% %e see both %omen %ho are desiro's of abandonin! their lives and naked female yo!ins %ho aspire to the attainment of absol'te bliss.3"G4 )t cannot therefore be believed that it is impossible for %omen to abandon clothes. -he second alternative is also not correct, since by that ar!'ment even food %o'ld have to be considered a destroyer of vo%s, for %orms are born in the stomach 3of a mendicant4 d'e to food that is eaten. Similarly, the ass'mption that a n'n+s clothes are a ca'se of attachment sho'ld be discarded by the same ar!'ment, for if the body is not a ca'se of attachment, then clothes are not either. 3Xp. 1#E, line E(p. 1#G, line 74 JG" ='rthermore, 3if %omen may4 not receive the mahavratas, 3the Hi!ambaras4 %ill not be able to acco'nt for the fo'rfold comm'nity >'aturvidha-sangha ? 3of Jainas, i.e., monks >sadh'?, n'ns >sadhvi or aryika?, laymen >sravaka?, lay%omen >sravi"a ?4. JGB 3Hi!ambara:4 Ce maintain that lay%omen %ho are advanced to the eleventh pratima sta!e are to be called aryikas 3i.e., n'ns4 beca'se they have attained to the hi!hest stat's 3possible for %omen4. -he other three !ro'ps 3monks, laymen, and lay%omen4 are of co'rse %ell kno%n. JGD 3Svetambara:4 -his is not so, beca'se in the classification the brahma'arins 3laymen in the seventh pratima4 are not incl'ded. -hey are not accepted as mendicants. *ltho'!h these brahmacarins are on the pratima ladder, they are nevertheless called laymen >sravaka?. By the same token, the aryikas are only lay%omen 3despite bein! on the eleventh pratima4. *s for their attainin! the hi!hest state, yo' do not accept that they attain the condition of a @evalin. -he most yo' admit is that they can become leaders >ganini ? of similar n'ns. Kot all n'ns come to be referred to by the title !anini 3and th's all other n'ns %o'ld be e.cl'ded from any cate!ory %hatsoever4. 6oreover, if the aryikas %ere the same as the sravikas, then in the tradition of all the -irthankaras, their separate en'meration %o'ld become 'ntenable. JGE 3Svetambara:4 *s for the ar!'ment that %as set forth, that %omen do not attain the state of soverei!nty and lordship amon! heavenly bein!s, %e do not accept that vie%. *s %as said by the !reat acarya ;emacandra, the deli!hter of the %hole %orld, in the first chapter of his ,emi'aritra : ;avin! 'ndertaken at the end of his life the vo% to fast 'nto death, that 6onk Sankha %as reborn in the *para2ita heaven 3%here each heavenly bein! is a soverei!n bein!4. Similarly, the n'ns headed by Fasomati, performin! similar a'sterities, %ere born in the same *para2ita heaven 3as male !ods4. 3P4 / 1$1 / Similarly, in the te.ts entitled )rthivi'andra'aritra and &i%aya'andra'aritra , the attainment of the Sarvarthasiddhi heaven by %omen is attested. 3Xp. 1#G, lines 9(1"4 JGG *s for 3the female -irthankara4 6alli, it is not the case that there %as appearance of breasts in her childhood, nor %hen she attained the state of a @evalin. She had received her initiation 3as a n'n4 %hile still very yo'n! >balye ? and attained kevala2nana on the very day of her initiation, and therefore it %o'ld be impossible 3to depict her as a f'lly !ro%n %oman at the time of her becomin! a @evalin4.3"$4

6oreover, there %o'ld be a loss of decency also 3in sho%in! her breasts40 this case is similar to that of the ima!es of the male -irthankaras %ho are depicted devoid of beard, m'stache, and 3in the Svetambara tradition43"94 the male member. 3Xp. 1#$, line 1(p. 11#, line 1B4 JG$ 3*s re!ards the practice of reverential !reetin!s >see J1$?4 it is not c'stomary in o'r tradition to !reet n'ns accordin! to the seniority of initiation 3as it obtains bet%een monks4. :ather, it is a r'le that even on the day of his initiation into mendicancy a monk %ill be reverentially !reeted first by a n'n, even if she has been initiated for a h'ndred years. -his is the r'le and not vice versa. -his is beca'se a n'n may become conceited as a res'lt of bein! !reeted by a monk and th's !reetin! in itself mi!ht become a ca'se of her acc'm'latin! more karmas. ;o%ever, this is p'rely a tradition and not an absol'te la%, beca'se even n'ns are reverentially !reeted 3by monks4 %ith s'ch phrases as 9) 3!reet reverentially4 all the members of the mendicant comm'nity 3%hich incl'des n'ns4,9 and for that very reason e'lo!ies of virt'o's n'ns are recited by monks after risin! in the mornin!. JG9 3Svetambara:4 Similarly, the ad2ectives 3'sed by the Hi!ambaras4 to describe %omen as of little intelli!ence, and so forth, also do not prohibit moksa for n'ns. -his is so beca'se there is no invariable concomitance bet%een the ability to attain moksa and the ability to st'dy the Drstivada 3see J714. Iet 's e.amine the 5'estion of %omen+s not st'dyin! the Drstivada . *re they forbidden to st'dy the te.t itself, or only its meanin! 3i.e., to read it in vernac'lar form4, or bothP )n both of these cases, are they forbidden to st'dy it in entirety or only in partP -he latter alternative does not apply, since they are allo%ed a partial readin! of the te.t of the Drstivada as %ell as its meanin!(s'ch as the chapter on the parisahas 3the hardships to be borne %ith e5'animity4, a portion of %hich is e.tracted from the ninth )urva (or the te.t kno%n as the )aryusana"alpa3B#4 36endicant :'les to Be &bserved H'rin! the :ainy Season4. -he other alternative 3not readin! at all4 does not apply since it e.empts s'ch cases as that of the 3'ned'cated4 6asat'sa monks. -hey cannot read the Drstivada / 1$7 / at all since they lack the intelli!ence 3re5'ired to read it and yet attain moksa4.3B14 J$# 3Hi!ambara:4 -he deficiency of intelli!ence in the case of the 6asat'sa monks cannot be cited as a valid e.ample here. )n the case of a n'n, even if she has intelli!ence she is 'nfit to attain moksa 3beca'se she is a %oman4. 3Svetambara:4 -his is not correct. -he deficiency of the 6asat'sa monks is not so m'ch the lack of ability to memori,e as it is the lack of intelli!ence to 'nderstand the te.t. )n the %orld also, %hen somebody is said to be of little intelli!ence, this ad2ective is 'sed to indicate his lack of intelli!ence 3and not of memory4. Since this is the case, to say that a monk, even if he is not intelli!ent eno'!h 3to 'nderstand a sacred te.t4, is %orthy of attainin! moksa b't that a n'n, in spite of her possession of that intelli!ence, is not %orthy of it is 3to make a statement reachin!4 the hi!hest de!ree of rashnessS )f it is believed that 3s'ch an 'nintelli!ent4 monk is %orthy of moksa beca'se he is male, then 3by the same token a female too is %orthy of it4 beca'se both male and female belon! to the h'man species0 h'manness alone sho'ld be considered the determinant of the ability to attain moksa. )n act'ality, ho%ever, the distinction bet%een the t%o is of no importance at all. 3Xp. 111, lines $(1B, to p. 11", line 14 J$1 3Svetambara:4 *s for the ar!'ment that the places %here %omen have attained nirvana are not %ell kno%n, this ar!'ment is set aside by s'ch !eneral statements as 9)nfinite n'mbers of bein!s attained moksa from 3the holy mo'ntains of4 Satr'n2aya and :aivata and so forth9 3P4.3B74 -here are also some specific places mentioned in reference to sites %here nirvana %as attained by s'ch n'ns as 6ar'devi, :a2imati, and others. 8ven in the case of those n'ns for %hom there is no specific mention of s'ch

places their sit'ation is not different from that of monks %ho have attained moksa %itho't anythin! bein! kno%n abo't the places %here they attained nirvana. 6oreover, if a statement becomes acceptable merely beca'se it is %ell kno%n, then in 6a!adha, near the place called Aata!rama, there is a place called 6ine of Sa!es0 yo' sho'ld accept that also. -h's yo'r ar!'ment amo'nts to nothin!. J$7 3Svetambara:4 8ven the non(Jainas claim that %omen !o to moksa, as, for e.ample, it is said in the Bhagavad-Gita , chapter nine, verse thirty(t%o: & ParthaS %hosoever takes ref'!e in me, even if they be of evil births >papayonayah?, namely %omen, artisans, and even serfs, they too %ill attain the hi!hest !oal. 3i., "743B"4 / 1$" / J$" Ko% %e be!in the ref'tation of the inferences 3p't forth by the Hi!ambaras4. 3p. 11", line G(p. 17", line E43BB4 J$B 3Svetambara:4 *s for the ar!'ment that the t%o spirit'al restraints, namely the sthavirakalpa and the 2inakalpa, do not lead to the same !oal, namely moksa,3BD4 and that therefore n'ns 3since they are not permitted to practice 2inakalpa4 may not attain moksa, this ar!'ment too is invalid. )t is fa'lted by the fact that both these practices have moksa as their !oal, and the distinction bet%een them is merely that the mendicants %ho practice sthavirakalpa teach disciples and share a comm'nal residence, %hereas those %ho practice 2inakalpa do not. )n fact there is no s'bstantial difference bet%een the modes of restraint for monks and those for n'ns. )t m'st not be stated by the Hi!ambaras that there is an absol'te distinction bet%een the t%o modes beca'se the monk+s restraint is total and the n'n+s restraint is partial, as it is not proper for the adherents of the doctrine of syadvada 3conditional assertion4 to advocate an absol'te distinction bet%een the t%o. 6oreover, %e have already established thro'!h lo!ical means that the vo%s of n'ns are the same as the !reat vo%s >mahavratas? of monks. Chat then is the 'se of pointless disc'ssionP J$D 3Svetambara:4 *s for the alle!ed lack of stren!th in %omen, is this ca'sed by the absence of a partic'lar type of samhanana 392oint of bones94 of her body,3BE4 or lack of fortit'de, or lack of firm adherence to their vo%sP 3Xp. 17", line 94 Kot the first alternative, beca'se it is possible for %omen to possess the first samhanana, as it is said in the -vasya"a-niryu"ti : 9-he first kind of 2oint . . .9 ;ence yo'r contention 3based on yo'r script're that the karmabh'mi %omen do not have the first three samhananas4 is not acceptable to 's.3BG4 Kor the second alternative, since %omen+s fortit'de can be perceived directly in s'ch acts as enterin! fire 3in the non(Jaina act of climbin! the f'neral pyre of her h'sband, etc.4. *s for physical pro%ess, that is of no 'se in 3the conte.t of4 attainin! moksa, since even men %ho are lame, d%arfish, or s'b2ect to e.treme illness are not prevented thereby from attainin! moksa. )t sho'ld not be ima!ined 3by the Hi!ambaras4 that these men also are not capable of attainin! moksa,3B$4 for there is no fi.ed r'le concernin! their incapability. 6erely havin! deformed limbs is not determinative in this matter, since 3%e believe4 that moksa is possible even for those %ho have the samsthana 39bodily str'ct're94 of a h'nchback or a d%arf. 3Xp. 17", line 1"(p. 17B, line E4 J$E *s for the neo(Hi!ambara ob2ection 3see J7D4 that 3the state of the / 1$B / Siddha %ill be4 similar to that of the former state of embodiment beca'se of the holes in the ears of %omen, and so forth, that is e5'ally applicable to those men %ho %ear earrin!s and therefore may have

holes in their ears. 3Xp. 17B, line 94 J$G *s for the ar!'ment that the shape of their breasts 3%o'ld be retained in the state of a Siddha4, this is no defect. -heir case is similar to that of h'nchbacked or obese men, %ho have similar characteristics. 6oreover, the space points of the so'l in the state of a Siddha are not affected by s'ch 3prot'berances4. Kor is there 3the alle!ed4 impropriety of describin! the %oman+s shape in the Siddhahood, beca'se the same thin! can be said abo't the shape of a man also. Fo' cannot say that the male shape is permitted, beca'se it is said in the )rava'anasara 3ii, $#d4: 9-he 3p're4 so'l . . . has no definable shape.9 Fo'r point is not proved merely beca'se 3the te.ts say that4 9the Siddhas are of the shape of men,9 since 3the p'rport of the 5'otation4 is only to e.cl'de the shape of animals anti so forth. =or this reason it is said in the Dravyasangraha-vrtti : -he shape of the Siddha is like the shape of the shado% of a man. )n the shado% there is no shape that can be considered 'nmentionable. 3verse D1, 5'oted in JS( )ll, p. "B#4 J$$ *s for the ar!'ment that people may feel dis!'st 3to%ard n'ns %ho are menstr'atin!4, that too does not prevent their attainin! moksa as it is similar to the case of men %ho s'ffer from 'npleasant voice, a%k%ard !aits, or %ho have totally deformed or h'nchback bodies. -his is similar to the case of those 3non(-irthankara4 @evalins %ho have dark comple.ions compared to the e.traordinarily amiable bodies of the -irthankaras0 their dark comple.ion does not obstr'ct the attainment of the state of a @evalin. J$9 *s for the 3Hi!ambara4 ar!'ment 3that a n'n cannot attain moksa4 beca'se of the flo% of the 3menstr'al4 blood >rudhirasrava ?, %e point o't that this flo%, !enerated by the presence of the libido >veda?, is impossible in her case 3%hen she attains *rhatship4,3B94 since the libidos are totally absent in that state. )f s'ch %ere not the case, then it %o'ld be diffic'lt for yo' 3the Hi!ambara4 to deny the possibility of there bein! a 3noct'rnal4 dischar!e of semen >viryasrava ? in the case of a male 3*rhat4 as %ell. *s for yo'r contention that an *rhat is endo%ed %ith an e.traordinarily p're body 3i.e., free from blood, semen, 'rine, etc.4, 3%e re2ect this and4 %ill respond to it shortly.3D#4 J9# 3Svetambara:4 3Xp. 17D, lines 1(B4 -h's all o'r ar!'ments are %ell established. Ce therefore present the follo%in! syllo!ism: / 1$D / -he %omen 'nder disp'te 3i.e., the n'ns4 are %orthy of attainin! moksa in that very life0 beca'se they are capable of 'ndertakin! specific kinds of a'sterities and the minor vo%s >an'vratas? of the layperson. Chosoever is so 3capable4 is similar to the other, namely the male h'man bein!, %ho is admitted to be capable of attainin! moksa. Chosoever is not so 3capable of keepin! the lay vo%s4 is not similar to the other 3i.e., the h'man male4. =or e.ample, the heavenly bein!s 3%ho cannot 'ndertake any vo%s at all4 and so forth. J91 ='rthermore: Clothin! and s'ch other re5'isites of monks >sadh's? are not possessions >pari!raha?0 beca'se they are cond'cive to the keepin! of mendicant restraints0 for e.ample, the %ater !o'rd and the peacock(feather broom 3carried by the Hi!ambara monks4 or one+s o%n body and the food 3taken to s'stain it4. J97

Sri Jinadharmabh'pa 3i.e., -he @in!, namely, the -eachin! of the Jina4, the advocate of the reasons 3to establish4 nirvana for %omen, shines bri!htly after havin! defeated the thesis of his adversary, the Hi!ambara Prabhacandra, as rendered in his t%o treatises,3D14 %hose !emlike brilliance is thereby made dim. 314 Comen are of s'ch a 3!ood4 nat're that they are not born in the seventh hell and as a r'le are not inclined to take 'p arms in battle. -hey also do not take rebirths as visnus or prativisnus ,3D74 %ho are the s'b2ects of sinf'l tales, and th's are free from s'ch miseries. Beca'se of their virt'es %omen are born %ith p're and soft bodies. Chich %ise man, 'nless his intentions are blame%orthy, %o'ld not admit moksa for %omen, %ho th's carry less b'rden of karmasP 374 -hat noble mother %ho at the celebration of the birth of the -irthankara is praised by the kin! of the !ods for her %orld(p'rifyin! virt'es, %ho even in her yo'th does not resort even in the sli!htest manner to the %ron! path, %ho is the s'pport of compassion and meritorio's deeds, %ho as a 5'een brin!s !reat happiness and incomparable !lory to her Iord by her 3tran5'il4 heart, 3ho% co'ld it be said that4 s'ch a bea'tif'lly pleasin! %oman is not %orthy of attainin! the !reatest !lory and happiness 3of moksa4P 3"4 =or those men %hose !lory e.pands like an ocean, %hose vie%s a!ree %ith the doctrine of the Svetambaras, may this treatise be pleasant as ambrosia, brin!er of the !reatest happiness. &r may it be for arrestin! the vie% of the Hi!ambaras0 may it prod'ce faith in the attainment of moksa by %omen endo%ed %ith the ri!ht vie%. 3B4 -h's ends the chapter called *r!'ments for 6oksa of Comen. 3p. 17D, line 1"4 / 1$E /

Note%
1. *n asterisk follo%ed by the n'mber of the pa!es and lines indicates the portion omitted here from the ori!inal edition of the te.t of the *u"tiprabodha-Svopa%navrtti >197$?. 7. -he te.t at this sta!e >p. GE, line E, to p. G$, line D? cites verbatim a lon! passa!e from the Gommatasara-vrtti >verses E9B(G#1? dealin! %ith the !'nasthanas attained by a so'l in a !iven state of e.istence. >See Chapter )), nn. 17 and 1", for a s'mmary.? ;'man bein!s born in the realm of action >karmabh'mi? alone may attain all fo'rteen !'nasthanas >i.e., may attain moksa in that very life?. -he a'thor here dra%s attention to the script're in %hich all h'man bein!s, and not only males, are said to be able to attain the fo'rteen !'nasthanas >an ar!'ment first p't forth by the Fapaniya a'thor Sakatayana in Chapter )), J1"G? and hence, even accordin! to the Hi!ambara script're >see Chapter )), n. G#?, %omen can attain moksa. ". 6e!havi2aya is consistent in referrin! to this te.t as Gomattasara instead of Gommatasara , its traditional title. -his error has been corrected thro'!ho't. B. =or this variety of the mohaniya(karma, see J)) , pp. 11G(171. D. &n the concepts of the realms of pleas're and action, see Chapter )) >n. G?. E. -he ladder of destr'ction of karmas >ksapaka(sreni, for %hich see Chapter )), J11$ and n. EG?, %hich can be commenced %ith any libido by an aspirant, be!ins at the ei!hth !'nasthana. )n the ninth sta!e all three libidos are totally destroyed. &nly a s'btle variety of the passion called lobha >desire for life? remains, %hich is also destroyed at the t%elfth !'nasthana. -his is an irreversible co'rse and the so'l

m'st proceed immediately to the sta!e of *rhatship >the thirteenth !'nasthana? and m'st attain moksa at the end >fo'rteenth !'nasthana? of that life. =or details, see J)) , chap. $. G. anusyini is the Sanskriti,ed form of the Prakrit manusini employed in the oldest >C. *.H. 1D#? Hi!ambara te.t Sat"handagama >s'tras 97 and 9"? for a female >as opposed to Pkt. manussa , Skt. manusya , i.e., male?. )n describin! %hich h'man bein! may have %hich !'nasthanas, this te.t mentions both man'sya and man'syini separately and states that both can attain all fo'rteen !'nasthanas. >See the te.t 5'oted at Chapter )), n. G1.? Since the thirteenth and fo'rteenth !'nasthanas are attained only by a @evalin >%ho m'st attain moksa at the end of that life?, this Hi!ambara te.t allo%in! the attainment of these !'nasthanas by man'syini !oes a!ainst the professed Hi!ambara doctrine that %omen cannot attain moksa in that life. -he Hi!ambara commentators as seen above >Chapter ))), ii? have concl'ded that the term 9man'syini9 refers not to a biolo!ical female b't to a biolo!ical male %ho is psycholo!ically female. Prabhacandra, as %e sa% earlier, i!nores this %hole disc'ssion, b't 6e!havi2aya is persistent in his e.amination of the Hi!ambara interpretation of this term, %hich has evaded resol'tion even to this day. $. Both sects believe that at one instant >samaya ? a minim'm of one and a ma.im'm of one h'ndred and ei!ht so'ls attain moksa >samkhya(2a!hanyena ekasamaye ekah siddhyati, 'tkarsenastottarasatasamkhyah0 Sarvarthasiddhi , ., 90 see JS( )ll, p. ""9?. Since the Hi!ambaras do not believe in the moksa of anyone b't a male, the n'mber of one h'ndred and ei!ht is not f'rther divided to sho% the physical !ender as is clone in the verse 5'oted by 6e!havi2aya. -his verse is therefore not a'thoritative for the Hi!ambaras0 nor is the one 5'oted by the Fapaniya a'thor / 1$G / Sakatayana >at Chapter )), J9D?, %hich %as e.pressly re2ected by Prabhacandra >see Chapter ))), J$1 and n. $7?. 9. -hat %omen have e.cessive crookedness >maya or ka'tilya? is not necessarily an e.cl'sive Hi!ambara ar!'ment based on any si!nificant karma theory applyin! only to %omen0 rather, it reflects a !eneral attit'de of )ndian men shared by the Svetambaras and the Fapaniyas alike. 1#. -here is perhaps an all'sion here to the !reat poet @alidasa, %hose hero, the Faksa, makes a ha'ntin! reference to the %aghana of a beloved %oman in eghaduta , verse BD. 11. )t may be noted that in the Jaina order only monks can administer the mahavratas to a %oman, after %hich she is handed over to a n'n >%ho had sponsored her? for s'pervision. =or a detailed acco'nt of the initiation >di"sa ? of a n'n in the Svetambara sect, see Shanta >19$D, pp. "B"("EB?. )n B'ddhism the B'ddha is said to have allo%ed the first n'n, 6ahapra2apati <a'tami, the privile!e of ordainin! a n'n, a c'stom that is said to prevent the monks of s'ch -heravada co'ntries as Sri Ianka, the Union of 6yanma, and -hailand from ordainin! %omen to revive the e.tinct order of n'ns in present times. Since %omen may not initiate themselves, they m'st apparently a%ait the arrival of the ne% B'ddha to reestablish the bhiks'ni(san!ha. See the )ntrod'ction >JBD?. 17. )t is 'niversally believed by the Jainas that, d'rin! those times %hen moksa is not possible >s'ch as the present a!e?, both monks and n'ns %ho keep their vo%s properly and attain peacef'l death thro'!h the holy practice of sallekhana >see Chapter )), JDD? are first born in heaven and then reborn as h'mans to res'me their holy career. *ltho'!h n'ns may th's be reborn in heavens, both sects believe that they may not be able to achieve the stat's of the kin! of !ods >)ndra or *hamindra?, a position reserved for monks only. 1". 6ar'devi %as the mother of the first -irthankara :sabha. -he Svetambaras believe that she attained

kevala2nana and died immediately >i.e., achieved Siddhahood?, %hile still a lay%oman, at the si!ht of the omniscient !lory of her son. &f co'rse, the Hi!ambaras re2ect this belief since in their doctrine neither a %oman nor a ho'seholder can attain moksa. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this controversy, see J)) , p. 7#B. 1B. Hra'padi, the heroine of the ahabharata and %ife of the five Pandava brothers, also appears in the Jaina P'ranas >e.!., $risastisala"apurusa'aritra , A, p. 19$? as the %ife of the five Pandavas and becomes a Jaina n'n %hen her h'sbands are initiated as Jaina monks. -he Hi!ambaras re2ect the claim that Hra'padi >as %ell as 6ar'devi and other %omen? attained moksa, believin! that they %ere born in heaven and %ill event'ally attain moksa later in a f't're life %hen reborn as men. S'bhacandra >c. 1E##? in his )andavapurana >sar!a ..v? stresses this point in the follo%in! Hi!ambara acco'nt of Hra'padi and other n'ns: :a2imati tatha @'nti S'bhadra Hra'padi p'nah, samyaktvena samam vrttam vavrire ta vrsodyatah. 31B#4 svay'rante ca samnyasya svaradhanacat'stayam, m'ktasavah samaradhya 2a!m's tah sodasam divam. 31B"4 s'ratvasamsritah sarvah p'mvedodayabha2inah, samanikas'ra bh'tva tatratyam bh'n2ate s'kham. 31BB4 te nrloke nrtam etya tapas taptva s'd'staram, dhyanayo!ena setsyanti krtva karmaksayam narah. 31BG4 1D. =or the Svetambara story of 6alli, see the )ntrod'ction >J7B?, Jayasena+s ar!'ments >Chapter )A, J1B?, and 6e!havi2aya+s re2oinder at JGG and note "$ belo%. / 1$$ / 1E. -he specific mention of the %hite(clad monks >svetavaso bhiks'nam, i.e., the Svetambaras? in this conte.t is si!nificant. -he opponents of the Hi!ambaras here are not the Fapaniya monks, %ho adhered to the r'les of n'dity b't so'!ht to make an e.ception of their n'ns so that they co'ld contin'e to %ear clothes b't still attain moksa in that very life0 as a r'le, ho%ever, they did not claim this concession for male mendicants >other than for those %ho %ere s'b2ect to three defects0 see Chapter )), JBD?. -he Svetambara monks did not observe the r'les re!ardin! n'dity, %hich %ere inc'mbent, accordin! to the Hi!ambaras, on all mendicants. )n the opinion of the Hi!ambaras, they %ere %orse than n'ns, beca'se %hile n'ns %ore clothin! in accordance %ith the r'les of the discipline, monks had no s'ch dispensation. ;ence the Hi!ambaras remind their Svetambara opponents here that by 'sin! this >false? ar!'ment to claim moksa for %omen despite the 'se of clothes, they r'n the risk of denyin! the tr'e stat's of their o%n monks and their mahavratas. =or the earlier 'se of this metaphor >a pop'lar one amon! the mercantile comm'nities to %hich the Jainas have traditionally belon!ed? of the loss of capital in search of profit, see Chapter A >J71?. 1G. Compare this Jaina r'le %ith the first of the ei!ht gurudharmas of the B'ddhist la% pertainin! to the n'ns: >a? vassasat'pasampannaya bhikkh'niya tadah+ 'pasampannassa bhikkh'no abhivadanam pacc'tthanam an2alikammam samicikammam katabbam. ayam pi dhammo sakkatva !ar'katva manetva p'2etva yava2ivam anatikkamaniyo. &inaya, #ullavagga , ., 7. >b? varsasatopasampannaye *nanda bhiks'niye tadahopa 3sam4 pannassa bhiks'sya sirasa pada vanditavya. ayam *nanda bhiks'ninam prathamo !ar'dharmo yo bhiks'nihi yava22ivam satkartavyo yava anatikramaniyo vela(m(iva mahasam'drena. Bhi"suni-&inaya , p. 1G. 1$. =or this Svetambara tradition, see Hevendra >(alpasutra , app. ), nn. G(1#?, %ho 5'otes the follo%in! in s'pport of these beliefs: 9acelatvam sri *dinatha(6ahavira(sadh'nam manapramanasahitam 2irnaprayam dhavalam ca kalpate. sri *2itadivimsatitirthakarasadh'nam t' pancavarnam >(alpa-sutra"alpalata ?0 acel'kko dhammo p'rimassa ya pacchimassa ya 2inassa0 ma22hima!ana 2inanam hoi sacelo acelo ya >(alpasamarthana ?.9 19. =or a disc'ssion on the variation of the mendicant r'les 'nder different -irthankaras, see J)) , pp.

17(7#. 7#. =or the verse 9a'ela""uddesiya 9 see Chapter )) >JBE?. 71. -his verse sho'ld be read %ith the verse DB$: 2ati vi ya Bhutavade savvassa vayo!atassa otaro, ni22'hana tadha vi h' d'mmedhe pappa itthi ya. 3DB$4 2ati !aha. yady api Drstivade samastavanmayavataras tathapi d'rmedhasam ayo!yanam strinam can'!rahartham anyasr'tavisesopadesah, sravakanam ca. &isesavasya"abhasya , verse DB$. )t sho'ld be noted in this connection that the first t%o s'kladhyanas, attained immediately prior to attainin! the kevala2nana, are possible only to those %ho kno% the )urvas >accordin! to the r'le: s'kle cadye p'rvavidah, $attvarthasutra , i., "9?. -he Svetambaras nevertheless claim that a n'n %ho is forbidden the st'dy of the )urvas may yet attain kevala2nana. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this problem, see JG9. 77. &n narayana and baladeva, see Chapter )) >n. B9?. 7". -he Jaina cosmolo!y locates the abode of the Siddhas at the s'mmit of the 'niverse, immediately above the Sarvarthasiddhi heaven. See Chapter )) >n. 1$? and J)) , p. 17G. / 1$9 / 7B. See Chapter )) >n. D1?. 7D. -his syllo!ism %as first p't forth by Prabhacandra >Chapter ))), JDG? in response to the Fapaniya ar!'ment at Chapter )) >J"9?. 7E. -hese neo(Hi!ambaras are the follo%ers of Banarasidas mentioned in my introd'ction >i?. 7G. =or the concept of the space >pradesa? occ'pied by material atoms and immaterial s'bstances >incl'din! so'ls?, see J)) , pp. 9$(1##. 7$. )n the disc'ssion on the a'darika and the parama(a'darika(sarira >Chapter )), n. "? it %as seen that the Svetambaras, to!ether %ith the Fapaniyas, re2ect the Hi!ambara theory of the ordinary body t'rnin! into the parama(a'darika(sarira at the moment of attainin! *rhatship. -hey believe that the *rhat m'st contin'e to take food and %ater as before, s'b2ect to the same physical needs >s'ch as the necessity to eat and drink and respond to calls of nat're? as any other h'man bein!. *s for %omen, the Hi!ambaras do not admit that they may attain kevala2nana, and hence in their doctrine %omen are a'tomatically e.cl'ded from havin! a parama(a'darika body. Since the Svetambaras do admit that %omen may attain kevala2nana, they m'st acco'nt for the %ay in %hich female @evalins %o'ld cope %ith their menstr'al periods, %hich, in the absence of the theory of a parama(a'darika(sarira, m'st occ'r in all mat're females. =or the Svetambara reply to this 5'estion, see J$9 and note B9 belo%. 79. 6e!havi2aya is obvio'sly referrin! here to Prabhacandra >see J97?, the e.ponent of the Hi!ambara doctrine. -he last line, %hich says that Hhana >i.e., @'bera? %o'ld contin'e to look 'pon %omen %ith lovin! eyes, is a fi!'rative %ay of sayin! that a %oman m'st remain content %ith a rebirth in heaven rather than attainin! moksa in that very life. "#. -he te.t at this sta!e >from pp. $$, line 17, to p. 91 line 1"? cites lar!e passa!es from the Gommatasara-vrtti and the )an'asangraha re!ardin! the vario's kinds of !'nasthanas attained by different so'ls thro'!h the process of !rad'ally eliminatin! vario's types of karmas. -his is an attempt to sho% that the Hi!ambaras are %ron! in takin! the %ord 9man'syini9 to mean a biolo!ical male %ho has temporarily become psycholo!ically female by e.periencin! the female libido. "1. Chether a %oman %ho desires a man is more or less perverted than a man %ho desires a man is a cr'cial 5'estion in this debate b't is never addressed by the Hi!ambaras. -he Svetambara line of

5'estionin! implies that they feel s'ch a man >i.e., a homose.'al? %o'ld be inferior to a %oman or, at very least, sho'ld not fare better than a %oman in follo%in! the spirit'al path. -he Hi!ambara ans%er %o'ld appear to be that the presence of female libido in a monk at the ei!hth !'nasthana is not of any si!nificance, since all three libidos m'st be destroyed at the ninth !'nasthana, before that monk+s pro!ress to%ard the state of a @evalin. See the verse from the )ra"rta-Siddhabha"ti 5'oted by the Hi!ambara in J$ above. "7. -he Hi!ambara applies the same method, namely the reco'rse to the past state >bh'tap'rvanyaya?, in describin! the t%elve kinds of Siddhas mentioned in the $attvarthasutra , ., 9. =or e.ample, a 5'estion is asked: Cith %hat !ender >lin!a? can a person attain SiddhahoodP *ns%er: Physically, only %ith male !ender. &r one can take the %ord 9lin!a9 in the s'tra to mean the mendicant emblem. &ne attains Siddhahood by the emblem of a nir!rantha. By the emblem of one %ith property >sa!rantha? also, if one %ere to ans%er by takin! into acco'nt only the past state of that person. >lin!ena kena siddhihP . . . dravyatah p'llin!enaiva. athava nir!rantha( / 19# / lin!ena. sa!ranthalin!ena va siddhir bh'tap'rvanayapeksaya. Sarvarthasiddhi , ., 1#0 5'oted in JS( ))), p. ""$.? "". -his first !rade of the passions >kasaya? is called anantanubandhi , %hich is overcome %hen the fo'rth !'nasthana of the ri!ht vie% has been attained. -he second !rade is called apratya"hyanavarana >that %hich prevents the ass'mption of the vo%s of the laity?0 it is overcome in the fifth !'nasthana. -he third !rade is called pratya"hyanavarana >that %hich prevents the ass'mption of the vo%s of the mendicant?0 it is overcome on the si.th !'nasthana %hen the mendicant vo%s are accepted. -he final !rade, sam%valana , incl'des the three kinds of libido >p'mveda, striveda, and nap'msakaveda? as %ell as the most s'btle kind of attachment for life. -he libido is eliminated in the ninth sta!e, and the remainin! passion is totally overcome in the tenth thro'!h t%elfth !'nasthanas. -he Hi!ambaras claim that a %oman is incapable of ascendin! any farther than the fifth !'nasthana(that is, she is 'nable to ass'me the mendicant vo%s. )n technical terms, this %o'ld mean that a %oman is 'nable to overcome the third !rade of passions, a claim that is evident to the Hi!ambaras on acco'nt of her contin'ed bashf'lness and so forth. -he Svetambaras re2ect this claim. =or details see J)) , chap. B. "B. So'ls %ho lack all possibility of ever attainin! moksa and are th's destined forever to remain in samsara are called abhavya0 those %ho may attain receive the desi!nation of bhavya. =or a disc'ssion on this Jaina theory of 9predestination,9 see Jaini >19GG?. "D. (rtrima"liba >lit., one %ho has been rendered a hermaphrodite?. Since the %ord is employed in distinction to a con!enital hermaphrodite >%atinapumsa"a ?, it appears that the %ord is 'sed to refer to a person %ho is born male b't %as rendered a 9hermaphrodite9 by s'ch means as castration, as in the case of a e'n'ch. -he Svetambaras, as maintained by 6e!havi2aya, %ill have no diffic'lty in admittin! s'ch a person >essentially a male? to their mendicant ranks as he %ill be clothed accordin! to their r'les. *ltho'!h the Hi!ambara response to this Svetambara statement is not clearly set forth, it is %ell kno%n that a noncon!enital hermaphrodite, on acco'nt of his !enital deformity, %o'ld not be allo%ed to become a Hi!ambara monk, %ho m'st !o n'de. -his position clearly emphasi,es the aspect of biolo!ical !ender in the ass'mption of the mahavratas and the attainment of moksa, re!ardless of %hat libido mi!ht be entertained. )n this respect, the stat's of a noncon!enital hermaphrodite in the Hi!ambara tradition %o'ld be similar to that of a %oman. =or a disc'ssion on the krtrimakliba in the B'ddhist te.ts, see M%illin! >19$9?. "E. *ccordin! to another passa!e it is not a bamboo t'be alone b't one filled %ith sesame seeds that is

compared to the va!ina filled %ith min'te bein!s. Compare: yad vedara!ayo!an maith'nam abhidhiyate tad abrahma, avatarati tatra himsa vadhasya sarvatra sadbhavat. 314 himsyante tilanalyam taptayasi vinihite tila yadvat, bahavo 2iva yona' himsyante maith'ne tadvat. 374 )urusarthasiddhyupaya , verses 1#G(1#$. Compare: yoniyantrasam'tpannah s's'ksma 2ant'rasayah, pidyamana vipadyante yatra tan maith'nam tya2et. *ogasastra-Svopa%navrtti , ), ii, G9. ;emacandra 5'otes a passa!e from the (amasastra in s'pport of the Jaina belief: yona' 2ant'sadbhavam samvadena dradhayati(2ant'sadbhavam Aatsyayano +py aha. Aatsyayanah (amasastra karah anena ca Aatsyayanasamvadadhinam asya pramanyam iti nocyate, na hi Jainam sasanam anyasamvadadhina( / 191 / pramanyam, kint' ye +pi kamapradhanas tair api 2ant'sadbhavo napahn'ta ity 'cyate. Aatsyayanasloko yatha1rakta2ah. krmayah s'ksma mrd'madhyadhisa(ktayah, 2anmavartmas' kand'tim 2anayanti tathavidham. )bid., ), ii, $#. -his verse %ith a sli!ht variation appears not in the e.tant (amasutra b't in the Jayamangalati"a on it by Fasodhara. See the (amasutram of Aatsyayana, p. G$. "G. By naked female yo!ins o'r a'thor probably has in mind certain Saivite female ascetics %ho are kno%n to have practiced n'dity. &ne s'ch e.ample is the Airasaiva saint 6ahadeviyakka0 for details see Kandimath >19ED, vol. ), pp. G, $, 1", 71D?. "$. &n the Svetambara le!end of the female -irthankara 6alli, see the )ntrod'ction >J7B?. *s %as seen earlier >Chapter )), n. DB?, Sakatayana refrains from any all'sion to 6alli, a c'rio's omission %hich indicates the possibility that the Fapaniyas, like the Hi!ambaras, did not consider 6alli to be a %oman. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this le!end see Shah >19$G, pp. 1D9(1E#?. Plate IA)) in that %ork ill'strates a headless stone ima!e >from the I'ckno% m'se'm? of a %oman seated in the yo!ic post're similar to that of a male -irthankara and pres'med to be the only e.tant ima!e of the female 6alli. -he ima!e bears no inscription, b't the front side sho%s prominent breasts %itho't the trace of a halter %hile the reverse side sho%s the braided hair reachin! the bare hips. Ko Jaina sect, ho%ever, allo%s a n'n to be naked or permits her to retain braided hair. Chile there is no do'bt that this is a Jaina ima!e, f'rther evidence is re5'ired for establishin! the tr'e identity of the person it depicts. "9. Pleasin! co'ntenance >subhagatva ? is a characteristic res'ltin! from the meritorio's kind of body( prod'cin!, that is, the nama(karma. Both sects believe that %ith the attainment of the kevala2nana, the hair on the head and other parts of the body as %ell as nails of an *rhat stop !ro%in! forever, beca'se of this s'bha!anamakarma. =or this reason the Jina ima!es of both sects are depicted %itho't m'stache and beard and %ith only small c'rly hair >e.cept that of the first Jina, %ho is depicted %ith lon! hair fallin! on his sho'lders?. -he Svetambara ima!es, even of 6ahavira, %ho accordin! to their o%n te.ts %ent totally naked, still depict him %ith a loincloth in order to preserve the decency of the ima!e. -he Hi!ambara ima!es, as is %ell kno%n, are al%ays made to sho% the n'de fi!'re complete %ith the male member, since accordin! to them holy n'dity is not opposed to decency and reflects the tr'e state of the Jina+s perfected mendicancy. -he oldest standin! Jina ima!es invariably depict the state of n'dity. )n the case of the seated ima!es >s'ch as fo'nd in 6ath'ra? the male members %ere nat'rally covered by the foldin! of the le!s in the lot's post're0 these ima!es %ere probably %orshipped by adherents of both the Hi!ambara and the Svetambara sects. )t is only %hen the sectarian disp'te reached a point of total separation of the t%o mendicant comm'nities that the Svetambaras, sometime in the early <'pta era >c. fifth cent'ry? appear to have be!'n carvin! e.cl'sively Svetambara ima!es draped in styli,ed loincloths. =or f'rther disc'ssion on the development of the Svetambara icono!raphy, see Shah >19$G, intro.?. B#. )aryusana"alpa %o'ld appear to be the te.t kno%n as Samayari >:'les for *scetics?, %hich forms

part of the (alpasutra and contains r'les for monks and n'ns for the period of the retreat d'rin! the rainy season. See Jacobi+s translation of the (alpasutra >1$$B, pp. 79E("11?. B1. <'naratna first introd'ced this ar!'ment and referred to the story of the / 197 / monk %ho had reali,ed moksa thro'!h the metaphor of the lentils and chaff >Chapter A, J"E?. )n the Hi!ambara version of this story >Chapter A, n. 1G? of the 96asat'sa9 monk Sivabh'ti, he %as not said to be 'nintelli!ent, as maintained by 6e!havi2aya, b't only lackin! memory. Chether he had received any instr'ction in the )urvas is not clear from the Hi!ambara te.t. Since the first t%o s'kladhyanas are not possible %itho't the kno%led!e of the )urvas >see n. 71 above?, one %o'ld have to ass'me that the Hi!ambaras %o'ld not a!ree %ith 6e!havi2aya+s contention that s'ch monks co'ld have attained moksa %itho't st'dy of the )urvas . B7. =or the temples on 6o'nt Satr'n2aya, see B'r!ess >1$E9?. B". -he verse 5'oted from the Bhagavad-Gita tells only that %omen >to!ether %ith men of s'ch lo% castes as the Aaisyas and S'dras? can attain moksa b't it does not assert, as 6e!havi2aya seems to claim, that they attain it in that same life. )t sho'ld be noted f'rther that the Svetambara is not 5'otin! this heretical te.t in s'pport of his thesis b't rather to ridic'le the Hi!ambara claim that 2'st beca'se somethin! is believed by somebody or is %ell kno%n to some people >e.!., the places of nirvana of certain monks?, it sho'ld be accepted by all as a'thoritative. Keither the Hi!ambaras nor the Svetambaras believe that the hi!hest !oal >para gati ? spoken of in the Gita is identical %ith the Jaina concept of moksa. BB. 3X p. 11", line G(p. 17", line E4 6e!havi2aya+s ref'tations of the Hi!ambara ar!'ments >%hich %ere !iven above from J7D to J"9? are omitted here as they are almost identical, albeit presented in a more detailed form, %ith those fo'nd in the Strinirvanapra"arana >Chapter ))? and the $ar"arahasyadipi"avrtti >Chapter A? disc'ssed above. &nly ne% ar!'ments or si!nificantly ne% form'lations of the old ar!'ments are reprod'ced in sections J$B thro'!h J97. BD. ;ere 6e!havi2aya seems to be respondin! to Prabhacandra+s ar!'ment in Chapter ))) >JE$?, %hich dre% a contrast bet%een the sacelasamyama of a n'n and the acelasamyama of a monk. )t sho'ld be noted that Prabhacandra does not 'se the terms 9sthavirakalpa9 and 92inakalpa9 to describe these t%o practices. =or the variation in the meanin! attached to these t%o modes in the Svetambara and the Hi!ambara sects, see Chapter )) >n. "D?. BE. &n samhanana, see Chapter )A >n. "?. BG. 6e!havi2aya is re2ectin! here the script're 5'oted by Jayasena at Chapter )A >J1#?. B$. &n the si. kinds of samsthanas or str'ct'res of a h'man body see Chapter )) >n. D"?. )t is believed that the entirely 'nsymmetrical or deformed body >h'ndasamsthana? is the res'lt of e.tremely evil karmas. ;o%ever, havin! a deformed body of this kind is not considered by the Svetambaras to be an impediment to attainin! moksa in that very life. )t sho'ld be noted that the Hi!ambaras do not a!ree %ith this vie%. -hey have maintained that a man %ith a deformed body may not be initiated into mendicancy and hence may not attain moksa in the same life. See )rava'anasara , iii, 7D 3X 1D4 for the physical 5'alifications of an aspirant seekin! initiation as a Hi!ambara monk. B9. *s described in note 7$ above, the Hi!ambara believes that the *rhat+s body, bein! p're >parama( a'darika? and able to s'stain itself %itho't food or %ater, is totally free from s'ch imp're s'bstances as blood, semen, or 'rine. Since in their doctrine a %oman may not attain *rhatship, she cannot escape the

imp'rities that m'st res'lt from the in!estion of food and %ater. -he Svetambaras re2ect the theory / 19" / of the 9p're body9 claimed by the Hi!ambaras for the *rhat and maintain that the latter+s body contin'es to f'nction as before. -he presence of semen in a male *rhat+s body and its dischar!e, ho%ever, present a problem for the Svetambaras. -hey cannot deny the e.istence of semen in a yo'n! male body, b't they m'st deny the possibility of its dischar!e in an *rhat beca'se it is believed that seminal dischar!e cannot occ'r %itho't e.periencin! the veda or libido. Since libido, %hich is the res'lt of the mohaniya >i.e., the passion(!eneratin!? karma, is eliminated prior to the attainment of *rhatship, the Svetambaras believe that no dischar!e of semen is possible for an *rhat. By the same token, it is ar!'ed by the Svetambaras that the menstr'al flo% of a female *rhat, even if she is yo'n!, %ill cease to e.ist beca'se, like the male *rhat, she %ill also have eradicated the libido that is said to be the primary ca'se for the e.istence of the menstr'al flo%. Chereas the invariable connection bet%een the seminal dischar!e and libido is evident to all, only the Svetambaras seem to connect the menstr'al flo% %ith libido. D#. 6e!havi2aya disc'sses this point at !reat len!th in his treatment of the controversy over the kevali( kavalahara >from p. 1DG, line E, to p. 1D9, line 1#?. D1. Since the %ord 9prabhendu 9 'ndo'btedly refers to the Hi!ambara a'thor Prabhacandra, the ad2ective 9dvi%ihvabharana ,9 in addition to si!nifyin! a villaino's or do'ble(ton!'ed person, probably refers to the t%o famo's %orks of Prabhacandra, namely, the )rameya"amalamarttanda and the ,yaya"umuda'andra , %hich contain the most forcef'l defense of the Hi!ambara position on strimoksa. D7. &isnu and prativisnu are synonyms for narayana and pratinarayana, the personifications of a hero and a villain respectively. -hey are born enemies and both are destined to be reborn in hell at the end of that life as a conse5'ence of their %arfare. Both sects a!ree that visn' and prativisn' m'st be males. See Chapter )) >n. B9?. / 19D /

A11endiFH San%.rit TeFt o& the Strimoksa Se,tion o& the !yayakumuda"andra
Prabha,andravira,ite N'a'a.-m-da,andre Strim-.tivada1ari,,hedah
J1 tallaksana ca m'ktih p'msa eva na striyah, tasyah nap'msakavat tadayo!yatvat, tanm'ktiprasadhakapramanasambhavac ca. J7 nanv idam asti tatprasadhakam pramanam1asti strinam nirvanam, avikalakaranatvat0 p'mvat nirvanasya hi karanam ratnatrayam, samya!darsana2nanacaritrani moksamar!ah 3$attvarthasutra , i, 14 ity abhidhanat. tac ca stris' vidyate, tathahi1sarva2oktarthanam idam ittham eveti sraddhanam

samya!darsanam, yathavad ava!amah samya!2nanam, tad'ktavratasya yathavad an'sthanam samyakcaritram, etad ratnatrayam. ere ca stris' siddhyat sarvakarmavipramoksalaksanam moksam sadhayati. nahi stris' ratnatrayasya kenacid virodho +sti yato +vikalakaranatvasiddhih syat. J" athocyate1striyo ratnatrayavir'ddhah, p'mso +nyatvat0 devadivat. s'pra(siddho hi devanarakatirya!bho!abh'mi2anam p'mso +nyesam devaditvena ratnatrayasya virodhah, evam strinam stritvenaivasya virodhah siddha iti. JB tad asamiksitabhidhanam, yato +vikalakaranasya bhavato +nyabhave bhavat virodha!atir bhavati. JD stritvasadbhave ca ratnatrayabhavah pratyaksatah, an'manat, a!amad va pratiyetaP na tavat pratyaksatah, ratnatrayasyatindriyatvat. napy an'manatah, tadabhavavinabhavino lin!asya kasyacid abhavat. napy a!amat, tatra tadabhavavedinas tasyapy asambhavat. nahi s'ranarakadivat tatra tadabhavapratipadakam kiRcit pravacanavacanam sambhavati. JE nanv ast' ratnatrayamatram tatra, na tad asmabhir nisidhyate, tasya moksaprasadhakatvat. yat t' moksaprasadhakam prakarsaparyantapraptam tasya tatrabhavat moksbhavah, iti. =rom the ,yaya"umuda'andra , )), pp. $ED($G$, ed. 6. @. Kyayacarya >Bombay: 6anikacandra Hi!ambara Jaina <ranthamala, 19B1?. :eprinted %ith permission of the -r'stees of 6HJ<. / 19E / JG tad ay'ktam, adrste virodhapratipatter an'papatteh. na khal' prakarsaparyantam praptam ratnatrayam asmakam drsyam, na cadrsyasya virodhah pratipatt'm sakyah, atiprasan!at. na capratipannavirodhasya tasya tatrabhavo !rahit'm sakyah, atiprasakter eva. J$ atha matam1an'minatah strinam nirvanabhavapratiter na tatra tatsadbhavabhy'pa!amo y'ktah. tathahi1nasti strinam nirvanam, asaptamaprthivi!amanabhavat0 samm'rchimadivad iti. J9 tad asan!atam, viparyayavyapter asiddhitah, tad!amanabhavasya nirvanabhavenavyapteh. iha yad yatra niyamyate tadviparyayena tadvipaksasya vyapta' niyamo drstah, yatha +!nina dh'masya vyapta' dh'mabhavena a!nyabhavasya0 simsapatvasya ca vrksatvena vyapta' vrksatvabhavasya simsapatvabhavena vyaptih. na caivam atra viparyayavyaptir asti0 tadabhavas ca saptamaprthivi!amanadeh nirvanam pratyakaranatvad avyapakatvac ca siddhah. nahi saptamaprthivi!amanam nirvanasya ratnatrayavat karanam siddham, !'nastakavad va vyapakam, yena tadabhave nirvanabhavah syat. na cakaranavyapakasya nivrttav akaryavyapyasya nivrttih, atiprasan!at. J1# caramadehaih niscitavyabhicaran ca1te hi tenaiva 2anmana m'ktibha2o na saptamaprthivim !acchanti, atha ca m'cyante. J11 kiRca, visama!atayo +py adhastat, 'paristhat t'lyam aSahasraram, !acchanti ca tiryancah, tad adho!aty'nata +het'h. 3Strinirvanapra"arana , E4 nahy adho!ata' strip'msayor at'lyam samarthyam iti s'!atav apy at'lyatvam y'ktam, as'bhaparinamasya s'bhaparinamam praty ahet'tvat. tathahi1bh'2a!akha!acat'spatsarpa2alacaranam visama +dho!atih. bh'2a!anam sam2ninam prathamayam, kha!anam trtiyayam, cat'spadam pancamyam, sarpanam sasthyam, 2alacaranam saptamyam adhobh'mav 'tpadat, s'bha!atis t' sama sarvesam evaisam Sahasrarantasyopary 'tpadasya sambhavat. J17 na ca vadadilabdhyabhavat tasam moksbhavah, ittham eva moksa iti niyamabhavat. sr'yante hy anantah samayikamatrasamsiddhah, 3$attvarthabhasyasambandha"ari"a , 7G4

J1" yadi ca strinam yatha vadadyatisayah tapovibhava2anmano na sambhavanti tatha mokso +pi na syat, tada 9!ame tadatisayabhavavat moksabhavo +py 'cyeta. na hy asya parisesane kiRcin nibandhanam pasyamah. J1B atha strinam vastralaksanapari!rahasadbhavan na moksah, J1D tarhi moksarthitvat kin na tat tabhih. paritya2yateP na khal' vastram pranah, te +pi hi m'ktyarthina paritya2yante, kim p'nar vastramP J1E atha no kappai ni!!amthie acelae hottae 3(alpasutra , v, 7#4 itya!amavirodhas tasyah tatparitya!e, J1G tarhi pratilekhanavan m'ktyan!am eva tat syat. yathaiva hi sarva2naih moksamar!apranayakair 'padistam pratilekhanam m'ktyan!am bhavati, na p'nah pari!rahah, tatha vastram apy avisesat. yadi ca dharmasadhananam s'travihitanam pari!rahatvam syat, tatha ca tad'payinam moksabhavah syat. / 19G / J1$ saty api vastre moksabhy'pa!ame !rhinam k'to na moksah, iti cet, J19 mamatvasadbhavat. nahi !rhi vastre mamatvarahitah mamatvam eva ca pari!rahah. sati hi mamatve na!no +pi pari!rahavan bhavati. aryikayas ca mamatvabhavad 'pasar!adyasaktam ivambaram apari!rahah. J7# nahi yater api !ramam !rham va pravisatah karma nokarma cadadanasyapari!rahatve +mamatvad anyat saranam asti. J71 atha vastre 2ant'tpatteh himsasadbhavatas caritrasyaivasambhavat katham moksapraptihP J77 tan na, pramadabhave himsa+n'papatteh. pramado hi himsa. pramattayo!at pranavyaparopanam himsa 3$attvarthasutra , vii, 1"4 ity abhidhanat. anyatha pinda'sadhisayyada' yater api himsakatvam syat. J7" arhad'ktena yatnena saRcarato +sya pramadabhavad ahimsakatve aryikaya apy ahimsakatvam syad avisesat. tad 'ktam1 2iyad' ya marad' a 2ivo ayadacarassa nicchida himsa, payadassa natthi bandho himsamettena samidassa. 3)rava'anasara , iii, 14 J7B na ca p'r'sair avandyatvat strinam moksabhavah, !anadharadibhir vyabhicarat. re hi narhadadibhir vandyante, atha ca m'cyante. tato ratnatrayam eva tatkaranam, na vandyatvam avandyatvam va. J7D na ca mayabah'lyat tasam nirvanabhavah, p'msam api tadbah'lyasadbhavat. mohodayo hi tatkaranam, sa ca 'bhayor apy avisistah. J7E na ca hinasattvah. striyah, tato na nirvantity abhidhatavyam0 yatah sattvam tapahsilasadharanam ihaistavyam nanyat, tasya nirvanam praty anan!atvat. tac caryas' s'prasiddham eva. 'ktaR ca1 !arhasthye +pi s'sattva vikhyatah silavattaya 2a!ati, Sitadayah katham tas tapasi visila visattvas ca. 3Strinirvanapra"arana , "#4 J7G tatha, atthasayam e!asamaye p'r'sanam nivv'di samakkhada, thilin!ena ya visam sesa dasakatti boddhavva. 3P4

ityady a!amas ca strinirvane pramanam. J7$ athatra strisabdena strivedo !rhyate. J79 katham evam api strinam nirvananisedhahP yathaiva hi strivedena p'msah siddhis tatha strinam api syat, bhavo hi siddheh karanam. J"# kiRca, dravyatah p'r'sah bhavatah strir'po bh'tva yatha nirvati, tatha dravyatah stry api bhavatah p'r'so bh'tva kin na nirvati, avisesatP J"1 na ca siddhyato vedah sambhavati, anivrttibadarasamparaye evasya pariksayat. J"7 atha bh'tap'rva!atya ksapakasrenyarohanam yena vedena karoti tenasa' m'kta ity 'cyate. J"" nan' kim anenopacarenaP striya eva stanapra2ananadharmadimatya nirvanam astv iti. J"B atra pratividhiyate. yat tavad 'ktam 9avikalakaranatvat9 ityadi, tatravikalakaranatvam asiddham. tatkaranam hi ratnatrayam, tat kim paramaprakarsapraptam sat tatkaranam syat, tanmatram vaP yadi tanmatram, tada !rhinam api / 19$ / nirvanaprasan!ah. atha paramaprakarsapraptam, tan na0 tatra tasya paramaprakarsatvan'papatteh. tathahi1nirvanakarana2nanadiparamaprakarsah stris' nasti, paramaprakarsatvat0 saptamaprthivi!amanakarana+p'nyaparamaprakarsavat. J"D tatha cedam ay'ktam 9adrste virodhapratipatter an'papatteh9 ityadi. pratyaksato hy adrsyasyarthasya virodhah pratipatt'm asakyo na tv an'manadito +pi, anyatha katham saptamaprthivi!amanakarana+p'nyaparamaprakarsasyapi tatra virodhapratipattih syatP J"E yad apy 'ktam 9saptamaprthivi!amanabhavasya nirvanabhavenavyapteh9 ityadi, tad apy ay'ktam. akaryakaranasyapi @rttikodayat Sakatodayadeh pratipattidarsanat. avinabhavo hi !amya!amakabhave nibandhanam, na karyakaranatvadi, sa catrasty eva. na khal' tadatmyatad'tpattyor evavinabhavo niyatah, @rttikodayadeh Sakatodayadikam praty a!amakatvaprasan!ad iti. etac ca Sa'!atopakalpitavyaptivicaravasare saprapancam prapaRcitam. atas ca 9saptamaprthivi!amanadeh nirvanam praty akaranatvad avyapakatvac ca9 ityadi praty'ktam. J"G katham caivamvadino arva!bha!abhavat parabha!abhavo nisciyeta, anayos tadatmyatad'tpattilaksanapratibandhasambbavatP J"$ athatra ekarthasamavayah. sambandho +sti, tasmad evanayor !amya!amakabhavo bhavisyati. J"9 nan' Kaiyayikasya matam etan na SitambarasyaP na khal' samavayasiddha' tasya ekarthasamavayasiddhir 'papadyate, tatsiddhip'rvakatvat tasyah. JB# ast' va tatsiddhih, tathapy atas tayor !amya!amakabhave prakrtayor api so +st', tatrapy ekarthasamavayasadbhavat. yatraiva hy atmani saptamaprthivi!amanayo!yata samaveta, tatraiva m'kti!amanayo!yata +pi. JB1 na ca saptamaprthivi!amanabhavat strinam nirvananisedhah sadhayit'm istah, yenoktadosan'san!ah syat. JB7 kim tarhiP JB" paramaprakarsatvadd hetoh drstante siddhasadhyavyaptikat nirvanakaranibhavas tatra sadhayit'm istah. tadabhavac ca nirvanabhavah svayam eva tatra setsyati. na khal' nirhet'ka karyasyotpattih, atiprasan!at. taro +y'ktam 'ktam 9saptamaprthivi!amanam na nirvanasya ratnatrayavat karanam9

ityadi. JBB yad api 9caramadehair niscitavyabhicaram9 ityady 'ktam, tad apy ay'ktam. yatah saptamaprthivi!amanabhavas tannirvarttanasamarthakarmar2anasamarthyabhavah. sa ca strisv evasti, na caramasariris'. sr'yate hi Bharataprabhrticakravarttinam caramasaririnam api prayanakasamaye saptamaprthivyam !amanayo!yakarmar2ana, devarcanasamaye t' Sarvarthasiddhav iti. 'tkrsto hi s'bhaparinamah yathakramam 'tkrstayah s'bha!ater as'bha!ater va het'bh'tam karma arabhate, tatparinamaprarambhe ca p'r'sasyaiva samarthyam na striyah. yathaiva hi tasyas tivrataras'bhapariname samarthyabhavah, tatha 'tkrstas'bhapariname +pi, 'tkrstas'bhaparinamena ca m'ktih. JBD etena 9visama!atayo +py adhastat9 ityady api prativy'dham, prakrsta!atiprarambhahet'bh'takarmopar2anasamarthasyaiva m'ktiyo!yatopapatteh, na tadviparitasya. sr'yate hi pratiniyatavantara!atiprarambhakakarmavasat pratiniyatotpadasthananam api narakanam ksapitakarmanam tirya!loke sarvesam api niyamatah sam2nipancendriyes' tiryaks' man'syes' cotpadah, devanan ca tathavidhakarmavsat pratiniyatopapadasthanotpannanam tirya!loka eva tesv ekendriyes' ca niyamenotpada iti. na ca tathavidhakarmopar2anasama( / 199 / rthyena m'ktiyo!yata sambhavati iti na m'ktiyo!yatavicaravasare kiRcid anena prayo2anam. yasya t'paristat prakrstas'bha!atiprasadhane samarthyam tasyadhastat prakrstas'bha!atiprasadhane +pi tad asti, yatha p'msah. iti strinam prakrstayam s'bha!ata' samarthyam abhy'pa!acchata +s'bha!atav api tathavidhayam tad abhy'pa!antavyam. tatha ca itthi chatthio aho na 'ppa22amti 3P4 ityadibhavadiya!amavirodhah. JBE yac canyad 'ktam 9na ca vadadilabdhyabhavat tasam moksabhavah9 ityadi, tad apy 'ktimatram. yatah, yatraihikavadavikriyacaranadilabdhinam api het'h samyamaviseso nasti tatra moksahet'r asa' bhavisyatiti kah s'dhih sraddadhitaP vadalabdhih khal' )ndradyasthanes' Brhaspatyadisv api pratibandhakes' sats' chala2atyadipariharena svatattvapratipadanasamarthyam. vikriyalabdhir )ndradir'popadanasaktih. caranalabdhir !a!ana!amanasamarthyam. adisabdad aksinamahanasadilabdhipari!rahah. taddhet's ca samyamaviseso na strinam pravacane pratipadyate. JBG yad apy abhihitam 9a!ame vadadilabdhyatisayabhavavat moksabhavo +py 'cyeta9 ityadi, tad apy abhidhanamatram0 samyamavisesanisedhad eva!ame tasam moksabhavapratipadanaprasiddheh. s'prasiddho hy a!ame p'msam moksahetor acelakyadisamyamavisesasya vidhih, strinam t' nisedhah. na ca karanabhave karyotpattih, atiprasan!at. samyamamatram t' sad apy asam na moksahet'h, tirya!!rhasthadisamyamavat. tatha1nasti strinam moksah, pari!rahavattvat0 !rhasthavat. JB$ yad apy 'ktam 9pratilekhanavat m'ktyan!am eva vastram9 ityadi, tad apy acar'0 yatah pratilekhanam tavat samyamapratipalanartham bha!avatopadistam, vastram t' kimartham 'padistam itiP JB9 tad api tatpratipalanartham iti cet. tathahi1abhibh'yante prayena vivrtan!opan!asandarsana2anitacittabhedaih p'r'sair an!ana +krtapravaranah !hotikeva !hotakair iti. JD# tatra k'tas tas tair abhibh'yante, na p'nas te tabhir akrtapravaranatvavisese +piP iti vaktavyam. JD1 tasam alpasattvopetataya abhibhavyatvat cet, s'prasiddho hy ayam vibha!ah !avasvada' striprakrtir abhibhavya p'r'saprakrtir abhibhavika iti.

JD7 tad etan mahamohavi2rmbhitamS yasam atit'cchasattvanam pranimatrenapy abhibhavah, tah sakalatrailokyabhibhavakakarmarasipraksayalaksanam moksam mahasattvaprasadhyam prasadhayantitiS JD" yad apy 'ktam 9yadi dharmasadhananam pari!rahatvam syat9 ityadi, tatra ko +yam dharmah yatsadhanatvam vastrasya syat, p'nyavisesah samyamaviseso vaP prathamapakse katham tan m'ktihet'hP a!amavihitavidhina !rhyamanasya !rhasthavat p'nyasyaiva het'tvat. p'nyahetos ca m'ktihet'tve danader api taddhet'tvaprasan!ah. JDB samyamahet'tvam t' tasya d'r'papadam. bahyabhyantarapari!rahaparitya!o hi samyamah, sa ca yacanasivanapraksalanasosananiksepadanaca'raharanadimanahsamksobhakarini vastre !rhite katham syatP praty'ta samyamopa!hatakam evaitat bahyabhyantaranair!ranthyaparipanthitvat. JDD nanv evam pinda'sadhyadinam api pari!rahatvaprasan!at katham tadadayinam api moksah syatP / 7## / JDE ity apy asaram, tesam 'd!amadidosapariharenopadiyamananam ratnatrayopabrmhanahet'tvat. na hi te siddhantavihitavidhinopadiyamana moksahetor apakarttarah. tad a!rahane cap'rne +pi kale vipatter apatteh, atma!hatitvam syat0 vastra!rahe t' nayam dosah. sasthastamakadikramena ca m'm'ks'bhih pindadikam api tya2yate, paramanair!ranthyabha!bhis taih pratilekhanaR ca, na t' stribhih kadacid vastram. JDG na ca !rhite +pi vastre mamedambhavasyasam asambhavad apari!rahatvam vacyam, virodhat. b'ddhip'rvam hi patitam vastram hastenadaya paridadhanaya m'rccharahitatvan'papatteh. yad b'ddhip'rvam patitam apy adiyate na tatra m'rccha+bhavah, yatha s'varnada'0 tatha adiyate ca stribhir vastram iti. JD$ etena 9'pasar!adyasaktam ivambaram apari!rahah9 ityadi pratyakhyatam, 'pasar!adyasakte vastre patite b'ddhip'rva!rahanasambhavat. JD9 athocyeta1strinam vastratya!abhy'pa!ame k'lastrinam la22abh'yisthatvat diksa!rahanam eva na syat, vastre t' sati tatpari!rahamatram dosah, sakalasilaparipalanam t' !'nah0 iti tya!opadanayor !'nadosalpabah'tvanir'panena bha!avata vastram 'padistam tasam iti. JE# tad etad asmakam abhistam eva, nahi atrarthe vayam vipratipadyamahe0 moksa evasmakam vipratipatteh. na ca tacchilam moksaprasadhanaya prabhavati, pari!rahavad asritatvat0 !rhasthasilavat. na hi !rhasthasilam tya!opadanayor !'nadosalpabah'tvanir'panena bha!avatopadistam api moksaprasadhanaya prabhavati, evam prakrtam api. JE1 atha tac chilam, himsasabalitatvan na tatprasadhanaya prabhavati. JE7 tad anyatrapi samanam. na khal' strisambandhisilam himsasabalam na bhavati, y'kaliksadyaneka2ant'samm'rcchanadhikaranavastrasamanvitatvat, !rhasthasilavat. tatsamm'rcchanadhikaranasya ca vastrasya himsanan!atve m'rdha2anam apanayananarthakyam syat. JE" yad apy abhihitam 9pramadabhave tasam himsa +n'tpatteh9 ityadi tad apy apesalam, lobhakasayaparinata' tasam apramattatvan'papatteh. tatparinater eva pramadatvat. tad 'ktam1 vikaha taha kasaya imdiya nidda ya taha ya panayo ya, cad' cad' pana e!e!e h'mti pamada h' pannarasa. 3Pancasan!raha, i, 1D4 iti. lobhakasayaparinatis ca strinam b'ddhip'rvam vastrasvikarad astity avasiyate. JEB atha vitara!atve +py asam la22opanodartham tatsvikarasambhavat, natas tasam tatparinatisiddhih.

JED nanv evam kamapidapanodartham kam'kadisvikaro +py asam kin na syad avisesatP JEE atha tatsadbhave vitara!atvam tasam vir'dhyate, JEG tad etal la22asadbhave +pi samanam. na khal' vitara!asya la22opapadyate, sati ra!e bibhatsavayavapracchadanecchar'patvat tasyah. yo vitara!o nasa' la22avan, yatha sis'h0 vitara!a ca bhavadbhir abhipreta aryika, iti. JE$ yadi ca p'msam acelah samyamo m'kter het'h, strinam t' sacelah, tada karanabhedan m'kter apy avasyam an'sa2yeta bhedah. yo +tyantabhinnah. samyamah so +tyantabhinnakaryarambhakah0 yatha yati!rhisamyamo +tyantabhinnasvar!adyarambhakah0 atyantabhinnas ca sacelacelar'po m'ktihet'tayabhipreta aryaryikasamyamah, iti. / 7#1 / JE9 na canayor m'ktibhedo +sti, sakalakarmaksayalaksanaya m'kter 'bhayor bhavadbhis t'lyatayabhy'pa!amat. JG# kiRca, sacelasamyamasya m'ktihet'tve m'ktyarthinam na vastrades tya!ah. karttavyatayopadisyeta, 'padisyate casa' 3vastratya!ah4 tesam tatha, ato vastrader m'ktyan!ata +n'papattih. prayo!ah1vastram m'kter an!am na bhavati, m'ktyarthinam tattya!asya karttavyatayopadisyamanatvat. yattya!o m'ktyarthinam karttavyatayopadisyate na tat m'kter an!am, yatha mithyadarsanadi0 karttavyatayopadisyate ca tesam vastratya!a iti. yat p'nar m'kter an!am na tattya!as tadarthinam karttavyatayopadisyate, yatha samya!darsanader iti. JG1 yac canyad 'ktam 9p'r'sair avandyatvasya !anadharair vyabhicarah.9 ityadi, tad apy asampratam. yato +rhatam tirthakaratvanamap'nyatisayavasat paramamahattvapadapraptatvenakhila2anair vandyatvam eva, na vandakatvam. nahi kascit tatpadadhikapadarho 2a!aty asti yasya te 3tirthakarah4 vandaka bhavisyanti0 !anadharanam t' tathavidhap'nyabhavat tatpadaprapter abhavan na tadvandyatvam. m'ktisama!ri t' tirthakaretaresam siddhyatam na visisyate. aryikayas t' visisyate, taddhet'ratnatrayabhavat. JG7 tatha strinam na nirvanapadapraptih, yati!rhidevavandyapadanarhatvat0 nap'msakadivat. yatinam hi vandyam padam dvividham, param aparam ca. tatra param tirthakaratvalaksanam, aparam acaryadilaksanam. tad 'bhayam api p'msam evopadisyate, na strinam. tatha !rhinam devanan ca vandyam padam dvividham, paraparabhedat. tatra tesam. vandyam param padam cakravarttitvam indratvam ca. aparam mahamandalikadi samanikadi ca. tad api p'msam eva sr'yate, na strinam. JG" prati!rham ca prabh'tvam p'msam eva, na strinam. tatha pitari saty asati ca p'trasyaiva la!hoh vir'pakasyapi sarvatra karye +dhikaro na p'trinam mahatinam api. ato yasam samsarikalaksmyam apy adhikaro nasti tasam moksalaksmyam adhikaro bhavisyatiti kim api mahadbh'tamS JGB nan' yadi mahatyah sriyo +narhatvat tasam am'ktih, tada !anadharadinam apy am'ktih syat, mahatyas tirthakaratvasriyas tesam apy anarhatvavisesatP JGD ity apy as'ndaram, vyaktibhedasyatra vidhinisedhayor anan!atvat. p'r'savar!o hi mahatyam sriyam adhikrto na strivar!ah0 atas tatpariharena tasyaiva m'ktir abhy'pa!antavya, na p'nah kascid vyakta' tathavidhasriyo +sambhave +pi m'kty'palambhad vyabhicaram 'dbhavya m'ktim prati strinam tatsamanata 9padayit'm y'kta. na khal' ekasya ra2ap'trasya ra2yapraptav anyatatp'tranam tad apraptitas tato hinatve +pi p'trya samatvam y'ktam0 p'travar!at p'trivar!asya sakalavyavahares' loke +tyantavilaksanataya prasiddheh. tatah, strinam na moksah, p'r'sebhyo hinatvat0 nap'msakavat. na ca tebhyo hinatvam asam asiddham, anantaram evasya samarthitatvat. JGE itas ca tat siddham yatah saranavaranaparicodanadini strinam p'r'sah k'rvanti na striyah

p'r'sanam, tirthakarakaradharas ca p'r'sa na striyah. 'ktam ca1 saranavaranaparicoyanai p'risa karei nah' itthi. 35ghaniryu"ti-ti"a , BB$4 JGG nan' na hinatvam adhikatvam va m'kter an!am, kint' ratnatrayam sisyacaryavat, tathahi1sisya acaryebhyo hinah te t' tebhyo +dhikah, atha cobhayesam m'ktih, tadvad aryanam aryikanam ca sa bhavisyati, JG$ iti ca sraddhamatram, yatah sisyacaryavat hinadhikatve +pi strip'r'sayor / 7#7 / m'ktir avisesatah syat, yadi tadvat tayor api m'ktihet'bh'tam ratnatrayam avisesatah syat0 na ca stris' tad asti, taddhet'bh'tasyasya prapaRcatas tas' pra! eva pratisiddhatvat ratnatrayamatram t' tatra sad api na tadd het'h, !rhasthader api m'ktiprasan!at. nahi pracandamarttandaprasadhye karye pradipasya svapne +pi samarthyam pratiyate. JG9 yad apy 'ktam19!arhasthye +pi s'sattvah9 ityadi, tad apy avicaritaramaniyam. nahi yatha +nekad'rdharaparisahasahatvenakhilakarmanirm'lanasamartham mahasattvam p'msam prasiddham tathavidham svapne +pi strinam asti. strivar!apeksayaiva Sitadinam sattvaprakarsasambhavat 9mahasattvah9 ity 'cyante. nahi tasam p'msam iva sattvadhikyam asti kvapi karye. tathavidhasattvavikalanan ca tasam katham mahasattvasadhyam'ktihet'ratnatrayasama!rata syatP tathahi 1na strisariram m'ktihet'ratnatrayasama!ratopetatmasrayah mahata papena nirvarttitatvat, narakadisariravat. J$# kiRca, akhilakarmaksapanaprarambhahetos tasya tadasrayatopapadyate. na ca strisarirasya tatprarambhahet'topapadyate. tathahi 1na strisariram sakalakarmaksapanaprarambhahet'h, mahata papena mithyatvasahayenopar2itatvat0 narakadisariravat. strinirvarttakam hi karma mahatpapam, na mithyadrster anyenopar2yate. yady api sasadanasamya!drstir api tad 'par2ayati tathapy asa' samya!darsanam avasadayan mithyadrstir eva, mithyadarsanabhim'khasyasya mithyadarsanenaiva vyapadesat. samyanmithyadrstir api hi tat tavan nar2ayati, kiman!a p'nah samya!drstihP stritvenotpadyamano +pi 2ivo mithyatvaparinata evotpadyate. tad 'ktam1 chas'hetthimas' p'dhavis' 2oisavanabhavanasavvaitthis', varasa micch'vavade sammaitthi na 'ppayadi. 3)an'asangraha , i, 19"4 yasan cotkrstasthitikadevapadapraptir api nasti ta moksapadam prapsyantiti mahan nyayaka'salamS J$1 yad apy 'ktam 9atthasayam e!asamaye9 ityady a!amas ca strinirvane pramanam ityadi, tad apy analpatamovilasitam0 asya!amasyasmatpraty apramanatvat. tadapramanatvan ca pramanabadhitarthapratipadakatvat s'prasidddham. yatha ca strinirvanalaksano +rthah pramanabadhitas tatha prapancatah prak pratipaditam eva. J$7 nan' p'mvedam vedamta 2e p'risa khava!asedhim ar'dha, sesodayena vi taha 2han'va2'tta ya te d' si22hamti. 3)ra"rta-Siddhabha"ti , E4 ityader api pramanabh'ta!amasya tannirvanapratipadakasya sadbhavat katham praktana!amasya pramanabadhitarthapratipadakatvam, a!amat strinirvanasiddhir vaP J$" ity api manorathamatram, tasya tannirvanavedakatvasambhavat. sa hi p'mvedodayavat sesavedodayenapi p'msam evapavar!avedakah, 'bhayatra 9p'r'sah9 ity abhisambandhat. veda iti hi mohaniyodaya2anma cittavikaro +bhilasar'po +bhidhiyate, 'dayas ca bhavasyaiva, na dravyasya. J$B yad apy 'ktam19dravyatah p'r'sah9 ityadi, tad apy acarcitabhidhanam. dravyatah strivedasya

moksaprasadhanasamarthyabhavasya pratipaditatvat katham dravyatah stry api bhavatah p'r'so nirvasyatiP yad dravyato moksaprasadhane +samartham tad bhavato +pi tatprasadhane +samartham eva, yatha tirya!adi0 dravyato moksaprasadhane +samartha ca stri, iti. ato dravyatah p'( / 7#" / r'sasyaiva bhavato vede yatra k'tracid ar'dhasya nihsesato nikhilakarmaratinir2ayanasamarthyam abhy'pa!antavyam, lokavat. yathaiva hi loke p'r'so mahasattvopeto !a2at'ra!ada' yatrak'tracid ar'dhah kiRcid divyam astram adaya ranaran!e nikhilasatr'var!am 'nm'layan paramaisvaryam an'bhavatity abalam prasiddham, na p'nar yatharthanama +bala, tatha dravyatah p'r'sa eva bhavato vedatrayanyatamavedadhir'dhah s'kladhyanan'pamastram adaya karmarativar!am 'nm'layan paramaisvaryam an'bhavatiti. J$D yad apy abhihitam 9na ca siddhyato vedah9 ityadi, tat satyam eva0 nahy asmabhir vedat m'ktir abhy'pa!amyate, karmanicayanirdahanasamarthativrataras'kladhyananalat paraparam'kter abhy'pa!amad iti. / 7#D /

Note%
Fore(ord
1. =or concise introd'ctions to the three heterodo.ies in ancient )ndia see, for Jainism, Jaini >19G9?0 for B'ddhism no ade5'ate sin!le vol'me e.ists, b't an e.cellent 'nderstandin! of the le!ends, doctrines, and monastic r'les of early )ndian -heravada B'ddhism can be !otten from Carren >1$9E, pp. E#(E1?0 for *2ivikism see Basham >19D1?. )n the areas %ith %hich they %ere chiefly concerned1metaphysics, the e.istence, nat're, and destiny of the h'man so'l, the 'sef'lness of bha"ti , the efficacy of Aedic rit'al, and the a'thority of the Aedas themselves1these schools %ere %ell positioned to make a po%erf'l criti5'e of Brahmanism and ;ind'ism. =or, as :ana2it <'ha p'ts it >19$9, p. 71D?, 9no criticism can be f'lly activated 'nless its ob2ect is distanced from its a!ency.9 Konetheless, as %ill be sho%n belo%, this distance in the case of the heterodo. systems %as only partial. )n critical areas, s'ch as the 'nderstandin! of !ender and the role of %omen both in temporal society and in the reli!io's comm'nities %hose very raison d+Ltre is the ren'nciation of temporal society, these schools shared and even bolstered the ideolo!ical pres'ppositions of Brahmanism. 7. -h's, for e.ample, it has often been ar!'ed that <andhi derived his concerns %ith ve!etarianism and especially the techni5'e of nonviolence as a political instr'ment from his formative years in <'2arat, an area %hose c'lt're is tho'!ht to have been heavily infl'enced by the Jainas, %ho have been concentrated there in the modern period. See, for e.ample, 8rikson >19E9, pp. 1E7(1E"?. ". <'ha, for e.ample, applies his analysis of historio!raphical materials to premodern )ndian te.ts. -h's he t'rns his attention to the !a%atarangini 0, a %ell(kno%n history of @ashmir by the t%elfth( cent'ry poet(historian @alhana. -he problem here, ho%ever, is that te.ts even as 9historical9 as @alhana+s are a !reat rarity in premodern )ndia and <'ha+s analysis even of this te.t, altho'!h provocative, is filled %ith anachronisms. See <'ha >19$9, pp. 71G(719?. B. -ypical fi!'res of this type %o'ld be Sita and Savitri, e.amples of perfectly devoted %ives in the epic and pop'lar literat'res, and <'ha >the Kisada chief, not the historian?, %ho, altho'!h of lo%, even

despised, class, ennobles himself thro'!h service and devotion to the @satriya !od(man, :ama. D. 8.amples of this type %o'ld be @aikeyi, the ins'fficiently s'bordinated 5'een of @in! Hasaratha, %hose name is still 'sed in )ndia as a pe2orative term for a shre%ish %ife or one %ho p'ts her o%n interests before those of her h'sband, or Samb'ka, the lo%ly sudra 0, or peasant, %ho dares to appropriate a f'nction of the 'pper classes, reli!io's penance, and is s'mmarily e.ec'ted for this offense by the kin! in the last book of the !amayana 0. See &almi"i !amayana , A)), ED(EG. E. * de!ree of e!alitarianism, %hich incl'des %omen only insofar as it e.tends to them the possibility of spirit'al liberation, becomes characteristic not only of the heterodo. !ro'ps b't of the vario's traditions of devotional ;ind'ism that, collectively, become the dominant reli!io's tradition in So'th *sia %ith the %anin! of B'ddhism and Jainism. 8ven as early as the Bhagavad-Gita 0 >i., "7?, the a'thors find it pr'dent, in makin! the case for bhakti, to have @rsna observe that %omen, alon! %ith members of the lo%er social orders, may thro'!h this method attain salvation. =or a detailed disc'ssion of the Brahmanical position on liberation for %omen and the si!nificance of the Gita 0 passa!e, %hich is even cited by one Jaina a'thor, see the )ntrod'ction >JB#? and Chapter A) >J$7 and n. B"?. G. -he ;ind' literat're, rooted as it is mainly in the social life of the comm'nity and containin! a considerable body of te.ts on erotics, both poetic and technical, is th's only partially concerned %ith overt attacks on %omen as a class. *s for B'ddhism, it sho'ld be remembered that altho'!h it is his enco'nter %ith the fo'r visions that aro'ses in the Bodhisattva his desire to leave the %orld, it is the si!ht of the partially clothed bodies of the bea'tif'l dancin! !irls sent to divert him that provides the immediate impet's for him to leave his family and become a mendicant. See Carren >1$9E, pp. DE(E1?. Compare the elaborate treatment of this episode in *sva!hosa+s poetic renderin! of the B'ddha+s career, the Buddha'arita >v, BG(ED?, in Johnston >19"E?. -he Jaina attit'de to%ard %omen and the female body is disc'ssed at len!th belo%. $. =or e.amples of this approach see 6asson >19GB, 19GD?, :aman'2an >19G7?, <oldman >19G$, 19$D?, and S'therland >19$9, =orthcomin!?. *side from these and a fe% other st'dies, mostly by the same a'thors, most scholarship on the role of %omen in ancient )ndian literat're and society has consisted of catalo!s of references in specific te.ts or the literat're as a %hole >e.!., 6eyer, 19"#?, traditionalist apolo!ia attemptin! to demonstrate that ne!ative attit'des to%ard %omen in contemporary )ndia are the res'lt of a post()slamic de!eneration of a very different sit'ation in ancient times, or reli!io's(historical st'dies of 9the <oddess9 >e.!., @insley, 19$E?. -his last type is of little 'se in reconstr'ctin! the sociolo!y of !ender in premodern )ndia. 9. =or -heravada B'ddhism the most 'sef'l %ork is ;orner >19"#?. =or the 6ahayana schools see Pa'l >19G9?. =or a st'dy of the treatment of homose.'ality in B'ddhism, see M%illin! >19$9?. 1#. <oldman >19$B, p. DD, n. 1#G?. 11. Brhadaranya"a-upanisad 0, )ll, $, 1(170 )A, D, 1(1D. Passa!es s'ch as these have, ho%ever, been fre5'ently 'sed as the basis for claimin! that there %as complete social e5'ality for %omen in vedic )ndia. -his is hi!hly 'nlikely. 17. See, for e.ample, the stories of Sabari at !amayana 0, iii, G#, and of Svayamprabha >iv, B9(D1?. 1". -his famo's passa!e is disc'ssed in the )ntrod'ction >JB1?. * len!thy treatment is !iven in ;orner >19"#, pp. 9D(11G?. 1B. See ;orner >19"#, pp. 1#"(1#B?. 1D. See ;orner >19"#, pp. 11#(117?. 1E. Pa'l >19G9, p. 1E9?.

1G. =or a disc'ssion of the tradition concernin! these n'mbers in ancient times see Jaini >19G9, p. "G? and ;orner >19"#, pp. 1#1(1#7?. =or an indication of the relative n'mbers of monks and n'ns in modern times see Jaini >19G9, p. 7BE, n. $?. 1$. *ccordin! to the Jainas a layman, ho%ever pio's, cannot, since he or she does not practice the necessary vo%s of the monastic orders in their most ri!oro's form, attain nirvana 0. See Jaini >19G9, p. 1E#?. &f co'rse it sho'ld be noted that so restricted is the Jaina vie% in the matter of the attainment of tr'e spirit'al release that it is held that in the c'rrent de!enerate period of the Jaina cycle of time, no one, not even the most pio's monk, can attain nirvana 0. See the )ntrod'ction >JBB?. 19. *t !gveda 0, N, 9D, 1D, for e.ample, it is stated that there can be no friendship %ith %omen as they have the hearts of %olves or 2ackals >9na vai strainani sakhyani santi salavrkanam hrdayany eta9?. -he !reat commentator Sayanacarya e.plains that s'ch friendships are like those fatal ones formed by tr'stin! creat'res s'ch as calves. 7#. 71. ahabharata 0, N))), 17, 11(1D. anusmrti , v, 1B$.

77. !am'aritmanas 0, A, D$, E >p. G"E?. 7". *s mentioned above, B'ddhist te.ts often refer 'npleasantly to the female !enitalia as a %ay of c'ltivatin! aversion to the life of the senses. *ltho'!h this attit'de r'ns co'nter to the fetishistic foc's on the female anatomy and its constit'ent parts in the co'rtly erotic and romantic literat're as %ell as the te.tbooks on erotics, some of the ;ind' literat're shares this phobic attit'de to%ard the female body. &ne %ell(kno%n verse from the collection attrib'ted to the co'rtier(t'rned(ascetic Bhartrhari is 5'oted by 6e!havi2aya. See Chapter A) >J1# and n. 1#?. 7B. See, for e.ample, the e.tensive lin!'istic ar!'mentation on this point in Chapter )) >J9D(1B1?. 7D. Compare, for e.ample, the lo!ical ar!'mentation in Chapter ))) >J$(11?. 7E. See Chapters A) >J1$? and )) >JEB(G7?. 7G. Compare the sketchy and 'ncertain references to homose.'ality in 6eyer >19"#?. -he phenomenon is all b't i!nored in the copio's epic and dharmasastra 0 literat're, %hich other%ise tends to be filled %ith prescriptions and prohibitions on virt'ally every aspect of h'man behavior. 8ven the te.ts on se.'al behavior, the "amasastra , %hich deli!ht in detailed catalo!in! of the varieties of h'man se.'al response, have little to say on this s'b2ect beyond some disc'ssion of the se.'al activities of 9 napumsa"as 9 %itho't makin! it 5'ite clear %hether these are tr'e hermaphrodites, e'n'chs, or biolo!ically normal males %hose se.'al desires are aro'sed by other males. See, for e.ample, Aatsyayana+s (amasutra 0. &ther than this, homoeroticism is mentioned in ;ind' te.ts mainly in the conte.t of po%erf'l devotion, as in passa!es %here @rsna+s lovers, in the !rief and madness of separation from him, make love %ith one another. )n one interestin! passa!e, the !amayana 0 commentator <ovindara2a, attemptin! to e.plain the sense in %hich :ama is said to be 9 pumsam drsti'ittapaharinam ,9 or 9one %ho ravishes the si!ht and hearts of men,9 5'otes a verse in %hich %omen, %atchin! the princess Hra'padi at her bath, 9mentally become men,++ that is, conceive a >male? se.'al passion for her. See <ovindara2a on !amayana 0 7.".79 ><'2arati Printin! Press edition, p. B79?. )n the r'les of cond'ct for B'ddhist monks the 5'estion of male homose.'ality is disc'ssed and the practice condemned, b't so far as ) can determine no theory is p't forth to e.plain it. See M%illin! >19$9?. 7$. Chapter A) >J1#?. 79. See, for e.ample, Chapter A) >J11?.

"#. )n response to the Svetambara ob2ection that the male body too m'st s'pport s'ch life(forms, the Hi!ambaras reply that it does b't in s'ch relatively small n'mbers as not to present an ins'perable obstacle to the f'll adoption of the mendicant vo%s and practice. See, for e.ample, Chapter )A >JG?. "1. )nterestin!ly, the intimate association the Jainas make bet%een se.'ality and violence is rendered still more e.plicit by their ob2ection to se.'al interco'rse not merely in the 's'al terms of morality and control of the senses b't in terms of their preocc'pation %ith ahimsa. =or if, as they ar!'e, the va!inal canal is infested %ith vast s%arms of min'te bein!s, then it follo%s that the po%erf'l friction of the se.'al act m'st sla'!hter them in h'!e n'mbers. )ndeed the Jaina a'thors fre5'ently cite verses to the effect that %ith each 9blo%9 h'ndreds of tho'sands perish. -his, co'pled %ith the loss of e5'ally lar!e n'mbers of bein!s in the dischar!e of semen, makes, in the Jaina vie%, each act of se.'al interco'rse a kind of massive holoca'st of livin! bein!s. =or an ill'stration of these vie%s see Chapter A) >JE9?. "7. See, for e.ample, Chapter ))) >JB9(D7?. "". See, for e.ample, Chapter A) >J11?. "B. -here are a n'mber of s'ch st'dies no% available. See, for e.ample, Bo'cher >19$$?0 for Christianity see Ceber >19$G?. * st'dy of the feminist challen!e to patriarchal reli!io's a'thority and the resistance that it meets is to be fo'nd in Ceaver >19$D?. Similar %orks e.ist for J'daism and so on.

Introd-,tion
1. &n the canonical literat're of the t%o Jaina sects, see J)) , chap. 7. 7. -he %ord 'sed for the Jaina monks in ancient times is nirgrantha and not 9Hi!ambara9 or 9Svetambara90 see Chapter )) >n. 17?. =or a disc'ssion on the nat're of the %ina"alpa in the t%o traditions, see Chapter )) >n. "D?. ". See Chapter ) >J1($? and a commentary on these verses in Chapter )A >JE($?. B. =or vario's traditions concernin! the ori!in of the Fapaniyas, see Chapter )) >J"?. D. Selections from the Sanskrit te.ts on strimo"sa from some of these Svetambara %orks appear in the Strinirvana-(evalibhu"tipra"arane >app. ))?. E. =or this ar!'ment and its co'nterar!'ment at J9, see Chapters ))) >J1? and A >J1 and n. 1?. G. =or a lon!er list of ar!'ments a!ainst strimoksa, Chapter A) >J7D(B1?. $. =or a dia!rammatic representation of the Jaina 'niverse and a description of the abode of the liberated so'ls, see J)) , pp. 17$ and 7G#. 9. &n the s'kladhyanas that are !ained only to%ard the very end of the Jaina spirit'al path, see J)) , pp. 7DG(7G#. 1#. See Chapter ))) >J"B?. 11. See Chapter ))) >J"E(BD?. 17. 9-he perfected so'ls can be differentiated %ith reference to the re!ion, the time, the basis of birth, the !ender, the mendicant cond'ct, and so forth9 >ksetrakala!atilin!atirthacaritrapratyekab'ddhabodhita2nanava!ahana+ntarasamkhya+lpabah'tvena sadhyah0 $attvarthasutra , ., G?. 1". =or details on these vedas or 9libidos,9 see Chapter A) >J1(E?. 1B. See Chapter ))) >J$B?.

1D. See Chapter A >J1 and n. 1?. 1E. See Chapter )) >J$9?. 1G. See Chapters )) >n. DG? and )A >J1"?. 1$. See Chapter A) >J$9?. 19. Birth of a female -irthankara > itthitittham ? is listed amon! the ten e.traordinary events that take place once in an 9infinite9 time cycle: 'vasa!!a!abbhaharanam itthitittham abhaviya parisa, @anhassa *varakamka 'ttaranam camdas'riyanam. 314 ;arivamsak'l'ppatti Camar'ppao ya atthasayasiddha, asam2ayes' p'a dasavi anamtena kalena. 374 Sthananga-sutra , J1#GB > Suttagame , p. "1B?. 7#. =or the Svetambara acco'nt of 6alli, see ,ayadhamma"ahao , chap. viii0 :oth >19$"?0 $risastisala"apurusa'aritra , vol. )A, chap. E. =or the Hi!ambara version, see +ttarapurana , chap. BE. 71. -he Svetambara acco'nt of 6alli ends %ith an e.hortation that c'nnin!, even if employed in matters of piety, leads to the calamity of rebirth as a %oman: '!!atavasam2amavao pa!itthaphalasaha!assavi 2iyassa, dhammavisaye vi s'h'ma vi hoi maya anatthaya. 314 2aha 6allissa 6ahabalabhavammi titthayaranamabamdhe +vi, tavavisayathevamaya 2aya 2'vaittahet'tti. 374 ,ayadhamma"ahao , ), viii, $D. 77. See Chapter ))) >JE#?. 7". See Chapter ))) >JDG?. 7B. See Chapter ))) >JG#?. 7D. =or the story of the Jaina lo!ician *kalanka bein! helped by the !oddess Cakresvari a!ainst the B'ddhists %ho %ere bein! helped by their !oddess -ara in a debate, see ,yaya"umuda'andra , pt. 1, intro., p. "E. 7E. See Chapter A) >J1$?. 7G. See Chapter A) >J"B?. 7$. sandi!dhobhayavyatirekah, yatha1avitara!ah @apiladayah, pari!raha!rahayo!ad iti. atra vaidharmyodaharanam . . . yo vitara!o na tasya pari!raha!rahah, yatha :sabhader iti. :sabhader avitara!atvapari!raha!rahayo!ayoh sadhyasadhanadharmayoh sandi!dho vyatirekah. ,yayabinduti"a , J1"7. 79. Commentin! on the above, Hharmottara says: yatha :sabhader iti drstantah. etasmad :sabhader drstantad avitara!asya pari!raha!rahayo!asya ca sadhanasya nivrttih sandi!dha. :sabhadinam hi pari!raha!rahayo!o +pi sandi!dho vitara!atvam ca. yadi nama tatsiddhante vitara!as ca pathante tathapi sandeha eva. ,yayabindu-ti"a , J1"7. 9Ko%, it is do'btf'l %hether really in the case of this :sabha both the predicate and the reason, both the fact of bein! s'b2ect to passions and havin! the instinct of property are absent. )ndeed, it is not certain %hether :sabha and consorts are really free from the instinct of propery and from passions. *ltho'!h in their o%n school they are declared to be s'ch, b't this is nevertheless, very do'btf'l90 Stcherbatsky+s translation of the ,yayabindu in Buddhist Logi' , )), p. 7BE. "#. nasti strinam prtha! ya2Ro na vratam napy 'posanam, patim s'sr'sate yena tena svar!e mahiyate0 anusmrti , v, 1DD. pita raksati ka'mare bharta raksati ya'vane, raksanti sthavire p'tra na stri svatantryam arhati0 ibid., i., ". nasti strinam kriya mantrair iti dharmavyavasthitih, nirindriya hy amantras ca striyo +nrtam iti sthitih0 ibid., i., 1$. -he theme of strimoksa is conspic'o's by its absence in P. A. @ane+s vol'mino's .istory of Dharmasastra %ith the e.ception of a sin!le reference to the possibility of %omen sec'rin! kno%led!e of moksa >in the absence of their access to the Aedic

script're? on p. 971, n. 1BE$a >vol. A, p. ))?. Several ancient literary %orks >e.!., the (adambari of Banabhatta, p. $#? refer to parivra%i"as >female %anderin! reli!io's mendicants of the Brahmanical tradition?. -hese seem to be individ'als %ho practiced asceticism %itho't formin! a comm'nity, 'nlike the Jaina or B'ddhist n'ns %ho invariably %ere members of a san!ha >comm'nity of mendicant orders?. 79. Commentin! on the above, Hharmottara says: yatha :sabhader iti drstantah. etasmad :sabhader drstantad avitara!asya pari!raha!rahayo!asya ca sadhanasya nivrttih sandi!dha. :sabhadinam hi pari!raha!rahayo!o +pi sandi!dho vitara!atvam ca. yadi nama tatsiddhante vitara!as ca pathante tathapi sandeha eva. ,yayabindu-ti"a , J1"7. 9Ko%, it is do'btf'l %hether really in the case of this :sabha both the predicate and the reason, both the fact of bein! s'b2ect to passions and havin! the instinct of property are absent. )ndeed, it is not certain %hether :sabha and consorts are really free from the instinct of propery and from passions. *ltho'!h in their o%n school they are declared to be s'ch, b't this is nevertheless, very do'btf'l90 Stcherbatsky+s translation of the ,yayabindu in Buddhist Logi' , )), p. 7BE. "#. nasti strinam prtha! ya2Ro na vratam napy 'posanam, patim s'sr'sate yena tena svar!e mahiyate0 anusmrti , v, 1DD. pita raksati ka'mare bharta raksati ya'vane, raksanti sthavire p'tra na stri svatantryam arhati0 ibid., i., ". nasti strinam kriya mantrair iti dharmavyavasthitih, nirindriya hy amantras ca striyo +nrtam iti sthitih0 ibid., i., 1$. -he theme of strimoksa is conspic'o's by its absence in P. A. @ane+s vol'mino's .istory of Dharmasastra %ith the e.ception of a sin!le reference to the possibility of %omen sec'rin! kno%led!e of moksa >in the absence of their access to the Aedic script're? on p. 971, n. 1BE$a >vol. A, p. ))?. Several ancient literary %orks >e.!., the (adambari of Banabhatta, p. $#? refer to parivra%i"as >female %anderin! reli!io's mendicants of the Brahmanical tradition?. -hese seem to be individ'als %ho practiced asceticism %itho't formin! a comm'nity, 'nlike the Jaina or B'ddhist n'ns %ho invariably %ere members of a san!ha >comm'nity of mendicant orders?. "1. mam hi Partha vyapasritya ye +pi sy'h papayonayah, striyo vaisyas tatha s'dras te +pi yanti param !atim0 Bhagavad-Gita , i., "7. See Chapter A) >J$7, n. B"?. "7. alam *nanda, ma te r'cci mat'!amassa tatha!atappavedite dhammavinaye a!arasma ana!ariyam pabba22a. . . . bhabbo, *nanda, mat'!amo arahattaphalam pi sacchikat'm . . .0 &inaya )ita"am, #ullavagga , ., 1. "". =or these r'les in the Pali &inaya )ita"am and the Sanskrit Bhi"suni-vinaya , see Chapter A) >n. 1G?. "B. man'ssattam lim!asampatti het' sattharadassanam, pabba22a !'nasampatti adhikaro ca chandata0 atthadhammasamodhana abhiniharo sami22hati. 314 man'ssattabhavasmim yeva hi thatva B'ddhattam patthentassa patthana sami22hati, . . . man'ssattabhave pi p'risalim!e thitass+ eva patthana sami22hati, itthiya va pandakanap'msaka('bhato byan2anakanam va no sami22hati . . .0 Jata"a , ), p. 1B. "D. =or an apocryphal story >called the )adipadana%ata"a ? of <a'tama+s last female incarnation, see Jaini >19$9?. "E. pancasthanani stri adyapi na prapnoti. katamani paRcaP prathamam brahmasthanam, dvitiyam sakrasthanam, trtiyam mahara2asthanam, cat'rtham cakravartisthanam, paRcamam avaivartikabodhisattvasthanam. . . . atha tasyam velayam Sa!ara(Ka!ara2ad'hita sarvalokapratyaksam . . . tat strindriyam antarhitam, p'r'sendriyam ca prad'rbh'tam, bodhisattvabh'tam catmanam samdarsayati0 Saddharmapundari"a-sutra , chap. .i.

Ioss of a female rebirth is also considered to be one of the fr'its of readin! the Saddharmapundari"asutra : sacet matr!rama imam dharmaparyayam sr'tva . . . dharayisyati, tasya sa eva pascimah stribhavo bhavisyati0 ibid., chap. ..ii. "D. =or an apocryphal story >called the )adipadana%ata"a ? of <a'tama+s last female incarnation, see Jaini >19$9?. "E. pancasthanani stri adyapi na prapnoti. katamani paRcaP prathamam brahmasthanam, dvitiyam sakrasthanam, trtiyam mahara2asthanam, cat'rtham cakravartisthanam, paRcamam avaivartikabodhisattvasthanam. . . . atha tasyam velayam Sa!ara(Ka!ara2ad'hita sarvalokapratyaksam . . . tat strindriyam antarhitam, p'r'sendriyam ca prad'rbh'tam, bodhisattvabh'tam catmanam samdarsayati0 Saddharmapundari"a-sutra , chap. .i. Ioss of a female rebirth is also considered to be one of the fr'its of readin! the Saddharmapundari"asutra : sacet matr!rama imam dharmaparyayam sr'tva . . . dharayisyati, tasya sa eva pascimah stribhavo bhavisyati0 ibid., chap. ..ii. "G. -ranslated by -h'rman, chap. G. =or a disc'ssion on the si!nificance of the se. chan!e as described in the seventh chapter >-he <oddess? of the &imala"irti-sutra , see Pa'l >19G9, chap. E?. "$. Saddharmapundari"a-sutra , chap. v, verses D9($". "9. =or the n'mber of monks and n'ns in the mendicant comm'nity of 6ahavira and that of the t%o earlier Jinas, namely Parsva and Kemi, see (alpasutra >Jacobi+s trans. 1$$B, pp. 7EG(7$D?. =or a detailed s'rvey of the mendicants of the Svetambara sect, see John Cort+s forthcomin! article 9-he Svetambar 6'rtip'2ak Sadh'.9 B#. &f the thirty(fo'r n'ns intervie%ed in the area of @'tch, for e.ample, fifteen >%ith a!es varyin! from 1E to BD? %ere %ido%s, three >a!es 7", "7, and "E? %ere married b't had been permitted by their h'sbands to become n'ns, and the remainin! si.teen >bet%een the a!es of 9 and 7"? %ere 'nmarried at the time of their ordination > di"sa ?. =or a brief acco'nt of the lives of a fe% leadin! Jaina n'ns, see Shanta >19$D, pp. B"G(D1$?. B1. sace, *nanda, nalabhissa mat'!amo . . . pabba22am, ciratthitikam, *nanda, brahmacariyam abhavissa, vassasahassam saddhammo tittheyya, . . . . paRc+eva dani, *nanda, vassasatani saddhammo thassati0 &inaya )ita"am, #ullavagga , N, ii, 7. B7. &n the state of n'ns in the -heravada tradition, see =alk and <ross >19$#?. =or a history of the Hasasilamatta%as seekin! the stat's of a n'n, see Bloss >19$G?. B". See Shanta >19$D, pp. "D$("E1?. BB. )t may be 'sef'l in this connection to dra% attention to the le!end of a sectarian debate on strimoksa reported by the Svetambara a'thor 6er't'n!a in his )rabandha'intamani , pp. EE(E9. *ccordin! to this narrative, d'rin! the rei!n of Siddhara2a >t%elfth cent'ry? in <'2arat, a !reat Hi!ambara mendicant named @'m'dacandra from the Heccan arrived in his capital city *nahillap'ra and challen!ed the Svetambara monks to en!a!e in a debate on this 5'estion. -he Svetambara acarya Heva >later to be kno%n as Aadideva? accepted his challen!e and defeated him in a p'blic debate held at the co'rt of Siddhara2a. -he Hi!ambara @'m'dacandra died of h'miliation and shock, and the Hi!ambaras in the city %ere made to leave the co'ntry in dis!race. )t is said that Siddhara2a+s chief 5'een 6ayanalladevi >probably beca'se she also hailed from @arnataka? initially favored the Hi!ambara monk and even openly 'r!ed him on to victory. Chen she %as told that the Hi!ambaras opposed liberation for %omen %hile the Svetambaras 'pheld it, ho%ever, she shifted her alle!iance to the latter.

-his debate is not attested in the Hi!ambara tradition, b't it is not 'nlikely that it is based on historical fact. -his is probably the only e.tant literary evidence that openly declares a prominent %oman+s conversion to the side %hich 'pheld the spirit'al liberation of %omen in preference to the one %hich had denied this privile!e to her. -his s'pports my ass'mption that the !reat disparity in the n'mber of n'ns in the t%o sects is a reflection of %omen+s response to the more s'pportive attit'de taken by the Svetambara tradition to%ard them. BD. &n 6aitreya and the f't're Jina, see Jaini >19$$?.

Cha1ter I The S-tra1rabhrta 2S-tta1ah-da 3 o& the *i$ambara A,ar'a 4-nda.-nda 2C. A.*. "563
1. Jinavarendra, literally the s'preme Iord of the Jinas. -he %ord 9Jina9 is derived from the root %i to con5'er and means a spirit'al victor. -his is the desi!nation of a monk %ho has attained omniscience >called "evala%nana , kno%led!e isolated from karmic bonds? b't %ho is still alive and leads the normal life of a mendicant. )n Jaina terminolo!y s'ch a person is also called a @evalin >one %ho is endo%ed %ith kevala2nana? or an *rhat >one %ho is %orthy of %orship?. Unlike the -heravada B'ddhist *rhat, ho%ever, a Jaina *rhat m'st be an &mniscient Bein!. B't not all *rhats en!a!e in teachin!0 rather it is considered to be the prero!ative of a fe% so'ls >comparable to the Bodhisattvas in B'ddhism? like 6ahavira %ho ac5'ire, by practicin! vario's perfections, those fac'lties that confer 'pon them the stat's of a -irthankara >lit., one %ho b'ilds a ford to cross the river of transmi!ration, samsara ?. -hey are therefore called the Iords of the *rhats or Jinendra. )n practice, ho%ever, the %ord 9Jina9 has been applied to the -irthankaras as %ell, the follo%ers of %hom are called the Jainas. >=or a disc'ssion on the role of -irthankaras, see J)) , pp. 79("D. =or a comparison bet%een a Bodhisattva and a -irthankara, see Jaini, 19$1.? 7. -he %ord 9moksa9 is derived from the root mu' , to release, and means emancipation of the so'l from the state of embodiment. -he initial sta!e of this state is reached %hen the so'l becomes a @evalin as described in note 1. -he state of embodiment %ill, ho%ever, contin'e for the d'ration of the @evalin+s life. *t his death the @evalin+s so'l becomes totally free from all bonds of corporeality, and th's released it instantly rises like a flame to the s'mmit of the 'niverse > lo"a ? and abides there forever endo%ed %ith perfect p'rity and omniscience. ;enceforth this so'l %ill be called a Siddha, the Perfected Bein!. -his is the final !oal of a Jaina and is called moksa. ". ,is'ela , >lit., 9%itho't clothes9?. -he terms Hi!ambara and Svetambara disc'ssed in note 1 are conspic'o'sly absent both in the e.tant Svetambara canon and in the most ancient Hi!ambara te.ts incl'din! those by @'ndak'nda. -he canonical %ord that comes closest in meanin! to the term Hi!ambara is a'ela"a , 9%itho't clothes.9 Both sects a!ree that 6ahavira after reno'ncin! his ho'sehold had adopted total n'dity, b't they do not a!ree on %hether this practice %as re5'ired of all those %ho follo%ed his path. -he Svetambara te.ts e.plicitly state that the mendicant follo%ers of the -irthankara Parsvanatha >c. tenth cent'ry B.C. ?, the predecessor of 6ahavira, %ore clothes as did the ma2ority of 6ahavira+s o%n disciples incl'din! his !anadharas >see J)) , p. 1B?. -h's %hile the Svetambaras do not disp'te the fact of 6ahavira+s n'dity they assert that the cond'ct of the clothed monks is in f'll accordance %ith his teachin!s and leads to the same !oal of moksa. -he Hi!ambaras, ho%ever, as noted above, do not accept the a'thenticity of the Svetambara script're and insist that the vo% of n'dity is a necessary, altho'!h certainly not the only, condition of Jaina mendicancy. -hey therefore do not reco!ni,e the claim of the Svetambara monks to the stat's of mendicancy and vie% them as heretics, apostates from the tr'e mendicant path of 6ahavira. -he Svetambaras for their part maintain that altho'!h n'dity %as allo%ed d'rin! the time of 6ahavira, its practice %as proscribed for o'r de!enerate times >see Chapter )), J7"? and hence those %ho still adhere to n'dity are in violation of

the script'ral in2'nctions and cannot be considered the tr'e mendicant follo%ers of 6ahavira. B. )anipatra . * Hi!ambara mendicant carries no be!!in! bo%l b't instead 'ses his 2oined palms to receive morsels of food and hence is called a panipatra >lit., 9one %ho 'ses his hands as a bo%l9?. ;e is allo%ed to eat or drink only once and only d'rin! the daytime, for %hich he visits a Jaina ho'sehold and eats, %hile standin!, the food that has been placed in his palms. )n contrast a Svetambara monk m'st not eat or drink after s'nset b't may partake of food more than once d'rin! the day. Iike his B'ddhist co'nterpart, he m'st keep a set of %ooden bo%ls for collectin! food and %ater from different, and if necessary even from non(Jaina, ho'seholds. ;e m'st brin! the food !athered to his residence and cons'me it seated in the company of his fello% mendicants. -he Hi!ambaras have claimed that the habit of eatin! in one+s palms !reatly red'ces the dependence on the ho'seholder and is a mark of tr'e ren'nciation of all attachments to s'ch %orldly possessions as bo%ls and the like. * Hi!ambara monk is, ho%ever, re5'ired to carry a !o'rd > "amandalu ? for keepin! %ater that may not be 'sed for drinkin! b't only for toilet p'rposes. D. -marga . @'ndak'nda does not specify the paths that he calls 9the %ron! paths90 b't it is evident that he is referrin! here to those %ho %ore clothes and carried be!!in! bo%ls, a description that characteri,es perfectly the Svetambara monks, in addition of co'rse to the mendicants of the Brahmanical and B'ddhist orders. E. Linga . -he %ord 9lin!a9 means an o't%ard si!n by %hich the identity of a mendicant+s order is indicated. * staff > danda ?, for e.ample, is the si!n of a certain !ro'p of Brahmanical %anderers > parivra%a"as ?, %hile the B'ddhist monks > bhi"sus ? are reco!ni,ed by their oran!e(colored robes > ra"tapata ?. )n the case of the Svetambara monks their %hite clothes > svetapata ? and the %hisk broom made of %oollen t'fts >called ra%oharana ? %o'ld be considered the o't%ard si!ns of their sect. By contrast a Hi!ambara monk is totally naked and is not allo%ed anythin! %hatsoever that co'ld be desi!nated as his distinctive mark. @'ndak'nda is s'!!estin! here that those %ho carry s'ch marks are not free from attachments to these possessions and hence are not tr'e mendicants. )t sho'ld be remembered, ho%ever, that even a Hi!ambara monk carrries >in addition to the kamandal'? a small %hisk broom made of molted peacock feathers >called pin'hi ? by %hich he can !ently remove insects from his seat. -his can certainly be called a lin!a, b't the Hi!ambaras have contended that it is not indispensable and hence only his n'dity %o'ld distin!'ish his ren'nciation from that of the other ascetics. =or a disc'ssion on the 'se of the %ord 9lin!a9 to indicate the emblem of a reno'ncer, see &livelle >19$E, pp. 7E(79?. G. )arigraha . -he literal meanin! of pari!raha is physical property, anythin! one possesses by ri!ht of o%nership. * layman is said to possess his property, %hich incl'des his relatives and his %ealth. Chen he reno'nces the ho'sehold he is said to have reno'nced this pari!raha. -parigraha , the absence of s'ch possession, is th's considered by all Jainas as a prere5'isite of a Jaina monk and constit'tes one of his most important mendicant vo%s. -he term 9pari!raha,9 ho%ever, is not restricted only to the e.ternal possessions. )n the script'res it is applied also to passions s'ch as an!er, !reed, and pride, and hence it is defined as mur''ha , del'sion >of o%nership?, the tr'e ca'se of attachment. Chether everythin! other than one+s body >e.!., the clothes one %ears or the bo%ls in %hich one collects the alms? is also a pari!raha is a matter that %ill fi!'re prominently in these debates >see Chapter )), J""( "9?. $. ,iragara . -he %ord agara means a ho'sehold0 hence nira!ara is one %itho't a home, namely, a reno'ncer. -he conte.t s'!!ests that @'ndak'nda is 'sin! this term to demonstrate that the sacelaka monks have not tr'ly reno'nced the ho'sehold life and hence can only be called ho'seholders >sa!ara?. 9. ahavrata >lit., the !reat vo%s?. -hese constit'te the basic vo%s of both the Hi!ambara and the Svetambara mendicants and are believed to have been laid do%n by 6ahavira himself and appear in the

first canonical te.t called the -'aranga-sutra . *n aspirant seekin! initiation > di"sa ? into the mendicant order 'tters the follo%in! vo%s > (alpasutra , Jacobi+s trans. 1$$B, pp. 7#7(71#? in front of his acarya: 1#. -hese refer to the !'ardin! >!'pti? of the three doors of action: mind, speech, and body. 11. -he %ord 9 samyata 9 >lit., restrained? is a synonym for a mendicant %ho is restrained by the five mahavratas. * layman %ho ass'mes the an'vratas is therefore called desasamyata >partly restrained?. 17. ,irgrantha >lit., free from bonds?. -his is the desi!nation by %hich ori!inally the follo%ers of 6ahavira %ere kno%n in ancient times, and it is attested to in the B'ddhist script're %here 6ahavira himself is referred to as Ki!antha Katap'tta >his clan name0 see 6alalasekera, 19E#?. -he %ord 9 grantha 9 >derived from grath , to bind? refers to the internal and e.ternal pari!rahas by %hich the so'l is bo'nd. Since for the Hi!ambaras both the attachments as %ell as the ob2ects of attachments are pari!raha, even the clothes are bindin! >!rantha?. -his is beca'se freedom from clothes implies for him freedom from the resid'al se.'al feelin!s, e.pressed by s'ch %ords as shame or bashf'lness, that one seeks to overcome by %earin! clothes. )n the opinion of the Hi!ambaras a naked person need not necessarily be free from se.'al desires, b't anyone %ho %ears clothes m'st be considered s'b2ect to s'ch desires and hence not a tr'e nir!rantha. 1". Srava"a >lit., the 9hearer,9 i.e., one %ho listens to the sermons, a layman?. Unlike the B'ddhists %ho apply this term only to their *rhats, the Jainas 'se this term for a layman %ho has ass'med the five an'vratas. * lay%oman is similarly called a sravi"a . )n the case of the mendicant his vo%s are total and hence there is no pro!ression to%ard a hi!her set of vo%s b't only the task of perfectin! those that have been ass'med at the be!innin! of his career. Since the layman+s vo%s are only partial, the Jaina teachers have dra%n a pro!ressive path of %idenin! the scope of his initial vo%s. -his path is called pratima >lit., a stat'e in meditational post're? and consists of eleven sta!es thro'!h %hich a layman c'ltivates those spirit'al observances that %ill brin! him to the point of reno'ncin! ho'sehold life. -hese are called >1? the sta!e of ri!ht vie%s > darsana ?, >7? the sta!e of takin! the vo%s > vrata ?, >"? the sta!e of practicin! meditation > samayi"a ?, >B? the sta!e of keepin! fo'r fasts in a month > posadha ?, >D? the sta!e of continence by day > ratribha"ta ?, >E? the sta!e of absol'te continence > brahma'arya ?, >G? the sta!e of reno'ncin! 'ncooked food > sa'itta-tyaga ?, >$? the sta!e of abandonment of all professional activity > arambha-tyaga ?, >9? the sta!e of transferrin! p'blicly one+s property to a son or other relative > parigraha-tyaga ?, >1#? the sta!e of leavin! the ho'sehold and refrainin! from co'nselin! in ho'sehold matters > anumati-tyaga ?, and >11? the sta!e of not eatin! food especially prepared for oneself, that is, the sta!e of seekin! alms thro'!h be!!in! like a monk > uddista-tyaga ?. >=or f'll details and variations in sta!es in the Hi!ambara and the Svetambara te.ts, see Cilliams, 19E", pp. 1G7(1$1.? Aery fe% sravakas or sravikas reach as far as the si.th sta!e of celibacy. B't those %ho do so are enco'ra!ed to lead the life of a ren'nciant and !ive 'p their property and take their residence in a p'blic place >called upasraya ? especially maintained for s'ch p'rposes by the comm'nity. *mon! the Hi!ambaras the person at the tenth sta!e is called a "sulla"a , a novice. ;e %ears three pieces of clothin! and either collects his food in a bo%l or may eat by invitation at a Jaina ho'sehold. ;e is called here the avara or the 9lo%er layman.9 *t the eleventh sta!e he %ears only a loincloth and does not 'se even the be!!in! bo%l. )nstead he visits, only once a day, a Jaina ho'sehold in the manner of a monk b't takes the food he is offered in his 2oined palms, seated on a %ooden plank. -raditionally he has been called an aila"a >probably an *pabhramsa form of the Skt. alpa'ela"a >one %ith little cloth?, see JS( ), p. B99?. ;e is not a monk yet, as he is still %earin! a loincloth and th's cannot 5'alify to be called a nir!rantha or a Hi!ambara. *s stated by @'ndak'nda, his stat's is that of the hi!hest > ut"rsta ? sravaka, the most advanced layman, f'lly 5'alified to reno'nce the %orld and ass'me the mahavratas of a monk.

1B. -ryi"a >lit., a noble lady?. *n advanced lay%oman >sravika? of the Hi!ambara tradition on the eleventh pratima is called an arya or an aryika and also occasionally sramani and sadhvi %ords that indicate her e.alted stat's as a n'n. She %ears a sin!le article of clothin!, namely a %hite cotton sari Hespite this apparent 9pari!raha,9 at her initiation as an aryika she ass'mes the mahavratas of a monk, albeit in a conventional sense > upa'ara ?, since technically her stat's is still that of an 9advanced lay%oman9 > uttama-sravi"a ?. )n this respect her stat's is that of an ailaka, or probably a little better, since the latter+s vo%s cannot even conventionally be called mahavratas b't m'st bear the desi!nation of an'vrata 'ntil he reno'nces his loincloth. K'dity is forbidden to %omen, and the Hi!ambaras contend that since this is the hi!hest sta!e of ren'nciation she may aspire to reach in the body of a %oman her vo%s may be called mahavratas by co'rtesy >'pacara0 see Chapter )A, J11?. K'dity for %omen is forbidden amon! the Svetambaras also0 b't since they do not re5'ire n'dity even for men, their n'ns are administered the same mahavratas as their monks and th's their stat's is technically speakin! one of e5'ality, as far as the vo%s are concerned. 1D. (sulli"a , a female novice. @'ndak'nda does not 'se this %ord, b't the commentator Sr'tasa!ara s'pplies it in his !loss on the second line. She is the female co'nterpart of the ks'llaka described above. )n addition to her sari, she covers the 'pper part of her body %ith a lon! sha%l that she removes %hile takin! her meal >and th's cond'cts herself like an aryika for the d'ration of the meal?. 1E. * -irthankara, as noted above, is a person %ho in addition to bein! an &mniscient Bein! is also a teacher and becomes the fo'nder of a ne% comm'nity of mendicants. ;e is th's distin!'ished from the *rhats by certain e.traordinary events that attend his conception, birth, and ren'nciation1s'ch as the appearance of !ods, the sho%er of %ealth, and so forth. Since for the Hi!ambaras there is no mendicancy %itho't total n'dity, all -irthankaras m'st traverse the same mendicant path %itho't e.ception. -he Svetambara te.ts have claimed, ho%ever, that of the t%enty(fo'r -irthankaras of o'r time, only the first and the last, namely :sabha and 6ahavira, had ass'med the vo% of n'dity %hereas the other t%enty(t%o %ere clothed >see J)) , p. 1B, n. 7$?. @'ndak'nda seems to be re2ectin! here s'ch a heresy0 or alternatively he may be all'din! here to the case of 6alli, the nineteenth -irthankara, %ho is claimed by the Svetambaras as a female >see Chapter )A, J1", and Chapter A), JGG?, an anathema to the Hi!ambaras accordin! to %hom a %oman does not even 5'alify to ass'me the total vo%s of a monk for the reasons so !raphically described by @'ndak'nda in verses JG and J$. 1G. )ravra%ya , lit. !oin! forth from home >to become a mendicant?. )t sho'ld be noted that @'ndak'nda denies the mendicant ordination >pravra2ya? to a %oman, technically a sravika, not only on the !ro'nds of her %earin! clothes as in the case of the Svetambara monks b't also and more f'ndamentally on the !ro'nds of her biolo!ical !ender. *ccordin! to him a %oman can never be totally free from harm >himsa? to the s'btle forms of life that her body inevitably prod'ces. -h's in @'ndak'nda+s vie% it is not the possession of clothes as m'ch as the himsa. inherent to her body that is the primary reason for a %oman+s inability to p'rs'e the hi!hest path of ren'nciation that alone can lead to moksa. )t sho'ld be noted that altho'!h the Svetambaras also share the notion that a %oman+s body en!enders s'btle life(forms >see Chapter A), JE9?, they do not thereby concl'de that the 'nintentional destr'ction of these bein!s constit'tes an obstacle to her ass'min! the mahavratas. *s for the clothin!, the Svetambaras do not re!ard it as a pari!raha, %hether for a monk or a n'n, and hence it sho'ld not prevent her from attainin! the same !oal available to a monk.

Cha1ter II The Strinirvana1ra.arana (ith the Svo1aAnavrtti o& the Ya1ani'a A,ar'a Sa.ata'ana 2,. 8"9/8:;3
1. *rhat >one %ho is %orthy of %orship, i.e., holy? is a synonym for a @evalin or a Jina as described in Chapter ) >n. 1?.

7. -he terms 9nirvana,9 9moksa,9 and 9m'kti9 are employed synonymo'sly in all Jaina te.ts, and all have the meanin! of total liberation or emancipation of the so'l from all forms of karmic bonda!e leadin! immediately to the stat's of the Siddha as described in Chatper ) >n. "?. -he term 9nirvana9 is additionally employed by the Jainas to indicate the death of a Jina(comparable to the 'se of the term 9 parinirvana ++ amon! the B'ddhists(an event re!arded as a "alyana"a >an a'spicio's occasion, to!ether %ith his conception, birth, ren'nciation, and the attainment of kevala2nana?, and the places associated %ith this event are called nirvana-bhumis >see n. D1?, common pil!rima!e sites for both the Hi!ambaras and the Svetambaras. ". (evalibhu"ti is the title of the second treatise >in thirty(seven Sanskrit verses? composed by the Fapaniya acarya Sakatayana to!ether %ith an a'tocommentary > svopa%navrtti ? edited by 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i in his vol'me entitled the Strinirvana-(evalibhu"tipra"arane >pp. "9(D7?. Chether a person may contin'e to eat > bhu"ti ? after attainin! to the stat's of a @evalin, that is, an &mniscient Bein!, is a ma2or controversy bet%een the Fapaniyas >%ho shared this vie% %ith the Svetambaras? and the Hi!ambaras. -he latter have held that desirelessness > vitaragata ? and the accompanyin! omniscience > sarva%nata ? that characteri,e an *rhat are not compatible %ith the m'ndane practices of eatin! and drinkin! that can proceed only from some form of resid'al desire. *ccordin!ly they have maintained that the Jina 6ahavira ceased to partake of food and %ater >and conse5'ently ceased also to perform s'ch bodily f'nctions as s%eatin!, ans%erin! the calls of nat're, and even sleepin!? the moment he attained kevala2nana at the a!e of forty(t%o and yet lived the normal life of a teacher for thirty more years, for the d'ration of his life, %itho't becomin! %eak or s'b2ect to any disease. -he same r'le applied to all other *rhats %hose bodies 'nder%ent a similar mirac'lo's chan!e at the attainment of kevala2nana. -he Fapaniyas and the Svetambaras have ref'ted the Hi!ambara position by the co'nterar!'ment that h'n!er and thirst e.ist independent of desire and cannot be abated merely by removin! desire for food and %ater('nlike an!er, for e.ample, %hich can be overcome by c'ltivatin! its opposite, friendship. -hey have therefore ar!'ed that even a @evalin m'st be considered s'b2ect to the la%s of nat're and hence his partakin! of food co'ld not detract from his desirelessness or his omniscience. Ko Fapaniya bio!raphy of 6ahavira is e.tant0 b't the Svetambara acco'nts of 6ahavira >as preserved in the canonical Bhagavatisutra and the postcanonical (alpasutra ? sho% that altho'!h no one sa% him eatin! or ans%erin! the calls of nat're he did eat food proc'red for him and also that he s'ffered from diseases and partook of medicine to c're himself. >See J)) , p. 7", n. DE.? -he Hi!ambaras have re2ected these acco'nts as blasphemo's and have maintained that, sim'ltaneo'sly %ith the attainment of kevala2nana, the body of a @evalin >%hether he be a -irthankara or an ordinary *rhat? 'nder!oes a mirac'lo's chan!e. ;is ordinary body > audari"a-sarira , lit., the !ross body? that had hitherto depended 'pon morsels of food > "avalahara ? is a'tomatically transformed into a s'premely p're !ross body > parama-audari"a-sarira 0 see Chapter A), n. 7$?, and the imp're bodily fl'ids s'ch as blood, 'rine, and semen chan!e into a milklike s'bstance. -his body of the @evalin neither decays nor needs replenishment and is not s'b2ect to the normal la%s of nat're incl'din! di!estion and evac'ation. )nstead, it is s'stained for the d'ration of the remainder of his life by the infl'. of the most a'spicio's kind of karmic matter alone, called the no"arma-vargana , %hich ordinarily acco'nts for the invol'ntary biolo!ical f'nctions s'itable to the nat're of each species. -he Svetambaras, %hile they assert that the *rhat+s body is p'rer than that of the ordinary h'man bein!, emphatically re2ect the notion of s'ch a mirac'lo's body and contend that it r'ns co'nter to the doctrine of karma. =or a Hi!ambara reb'ttal, see ,yaya"umuda'andra , )), pp. $D7($ED. =or a critical disc'ssion on the nat're of the @evalin %ith partic'lar reference to this controversy, see H'ndas >19$D?. B. -he -hree Je%els to!ether constit'te the path to moksa as stated in the $attvarthasutra >i, 1?: samya!darsana2nanacaritrani moksamar!ah. &f these the first, namely the samyagdarsana , is defined

as tattvarthasraddhana , faith > sradhhanam ? in the e.istents > tattva ?, %hich in fact amo'nts to holdin! the Jaina %orldvie% and hence is translated here as the 9ri!ht vie%.9 -he $attvarthasutra >i, 7? speaks of seven e.istents:2iva2ivasravabandhasamvaranir2aramoksas tattvam: >1? %iva >infinite n'mber of so'ls?0 >7? a%iva >nonso'ls?, %hich comprise the follo%in! five dravyas >s'bstances?: pudgala >the infinite n'mber of physical matter?, dharma >the principle of motion?, adharma >the principle of rest?, a"asa >infinite space?, "ala >infinite time?0 >"? asrava >infl'. of s'btle karmic matter into the space occ'pied by the so'l %ithin a !iven body?0 >B? bandha >bonda!e of the so'l by that karmic matter?0 >D? samvara >stoppin! of the ne% infl'. by the so'l?0 >E? nir%ara >dissociation of the so'l from the acc'm'lated karmic matter?0 and >G? mo"sa >total emancipation of the so'l from all karmic matter and th's freedom from all forms of embodiment?. * person %ho believes in the manner in %hich these seven tattvas are described by the Jina is said to be a tr'e Jaina endo%ed %ith the ri!ht vie%. Conversely, lack of faith in them or faith contrary to the teachin!s of the Jina is called mithyadarsana , the %ron! vie%. -he second Je%el, the ri!ht kno%led!e > samyag%nana ?, is not a ne% variety of kno%led!e b't merely the kno%led!e of these seven kno%ables accompanied by the ri!ht vie%. Corldly kno%led!e, even if correct from the conventional point of vie%, is therefore considered mithya%nana or %ron! kno%led!e if it is not accompanied by the ri!ht vie%. -he third Je%el, the ri!ht cond'ct > samya"'aritra ?, is the holy cond'ct of a person %ith the ri!ht vie%. -he partial holy cond'ct be!ins %ith the five minor vo%s >an'vratas? prescribed for the laity. -hese lead to the five !reat vo%s >mahavratas? of the mendicants, %hich are !rad'ally developed thro'!h meditational practices and c'lminate in the perfect holy cond'ct of the *rhat. Cond'ct that is devoid of the ri!ht vie%, even if it is apparently in keepin! %ith the Jaina lay and mendicant practices, is considered %ron! cond'ct, mithya'aritra , as it is not cond'cive to moksa. D. =or details on the Jaina doctrine of samsara, a be!innin!less transmi!ration of so'ls in s'ch abodes as the heavens, hells, and h'man and animal e.istences, incl'din! the most s'btle ve!etable forms of life, see J)) , chap. B. E. Sakatayana does not identify the sect a!ainst %hich this treatise is %ritten. &ne cannot disco'nt the possibility that the Fapaniya a'thor may be disp'tin! %ith a faction %ithin his o%n sect, b't in the absence of any s'pportin! evidence one can fairly ass'me that his real opponents are the Hi!ambaras %ho, as %e kno% from the %ords of @'ndak'nda, re2ected a %oman+s ability to ass'me the five !reat vo%s of a mendicant. *ltho'!h no pre(Sakatayana Hi!ambara %ork devoted to the topic of strimoksa that mi!ht have served as the so'rce for Sakatayana+s prima facie vie% > purvapa"sa ? is e.tant, his presentation corresponds in many %ays %ith the a'thoritative Hi!ambara position as fo'nd in the s'bse5'ent %orks of Prabhacandra and Jayasena, as %ill be seen in Chapters ))) and )A. G. *ll Jaina sects a!ree that moksa can be attained only by h'man bein!s and only from the re!ions called the "armabhumis >9the re!ions of action9? as opposed to the bhogabhumis >9the realms of en2oyment9?. -he bho!abh'mis are parts of the h'man abodes in the Jaina cosmolo!y >see J)) , chap. B? %here conditions like paradise prevail. -he bein!s there are believed to be free from all strife and s'bsist on %ish(f'lfillin! trees %itho't any control or competition. Beca'se of the ease that they en2oy %itho't interr'ption, they >like devas , the bein!s in the heavenly abode? are said to be incapable of ass'min! any vo%s and hence 'nable to attain moksa in that life. -he karmabh'mis >%hich incidentally incl'de o'r planet earth? 'nder!o !reat fl'ct'ations in the climatic and other conditions and hence are s'itable for the p'rs'it of moksa. 8ven in the karmabh'mis the attainment of moksa is possible only d'rin! certain specified times %hen the Jinas may appear and establish the Jaina mendicant order. =or details on the appropriate times for these events, see J)) , chap. 1. $. <anadhara >lit., a leader of the gana , i.e., a !ro'p 3of mendicants4? refers to the immediate mendicant disciples of a Jina, responsible for compilin! his sermons into or!ani,ed script're > agama ?.

=or details on the eleven !anadharas >all &f %hom %ere Brahmans by birth? of the t%enty(fo'rth Jina, 6ahavira, see J)) , chap. 7. 9. Pratyekab'ddha is a mendicant %ho attains omniscience %itho't the direct aid of a teacher. ;e is comparable to the recl'se kno%n by the same desi!nation in the -heravada canon beca'se he %as able to achieve nirvana d'rin! the period %hen a B'ddha %as not aro'nd. 1#. Sr'takevalin is a mendicant %ho has mastered the entire Jaina canon comprisin! both the )urva and the -nga . ;e is not an &mniscient Bein!, b't ranks 2'st belo% the !anadhara in the Jaina hierarchy. Bhadrabah', the !reat acarya of the Jaina mendicant comm'nity prior to the sectarian division described in Chapter ) >i?, is re!arded by the Hi!ambaras as the last Sr'takevalin of o'r era. 11. -he )urvas constit'te an ancient, no% none.tant, part of the Jaina canon. See J)) , pp. B9(D1. -he tenth book of this collection is said to have contained instr'ctions on controllin! vario's occ'lt po%ers and their presidin! deities > vidya-devatas ? that an advanced mendicant mi!ht enco'nter in his yo!ic p'rs'it. * dasapurvin >one %ho mastered the tenth )urva ? %as therefore considered a most holy mendicant, ne.t in a'thority to the Sr'takevalin in all matters of doctrine. See JS( )A, p. DD. 17. -he Jaina te.ts speak of !'nasthanas >lit., sta!es of spirit'al 5'ality? as a ladder of fo'rteen r'n!s that an aspirant m'st climb in order to reach the stat's of a Siddha, the Perfected Bein!. -he follo%in! fo'rteen sta!es mark the pro!ress of the so'l as it !rad'ally overcomes the vario's ca'ses of bonda!e: >1? mithyadrsti : the lo%est sta!e, the sta!e of %ron! vie%s. >7? sasvadana : the sta!e of ++mi.ed taste,9 reached only %hen the so'l falls from the fo'rth sta!e. >"? samya"-mithyadrsti : a mi.ed state of the ri!ht and %ron! vie%s, a transitional sta!e from the first to the fo'rth. >B? samyagdrsti : the sta!e of the ri!ht vie%, the first step in the direction of moksa. >D? desavirata >lit., the sta!e %here one refrains partially from evils?: the state attained by a samya!drsti %hen the partial vo%s >an'vrata and so forth? prescribed for the laity are ass'med. >E? sarvavirata >lit., the sta!e %here one reno'nces all evils?: the state attained %hen a layperson ass'mes the !reat vo%s >mahavratas? of a mendicant. -his sta!e indicates that s'ch a person has f'lly overcome the %ron! vie%s as %ell as all !ross forms of passions > "asaya ? s'ch as an!er > "rodha ?, pride > mana ?, crookedness > maya ?, and !reed > lobha ?. >G? apramattavirata >lit., the sta!e of refrainin! from carelessness, pramada ?: the sta!e of complete mindf'lness, a prere5'isite for en!a!in! in meditational activities. >$? apurva"arana . >lit., the sta!e of 'nprecedented meditational activity0 >9? anivrtti"arana >lit., the sta!e of irreversible meditational activity?0 >1#? su"sma-samparaya >lit., the sta!e %here only the most s'btle passions remain?: three meditational sta!es called the 9ladder9 > sreni ?, in %hich the aspirant may pro!ressively s'ppress > upasama ? even the s'btle passions >incl'din! the se.'al desires called the vedas? or destroy > "saya ? them completely. >11? upasantamoha >lit., the sta!e %here passions, moha , are s'ppressed?: this sta!e is reached only if one climbs the ladder of s'ppression, a fall from %hich is inevitable. >17? "sinamoha >lit., the sta!e %here all passions are destroyed?: this sta!e is possible only to those %ho have climbed the ladder of destr'ction and th's s'cceeded in totally eliminatin! all forms of passion. -his is an irreversible sta!e, and the aspirant no% proceeds immediately to the ne.t sta!e called >1"? sayoga"evalin >lit., @evalin %ith activities?. -his is the state of enli!htenment, %here the aspirant %ill become an *rhat or a @evalin, endo%ed %ith infinite kno%led!e > "evala%nana ?, infinite perception > "evaladarsana ?, infinite bliss > ananta-su"ha ?, and infinite ener!y > ananta-virya ?. *oga is a Jaina technical term that means activities of mind, speech, and body. -he @evalin beca'se of his omniscience has no 'se of the senses or the mind that coordinates their f'nctions0 b't he still is not free from the vocal and physical activities s'ch as preachin! and movin! from place to place. 8ven this last vesti!e of embodiment is removed d'rin! the fe% final instants immediately precedin! his death. Chen these activities are also bro'!ht to cessation, the aspirant reaches the last sta!e called >1B? ayoga-"evalin >lit., @evalin %itho't activities?. =reed from the totality of the bonds of karma the *rhat+s so'l rises

a'tomatically and instantaneo'sly to the s'mmit of the Jaina 'niverse and resides there eternally in the state of the Siddha, the Perfected Bein!. -his is a brief o'tline of the !'nasthana scheme common to all Jaina sects. =or f'rther details and a chart, see J)) , p. 7G". 1". -he second line of this verse reads: man'ya!adiye vi taha. ca'dasa !'nanamadheyani. -he p'rport of this passa!e >fo'nd in the Hi!ambara te.t )an'asangraha ? is that of the fo'r possible births accordin! to the Jaina doctrine, the bein!s in hell and bein!s in heaven can have no more than the first fo'r !'nasthanas. *nimals can have one more, namely the fifth !'nasthana, as certain sam%ni animals >those possessin! the mind and the five sense fac'lties, e.!., elephants and lions? may even ass'me certain minor vo%s of the laity. >=or a disc'ssion on this spirit'ality of animals, see Jaini, 19$G.? -he animals may not !o beyond the fifth sta!e, b't all fo'rteen !'nasthanas are possible for h'man bein!s. -he Fapaniya ar!'es that if %omen, as the Hi!ambaras alle!e, co'ld not rise to the si.th sta!e then this script're %o'ld have said so e.plicitly as it does in the case of animals. -herefore %omen m'st be considered capable of possessin! all the fo'rteen !'nasthanas that the te.t says are available to 9h'man bein!s.9 See notes E9 and G1. 1B. -he 9last moment of inactivity9 is the fo'rteenth !'nasthana, called ayo!akevalin, described above in note 17. 1D. &n the 2inakalpa, see note "D. 1E. -he manahparyaya2nana is not to be conf'sed %ith ordinary telepathy. )t is rather a special type of s'pernat'ral kno%led!e that is !ained only by the Jaina mendicants of the hi!hest p'rity, and it is believed that its ac5'isition also carne to an end %ith the death of the venerable Jamb' >see J7"?. )t m'st be noted, ho%ever, that one can achieve moksa even %itho't attainin! s'ch kno%led!e. =or details, see Sarvarthasiddhi , i, 7"(7D. 1G. =or the correspondin! Hi!ambara script're, see Chapter ))) >J11?. )n the Jaina cosmolo!y the hellish re!ion >called nara"a ? occ'pies the lo%er part of the 'niverse > adholo"a ?, immediately belo% the terrestrial level > madhyalo"a ? inhabited by animals and h'man bein!s, and consists of seven tiers each darker than the one above. >=or a chart of the Jaina 'niverse, see J)) , pp. 17$(179.? :ebirth into the hells is not available to a heavenly bein! > deva ? or to one %ho is already an infernal bein! > nara"i ?. -he script're 5'oted above therefore !ives r'les only %ith re!ard to the species in the animal and h'man e.istences %ho alone may be reborn in the hellish abodes. -he te.t does not provide any rationale for the differences in the destinies available to the species mentioned. )t is !enerally a!reed that rebirth in a partic'lar abode is determined by the so'l+s intensity of volition, %hich to a !reat e.tent is determined by the amo'nt of physical stren!th and mental vi!or >virya or sattva? innate to a !iven state of embodiment. -h's it is e.plained that 5'adr'peds may !o to a lo%er hell than the birds and that snakes(pres'mably tho'!ht to be more cr'el beca'se of their venom(may !o to a still lo%er level. By the same token it is believed by all Jaina sects that %omen beca'se of their lack of stren!th, and the conse5'ent %eakness of their volition, may not fall into the seventh, the lo%est hell. -hat is the prero!ative of men alone, a proof of their physical and volitional stren!th(and, for the Hi!ambaras, a s're indication that men alone may reach the other e.treme of the cosmos, the Siddhaloka, the abode of the Perfected Bein!s. &ne can 'nderstand the disparity bet%een snakes and h'mans >beca'se of %hich the former %ere denied rebirth in hells lo%er than the fifth? and even !rant that %omen may be constit'tionally %eaker than men and th's incapable of committin! the most evil deeds deservin! retrib'tion in the lo%est hell. Chat is tr'ly bafflin!, ho%ever, is the sin!'lar e.ception the Jainas make of fish by admittin! the possibility of their rebirth in the seventh hell, a fate denied even to %omen beca'se of their alle!ed lack

of mental vi!or. -he belief that fish can be e.tremely %icked is 5'ite old and is attested to in the Bhavaprabhrta of the acarya @'ndak'nda, %here the a'thor ill'strates the importance of volition by the story of a fish called Salisiktha: maccho vi salisittho as'ddhabhavo !ao mahanarayam >$Ea?. >9-he fish called Salisiktha 3lit., +:ice <rain+4 of imp're intensions %ent to the !reat hell.9 >@'ndak'nda does not !ive the story, b't it appears in the tenth(cent'ry Brhat"atha"osa >no. 1BG, Salisikthakathanakam? of the Hi!ambara ;arisena and %as probably the so'rce of the si.teenth(cent'ry Sr'tasa!ara+s narrative in his commentary on the Bhavaprabhrta , %hich may be briefly s'mmari,ed here. )n the city of @akandip'ra there %as a kin! named Sa'rasena born in the family of a Jaina layman > srava"a"ula ?. *ccordin! to the tradition of his reli!ion he took the vo% of not eatin! meat. B't implored by his Saivite physician he conceived a desire to cons'me meat. =earf'l of people kno%in! his %eakness, he called his favorite cook named @armapriya >9Cork Iover9? and secretly informed him of his desire. *ltho'!h the cook proc'red meats of animals on land as %ell as in the %ater, the kin! did not !et an opport'nity to eat those dishes. @armapriya, the cook, died and %as reborn as the <reat =ish >6ahamatsya? in the !reat ocean called the Svayambh'ramana >%hich circles the middle re!ion of the Jaina 'niverse?. @in! Sa'rasena died cravin! for meat dishes and %as born in the same ocean as a fish called Salisiktha >:ice <rain? beca'se of its tiny si,e. Sa1isiktha took his residence in the ear of the <reat =ish livin! on the dirt that acc'm'lated there. &ne day Salisiktha sa% the <reat =ish sleepin! and the m'ltit'de of small and lar!e schools of fish movin! in and o't of its %ide(open mo'th and tho'!ht: 9*lasS ;o% 'nfort'nate of this <reat =ishS )t cannot eat them even %hen they fall into his mo'thS )f fate had !iven me as lar!e a body as his, ) %o'ld have rendered this entire ocean empty of all lifeS9 -hinkin! th's he died and by the force of his mental a!itation %as reborn in the seventh hell. -he !reat =ish also died and %as also reborn in the same hell as a conse5'ence of his devo'rin! the m'ltit'de of bein!s in the ocean > Satprabhrtadisangrahah , pp. 7"D(7"G?. )t seems possible that @'ndak'nda %as referrin! to the story of the fish only to ill'strate the primacy of volition > bhava ? over action, b't his %ords ++!ao mahanarayam9 %ere 'nderstood by the later storytellers literally to mean the seventh hell. 1$. -he ei!ht siddhagunas : >1("? perfection of the -hree Je%els0 >B? infinite ener!y > ananta-virya ?0 >D? invisibility > su"smatva ?0 >E? ability to occ'py the same space >at the s'mmit of the Jaina 'niverse? %ith other Siddhas > avagahanatva ?0 >G? freedom from e.pansion and contraction of the so'l+s space points > agurulaghutva ?0 and >$? freedom from both pleas're and pain > avyabadhatva ?. -he former fo'r are attained %hen one becomes an *rhat0 the latter fo'r are attained %hen the *rhat dies and is forever released from the bonda!e of embodiment and th's becomes a Siddha. =or details on the last fo'r 5'alities, see J)) , pp. 17B(17G. 19. Sahasrara is the t%elfth heavenly abode in the Jaina cosmolo!y. See Sarvarthasiddhi , iv, 19. 7#. =or a disc'ssion on the definition of a sam2ni, see Sarvarthasiddhi , ii, 7B. 71. -he samayika here probably refers to the sin!le mendicant restraint ass'med by 6ahavira himself %hen he reno'nced the %orld sayin!, 9Ko evil actions are to be committed by me.9 See J)) , p. 1G. 77. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 1G, n. 1? that this is a very old verse and is 5'oted by the Svetambara acarya Jinabhadra in his Svopa%navrtti on the &isesavasya"abhasya . -he complete verse reads as follo%s: mana(paramodhi(p'lae ahara!a(khava!a('vasame kappe, sam2amatiya(kevala(si22hana ya Jamb'mmi vocchinna. 3verse "#GE4 -he Jaina tradition 'nanimo'sly believes that the mendicant Jamb' %as the last person to attain moksa in the c'rrent time called the avasarpini-pan'ama-"ala >the fifth period of the descendin! half of the time cycle? in the Jaina cosmolo!y. ;e %as the disciple of S'dharman, one of the t%o !anadharas >the

other bein! <a'tama? %ho s'rvived 6ahavaira. -he Svetambara tradition believes that S'dharman relayed the t%elvefold Jaina canon >as received from 6ahavira? orally to the mendicant Jamb', %ho th's became the chief preserver of the holy script're. Jamb' is believed to have died in BE" B.C. , si.ty(fo'r years after the nirvana of 6ahavira. *ccordin! to the fifth(cent'ry acarya Jinabhadra+s &isesavasya"abhasya , referred to above, %ith the death of Jamb' the 2inakalpa >see note "D?(s'!!ested by the term 9 "appa 9 in the verse 5'oted above(ceased to e.ist, as also the attainment of moksa by anyone, %hether a monk or a n'n. Jainas are 'nanimo's in their belief that moksa cannot be attained by either a monk or a n'n 'ntil the present time cycle is completed and a ne% era be!ins and a ne% Jina appears here >after a lapse of several tho'sand years?. )n vie% of this belief the controversy over %omen+s ability to attain moksa %o'ld appear to be irrelevant, aimed rather at assertin! the validity of the sectarian position on the tr'e definition of a mendicant. )t sho'ld be remembered, ho%ever, that the path of moksa is not alto!ether closed, since it is open for h'man bein!s %ho are reborn in an area called Aideha(ksetra. -irthankaras are believed to e.ist at all times in this blessed re!ion inhabited by h'man bein!s b't lyin! far o'tside o'r kno%n earth and inaccessible to h'mans e.cept thro'!h transmi!ration. -he earth %e inhabit forms part of the area kno%n as the Bharata(ksetra >the Iand of Bharata, named after the first Jaina 'niversal monarch or cakravartin of o'r time cycle? in the Jaina cosmolo!y. See J)) , chap. 1. =or f'rther details on Jamb', see 6ehta >19G#(19G7?. 7". -he verses 5'oted are to be fo'nd in the ,isithabhasya , a Svetambara te.t. Ko Hi!ambara te.t correspondin! to this is to be fo'nd, and the Svetambara te.ts are not a'thoritative to them. &ne %onders, therefore, if the Fapaniya a'thor may be confrontin! a faction %ithin his o%n mendicant comm'nity or if the U had once accepted the script'res 5'oted by him. 7B. )t is do'btf'l %hether the 9opponent9 here also is a Hi!ambara, since the script're 5'oted is fo'nd in the Svetambara Brhat"alpa only. -o the best of my kno%led!e there is no e.tant Hi!ambara script're that specifically forbids the vo% of mendicant n'dity to a %oman. B't s'ch a prohibition m'st have obtained in their tradition, as can be ded'ced from the follo%in! statement of the Hi!ambara acarya Airasena >c. $1G? in his commentary called the Dhavala on the Sat"handagama >5'oted in JS( )ll, p. D9G, from the Dhavala , .i, B, 7.E(.ii, 11B, 11?: na ca davvatthinam ni!!amtham atthi, celadipariccaena vina tasim bhavani!!amthabhavado. na ca davvatthinav'msayavedenam celadicca!o atthi, #hedasuttena saha virohado. >9-here is no state of total mendicancy 3the state of a nir!rantha4 for a person %ho is biolo!ically female, since there is absence of internal freedom from all bonds %itho't the abandonment of s'ch e.ternal properties as clothes and so forth. Kor is the abandonment of clothes and so forth 3allo%ed4 for those %ho are biolo!ically female or hermaphrodite, as this 3n'dity4 is contrary to the #hedasutra 3the Hi!ambara book of mendicant discipline, %hich is no lon!er e.tant4.9? )t may be mentioned in this connection that the t%elfth(cent'ry Hi!ambara layman *sadhara, in his man'al for the laity called the Sagaradharmamrta , states that a n'n >%hom he also considers only to be an advanced lay%oman and not a 9mendicant9? may, if she so %ishes, be allo%ed to ass'me the vo% of n'dity, like a man, at the last moments of her life, as part of her salle"hana rit'al >vol'ntary fastin! to death, see J)) , p. 77G(7""?: yad a'tsar!ikam anyad va lin!am 'ktam 2inaih, striyah p'mvat tad isyate, mrty'kale svalpikrtopadheh >viii, "$?. *sadhara is 'ndo'btedly follo%in! here a very old tradition preserved in the ancient Bhagavati-aradhana : itthivi ya 2am lim!am dittham 'ssa!!iyam va idaram va, tam taha hodi h' lim!am parittam 'vadhim karemtie >verse $1?. ) am informed by Hi!ambara scholars that this verse sho'ld not be constr'ed as a sanction for n'dity as the dyin! n'n m'st remain in strict privacy and, moreover, that her vo%s do not thereby become the mahavratas of a Hi!ambara monk for the biolo!ical disabilities associated %ith the female body cannot be removed. ='rthermore, acarya Sivakoti, the a'thor of the Bhagavati-aradhana , is, as seen above in section >v?, probably a Fapaniya mendicant and hence does not necessarily represent the traditional Hi!ambara

position as e.pressed in the Sutraprabhrta >see Chapter ) above? of @'ndak'nda and the Dhavala of Airasena. 7D. )n modern times, this %hisk broom is made of t'fts of %ool >called ra%oharana ? or peacock feathers >called pin'hi ?0 these are 'sed by mendicants of the Svetambara and Hi!ambara sects, respectively. 7E. -his %ork is not e.tant, b't the title Siddhivinis'aya >9Hetermination of Siddhahood,9 i.e., the attainment of moksa? indicates that it too dealt %ith the topic of strimoksa. =or a disc'ssion on the identity of this acarya Sivasvamin %ith the acarya Sivakoti, the a'thor of the Bhagavati-aradhana , see Premi >19DE, pp. EG(G"?. 7G. -his 5'otation is also fo'nd only in the Svetambara Brhat"alpa . -he tala-palamba , ho%ever, is mentioned in the >FapaniyaP? Bhagavati-aradhana >verse 117B? as an ill'stration to sho% that the %ord 9 tala 9 stands not only for the palm tree b't also for all trees >shoots of %hich are also forbidden for monks?. Similarly, it is said, the %ord 9 'ela 9 >clothes? in the compo'nd ++acelaka9 >lit., free from clothes? stands for other possessions as %ell that m'st be !iven 'p by a mendicant. See JS( ), p. "9. 7$. -he follo%in! fo'r verses as %ell as the verse be!innin! %ith the %ords 9ye yan na bh'ktibha2ah9 >see JE9? are called sangraha-aryas >collected verses? in the Svopa%navrtti and yet are co'nted as ori!inal verses >nos. 1"(1E and "#, respectively? in 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i+s edition. )n e.plainin! this he notes >p. 1, n. 1? that in the man'scripts of the Strinirvanapra"arana the verses %ere not n'mbered at all, e.cept in one incomplete man'script %here only the last three verses %ere n'mbered respectively D7, D", and DB. *ss'min! therefore that the te.t ori!inally mi!ht have consisted of fifty(fo'r verses he decided to co'nt these five san!raha(aryas >n'mberin! them as 1"(1E and "#? also as the ori!inal verses of the Strinirvanapra"arana . ) have treated these five verses as 5'otations only, and hence the total n'mber of the Strinirvanapra"arana verses here is forty(nine instead of the fifty(fo'r in his edition. )n this re!ard ) am follo%in! the earlier edition of the Strinirvanapra"arana >p'blished by 6'ni Jinavi2aya2i as reprinted in the Sa"atayana-&ya"arana , intro. app. )), pp. 171(17B?, %hich does not contain these five verses. 79. =or a Hi!ambara reply to this point, see Chapter ))) >JD$?. "#. See the )rava'anasara of @'ndak'nda, iii, 1G. "1. Compare this %ith the follo%in! passa!e from the Svetambara -'aranga-sutra , )), D, 1: 2e ni!!amthe tar'ne 2'!avam balavam appayamke thirasam!hayane se e!am vattham dhare22a, no bitiyam. >9)f a monk be yo'thf'l, yo'n!, stron!, healthy, and %ell set, he may %ear one robe, not t%o90 (alpasutra , Jacobi+s trans. 1$$B, p. 1DG.? Beca'se of the difference bet%een the t%o passa!es 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i >p. 1#", n. B? has s'!!ested that the present passa!e is not taken from the e.tant -'aranga-sutra b't can be traced to a non(Svetambara so'rce. -his is the famo's &i%ayodaya commentary by the Fapaniya *para2ita on the Bhagavati-aradhana of Sivakoti >%ho as noted above co'ld have been a member of the Fapaniya sect?. )n this commentary on verse B71 dealin! %ith the r'le of n'dity a 5'estioner asks: -'ara syapi dvitiyadhyayo Lo"avi'ayo nama, tasya . . . vatthesanae v'ttam: tattha 2e>P? se hirimane se!am vattham va dhare22a > Bhagavati-aradhana , p. E11?. -his sho%s that the Fapaniyas had a different recension of this canonical te.t and had interpreted the r'les pertainin! to clothes in a manner 5'ite different from that of the Svetambaras %ho advocated the 'se of clothes not as a concession to %eakness b't as a re5'irement for all Jaina mendicants. "7. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 71, n. 7? that this verse is missin! from t%o man'scripts and s'!!ests that as there is no commentary on it by Sakatayana it is probably a 5'otation from some 'nkno%n te.t. ;e !ives the follo%in! parallel passa!es from the Svetambara Sthananga-sutra : tihim thanehim vattham dhare22a, tam 2aha, hiripattiyam d'!'mchapattiyam parisahavattiyam >iii, ", 1G1?.

)n this connection the e.planation !iven by the Fapaniya acarya *para2ita in his commentary on the Bhagavati-aradhana on the re5'irement of n'dity for a mendicant is %orth notin!. Commentin! on the verse >no. B71? that dealt %ith n'dity > a'ela"atva ?, *para2ita !ives a lon! disco'rse >in some forty lines? on the virt'es of n'dity and the defects inherent to %earin! robes. * 5'estioner, %ho co'ld be a proto(Svetambara, raises at this point a pertinent 5'estion as to %hy the script're directs a monk to seek robes and so forth >as 5'oted above in note "1? and ho% this command can be reconciled %ith the vo% of n'dity >evam s'tranirdiste cele acelata katham?. )n reply to this 5'estion *para2ita says: atrocyate, aryikanam a!ame +n'2natam vastram, karanapeksaya bhiks'nam(hriman ayo!yasariravayavo d'scarmabhilambamanabi2o va parisahasahane va +ksamah sa !rhnati. >9-he script're en2oins clothes for n'ns and for monks for the follo%in! reasons: a monk %ho is f'll of shame, or %hose body and limbs are not s'itable beca'se of !enital deformities, or one %ho is 'nable to bear the afflictions 3s'ch as cold4, takes clothes90 Bhagavati-aradhana , p. E17.? )t is note%orthy that *para2ita does not !ive any reason for en2oinin! clothes to n'ns, an omission that leaves room for the Hi!ambaras to 5'estion %omen+s ability to ass'me the !reat vo%s of the monks. *s for the concessions made to certain males, it m'st be noted that they r'n co'nter to the Hi!ambara r'les of mendicancy and hence are not admissible to them. ) am informed that a person s'fferin! from !enital or other defects is not eli!ible to receive initiation into the Hi!ambara mendicant order, and sho'ld he develop them s'bse5'ently he %ill be en2oined to ret'rn to the lo%er stat's of a layman. -his Hi!ambara position th's appears to be consistent %ith the position taken by the opponent in JBE. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that the Hi!ambara tradition has occasionally sho%n the ability to make concessions >s'b2ect to e.piations, etc.? 'nder diffic'lt political conditions. )n late medieval times, p'blic n'dity %as proscribed in areas r'led by 6'slims, makin! it diffic'lt for Hi!ambara monks to move freely. -he si.teenth(cent'ry commentator Sr'tasa!ara has left one record of a sit'ation %here the Hi!ambara monk Aasantakirti >of 'nkno%n date? of 6andapad'r!a >in modern :a2asthanP? allo%ed his monks an e.ceptional !arb or appearance > apavadavesa ?, namely, to cover themselves %ith a mat or a piece of cloth for the d'ration of their o'tin!s for meals and the like: kala' kila 6lecchadayo na!nam drstva 'padravam yatinam k'rvanti, tena 6andapad'r!e sri Aasantakirtina svamina caryadivelayam tattisadaradikena sariram acchadya p'nas tan m'ncatity 'padesah krtah samyaminam ity apavadavesah0 Satprabhrtadisangrahah , p. 71. Sr'tasa!ara, %hile reportin! this incident, does not fail to comment that s'ch an apavadavesa is nevertheless heretical >mithyavesa eva0 ibid.?. Pandit Premi >19DE, p. EE? has s'!!ested that this %as the be!innin! of the Bhattaraka tradition amon! the Hi!ambaras, a ne% !ro'p of resident >and clothed? 9monks9 %ho in medieval times presided over a lar!e n'mber of temples and libraries, remnants of %hose seats >called mathas and administered by the laymen of the ks'llaka rank? can still be fo'nd in parts of :a2asthan, 6aharashtra, and @arnataka. "1. Compare this %ith the follo%in! passa!e from the Svetambara -'aranga-sutra , )), D, 1: 2e ni!!amthe tar'ne 2'!avam balavam appayamke thirasam!hayane se e!am vattham dhare22a, no bitiyam. >9)f a monk be yo'thf'l, yo'n!, stron!, healthy, and %ell set, he may %ear one robe, not t%o90 (alpasutra , Jacobi+s trans. 1$$B, p. 1DG.? Beca'se of the difference bet%een the t%o passa!es 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i >p. 1#", n. B? has s'!!ested that the present passa!e is not taken from the e.tant -'aranga-sutra b't can be traced to a non(Svetambara so'rce. -his is the famo's &i%ayodaya commentary by the Fapaniya *para2ita on the Bhagavati-aradhana of Sivakoti >%ho as noted above co'ld have been a member of the Fapaniya sect?. )n this commentary on verse B71 dealin! %ith the r'le of n'dity a 5'estioner asks: -'ara syapi dvitiyadhyayo Lo"avi'ayo nama, tasya . . . vatthesanae v'ttam: tattha 2e>P? se hirimane se!am vattham va dhare22a > Bhagavati-aradhana , p. E11?. -his sho%s that the Fapaniyas had a different recension of this canonical te.t and had interpreted the r'les pertainin! to clothes in a manner 5'ite different from that of the Svetambaras %ho advocated the 'se of clothes not as a concession to %eakness b't as a re5'irement for all Jaina mendicants.

"7. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 71, n. 7? that this verse is missin! from t%o man'scripts and s'!!ests that as there is no commentary on it by Sakatayana it is probably a 5'otation from some 'nkno%n te.t. ;e !ives the follo%in! parallel passa!es from the Svetambara Sthananga-sutra : tihim thanehim vattham dhare22a, tam 2aha, hiripattiyam d'!'mchapattiyam parisahavattiyam >iii, ", 1G1?. )n this connection the e.planation !iven by the Fapaniya acarya *para2ita in his commentary on the Bhagavati-aradhana on the re5'irement of n'dity for a mendicant is %orth notin!. Commentin! on the verse >no. B71? that dealt %ith n'dity > a'ela"atva ?, *para2ita !ives a lon! disco'rse >in some forty lines? on the virt'es of n'dity and the defects inherent to %earin! robes. * 5'estioner, %ho co'ld be a proto(Svetambara, raises at this point a pertinent 5'estion as to %hy the script're directs a monk to seek robes and so forth >as 5'oted above in note "1? and ho% this command can be reconciled %ith the vo% of n'dity >evam s'tranirdiste cele acelata katham?. )n reply to this 5'estion *para2ita says: atrocyate, aryikanam a!ame +n'2natam vastram, karanapeksaya bhiks'nam(hriman ayo!yasariravayavo d'scarmabhilambamanabi2o va parisahasahane va +ksamah sa !rhnati. >9-he script're en2oins clothes for n'ns and for monks for the follo%in! reasons: a monk %ho is f'll of shame, or %hose body and limbs are not s'itable beca'se of !enital deformities, or one %ho is 'nable to bear the afflictions 3s'ch as cold4, takes clothes90 Bhagavati-aradhana , p. E17.? )t is note%orthy that *para2ita does not !ive any reason for en2oinin! clothes to n'ns, an omission that leaves room for the Hi!ambaras to 5'estion %omen+s ability to ass'me the !reat vo%s of the monks. *s for the concessions made to certain males, it m'st be noted that they r'n co'nter to the Hi!ambara r'les of mendicancy and hence are not admissible to them. ) am informed that a person s'fferin! from !enital or other defects is not eli!ible to receive initiation into the Hi!ambara mendicant order, and sho'ld he develop them s'bse5'ently he %ill be en2oined to ret'rn to the lo%er stat's of a layman. -his Hi!ambara position th's appears to be consistent %ith the position taken by the opponent in JBE. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that the Hi!ambara tradition has occasionally sho%n the ability to make concessions >s'b2ect to e.piations, etc.? 'nder diffic'lt political conditions. )n late medieval times, p'blic n'dity %as proscribed in areas r'led by 6'slims, makin! it diffic'lt for Hi!ambara monks to move freely. -he si.teenth(cent'ry commentator Sr'tasa!ara has left one record of a sit'ation %here the Hi!ambara monk Aasantakirti >of 'nkno%n date? of 6andapad'r!a >in modern :a2asthanP? allo%ed his monks an e.ceptional !arb or appearance > apavadavesa ?, namely, to cover themselves %ith a mat or a piece of cloth for the d'ration of their o'tin!s for meals and the like: kala' kila 6lecchadayo na!nam drstva 'padravam yatinam k'rvanti, tena 6andapad'r!e sri Aasantakirtina svamina caryadivelayam tattisadaradikena sariram acchadya p'nas tan m'ncatity 'padesah krtah samyaminam ity apavadavesah0 Satprabhrtadisangrahah , p. 71. Sr'tasa!ara, %hile reportin! this incident, does not fail to comment that s'ch an apavadavesa is nevertheless heretical >mithyavesa eva0 ibid.?. Pandit Premi >19DE, p. EE? has s'!!ested that this %as the be!innin! of the Bhattaraka tradition amon! the Hi!ambaras, a ne% !ro'p of resident >and clothed? 9monks9 %ho in medieval times presided over a lar!e n'mber of temples and libraries, remnants of %hose seats >called mathas and administered by the laymen of the ks'llaka rank? can still be fo'nd in parts of :a2asthan, 6aharashtra, and @arnataka. "". 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 1#", n. 1? a co'nterte.t in the Svetambara script're: kappai ni!!amthana va ni!!amthina va celacilimiliyam dharittae va pariharittae va0 Brhat"alpa , i. 1$. "B. Compare: mithyadarsanaviratipramadakasayayo!ah bandhahetavah0 $attvarthasutra , viii, 1. =or a disc'ssion on the nat're of these five ca'ses of bonda!e, see J)) , pp. 1DG(1D9. "D. -he %ords 9 sape"sa 9 >5'alified? and 9 nirape"sa 9 >'n5'alified or total? samyama >mendicant restraint, i.e., vo%s?, p'rportedly 'sed here to describe the sthavira"alpa >lit., Co'rse of the 8lders? and the %ina"alpa >lit., Co'rse of the Aictors?, respectively, do not ade5'ately e.press the precise distinctions bet%een the t%o co'rses of mendicancy as 'nderstood by the Fapaniyas. Both the

Hi!ambaras and the Svetambaras accept these different co'rses, b't they disa!ree on the meanin! of the terms. *ccordin! to the Svetambaras, 2inakalpa is the co'rse of a monk %ho leads a life in the manner of the Jina 6ahavira, incl'din! the adoption of the practice of n'dity0 he is not bo'nd by the r'les of the ecclesiastical comm'nity. ;e is not obli!ated to abide by the r'les of con!re!ation or en!a!e in s'ch activities as preachin!. Ieadin! an isolated life >probably beca'se of his n'dity? is th's the ma2or characteristic of a 2inakalpa monk. -he sthavirakalpa, by contrast, is a co'rse %hich re5'ires that the mendicant %ear the prescribed n'mber of clothes >no more than three? and keep be!!in! bo%ls, the %hisk broom, and other s'ch si!ns of mendicancy. ;e is s'b2ect to the ecclesiastical la%s and m'st remain loyal and obedient to his spirit'al masters, the acaryas. Propa!ation of the -eachin! is one of his d'ties, and he is enco'ra!ed to initiate his o%n disciples and to impart the la% amon! the laity as %ell. Chile the Svetambaras th's 'phold the 2inakalpa as a le!itimate and even a s'perior mode of mendicancy >since it %as practiced by 6ahavira himself?, they nevertheless believe that it is totally 'ns'itable and hence forbidden to %omen and also to the ma2ority of men, for %hom only the sthavirakalpa is recommended. K'dity is not an essential characteristic of mendicancy for them, and hence they believe that both co'rses are e5'ally capable of achievin! the !oal of moksa. -hey have f'rthermore maintained that the 2inakalpa came to an end %ith the death of the Aenerable Jamb' >see J7" and n. 77?, the last Jaina monk to have attained nirvana in the mendicant linea!e of 6ahavira, and that %hat s'rvives no% is only the sthavirakalpa. =or them the option of the 2inakalpa, or most important the practice of n'dity associated %ith it, is no lon!er available, and hence they 5'estion the le!itimacy of the c'rrent Hi!ambara order of monks. -he Hi!ambara definitions of these t%o terms, as can be e.pected, are strikin!ly different. =or the Hi!ambaras, n'dity is the essential characteristic of mendicancy, %itho't %hich a monk+s vo% of total nonpossession >apari!raha? is not complete. -herefore, in their tradition, monks of both 2inakalpa and sthavirakalpa co'rses m'st adopt n'dity. -he tr'e distinction bet%een the t%o is that a monk of the 2inakalpa order leads a solitary life %itho't belon!in! even formally to an ecclesiastical comm'nity0 he co'ld th's be described as an anchorite, en!a!ed in his o%n a'sterities and meditation. 6endicants of the sthavirakalpa order are distin!'ished by the fact that they live in a !ro'p directly 'nder the s'pervision of their acaryas and en!a!e in s'ch activities as the st'dy of the script're or preachin! the la% to the laity0 they are cenobites. -hey also believe that as a conse5'ence of the declinin! morality associated %ith the pancamakala, the 2inakalpa ended %ith the death of the Aenerable Jamb', b't they declare that it did not spell the end of monkhood, %hich of co'rse cannot be separated from the practice of total n'dity. -he Hi!ambaras th's claim that they are the tr'e follo%ers of the sthavirakalpa tradition, %hich has contin'ed 'ninterr'pted since the days of 6ahavira, and also that it may be e.pected to last 'ntil the very end of the pancamakala, an event that %ill not take place for some seventeen tho'sand years. Since there can be no mendicancy %itho't total n'dity, and since the latter is forbidden to a %oman, a ++n'n9 in the Hi!ambara tradition belon!s neither to the 2inakalpa nor to the shavirakalpa. ;er stat's in their tradition is that of an advanced lay%oman >'ttamasravika?, as pointed o't by @'ndak'nda >see Chapter ), JG(J$?. B't she is honored by the term 9aryika9 >noble lady?, as she has reached the hi!hest stat's available to a %oman, e5'ivalent to that of a Hi!ambara monk amon! men, and may therefore be conventionally said to belon! to the sthavirakalpa. *s for the Fapaniyas, it is evident from the te.t 'nder st'dy that they, like the Svetambaras, identified the practice of n'dity %ith the 2inakalpa only and approved of the stat's of the sthavirakalpa to clothed mendicants, %hether n'ns or monks. Probably they too considered the 2inakalpa to be s'perior to the other mode, since the 2inakalpa monks did not even ret'rn the !reetin!s of the sthavirakalpa monks as sho%n in JEG. -he ma2or difference bet%een the Svetambara and the Fapaniya seems to lie in the Fapaniya r'le that clothes may be allo%ed to men not as a re!'lar practice >as %as claimed by the

Svetambaras, for %hich see Chapter A, J9? b't as an e.ception, applicable only to those %ho s'ffered from the three defects pointed o't in Sakatayana+s verse 1D. B't if the Fapaniyas, as indicated above >in J7"?, also believed that the 2inakalpa came to an end after the time of the Aenerable Jamb', then they %ill have no option b't to declare all men desiro's of becomin! mendicants as 9e.ceptional cases9 and consider their 'se of clothes not as a concession to %eakness b't as the only le!itimate practice. -his co'ld res'lt in removin! any essential difference that mi!ht have e.isted bet%een the monks and n'ns, as claimed by the Hi!ambaras, and render them e5'al1a position that they c'rrently en2oy, at least in theory, in the Svetambara tradition. =or f'rther details on the 2inakalpa and the sthavirakalpa in the Svetambara and the Hi!ambara traditions, see, respectively, -atia and @'mar >19$1, pp. B1(E9? and Jnanamati >19$7, pp. 1$E(1$9?. "E. =or different varieties of these fasts, see JS( ))), p. B#D. "G. ) 'nderstand from Hi!ambara scholars that s'ch a person %ill cease to be a monk if he accepts the banda!es and %ill revert to the position of a layman. ;is case %ill be some%hat similar to the one described by Sr'tasa!ara as 5'oted above in note "7. "$. -his story of the monk 6r!adhva2a cannot be traced in e.tant Jaina literat're. =or a Hi!ambara response to this ar!'ment, see Chapter ))) >JD$?. "9. Compare: m'rccha pari!rahah0 $attvarthasutra , vii, 1G. 9Chat is m'rcchaP 6'rccha is activity relatin! to the ac5'isition or safe!'ardin! of possessions s'ch as the co%, the b'ffalo, 2e%els, pearls, and so on, and also in%ard tho'!hts like desire and so on. . .. )nfat'ation or attachment is at the root of all evils. )f a person has the idea +this is mine,+ he has to safe!'ard it. )n safe!'ardin! it, violence is bo'nd to res'lt. =or its sake he 'tters falsehood. ;e also commits theft and attempts cop'lation. *nd this res'lts in vario's kinds of pain and s'fferin! in the infernal re!ions90 Sarvarthasiddhi , vii, 1G, translated by S. *. Jain, p. 199. B#. &n the Jaina practice of vol'ntary death by fastin! called sallekhana, see J)) , pp. 77G(7"". B1. =or a disc'ssion on these t%o co'rses, %hich are differently described in the Svetambara script'res and in the &i%ayodaya commentary of the Fapaniya a'thor *para2ita > Bhagavati-aradhana , pp. "D7( "EG?, as -atia and @'mar >19$1, pp. E9(G$?0 see also Caillat >19ED, pp. D7(DD?. B7. )f by the term 92inakalpa9 in this passa!e the Fapaniya 'nderstands the practice of n'dity >in addition to other re5'irements?, then it %o'ld follo% that the vo% of n'dity co'ld not be administered to a boy of ei!ht and, as the follo%in! 5'otation states e.plicitly, to anyone 'nder the a!e of thirty. ) am 'na%are of a Hi!ambara te.t that stip'lates the minim'm a!e re5'irement of a person eli!ible to ass'me the vo% of n'dity. ) 'nderstand from my informants that it is c'stomary to !ive this initiation only to men in their advanced a!e and only to those %ho have spent years practicin! the an'vratas and other vo%s of a layman. *s a r'le, only a ks'llaka or an ailaka %o'ld be allo%ed to become a Hi!ambara monk, and therefore the c'stom of child initiation > baladi"sa ? that openly prevailed amon! the Svetambaras in medieval times %as totally 'nkno%n amon! them. =or details on this practice, see $he Life of .ema'andra >BVhler, 1$99?. B". -his verse, the so'rce of %hich cannot be traced and the meanin! of %hich is obsc're, merits comparison %ith the follo%in! verse in the Gommatasara >and its ;indi commentary?, %hich seems to preserve certain ancient r'les applicable to a mendicant of the 2inakalpa in the Hi!ambara tradition: tisam vaso 2amme, vasap'dhattam kh' titthayaram'le, paccakkhanam padhido, sam2h'nad'!a'yaviharo. >9Commentary: * person %ho is thirty years old and has after his initiation as a monk spent ei!ht years

in the st'dy of the ninth book of the )urva 'nder a -irthankara comes to possess the cond'ct called pariharavisuddhi . S'ch a person travels every day, that is, he is not s'b2ect to the r'les of mendicant retreat d'rin! the rainy season and yet remains p're in his cond'ct90 Gommatasara 2Jiva"anda ?, verse BG"?. BB. ) have been 'nable to find a script'ral a'thority to s'pport the Fapaniya statement that an ei!ht( year(old person may attain moksa. )t is, ho%ever, a!reed by the Hi!ambara that only a person over the a!e of ei!ht may become eli!ible to receive the an'vratas of the laity. >!abbhado nikkhamtapadhamasamayappah'di atthavasses' !ades' sam2ama!!ahanappao!o hodi, hettha na hodi tti eso bhavattho0 5'oted in JS( >from the Dhavala ?, )A, p. 1B1.? Compare in this conte.t the B'ddhist belief that a boy m'st be at least ei!ht years of a!e to attain *rhatship. -he Dhammapada--ttha"atha >)), p. 7B$0 B'rlin!ame, 1971? contains the story of an ei!ht(year(old boy named Samkicca %ho attained *rhatship d'rin! his ordination as a novice > samanera ?. *ltho'!h ) am 'na%are of a similar story amon! the Jainas, the tradition is 'nanimo's that Prabhasa >%hom the Hi!ambaras claim to be a naked monk?, the yo'n!est of 6ahavira+s eleven !anadharas, %as only t%enty(fo'r %hen he attained *rhatship. >See J)) , p. BB.? *ccordin!ly, the 9thirty(year(old9 a!e re5'irement for becomin! a naked monk as stated above in note B" %as not reco!ni,ed in ancient times1or, more probably, the a!e re5'irement applied only for 'ndertakin! additional a'sterities allo%ed to a >naked? monk %ho had chosen the mode of 2inakalpa. BD. )n the Hi!ambara comm'nity the 5'estion of monks ret'rnin! the !reetin!s of the n'ns does not arise, as the latter, bein! only advanced lay%omen, %ill not be treated as e5'als of the monks. )n the Fapaniya and the Svetambara comm'nities they sho'ld be treated as e5'als, yet the monks there do not ret'rn the !reetin!s of their n'ns. -he Fapaniya *para2ita in his &i%ayodaya commentary !ives the follo%in! reasons for the inferiority of the n'ns and the s'periority of monks over them: pancamahavratadharinyas cirapravra2itaya +pi 2yestho bhavaty adh'na pravra2itah p'man. ity esa saptamah sthitikalpah p'r'sa2yesthatvam. p'r'satvam namopakaram raksam ca kart'm samarthah. p'r'sapranitas ca dharma iti tasya 2yesthata. tatah sarvabhih samyatabhih vinayah kartavyo viratasya. yena ca striyo la!hvyah, paraprarthaniyah, pararakso>a?peksinyah, na tatha p'mamsa iti ca p'r'sa2yesthatvam. >9* man %ho reno'nces the ho'sehold life only today is senior to a n'n %ho keeps the five mahavratas and has reno'nced the ho'sehold life a lon! time a!o. . .. 6anhood means the ability to protect. 6oreover the dharma is ta'!ht by a man 3i.e., the -irthankaras are men only4 and th's his s'periority. -herefore it is the d'ty of all n'ns to respect a monk. Comen are inferior beca'se they are ob2ects of men+s l'st and re5'ire protection from others, b't not so a man0 this is the reason for his s'periority90 Bhagavati-aradhana , p. E1B.? )t %ill be noticed that the reasons provided are primarily of a social nat're and reflect the social attit'des prevalent in )ndia in ancient times. *para2ita makes no reference to the physiolo!ical disabilities stressed by the Hi!ambara @'ndak'nda in his Sutraprabhrta . =or this reson the Fapaniya >and the Svetambara? Jaina r'le abo't !reetin!s of monks by the n'ns bears comparison %ith the r'les laid do%n by the B'ddha for the initiation of %omen into his comm'nity of n'ns >bhiks'ni(san!ha?, for %hich see the )ntrod'ction >JB1(B7, n. ""?. BE. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 7D, n. D? that a complete folio is missin! at this point and that he has reconstr'cted these t%o verses >7B and 7Dabc? from the Svopa%navrtti . BG. -his verse appears as no. "# of the Strinirvanapra"arana in 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i+s edition. See note 7$ above. ) have also reordered the se5'ence of the te.t by placin! this verse ahead of verse 7Dd to maintain the contin'ity of ar!'ment pertainin! to the r'les of !reetin!. B$. -his 5'otation also appears in the ,yaya"umuda'andra 0 see Chapter ))) >JGE?. B9. Baladeva >or balabhadra ?, narayana >or vasudeva ?, and pratinarayana >or prativasudeva ? are three Jaina literary types to!ether %ith cakravartins >'niversal monarchs? and -irthankaras and are

called the !reat ill'strio's bein!s > sala"apurusas ?. * baladeva is the elder brother and companion of a narayana. -he narayana is a hero, the chief destroyer of the villain called pratinarayana. -he Jaina P'ranas narrate the e.ploits of these !reat Jaina laymen %ho periodically appear %hen a cakravartin is not r'lin! the earth. -hese three cate!ories are modeled on the Brahmanical epic and P'ranic heroes, namely, :ama >of the !amayana ? and Balarama >of the ahabharata-.arivamsaparva ?, Iaksmana, the brother of :ama, and @rsna, the brother of Balarama, and :avana and Jarasandha, the chief villains of the t%o epics, respectively. =or details on these ill'strio's Jaina heroes, see ;elen Johnson+s translation >19E7? of the $risastisala"apurusa'aritra of ;emacandra. D#. -he Jaina P'ranas have maintained that @rsna and Iaksmana as %ell as :avana and Jarasandha %ere reborn, as a res'lt of the violence they perpetrated, in the fo'rth hell. -hey are all destined to be reborn as h'man bein!s in their ne.t life and, havin! reno'nced the %orld in the manner of the Jaina monks, %ill attain moksa in that very life. See $risastisala"apurusa'aritra , vol. v. D1. *ll Jainas believe that of the t%enty(fo'r Jinas of o'r time, the first >:sabha?, the t%elfth >Aas'p'2ya?, the t%enty(second >Kemi?, and the t%enty(fo'rth >6ahavira? attained nirvana respectively at 6o'nt @ailasa, Campa >in Bihar?, U22ayanta >also called <iranar in <'2arat?, and Pava >in Bihar?. -he remainin! t%enty attained the nirvana from the holy 6o'nt Sammeta >called Parasnath ;ills? near the city of Patna in Bihar. :a2a!rha %as the ancient capital of 6a!adha %here 6ahavira preached his first sermon after becomin! the Jina. =or details on these pil!rima!e sites sacred to both the Hi!ambaras and the Svetambaras, see the &ividhatirtha"alpa by the fo'rteenth(cent'ry Jinaprabhas'ri and also Jain >19GB?. D7. -he identity of :amaka>'P?lya is not kno%n. Probably the a'thor has in mind some holy sprin!s, called Sitak'nda, or :amak'nda, %hich are located at vario's ;ind' pil!rima!e spots. D". Si. confi!'rations >samsthanas? refer to the physical conditions or str'ct'res of the h'man body: >1? perfectly symmetrical body > sama'aturasra-samsthana ?, meanin! symmetry of both the 'pper and lo%er parts of the body0 >7? 'pper body symmetry > nyagrodhaparimandala-samsthana ?0 >"? lo%er body symmetry > svatisamsthana ?0 >B? h'nchback > "ub%a ?0 >D? d%arf > vamana ?0 >E? deformed > hunda ?. -he heavenly bein!s have only the first and the hell bein!s only the last samsthana, %hereas h'mans and animals can have any of the si.. See also Chapter A) >J$D and n. B$?. DB. Brahmi and S'ndari %ere t%o da'!hters of the first -irthankara :sabha, %ho became n'ns %itho't enterin! the ho'sehold life. :a2imati %as the fiancWe of the t%enty(second -irthankara, Kemi0 on the eve of their %eddin!, her fiancW reno'nced the %orld, and :a2imati follo%ed him into mendicancy. Candana %as the head of an order of thirty(si. tho'sand n'ns in the mendicant order of 6ahavira >see 6ehta, 19G#(19G7, ), p. 7BE?. )t is to be noted that the Fapaniyas, %hile mentionin! the names of several %omen appearin! in the P'ranic literat're, have omitted the name of -irthankara 6alli, considered the only female Jina by the Svetambaras. ;er story appears in the Svetambara canonical te.t ,ayadhamma"ahao , %hich is re2ected by the Hi!ambaras, %ho declare 6alli to be a male Jina >see )ntrod'ction, J7B?. -he omission here co'ld si!nify that her story in the e.tant Svetambara canon %as not accepted as a'thentic in the Fapaniya tradition. See also Chapters )A >J1"? and A) >JGG, n. "$?. DD. Unlike her 'ltimate s'icide in the !amayana >of Aalmiki?, in the Jaina version of the epic, Sita, the %ife of the :ama, event'ally becomes a Jaina n'n. See $risastisala"apurusa'aritra , iv, 1#. DE. Satyabhama, the %ife of @rsna, also became a Jaina n'n accordin! to the Jaina .arivamsa-purana : :'kmini Satyabhamadya mahadevyo +sta sasn'sah, labdhan'2na ;areh stribhih sapatnibhih pravavra2'h >chap. E1, verse B#?. DG. Both traditions a!ree that a person %ho is in possession of samya!darsana >the ri!ht vie%? %ill not

be reborn into a female body, %hether in the h'man or the deva realms. Chile it is admitted that s'ch rebirth mi!ht be possible for the upasama-samyagdrsti , %hose %ron! vie% >mithyadarsana? is only temporarily s'ppressed, it is declared absol'tely impossible for the "sayi"a-samyagdrsti , %hose %ron! vie% has been permanently obliterated. )n either case, ho%ever, if a person dies %hile still endo%ed %ith samya!darsana, he or she %ill not be reborn as a female. *ccordin! to this r'le, therefore, at the time of their birth, all %omen %o'ld have to be considered as havin! %ron! vie%s, altho'!h this %o'ld not precl'de them from developin! the samya!darsana d'rin! their lifetimes. -he tradition is 'nanimo's in declarin! that the s'rest %ay to avoid rebirth as a female is to be in possession of samya!darsana at the time of death. By this same r'le, even %omen %ho are destined to become the mothers of the -irthankaras %o'ld have to be considered mithyadrstis at the time of their conception as a female embryo. D$. -he debate here foc'ses on the 5'estion of %hether a person on the second !'nasthana, the sasvada( samya!drsti1%ho has left behind the fo'rth sta!e of samya!drsti and is h'rtlin! ine.orably to%ard the lo%er sta!e, the mithyadrsti1or the person on the third sta!e, the samya!mithyadrsti1%ho has left the mithyadrsti sta!e and is on the transition sta!e to samya!drsti1%o'ld be reborn as a %oman. -he disc'ssant declares that the second !'nasthana is, in fact, a state of %ron! vie%, and a person on that level sho'ld be treated identically to the one on the first !'nasthana, the mithyadrsti. -he third !'nasthana is, ho%ever, a state %here the ri!ht vie% is not yet firm0 even so s'ch a person can be re!arded as if he %ere a samya!drsti. ;ence, a person on the second !'nasthana %o'ld be reborn as a female, %hile a person on the third %o'ld not. D9. -his compares %ell %ith the follo%in! Hi!ambara te.t: samya!darsanas'ddha narakatiryannap'msakastritvani, d'sk'lavikrtaipay'rdaridratam. ca vra2anti napy avratikah. >9-hose %ho are p're on acco'nt of the ri!ht vie%, even if they are %itho't the vo%s of a layman, %ill not be reborn in the hells, in animal e.istences, or as hermaphrodites, or as females0 nor %ill they be born %ith deformed bodies, nor in families that are poor or lo%90 !atna"arandasrava"a'ara , verse "#.? E#. =or these Jaina desi!nations for vario's 'nits of time, see JS( ), p. 71G. E1. -his verse is also 5'oted in the ,yaya"umuda'andra 0 see Chapter ))) >J7G?. E7. -his is one more occasion %here one do'bts that the opponent here is a Hi!ambara. *s %ill be seen belo%, the Hi!ambara a'thor Prabhacandra re2ects this evidence as 'na'thentic. See Chapter ))) >J$1?. E". Both Jaina sects a!ree that there is no necessary correlation bet%een the biolo!ical !ender >called linga or dravyaveda ? of a person and that person+s se.'al desires, or libido >called bhavaveda or only veda ?. -he Jainas have classified se.'al desire into three types, %hich are not physical b't mental states: >1? striveda , the desire of a female to mate %ith a male0 >7? pumveda , the desire of a male to mate %ith a female0 and >"? napumsa"aveda , the desire of a hermaphrodite to mate %ith another hermaphrodite. *t one e.treme, accordin! to the Jaina doctrine of karma, the heavenly bein!s, %ho are distin!'ished only as male or female, have only the libido appropriate to their !ender. *t the other e.treme, all deni,ens of hell are only hermaphrodites and may have the hermaphroditic libido only. ;'mans and animals, ho%ever, can be born %ith any one of the three biolo!ical !enders, %hich they %ill retain for the d'ration of their lifetime, b't their libidos are not fi.ed. -hey may e.perience, at different times, any of the three libidos, irrespective of their physical !ender. Beca'se of this doctrine, the opponent claims that the %ord 9stri9 >%oman? in this passa!e refers to a man >p'r'sa? at the moment of his e.periencin! the female libido >striveda?, %ho can therefore be called, psycholo!ically, a 9%oman9 altho'!h biolo!ically he is a man. *s %ill be seen belo%, the Fapaniya, or at least Sakatayana, the a'thor of this te.t, seems to hold a vie% that is not shared by the mainstream Jaina

tradition1that one+s libido cannot be contrary to one+s biolo!ical !ender. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this problem, see Chapter A) >J7(G?. EB. #itta-vi"ara: 'itta is a synonym for manas >mind?. -he physical basis of manas consists of s'btle atoms of matter and is therefore called dravya-manas . -he nonphysical basis of manas, ho%ever, thro'!h %hich the so'l e.periences happiness or 'nhappiness, is a fac'lty of the so'l itself and is called the internal mind > bhava-manas ?. -he citta(vikara in this passa!e %o'ld therefore indicate the modification of the so'l that ind'ces se.'al desire. ED. )alya : *ccordin! to the Jaina doctrine of karma, a %oman can contin'e to be reborn as a female for from three to nine h'ndred palyas1an immense len!th of time stretchin! into millions of years. -he Hi!ambara is attemptin! to sho% here that beca'se no physical body can possibly last this lon!, the %ord 9female9 in this passa!e cannot refer to a %oman+s body b't to the internal se.'al feelin!. EE. *ltho'!h Siddhahood is a state achieved after the final death of an *rhat, the %ord here refers to the thirteenth !'nasthana, %here that *rhat is still alive. EG. -he ninth !'nasthana can be characteri,ed by either s'ppression >'pasama? or destr'ction >ksaya?. -he destr'ction of all three types of se.'al desire1namely, striveda, p'mveda, and nap'msakaveda1 alon! %ith the other s'btle passions takes place only %hen the aspirant enters the path leadin! to destr'ction. ;ence, attainment of this path, %here !ross passions are destroyed, en!enders a state of nonretro!ression. E$. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. "E, n. B? that an entire folio is missin! at this point and that he has reconstr'cted the portion %hich appears here in an!le brackets >i.e., verses B7 and B"?. E9. 6ar!ana refers to a Jaina method of e.amination of the states of the so'l by foc'sin! on the follo%in! fo'rteen aspects d'rin! its state of embodiment: destiny, that is, birth > gati ?, senses > indriya ?, body > "aya ?, activity >yo!a?, se.'al desire >veda?, passions >kasaya?, co!nition > %nana ?, restraint > samyama ?, perception > darsana ?, mental colorin!s > lesya ?, the capacity to attain moksa > bhavyatva ?, ri!ht vie% > samya"tva ?, mental fac'lties > sam%na ?, and intake of food > ahara ?. )n e.aminin! these aspects, the te.ts ask s'ch 5'estions as, %hich !'nasthanas are possible for a bein! in a partic'lar birthP -he ans%er here, for e.ample, is that the bein!s born in hell and heaven can have only the first fo'r !'nasthanas, as they are 'nable to ass'me any of the restraints. )n the animal births, it is possible to attain even the fifth !'nasthana. *ll fo'rteen !'nasthanas are possible, ho%ever, for h'man bein!s. -his same analytical method is employed in e.aminin! the remainin! thirteen mar!anas. G#. -his refers to the %nanavaraniya >the kno%led!e(obsc'rin!? and the darsanavaraniya >the perception(obsc'rin!? karmas. See J)) , p. 11D. G1. -hese te.ts can be compared %ith the follo%in! s'tras of the Hi!ambara Sat"handagama : man'ssa coddass' !'natthanes' atti micchaitthi . . . a2o!ikevalitti >i, 1, s'tra 7G?0 man'sinis' micchaitthi( sasanasammaitthitthane siya pa22attiyao siya apa22attiyao >s'tra 97?0 sammamicchaitthi( asam2adasammaitthisam2a(dasam2adatthane niyama pa22attiyao >s'tra 9"?0 5'oted in JS( ))), p. 7$D.

Cha1ter III The N'a'a.-m-da,andra o& the *i$ambara A,ar'a Prabha,andra 2,. #86/"6:53
1. Prabhacandra commences the topic of strimoksa at the end of his ref'tation of kevali(kavalahara >see Chapter )), n. "? on the !ro'nd that it is inconsistent %ith the *rhat+s possession of the =o'r Perfections 1namely, infinite kno%led!e > ananta-%nana ?, infinite perception > ananta-darsana ?, infinite bliss > ananta-su"ha ?, and infinite ener!y > ananta-virya ?. ;e no% makes the f'rther claim that the state of

moksa, characteri,ed by these fo'r infinite 5'alities, is possible only to men and not to %omen. -echnically speakin!, moksa is achieved only at the end of the *rhat+s life at the time of attainin! Siddhahood0 b't the term can be applied to the earlier sta!e of the @evalin also %hen these fo'r 5'alities are perfected. See also Chapters ) >n. 7? and )) >n. 19?. 7. Prabhacandra does not mention the Fapaniya by name, b't as %as seen above >section iii? he certainly dra%s very heavily 'pon the Strinirvanapra"arana and its Svopa%navrtti in %ritin! this section of the ,yaya"umuda'andra . -he %ord 9Sitambara9 does appear once in the te.t >see J"9?, b't Prabhacandra probably 'ses that desi!nation as a !enetic term that %o'ld incl'de the Fapaniya also, the chief proponent of strinirvana. ;ence it is possible to identify the opponent in this section as the Fapaniya. ". See Chapter )) >J7?. B. &n the -hree Je%els, see Chapter )) >n. B?. D. See Chapter )) >JG?. E. See Chapter )) >JD(E?. G. See Chapter )) >J1#?. $. See Chapter )) >J11?. 9. See Chapter )) >J17?. 1#. See Chapter )) >J19?. 11. See Chapter )) >J1D?. 17. See Chapter )) >J1$?. 1". See Chapter )) >J7#?. 1B. See Chapter )) >J7#?. 1D. See Chapter )) >J71?. 1E. See Chapter )) >J7E?. )t sho'ld be noted that Prabhacandra here i!nores both the reference to the 2inakalpa mode of mendicancy, %hich came to an end after the time of Jamb' >Chapter )), J7"?, and the ,isitha-bhasya script're >Chapter )), J7E?, %hich lists t%enty cases 'nfit for mendicancy incl'din! 9a pre!nant %oman9 and 9a %oman %ith a yo'n! child.9 1G. See Chapter )) >J7G?. 1$. See Chapter )) >J7$?. &n the Hi!ambara r'le allo%in! n'dity for a n'n on her deathbed, see Chaper )) >n. 7D?. 19. See Chapter )) >J79?. -he r'le 5'oted here is from a Svetambara script're, yet Prabhacandra allo%s it to be placed in the mo'th of the Hi!ambara, s'!!estin! the possibility that this s'tra %as once common to both sects. )n the )rameya"amalamarttanda , ho%ever, he merely states that the naked mendicancy for %omen is neither en2oined in the script're nor %itnessed in the %orld >na hi strinam nirvastrah samyamo drstah pravacanapratipadito va?, p. "79. 7#. See Chapter )) >J"1?. 71. See Chapter )) >J"D and J"$?. 77. See Chapter )) >JB"?. 7". See Chapter )) >JBB?. Prabhacandra i!nores here the Fapaniya ar!'ment that a n'n+s case is similar

to that of the monk %ho is allo%ed clothes beca'se he is s'b2ect to one of the three defects reco!ni,ed as valid !ro'nds for not !oin! naked >see Chapter )), JBD(BG?. ;e also passes in silence the entire ar!'ment >Chapter )), JD#(E#? that the 2inakalpa is not s'itable for all1for an ei!ht(year(old boy, for e.ample1and that the sthavirakalpa >i.e., mendicancy %ith clothes, as 'nderstood by the Svetambaras? is an e5'ally valid mode available to %omen. 7B. Compare Chapter )) >J"9?0 see the san!raha(arya 5'oted. 7D. See Chapter )) >JB#?. 7E. See Chapter )) >J"D?. 7G. See Chapter )) >JB1?. 7$. See Chapter )) >JB7?. 79. See Chapter )) >JEE?. "#. See Chapter )) >JG9?. "1. See Chapter )) >J$D?. "7. See Chapter )) >J9D?. "". See Chapter )) >J9E?. Prabhacandra i!nores the entire disc'ssion >Chapter )), J9G(11"? on the relationship bet%een %ord and meanin! in determinin! the tr'e meanin! of the %ord 9stri,9 as %ell as the Fapaniya doctrine that the se.'al desire >veda? m'st correspond to the biolo!ical !ender >lin!a?0 see Chapter )) >J1#$(11"?. "B. See Chapter )) >J11B?. "D. See Chapter )) >J11D?. "E. See Chapter )) >J11G?. "G. See Chapter )) >J11$?. "$. See Chapter )) >J119(17E?. "9. Prabhacandra appears to be the first to present the ar!'ment of the invariable relationship derived from the !amya(!amaka relationship in the conte.t of strimoksa0 it is not fo'nd in the %orks of Sakatayana. B#. -his e.amination of the B'ddhist theory on concomitance is fo'nd on pp. BBE(BB$ of the ,yaya"umuda'andra . B1. See Chapter )) >J1E?. B7. )n the Kaiyayika vie%, independent parts are related to a %hole by the separate element kno%n as inherence > samavaya ?. -he Jainas re2ect samavaya as bein! a separate entity, for in their vie% there is merely a 95'alified identity9 bet%een the part and the %hole. B". -he %ord 9Sitambara9 is not fo'nd in the earlier %ork, the )rameya"amalamarttanda , and this is the only time it is mentioned in the ,yaya"umuda'andra . ) have been 'nable to identify the partic'lar Svetambara %riter %ho mi!ht have raised this so(called Kaiyayika ar!'ment. 6ost probably Prabhacandra himself anticipates s'ch an ob2ection and p'ts it in the mo'th of the opponent. BB. Bharata, the eldest son of :sabha, the first -irthankara, is the first of the t%elve cakravartins %ho r'led the earth d'rin! the c'rrent half of the time cycle accordin! to the Jaina cosmolo!y. See Chapter

A >n. 1$?. Bharata is said to have attained moksa in that very life. =or the le!end of Bharata, see J)) , p. 7#B. BD. -he %ord 9s'bha9 >a'spicio's? m'st be 'nderstood here as suddha >p're?. Both sects have maintained that a'spicio's >i.e., meritorio's? deeds take one to heaven b't do not lead to moksa. Spirit'al liberation is possible only thro'!h p're actions1that is, actions %hich do not !enerate ne% karmas. )n the pop'lar literat're the %ord 9s'bha9 has often been 'sed to represent both the s'bha and the s'ddha cate!ories of action. =or a disc'ssion on these t%o cate!ories, see Jaini >19$D?. BE. See Chapter )) >J7#?. BG. * passa!e in the te.t >JBD, lines "($? that correlates in detail %hich bein!s are reborn in %hich hellish or heavenly abodes is omitted in the translation. B$. See Chapter )) >J1"?. B9. See Chapter )) >J71(77?. D#. See Chapter )) >J71?. D1. * Jaina monk may e.ercise s'ch s'pernat'ral po%ers in order to protect other Jaina mendicants from calamities %ro'!ht by cr'el kin!s or demi!ods. See, for e.ample, the story of the Hi!ambara monk Aisn'k'mara in the Brhat"atha"osa >no. 11?. D7. -his is pres'med to be the res'lt of s'ch !ood deeds as !ivin! alms to monks %ho have performed !reat a'sterities. )t is said that s'ch a person+s alms vessel %ill never r'n o't of food, even if a cakravartin+s army %ere to feed from it for an entire day. =or details on this and other yo!ic po%ers attained by Jaina monks, see JS( ), pp. BGD(B$G. D". See Chapter )) >J71?. DB. -he Jainas believe that animals possessed of reasonin! po%er and the five senses >sam2ni? are capable of reali,in! the ri!ht vie% >samya!darsana? as %ell as ass'min! specific types of minor restraints >an'vrata?, s'ch as refrainin! from killin!. *nimals are th's considered to be able to attain the fifth !'nasthana, a stat's identical to that of the Jaina laity. See Chapter )) >n. 1"?. DD. See Chapter )) >J"1?. DE. See Chapter )) >J""?. DG. See Chapter )) >J"", last line?. D$. See Chapter )) >J"D?. D9. 6ost )ndian reli!io's schools a!ree that the acts of charity only lead to rebirth in a'spicio's e.istences. 6eritorio's actions themselves are never the direct ca'se of moksa0 c'm'latively, ho%ever, they may enhance one+s opport'nities to ass'me the mendicant restraints, th's indirectly helpin! the achievement of moksa. E#. See Chapter )) >J"D("E?. E1. -he Hi!ambara tradition maintains that the %hisk broom is !iven 'p by @evalins, as %ell as by monks in meditation. -here %as also a >heretic? Hi!ambara sect based in the city of 6ath'ra >6ath'rasan!ha? called nispi''hi"a >see Chapter A, ii? that !ave 'p the 'se of the %hisk broom in the belief that it %as not essential for leadin! the life of a mendicant. See JS( ), p. "BE. E7. -his ar!'ment of a Hi!ambara monk not liftin! the fallen piece of cloth >thro%n over him? is ne%.

Compare in this connection the Svetambara story of 6ahavira that after his ren'nciation he had carried a sin!le piece of cloth on his sho'lders for a year b't did not care to pick it 'p %hen it fell on thorns and th's he happened to become a naked >acelaka? monk. See J)) , p. 1". E". See Chapter )) >JD7?. EB. See Chapter )) >J"B?. ED. See Chapter )) >J"B, last line?. EE. See Chapter )) >JBB?. EG. See Chapter )) >JB1?. E$. -he fo'r types of idle talk incl'de conversation abo't family and so forth. -he fo'r passions are an!er, pride, deceitf'lness, and coveto'sness. See Gommatasara-Jiva"anda , verse "B. E9. See Chapter )) >J"B?. )n the Strinirvanapra"arana , it is the Hi!ambara and not the Fapaniya %ho ar!'es that %omen are re5'ired to %ear clothes in order to dispel shame and hence the Jina is not to be fa'lted for forbiddin! n'dity to them. G#. )n the correspondin! section of the )rameya"amalamarttanda >pp. ""1(""7? Prabhacandra 5'otes ei!ht verses that ridic'le the claim of the clothed monks that they are free from desire > vira"ta ? despite the %earin! of clothes. -he ei!hth verse s'ms 'p the Hi!ambara position: only those %ho are broken by the afflictions arisin! from %omen and those %ho are bo'nd by attachment to the body accept clothes. )t is proved thereby that they are not free from either the internal or e.ternal bonds. >striparisahabha!nais ca baddhara!ais ca vi!rahe, vastram adiyate yasmat siddham !ranthadvayam tatah.? G1. -he Hi!ambaras maintain that shame >la22a? is a virt'e for lay people >bein!, in their case, the basis for appropriate modesty? b't a hindrance for those follo%in! the hi!her path of mendicancy. -hey do not consider nakedness to be invariably associated %ith freedom from desire, b't assert only that the %earin! of clothes al%ays indicates the presence of desire. -hose made 'ncomfortable by p'blic n'dity mi!ht ar!'e, therefore, that the mendicant sho'ld retain his clothes 'ntil he is free from all desire >i.e., 'ntil he act'ally becomes vitara!a at the t%elfth !'nasthana?, since the e.ternal act of !oin! naked does not itself make one free from internal desire. -he Hi!ambaras %o'ld ans%er that %hile discardin! one+s clothes is not e5'ivalent to abandonin! one+s shame >the latter involves eradication of the libido itself?, takin! the vo% of n'dity at the initial sta!es of mendicancy is nevertheless important as it amo'nts to a total ren'nciation of the ho'sehold life and its %orldly possessions. G7. See Chapter )) >JB$?. G". See Chapter )) >JEB(EE?. GB. See Chapter )) >JG"?. GD. See Chapter )) >JE9?. GE. *ll Jainas have traditionally believed that only a man can become a -irthankara. *n e.ception to this r'le is to be fo'nd in the Svetambara belief that the nineteenth -irthankara, 6alli, %as a female. See Chapter )) >n. DB?. GG. See Chapter )) >JG1?. )t sho'ld be noted that Prabhacandra is 'sin! this Svetambara te.t >5'oted also by the Fapaniya a'thor? to make the point that n'ns are e5'al to monks. G$. See Chapter )) >J$G?. G9. See Chapter )) >J$9?. Both sects believe that the process of the destr'ction of karmas be!ins at the

ei!hth !'nasthana, %hich is not accessible to anyone b't a mendicant. >=or e.ceptions to this r'le in the Svetambara tradition, see Chapter A), n. 1".? =rom this doctrine flo%s the Hi!ambara claim that a %oman %ho is barred from takin! the mendicant vo%s1that is, from reachin! the si.th !'nasthana1 cannot rise to the ei!hth !'nasthana. -h's in their vie% a %oman+s anatomy itself is obstr'ctive in initiatin! the process of the destr'ction of karmas. $#. Compare the verse 5'oted in Chapter )) >J$9?. $1. See J7G and Chapter )) >J9D?. $7. -he reason for re2ectin! the a'thenticity of this verse is evidently the %ord 9lin!a,9 %hich can only mean the physical si!n of !ender >as opposed to the %ord 9veda9 in J$7, %hich can mean both the !ender as %ell as the internal se.'al feelin!? and hence is not acceptable to the Hi!ambaras. =or an alternative te.t, see Chapter A) >J$ and n. $?. $". -he Prakrit Siddhabha"ti is attrib'ted to @'ndak'nda >see )rava'anasara , intro., p. 7D? and is daily recited by the Hi!ambara monks. )t sho'ld be noted that this verse %as not 5'oted by Sakatayana, b't Prabhacandra offers it as an alternative te.t to s'pport the Hi!ambara theory that only men can attain moksa. $B. See Chapter )) >J11D?. =or an additional ar!'ment that %omen do not have the necessary samhanana >2oints of the bones? to achieve the hi!her states of meditation, see Chapter )A >J1#?. $D. Both sides a!ree that animals1%ho can also e.perience any of the three kinds of se.'ality re!ardless of their biolo!ical !ender1are incapable of attainin! moksa, since they do not possess the necessary h'man body. $E. *ccordin! to the Hi!ambaras, one cannot attain s'kladhyana, a necessary antecedent to moksa, in a female body. =or additional 5'alifications, see Chapter A) >JG9 and n. 71?. =or details on the s'kladhyana, see J)) , pp. 7DD(7D9. $G. See Chapter )) >J11G?. $$. -he former and the latter moksas refer to the attainment of *rhatship and Siddhahood, respectively. See note 1.

Cha1ter IV The Tat1ar'avrtti o& the *i$ambara A,ar'a Ja'a%ena 2,. ""863 A Commentar' on the Prava,ana%ara o& 4-nda.-nda
1. -he editor of the )rava'anasara 'ses an asterisk to indicate that these verses are later accretions > pra"sipta ? to the ori!inal te.t. See section >i?. 7. Aerses 11, 17, and 1" are probably taken from the Sutraprabhrta of @'ndak'nda. See Chapter ) >JE( $?. ". -he Jaina karma te.ts speak of si. types of bone 2oints >samhanana?. -he first is the perfect 2oint >called va2ra(vrsabha(naraca(samhanana?, noted for its adamantine 5'ality of !reat st'rdiness and stren!th. -he remainin! five are pro!ressively %eaker. 8ach h'man bein! is born %ith one of these si. samhananas, %hich remain the same for the d'ration of one+s life. ;'man bein!s born %ith one of the first three samhananas are said to be capable of 2oinin! the mendicant order. B't moksa is possible only for those %ho are born %ith the first samhanana. -his is beca'se only persons endo%ed %ith s'ch adamantine 2oints are said to be capable of %ithstandin! the ri!ors of a'sterities that lead to the hi!hest form of meditation called the s'kladhyana >see Chapter )ll, n. $E? %itho't %hich moksa cannot be achieved. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that birth in the seventh hell is also possible only to those bein!s >namely, men and fish0 see Chapter )) n. 1$? %ho are endo%ed %ith the first samhanana. =or details see

JS( )), p. "71, and -atia and @'mar >19$1, p. $"?. B. -he 5'estion of the opponent here is that if %omen too can have the first three samhananas, then the Hi!ambara prohibition a!ainst their ass'min! the mendicant vo%s or even attainin! moksa is not s'pported by their o%n script're. Jayasena therefore cites this verse as the a'thority in s'pport of the Hi!ambara vie%. -he verse declares that the first three samhananas are available only to the %omen born in the bho!abh'mi >see Chapter )), n. G? and not to those %ho are born in the karmabh'mi. Both sects have believed that bein!s born in the bho!abh'mi cannot be reborn in hells or practice mendicancy or attain moksa0 these are possible only from a birth in the karmabh'mi. -h's accordin! to this verse %omen are barred from enterin! mendicancy and from attainin! moksa, and hence it serves as script'ral evidence for the Hi!ambara vie%. Jayasena is here 5'otin! from the eleventh(cent'ry Kemicandra+s Gommatasara-(arma"anda >verse "7?. *s %ill be seen, the Svetambara %riter 6e!havi2aya >see Chapter A), J$D? re2ects this 5'otation as 'na'thentic and hence 'nacceptable to his sect. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this passa!e see Aakil >19ED?, %ho has ar!'ed that this verse co'ld be an interpolation to 2'stify the Hi!ambara position on strimoksa. D. See Chapter ) >nn. 9 and 1B?. E. See Chapter )) >JEB?. G. =or the le!end of 6alli, see the )ntrod'ction >J7B?. $. =or a list of the si.teen observances leadin! to rebirth as a -irthankara, see $attvarthasutra , vi, 7B. =or a comparison %ith the B'ddhist doctrine of the practice of paramitas >perfections?, see Jaini >19$1?. 9. See Chapter )) >n. DG?. 1#. =or a disc'ssion on the icono!raphy of 6alli, see Chapter A) >JGG?. 11. Since the possibility of a %oman+s !oin! to heaven is not disp'ted, this ob2ection is probably sp'rio's. 17. Aerse 3X1D4 deals %ith ordination of men and hence is omitted here. 1". -his is @'ndak'nda+s ori!inal verse and serves as the script'ral a'thority for the Hi!ambara claim that n'dity is a prere5'isite for a tr'e member of the Jaina mendicant order. )t may be noted that @'ndak'nda does not even mention the %hisk broom >pinchi? or the %ater !o'rd >kamandal'? as the re5'isites, altho'!h in practice these serve to identify a Hi!ambara monk and distin!'ish him from the Svetambara mendicants %ho in addition %ear clothes and keep bo%ls for collectin! food as %ell as carry a %ooden staff.

Cha1ter V The Tar.araha%'adi1i.avrtti o& the Svetambara A,ar'a G-naratna 2,. "B9B/"9"83 A Commentar' on the Saddar%ana%am-,,a'a o& <aribhadra
1. -his syllo!istic ar!'ment, as %ell as the co'nterar!'ment that appears at the end >JBB?, can be traced to the ,yaya"umuda'andra >Chapter ))), J7 and JGD? and hence it is conceivable that <'naratna had access to Prabhacandra+s %ork. 7. -he Fapaniya is no lon!er the defender of strimoksa as he %as in Chapter )). By the time of <'naratna the Svetambaras have become the champions of this doctrine and are 'sin! the Fapaniya ar!'ments almost verbatim as they %ere presented by Sakatayana in the Strinirvanapra"arana and the Svopa%navrtti . Compare the items listed here %ith Chapter )) >J17?.

". Compare Chapter )) >J7$?. B. -his seems to be a Svetambara attempt to claim that there is no basic difference bet%een men and %omen in their reason for %earin! clothes. Sakatayana, ho%ever, restricts clothes only to those men %ho are s'b2ect to the three defects elaborated in Chapter )) >J1D?. D. See Chapter 11 >J""?. E. See Chapter )) >J"D?. &nce a!ain <'naratna i!nores the Fapaniya restrictions that applied to the 'se of clothes by men. G. See Chapter )) >J"9?. $. -he only method of vol'ntary death approved by the Jaina script'res is by fastin! called sallekhana >see Chapter )), JDD?. -he Jainas have condemned all other forms of death, incl'din! those practiced by Brahmanical yo!ins s'ch as enterin! fire, or dro%nin! in %ater, or 2'mpin! from a hill. See J)) , p. 1DB. 9. See Chapter )) >J"9?. <'naratna i!nores Prabhacandra+s response to this ar!'ment as in Chapter ))) >JD$?. 1#. See Chapter )) >JB1?. =or a co'nterar!'ment %ith the 'se of this metaphor, see Chapter A) >n. 1E?. 11. See Chapter )) >J$D($$?. 17. -he yatha"hyata-'aritra , the hi!hest form of mendicant cond'ct, is achieved only by those %ho have reached perfect p'rity %ith the destr'ction of all forms of mohaniya(karma. ;ence it is possible only for those bein!s %ho have attained the t%elfth and the thirteenth !'nasthanas. -he Sarvarthasiddhi >i., 1$? e.plains it as that cond'ct the description of %hich conforms to the tr'e nat're of the self >yathatmasvabhavo +vasthitas tathaivakhyatatvat?. 1". See Chapter )) >J17?. 1B. -his seems to be in response to Prabhacandra+s ar!'ment in Chapter ))) >J"B?. 1D. See Chapter )) >J1$?. <'naratna i!nores Prabhacandra+s response to this ar!'ment in Chapter ))) >JBB?. 1E. =or the story of the fish that %ent to the seventh hell, see Chapter )), n. 1G. 1G. Compare Chapter )) >J7#?. 1$. <'naratna is probably referrin! here to the story of a Hi!ambara monk named Sivabh'ti mentioned in @'ndak'nda+s Bhavaprabhrta : t'samasam !hosamto bhavavis'ddho mahan'bhavo ya, namena ya Sivabh'i kevalanani ph'dam 2ao 3D"4. Sr'tasa!ara, commentin! on this verse, narrates the follo%in! story. -here %as a certain monk called Sivabh'ti of p're heart. H'e to %eak memory he co'ld not remember the technical terms 'sed for so'l and body >namely, %iva and sarira ? that %ere necessary for distin!'ishin! them accordin! to the Jaina teachin!. &ne day he sa% a %oman %ashin! lentils and asked her %hat she %as doin!. ;er ans%er that she %as separatin! lentils > masa ? from the chaff > tusa ? made him repeat the form'la 9p'lses are separate from chaff,9 %hich led him to the reali,ation, even %itho't 'sin! the technical terms, of the separation of his so'l from the body and he instantly achieved kevala2nana0 Satprabhrtadisangrahah , p. 7#1. <'naratna is 'sin! this Hi!ambara story of the 96asat'sa9 monk to prove the point that the lack of formal learnin! of the sacred te.ts need not prevent %omen from attainin! moksa. =or a disc'ssion on the relevance of the st'dy of the )urva te.ts >forbidden to %omen? in attainin! moksa, see Chapter A) >n. B1?. 19. &f the t%elve cakravartins %ho r'led d'rin! the c'rrent half of the Jaina time cycle, ten attained moksa at their death %hile t%o >S'bha'ma, no. $, and Brahmadatta, no. 17? %ere reborn in the seventh

hell. See JS( )A, p. 17. 7#. -his is probably a reference to Karada >a contemporary of @rsna the 9narayana90 see Chaper )), n. B9? %ho is said to have attained moksa in the .arivamsapurana of the ei!hth(cent'ry Hi!ambara acarya P'nnata Jinasena: Karado +pi narasresthah pravara2ya tapaso balat, krtva bhavaksayam moksam aksayam sam'peyivan0 sar!a ED, verse 7B. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that the term 9 narada 9 appears in the Jaina P'ranas as a desi!nation of a literary type, an imitation of the Brahmanical sa!e Karada, %ho %ith his c'nnin! nat're brin!s abo't the conflict bet%een the narayana and the pratinarayana >see Chapter )), n. B9?. -he Hi!ambara tradition describes the naradas as contemporaries of the vas'devas, fond of 5'arrelin! b't also occasionally leadin! ri!hteo's lives0 they are %orthy of attainin! moksa, b't d'e to the defect of violence >%hich they help to perpetrate? they are reborn in hell: kalahappiya kadaim dhammaraha vas'devasamakala, bhavva niraya!adim te himsadosena !acchamti0 $rilo"asara , verse $"D, 5'oted in the .arivamsapurana , p. $##, n. 1. )n vie% of this te.t, Pandit Pannalal Jain, the editor of the .arivamsapurana , has 5'estioned the acc'racy of the statement that Karada attained moksa >ibid.?. =or vario's entries 'nder this name in the Svetambara canon, see 6ehta >19G#(19G7, 1, "71?. 19. &f the t%elve cakravartins %ho r'led d'rin! the c'rrent half of the Jaina time cycle, ten attained moksa at their death %hile t%o >S'bha'ma, no. $, and Brahmadatta, no. 17? %ere reborn in the seventh hell. See JS( )A, p. 17. 7#. -his is probably a reference to Karada >a contemporary of @rsna the 9narayana90 see Chaper )), n. B9? %ho is said to have attained moksa in the .arivamsapurana of the ei!hth(cent'ry Hi!ambara acarya P'nnata Jinasena: Karado +pi narasresthah pravara2ya tapaso balat, krtva bhavaksayam moksam aksayam sam'peyivan0 sar!a ED, verse 7B. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that the term 9 narada 9 appears in the Jaina P'ranas as a desi!nation of a literary type, an imitation of the Brahmanical sa!e Karada, %ho %ith his c'nnin! nat're brin!s abo't the conflict bet%een the narayana and the pratinarayana >see Chapter )), n. B9?. -he Hi!ambara tradition describes the naradas as contemporaries of the vas'devas, fond of 5'arrelin! b't also occasionally leadin! ri!hteo's lives0 they are %orthy of attainin! moksa, b't d'e to the defect of violence >%hich they help to perpetrate? they are reborn in hell: kalahappiya kadaim dhammaraha vas'devasamakala, bhavva niraya!adim te himsadosena !acchamti0 $rilo"asara , verse $"D, 5'oted in the .arivamsapurana , p. $##, n. 1. )n vie% of this te.t, Pandit Pannalal Jain, the editor of the .arivamsapurana , has 5'estioned the acc'racy of the statement that Karada attained moksa >ibid.?. =or vario's entries 'nder this name in the Svetambara canon, see 6ehta >19G#(19G7, 1, "71?. 71. ;emacandra in his *ogasastra-svopa%navrtti narrates at len!th the story of Hrdhapraharin >lit., &ne Cho ;its ;ard?. ;e %as a chieftain of the thieves and had killed a co%, a Brahman, and his pre!nant %ife and th's deserved to be reborn in the seventh hell. ;o%ever, he repented his evil deeds, became a Jaina monk, practiced severe penances, and attained moksa in that very life: brahma(stri(bhr'na(!o( !hata(patakan narakatitheh, Hrdhaprahariprabhrter yo!o hastavalambanam0 i, verse 17. =or other references, see 6ehta >19G#(19G7, ), p. "DD?. ;is story is not fo'nd in the e.tant Hi!ambara literat're.

Cha1ter VI The Y-.ti1rabodha (ith the Svo1aAnavrtti o& the Svetambara U1adh'a'a +e$haviAa'a 2,. ":5B/";693
1. *n asterisk follo%ed by the n'mber of the pa!es and lines indicates the portion omitted here from the ori!inal edition of the te.t of the *u"tiprabodha-Svopa%navrtti >197$?. 7. -he te.t at this sta!e >p. GE, line E, to p. G$, line D? cites verbatim a lon! passa!e from the Gommatasara-vrtti >verses E9B(G#1? dealin! %ith the !'nasthanas attained by a so'l in a !iven state of

e.istence. >See Chapter )), nn. 17 and 1", for a s'mmary.? ;'man bein!s born in the realm of action >karmabh'mi? alone may attain all fo'rteen !'nasthanas >i.e., may attain moksa in that very life?. -he a'thor here dra%s attention to the script're in %hich all h'man bein!s, and not only males, are said to be able to attain the fo'rteen !'nasthanas >an ar!'ment first p't forth by the Fapaniya a'thor Sakatayana in Chapter )), J1"G? and hence, even accordin! to the Hi!ambara script're >see Chapter )), n. G#?, %omen can attain moksa. ". 6e!havi2aya is consistent in referrin! to this te.t as Gomattasara instead of Gommatasara , its traditional title. -his error has been corrected thro'!ho't. B. =or this variety of the mohaniya(karma, see J)) , pp. 11G(171. D. &n the concepts of the realms of pleas're and action, see Chapter )) >n. G?. E. -he ladder of destr'ction of karmas >ksapaka(sreni, for %hich see Chapter )), J11$ and n. EG?, %hich can be commenced %ith any libido by an aspirant, be!ins at the ei!hth !'nasthana. )n the ninth sta!e all three libidos are totally destroyed. &nly a s'btle variety of the passion called lobha >desire for life? remains, %hich is also destroyed at the t%elfth !'nasthana. -his is an irreversible co'rse and the so'l m'st proceed immediately to the sta!e of *rhatship >the thirteenth !'nasthana? and m'st attain moksa at the end >fo'rteenth !'nasthana? of that life. =or details, see J)) , chap. $. G. anusyini is the Sanskriti,ed form of the Prakrit manusini employed in the oldest > C. *.H. 1D#? Hi!ambara te.t Sat"handagama >s'tras 97 and 9"? for a female >as opposed to Pkt. manussa , Skt. manusya , i.e., male?. )n describin! %hich h'man bein! may have %hich !'nasthanas, this te.t mentions both man'sya and man'syini separately and states that both can attain all fo'rteen !'nasthanas. >See the te.t 5'oted at Chapter )), n. G1.? Since the thirteenth and fo'rteenth !'nasthanas are attained only by a @evalin >%ho m'st attain moksa at the end of that life?, this Hi!ambara te.t allo%in! the attainment of these !'nasthanas by man'syini !oes a!ainst the professed Hi!ambara doctrine that %omen cannot attain moksa in that life. -he Hi!ambara commentators as seen above >Chapter ))), ii? have concl'ded that the term 9man'syini9 refers not to a biolo!ical female b't to a biolo!ical male %ho is psycholo!ically female. Prabhacandra, as %e sa% earlier, i!nores this %hole disc'ssion, b't 6e!havi2aya is persistent in his e.amination of the Hi!ambara interpretation of this term, %hich has evaded resol'tion even to this day. $. Both sects believe that at one instant > samaya ? a minim'm of one and a ma.im'm of one h'ndred and ei!ht so'ls attain moksa >samkhya(2a!hanyena ekasamaye ekah siddhyati, 'tkarsenastottarasatasamkhyah0 Sarvarthasiddhi , ., 90 see JS( )ll, p. ""9?. Since the Hi!ambaras do not believe in the moksa of anyone b't a male, the n'mber of one h'ndred and ei!ht is not f'rther divided to sho% the physical !ender as is clone in the verse 5'oted by 6e!havi2aya. -his verse is therefore not a'thoritative for the Hi!ambaras0 nor is the one 5'oted by the Fapaniya a'thor Sakatayana >at Chapter )), J9D?, %hich %as e.pressly re2ected by Prabhacandra >see Chapter ))), J$1 and n. $7?. 9. -hat %omen have e.cessive crookedness >maya or ka'tilya? is not necessarily an e.cl'sive Hi!ambara ar!'ment based on any si!nificant karma theory applyin! only to %omen0 rather, it reflects a !eneral attit'de of )ndian men shared by the Svetambaras and the Fapaniyas alike. 1#. -here is perhaps an all'sion here to the !reat poet @alidasa, %hose hero, the Faksa, makes a ha'ntin! reference to the %aghana of a beloved %oman in eghaduta , verse BD. 11. )t may be noted that in the Jaina order only monks can administer the mahavratas to a %oman, after %hich she is handed over to a n'n >%ho had sponsored her? for s'pervision. =or a detailed acco'nt of the initiation > di"sa ? of a n'n in the Svetambara sect, see Shanta >19$D, pp. "B"("EB?. )n B'ddhism

the B'ddha is said to have allo%ed the first n'n, 6ahapra2apati <a'tami, the privile!e of ordainin! a n'n, a c'stom that is said to prevent the monks of s'ch -heravada co'ntries as Sri Ianka, the Union of 6yanma, and -hailand from ordainin! %omen to revive the e.tinct order of n'ns in present times. Since %omen may not initiate themselves, they m'st apparently a%ait the arrival of the ne% B'ddha to reestablish the bhiks'ni(san!ha. See the )ntrod'ction >JBD?. 17. )t is 'niversally believed by the Jainas that, d'rin! those times %hen moksa is not possible >s'ch as the present a!e?, both monks and n'ns %ho keep their vo%s properly and attain peacef'l death thro'!h the holy practice of sallekhana >see Chapter )), JDD? are first born in heaven and then reborn as h'mans to res'me their holy career. *ltho'!h n'ns may th's be reborn in heavens, both sects believe that they may not be able to achieve the stat's of the kin! of !ods >)ndra or *hamindra?, a position reserved for monks only. 1". 6ar'devi %as the mother of the first -irthankara :sabha. -he Svetambaras believe that she attained kevala2nana and died immediately >i.e., achieved Siddhahood?, %hile still a lay%oman, at the si!ht of the omniscient !lory of her son. &f co'rse, the Hi!ambaras re2ect this belief since in their doctrine neither a %oman nor a ho'seholder can attain moksa. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this controversy, see J)) , p. 7#B. 1B. Hra'padi, the heroine of the ahabharata and %ife of the five Pandava brothers, also appears in the Jaina P'ranas >e.!., $risastisala"apurusa'aritra , A, p. 19$? as the %ife of the five Pandavas and becomes a Jaina n'n %hen her h'sbands are initiated as Jaina monks. -he Hi!ambaras re2ect the claim that Hra'padi >as %ell as 6ar'devi and other %omen? attained moksa, believin! that they %ere born in heaven and %ill event'ally attain moksa later in a f't're life %hen reborn as men. S'bhacandra >c. 1E##? in his )andavapurana >sar!a ..v? stresses this point in the follo%in! Hi!ambara acco'nt of Hra'padi and other n'ns: :a2imati tatha @'nti S'bhadra Hra'padi p'nah, samyaktvena samam vrttam vavrire ta vrsodyatah. 31B#4 svay'rante ca samnyasya svaradhanacat'stayam, m'ktasavah samaradhya 2a!m's tah sodasam divam. 31B"4 s'ratvasamsritah sarvah p'mvedodayabha2inah, samanikas'ra bh'tva tatratyam bh'n2ate s'kham. 31BB4 te nrloke nrtam etya tapas taptva s'd'staram, dhyanayo!ena setsyanti krtva karmaksayam narah. 31BG4 1D. =or the Svetambara story of 6alli, see the )ntrod'ction >J7B?, Jayasena+s ar!'ments >Chapter )A, J1B?, and 6e!havi2aya+s re2oinder at JGG and note "$ belo%. 1E. -he specific mention of the %hite(clad monks >svetavaso bhiks'nam, i.e., the Svetambaras? in this conte.t is si!nificant. -he opponents of the Hi!ambaras here are not the Fapaniya monks, %ho adhered to the r'les of n'dity b't so'!ht to make an e.ception of their n'ns so that they co'ld contin'e to %ear clothes b't still attain moksa in that very life0 as a r'le, ho%ever, they did not claim this concession for male mendicants >other than for those %ho %ere s'b2ect to three defects0 see Chapter )), JBD?. -he Svetambara monks did not observe the r'les re!ardin! n'dity, %hich %ere inc'mbent, accordin! to the Hi!ambaras, on all mendicants. )n the opinion of the Hi!ambaras, they %ere %orse than n'ns, beca'se %hile n'ns %ore clothin! in accordance %ith the r'les of the discipline, monks had no s'ch dispensation. ;ence the Hi!ambaras remind their Svetambara opponents here that by 'sin! this >false? ar!'ment to claim moksa for %omen despite the 'se of clothes, they r'n the risk of denyin! the tr'e stat's of their o%n monks and their mahavratas. =or the earlier 'se of this metaphor >a pop'lar one amon! the mercantile comm'nities to %hich the Jainas have traditionally belon!ed? of the loss of capital in search of profit, see Chapter A >J71?. 1G. Compare this Jaina r'le %ith the first of the ei!ht gurudharmas of the B'ddhist la% pertainin! to the n'ns: >a? vassasat'pasampannaya bhikkh'niya tadah+ 'pasampannassa bhikkh'no abhivadanam pacc'tthanam an2alikammam samicikammam katabbam. ayam pi dhammo sakkatva !ar'katva manetva p'2etva yava2ivam anatikkamaniyo. &inaya, #ullavagga , ., 7. >b? varsasatopasampannaye *nanda

bhiks'niye tadahopa 3sam4 pannassa bhiks'sya sirasa pada vanditavya. ayam *nanda bhiks'ninam prathamo !ar'dharmo yo bhiks'nihi yava22ivam satkartavyo yava anatikramaniyo vela(m(iva mahasam'drena. Bhi"suni-&inaya , p. 1G. 1$. =or this Svetambara tradition, see Hevendra > (alpasutra , app. ), nn. G(1#?, %ho 5'otes the follo%in! in s'pport of these beliefs: 9acelatvam sri *dinatha(6ahavira(sadh'nam manapramanasahitam 2irnaprayam dhavalam ca kalpate. sri *2itadivimsatitirthakarasadh'nam t' pancavarnam > (alpa-sutra"alpalata ?0 acel'kko dhammo p'rimassa ya pacchimassa ya 2inassa0 ma22hima!ana 2inanam hoi sacelo acelo ya > (alpasamarthana ?.9 19. =or a disc'ssion on the variation of the mendicant r'les 'nder different -irthankaras, see J)) , pp. 17(7#. 7#. =or the verse 9 a'ela""uddesiya 9 see Chapter )) >JBE?. 71. -his verse sho'ld be read %ith the verse DB$: 2ati vi ya Bhutavade savvassa vayo!atassa otaro, ni22'hana tadha vi h' d'mmedhe pappa itthi ya. 3DB$4 2ati !aha. yady api Drstivade samastavanmayavataras tathapi d'rmedhasam ayo!yanam strinam can'!rahartham anyasr'tavisesopadesah, sravakanam ca. &isesavasya"abhasya , verse DB$. )t sho'ld be noted in this connection that the first t%o s'kladhyanas, attained immediately prior to attainin! the kevala2nana, are possible only to those %ho kno% the )urvas >accordin! to the r'le: s'kle cadye p'rvavidah, $attvarthasutra , i., "9?. -he Svetambaras nevertheless claim that a n'n %ho is forbidden the st'dy of the )urvas may yet attain kevala2nana. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this problem, see JG9. 77. &n narayana and baladeva, see Chapter )) >n. B9?. 7". -he Jaina cosmolo!y locates the abode of the Siddhas at the s'mmit of the 'niverse, immediately above the Sarvarthasiddhi heaven. See Chapter )) >n. 1$? and J)) , p. 17G. 7B. See Chapter )) >n. D1?. 7D. -his syllo!ism %as first p't forth by Prabhacandra >Chapter ))), JDG? in response to the Fapaniya ar!'ment at Chapter )) >J"9?. 7E. -hese neo(Hi!ambaras are the follo%ers of Banarasidas mentioned in my introd'ction >i?. 7G. =or the concept of the space >pradesa? occ'pied by material atoms and immaterial s'bstances >incl'din! so'ls?, see J)) , pp. 9$(1##. 7$. )n the disc'ssion on the a'darika and the parama(a'darika(sarira >Chapter )), n. "? it %as seen that the Svetambaras, to!ether %ith the Fapaniyas, re2ect the Hi!ambara theory of the ordinary body t'rnin! into the parama(a'darika(sarira at the moment of attainin! *rhatship. -hey believe that the *rhat m'st contin'e to take food and %ater as before, s'b2ect to the same physical needs >s'ch as the necessity to eat and drink and respond to calls of nat're? as any other h'man bein!. *s for %omen, the Hi!ambaras do not admit that they may attain kevala2nana, and hence in their doctrine %omen are a'tomatically e.cl'ded from havin! a parama(a'darika body. Since the Svetambaras do admit that %omen may attain kevala2nana, they m'st acco'nt for the %ay in %hich female @evalins %o'ld cope %ith their menstr'al periods, %hich, in the absence of the theory of a parama(a'darika(sarira, m'st occ'r in all mat're females. =or the Svetambara reply to this 5'estion, see J$9 and note B9 belo%. 79. 6e!havi2aya is obvio'sly referrin! here to Prabhacandra >see J97?, the e.ponent of the Hi!ambara doctrine. -he last line, %hich says that Hhana >i.e., @'bera? %o'ld contin'e to look 'pon %omen %ith lovin! eyes, is a fi!'rative %ay of sayin! that a %oman m'st remain content %ith a rebirth in heaven rather than attainin! moksa in that very life. "#. -he te.t at this sta!e >from pp. $$, line 17, to p. 91 line 1"? cites lar!e passa!es from the

Gommatasara-vrtti and the )an'asangraha re!ardin! the vario's kinds of !'nasthanas attained by different so'ls thro'!h the process of !rad'ally eliminatin! vario's types of karmas. -his is an attempt to sho% that the Hi!ambaras are %ron! in takin! the %ord ++man'syini9 to mean a biolo!ical male %ho has temporarily become psycholo!ically female by e.periencin! the female libido. "1. Chether a %oman %ho desires a man is more or less perverted than a man %ho desires a man is a cr'cial 5'estion in this debate b't is never addressed by the Hi!ambaras. -he Svetambara line of 5'estionin! implies that they feel s'ch a man >i.e., a homose.'al? %o'ld be inferior to a %oman or, at very least, sho'ld not fare better than a %oman in follo%in! the spirit'al path. -he Hi!ambara ans%er %o'ld appear to be that the presence of female libido in a monk at the ei!hth !'nasthana is not of any si!nificance, since all three libidos m'st be destroyed at the ninth !'nasthana, before that monk+s pro!ress to%ard the state of a @evalin. See the verse from the )ra"rta-Siddhabha"ti 5'oted by the Hi!ambara in J$ above. "7. -he Hi!ambara applies the same method, namely the reco'rse to the past state >bh'tap'rvanyaya?, in describin! the t%elve kinds of Siddhas mentioned in the $attvarthasutra , ., 9. =or e.ample, a 5'estion is asked: Cith %hat !ender >lin!a? can a person attain SiddhahoodP *ns%er: Physically, only %ith male !ender. &r one can take the %ord 9lin!a9 in the s'tra to mean the mendicant emblem. &ne attains Siddhahood by the emblem of a nir!rantha. By the emblem of one %ith property >sa!rantha? also, if one %ere to ans%er by takin! into acco'nt only the past state of that person. >lin!ena kena siddhihP . . . dravyatah p'llin!enaiva. athava nir!rantha( lin!ena. sa!ranthalin!ena va siddhir bh'tap'rvanayapeksaya. Sarvarthasiddhi , ., 1#0 5'oted in JS( ))), p. ""$.? "". -his first !rade of the passions >kasaya? is called anantanubandhi , %hich is overcome %hen the fo'rth !'nasthana of the ri!ht vie% has been attained. -he second !rade is called apratya"hyanavarana >that %hich prevents the ass'mption of the vo%s of the laity?0 it is overcome in the fifth !'nasthana. -he third !rade is called pratya"hyanavarana >that %hich prevents the ass'mption of the vo%s of the mendicant?0 it is overcome on the si.th !'nasthana %hen the mendicant vo%s are accepted. -he final !rade, sam%valana , incl'des the three kinds of libido >p'mveda, striveda, and nap'msakaveda? as %ell as the most s'btle kind of attachment for life. -he libido is eliminated in the ninth sta!e, and the remainin! passion is totally overcome in the tenth thro'!h t%elfth !'nasthanas. -he Hi!ambaras claim that a %oman is incapable of ascendin! any farther than the fifth !'nasthana(that is, she is 'nable to ass'me the mendicant vo%s. )n technical terms, this %o'ld mean that a %oman is 'nable to overcome the third !rade of passions, a claim that is evident to the Hi!ambaras on acco'nt of her contin'ed bashf'lness and so forth. -he Svetambaras re2ect this claim. =or details see J)) , chap. B. "B. So'ls %ho lack all possibility of ever attainin! moksa and are th's destined forever to remain in samsara are called abhavya0 those %ho may attain receive the desi!nation of bhavya. =or a disc'ssion on this Jaina theory of 9predestination,9 see Jaini >19GG?. "D. (rtrima"liba >lit., one %ho has been rendered a hermaphrodite?. Since the %ord is employed in distinction to a con!enital hermaphrodite > %atinapumsa"a ?, it appears that the %ord is 'sed to refer to a person %ho is born male b't %as rendered a 9hermaphrodite9 by s'ch means as castration, as in the case of a e'n'ch. -he Svetambaras, as maintained by 6e!havi2aya, %ill have no diffic'lty in admittin! s'ch a person >essentially a male? to their mendicant ranks as he %ill be clothed accordin! to their r'les. *ltho'!h the Hi!ambara response to this Svetambara statement is not clearly set forth, it is %ell kno%n that a noncon!enital hermaphrodite, on acco'nt of his !enital deformity, %o'ld not be allo%ed to become a Hi!ambara monk, %ho m'st !o n'de. -his position clearly emphasi,es the aspect of biolo!ical !ender in the ass'mption of the mahavratas and the attainment of moksa, re!ardless of %hat libido mi!ht be entertained. )n this respect, the stat's of a noncon!enital hermaphrodite in the

Hi!ambara tradition %o'ld be similar to that of a %oman. =or a disc'ssion on the krtrimakliba in the B'ddhist te.ts, see M%illin! >19$9?. "E. *ccordin! to another passa!e it is not a bamboo t'be alone b't one filled %ith sesame seeds that is compared to the va!ina filled %ith min'te bein!s. Compare: yad vedara!ayo!an maith'nam abhidhiyate tad abrahma, avatarati tatra himsa vadhasya sarvatra sadbhavat. 314 himsyante tilanalyam taptayasi vinihite tila yadvat, bahavo 2iva yona' himsyante maith'ne tadvat. 374 )urusarthasiddhyupaya , verses 1#G(1#$. Compare: yoniyantrasam'tpannah s's'ksma 2ant'rasayah, pidyamana vipadyante yatra tan maith'nam tya2et. *ogasastra-Svopa%navrtti , ), ii, G9. ;emacandra 5'otes a passa!e from the (amasastra in s'pport of the Jaina belief: yona' 2ant'sadbhavam samvadena dradhayati(2ant'sadbhavam Aatsyayano +py aha. Aatsyayanah (amasastra karah anena ca Aatsyayanasamvadadhinam asya pramanyam iti nocyate, na hi Jainam sasanam anyasamvadadhina( "D. (rtrima"liba >lit., one %ho has been rendered a hermaphrodite?. Since the %ord is employed in distinction to a con!enital hermaphrodite > %atinapumsa"a ?, it appears that the %ord is 'sed to refer to a person %ho is born male b't %as rendered a 9hermaphrodite9 by s'ch means as castration, as in the case of a e'n'ch. -he Svetambaras, as maintained by 6e!havi2aya, %ill have no diffic'lty in admittin! s'ch a person >essentially a male? to their mendicant ranks as he %ill be clothed accordin! to their r'les. *ltho'!h the Hi!ambara response to this Svetambara statement is not clearly set forth, it is %ell kno%n that a noncon!enital hermaphrodite, on acco'nt of his !enital deformity, %o'ld not be allo%ed to become a Hi!ambara monk, %ho m'st !o n'de. -his position clearly emphasi,es the aspect of biolo!ical !ender in the ass'mption of the mahavratas and the attainment of moksa, re!ardless of %hat libido mi!ht be entertained. )n this respect, the stat's of a noncon!enital hermaphrodite in the Hi!ambara tradition %o'ld be similar to that of a %oman. =or a disc'ssion on the krtrimakliba in the B'ddhist te.ts, see M%illin! >19$9?. "E. *ccordin! to another passa!e it is not a bamboo t'be alone b't one filled %ith sesame seeds that is compared to the va!ina filled %ith min'te bein!s. Compare: yad vedara!ayo!an maith'nam abhidhiyate tad abrahma, avatarati tatra himsa vadhasya sarvatra sadbhavat. 314 himsyante tilanalyam taptayasi vinihite tila yadvat, bahavo 2iva yona' himsyante maith'ne tadvat. 374 )urusarthasiddhyupaya , verses 1#G(1#$. Compare: yoniyantrasam'tpannah s's'ksma 2ant'rasayah, pidyamana vipadyante yatra tan maith'nam tya2et. *ogasastra-Svopa%navrtti , ), ii, G9. ;emacandra 5'otes a passa!e from the (amasastra in s'pport of the Jaina belief: yona' 2ant'sadbhavam samvadena dradhayati(2ant'sadbhavam Aatsyayano +py aha. Aatsyayanah (amasastra karah anena ca Aatsyayanasamvadadhinam asya pramanyam iti nocyate, na hi Jainam sasanam anyasamvadadhina( pramanyam, kint' ye +pi kamapradhanas tair api 2ant'sadbhavo napahn'ta ity 'cyate. Aatsyayanasloko yatha1rakta2ah. krmayah s'ksma mrd'madhyadhisa(ktayah, 2anmavartmas' kand'tim 2anayanti tathavidham. )bid., ), ii, $#. -his verse %ith a sli!ht variation appears not in the e.tant (amasutra b't in the Jayamangalati"a on it by Fasodhara. See the (amasutram of Aatsyayana, p. G$. "G. By naked female yo!ins o'r a'thor probably has in mind certain Saivite female ascetics %ho are kno%n to have practiced n'dity. &ne s'ch e.ample is the Airasaiva saint 6ahadeviyakka0 for details see Kandimath >19ED, vol. ), pp. G, $, 1", 71D?. "$. &n the Svetambara le!end of the female -irthankara 6alli, see the )ntrod'ction >J7B?. *s %as seen earlier >Chapter )), n. DB?, Sakatayana refrains from any all'sion to 6alli, a c'rio's omission %hich indicates the possibility that the Fapaniyas, like the Hi!ambaras, did not consider 6alli to be a %oman. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this le!end see Shah >19$G, pp. 1D9(1E#?. Plate IA)) in that %ork ill'strates a headless stone ima!e >from the I'ckno% m'se'm? of a %oman seated in the yo!ic post're similar to that of a male -irthankara and pres'med to be the only e.tant ima!e of the female 6alli. -he ima!e bears no inscription, b't the front side sho%s prominent breasts %itho't the trace of a halter %hile the

reverse side sho%s the braided hair reachin! the bare hips. Ko Jaina sect, ho%ever, allo%s a n'n to be naked or permits her to retain braided hair. Chile there is no do'bt that this is a Jaina ima!e, f'rther evidence is re5'ired for establishin! the tr'e identity of the person it depicts. "9. Pleasin! co'ntenance > subhagatva ? is a characteristic res'ltin! from the meritorio's kind of body( prod'cin!, that is, the nama(karma. Both sects believe that %ith the attainment of the kevala2nana, the hair on the head and other parts of the body as %ell as nails of an *rhat stop !ro%in! forever, beca'se of this s'bha!anamakarma. =or this reason the Jina ima!es of both sects are depicted %itho't m'stache and beard and %ith only small c'rly hair >e.cept that of the first Jina, %ho is depicted %ith lon! hair fallin! on his sho'lders?. -he Svetambara ima!es, even of 6ahavira, %ho accordin! to their o%n te.ts %ent totally naked, still depict him %ith a loincloth in order to preserve the decency of the ima!e. -he Hi!ambara ima!es, as is %ell kno%n, are al%ays made to sho% the n'de fi!'re complete %ith the male member, since accordin! to them holy n'dity is not opposed to decency and reflects the tr'e state of the Jina+s perfected mendicancy. -he oldest standin! Jina ima!es invariably depict the state of n'dity. )n the case of the seated ima!es >s'ch as fo'nd in 6ath'ra? the male members %ere nat'rally covered by the foldin! of the le!s in the lot's post're0 these ima!es %ere probably %orshipped by adherents of both the Hi!ambara and the Svetambara sects. )t is only %hen the sectarian disp'te reached a point of total separation of the t%o mendicant comm'nities that the Svetambaras, sometime in the early <'pta era >c. fifth cent'ry? appear to have be!'n carvin! e.cl'sively Svetambara ima!es draped in styli,ed loincloths. =or f'rther disc'ssion on the development of the Svetambara icono!raphy, see Shah >19$G, intro.?. B#. )aryusana"alpa %o'ld appear to be the te.t kno%n as Samayari >:'les for *scetics?, %hich forms part of the (alpasutra and contains r'les for monks and n'ns for the period of the retreat d'rin! the rainy season. See Jacobi+s translation of the (alpasutra >1$$B, pp. 79E("11?. B1. <'naratna first introd'ced this ar!'ment and referred to the story of the monk %ho had reali,ed moksa thro'!h the metaphor of the lentils and chaff >Chapter A, J"E?. )n the Hi!ambara version of this story >Chapter A, n. 1G? of the ++6asat'sa9 monk Sivabh'ti, he %as not said to be 'nintelli!ent, as maintained by 6e!havi2aya, b't only lackin! memory. Chether he had received any instr'ction in the )urvas is not clear from the Hi!ambara te.t. Since the first t%o s'kladhyanas are not possible %itho't the kno%led!e of the )urvas >see n. 71 above?, one %o'ld have to ass'me that the Hi!ambaras %o'ld not a!ree %ith 6e!havi2aya+s contention that s'ch monks co'ld have attained moksa %itho't st'dy of the )urvas . B7. =or the temples on 6o'nt Satr'n2aya, see B'r!ess >1$E9?. B". -he verse 5'oted from the Bhagavad-Gita tells only that %omen >to!ether %ith men of s'ch lo% castes as the Aaisyas and S'dras? can attain moksa b't it does not assert, as 6e!havi2aya seems to claim, that they attain it in that same life. )t sho'ld be noted f'rther that the Svetambara is not 5'otin! this heretical te.t in s'pport of his thesis b't rather to ridic'le the Hi!ambara claim that 2'st beca'se somethin! is believed by somebody or is %ell kno%n to some people >e.!., the places of nirvana of certain monks?, it sho'ld be accepted by all as a'thoritative. Keither the Hi!ambaras nor the Svetambaras believe that the hi!hest !oal > para gati ? spoken of in the Gita is identical %ith the Jaina concept of moksa. BB. 3 X p. 11", line G(p. 17", line E4 6e!havi2aya+s ref'tations of the Hi!ambara ar!'ments >%hich %ere !iven above from J7D to J"9? are omitted here as they are almost identical, albeit presented in a more detailed form, %ith those fo'nd in the Strinirvanapra"arana >Chapter ))? and the $ar"arahasyadipi"avrtti >Chapter A? disc'ssed above. &nly ne% ar!'ments or si!nificantly ne% form'lations of the old ar!'ments are reprod'ced in sections J$B thro'!h J97.

BD. ;ere 6e!havi2aya seems to be respondin! to Prabhacandra+s ar!'ment in Chapter ))) >JE$?, %hich dre% a contrast bet%een the sacelasamyama of a n'n and the acelasamyama of a monk. )t sho'ld be noted that Prabhacandra does not 'se the terms 9sthavirakalpa9 and 92inakalpa9 to describe these t%o practices. =or the variation in the meanin! attached to these t%o modes in the Svetambara and the Hi!ambara sects, see Chapter )) >n. "D?. BE. &n samhanana, see Chapter )A >n. "?. BG. 6e!havi2aya is re2ectin! here the script're 5'oted by Jayasena at Chapter )A >J1#?. B$. &n the si. kinds of samsthanas or str'ct'res of a h'man body see Chapter )) >n. D"?. )t is believed that the entirely 'nsymmetrical or deformed body >h'ndasamsthana? is the res'lt of e.tremely evil karmas. ;o%ever, havin! a deformed body of this kind is not considered by the Svetambaras to be an impediment to attainin! moksa in that very life. )t sho'ld be noted that the Hi!ambaras do not a!ree %ith this vie%. -hey have maintained that a man %ith a deformed body may not be initiated into mendicancy and hence may not attain moksa in the same life. See )rava'anasara , iii, 7D 3 X 1D4 for the physical 5'alifications of an aspirant seekin! initiation as a Hi!ambara monk. B9. *s described in note 7$ above, the Hi!ambara believes that the *rhat+s body, bein! p're >parama( a'darika? and able to s'stain itself %itho't food or %ater, is totally free from s'ch imp're s'bstances as blood, semen, or 'rine. Since in their doctrine a %oman may not attain *rhatship, she cannot escape the imp'rities that m'st res'lt from the in!estion of food and %ater. -he Svetambaras re2ect the theory of the 9p're body9 claimed by the Hi!ambaras for the *rhat and maintain that the latter+s body contin'es to f'nction as before. -he presence of semen in a male *rhat+s body and its dischar!e, ho%ever, present a problem for the Svetambaras. -hey cannot deny the e.istence of semen in a yo'n! male body, b't they m'st deny the possibility of its dischar!e in an *rhat beca'se it is believed that seminal dischar!e cannot occ'r %itho't e.periencin! the veda or libido. Since libido, %hich is the res'lt of the mohaniya >i.e., the passion(!eneratin!? karma, is eliminated prior to the attainment of *rhatship, the Svetambaras believe that no dischar!e of semen is possible for an *rhat. By the same token, it is ar!'ed by the Svetambaras that the menstr'al flo% of a female *rhat, even if she is yo'n!, %ill cease to e.ist beca'se, like the male *rhat, she %ill also have eradicated the libido that is said to be the primary ca'se for the e.istence of the menstr'al flo%. Chereas the invariable connection bet%een the seminal dischar!e and libido is evident to all, only the Svetambaras seem to connect the menstr'al flo% %ith libido. D#. 6e!havi2aya disc'sses this point at !reat len!th in his treatment of the controversy over the kevali( kavalahara >from p. 1DG, line E, to p. 1D9, line 1#?. D1. Since the %ord 9 prabhendu 9 'ndo'btedly refers to the Hi!ambara a'thor Prabhacandra, the ad2ective 9 dvi%ihvabharana ,9 in addition to si!nifyin! a villaino's or do'ble(ton!'ed person, probably refers to the t%o famo's %orks of Prabhacandra, namely, the )rameya"amalamarttanda and the ,yaya"umuda'andra , %hich contain the most forcef'l defense of the Hi!ambara position on strimoksa. D7. &isnu and prativisnu are synonyms for narayana and pratinarayana, the personifications of a hero and a villain respectively. -hey are born enemies and both are destined to be reborn in hell at the end of that life as a conse5'ence of their %arfare. Both sects a!ree that visn' and prativisn' m'st be males. See Chapter )) >n. B9?.

Con,ordan,e and Glo%%ar' o& San%.rit and Pra.rit 0ord%

A
abala >po%erless, a synonym for %oman?: ))), J$B abhavya >one %ho is incapable of attainin! moksa?: )), iv0 A), JDD, n. "B a'arya >head of a mendicant !ro'p, spirit'al leader0 monk(scholar?: ), i0 )), vi a'ela"a >a Jaina mendicant %itho't clothes?: )ntro. J7, J"70 ), n. "0 )), n. "10 A), J19 adharma-tattva >the principle of rest?: )), n. B adholo"a >the lo%er part of the 'niverse0 the hellish abode?: )), n. 1G agama >script're0 the Jaina canon?: )ntro. J70 ), i agurulaghutva >a 5'ality of the Siddha: freedom from e.pansion and contraction of the so'l+s space points?: )), n. 1$ ahara >food0 intake of food?: )), n. E9 ahara"a >a monk %ho can pro2ect an astral body?: A), J7" ahimsa >nonharmin!, the first mahavrata?: )ntro. J"70 ), JG0 )), JB#0 A), JG7 aila"a >the hi!hest state of a Hi!ambara layman, %herein he retains only one piece of clothin!?: ), JB a%iva >nonso'ls?: )), n. B a"asa >space?: )), n. B a"in'anya >nothin!ness0 a synonym for apari!raha?: A, ii alpa'ela"a >one %ho %ears fe% clothes?: A), J7# anatanubandhi-"asaya >the first !rade of passions, %hich prevents the attainment of samya!darsana?: A), n. "" ananta-virya >infinite ener!y?: )), n. 1$ angopanga-nama"arma >karmic matter responsible for prod'cin! primary and secondary si!ns1e.!., the !ender si!ns1in a !iven body?: )), J1""0 A), J" anivrttibadarasamparaya >a synonym for anivrttikarana?: )), J17B0 ))), J"1 anivrtti"arana >the ninth !'nasthana %here all se.'al feelin!s are overcome?: A), JE antaraya >obstr'ction?: A, ii antarmuhurta >a period of 'p to forty(ei!ht min'tes?: )), JB1 anumana >inference?: )ntro. J90 A), J7D / 7#E / anuvrata >minor vo%s pertainin! only to lay people?: ), n. 90 )), n. B0 A), JDD, JD9, J9# aparigraha >nonpossession0 the fifth mahavrata bindin! a Jaina monk?: )ntro. J7G, J"70 ), n. 90 )), JB#0 A), JG#

aparyapta >bein!s %hose physical formation is never completed?: )), J1"G, J1B# apavadavesa >e.ceptional !arb allo%ed for monks in times of famine?: )), n. "7 apratya"hyanavarana-"asaya >the second !rade of passions, %hich prevents the ass'mption of an'vratas?: A), n. "" apta >spirit'al a'thority?: )), JB$ *rdhaphalaka >a mendicant %ho covers himself %ith half a piece of cloth?: )), iii *rhat >9%orthy of %orship90 an epithet of one %ho has attained kevala2nana0 a synonym for a @evalin and occasionally for a Jina?: ), n. 10 )), J1, JEG, JE$ arta-dhyana >sorro%f'l meditation?: )ntro. J1D arya >9noble %oman90 an epithet of a Jaina n'n?: )), JB1 aryi"a >a synonym for arya?: )ntro. J"0 A), JGB asamyama >nonrestraint?: )), JD# as'arya >an e.traordinary event0 a miracle?: )ntro. J7" asrava >infl'. of karmic matter?: )), n. B asteya >nontheft0 the third mahavrata bindin! a Jaina monk?: ), n. 9 audari"a-sarira >the 9!ross9 body of h'man and animal bein!s?: )), n. " avagahanatva >5'ality of a Siddha: ability to occ'py a common space %ith other so'ls?: )), n. 1$ avinabhava >invariable concomitance0 a synonym for vyapti?: )ntro. J9 avyabadhatva >5'ality of the Siddha: freedom from pleas're and pain?: )), n. 1$ ayoga-"evalin >the fo'rteenth !'nasthana, attained by the @evalin %hen, in the instant before death, all activities cease?: )), J11, n. 17, n. 1B

)
badarasamparaya >the ninth !'nasthana?: )), J17B baladeva >a Jaina literary type0 the hero and companion of narayana?: )), JG", n. B90 A), J7", n. 77 baladi"sa >initiation of a child into mendicancy?: )), n. B70 A), JGG bandha >bonda!e?: )), n. B bha"ti >devotional prayer?: ), ii bhattara"a >cler!y0 an advanced lay administrator of Jaina temples?: )), n. "7 bhava >volition0 internal or psycholo!ical state0 se.'al feelin!?: )), J1#9, J11", J11B, J17E, n. 1G0 A), JB bhavanapumsa"a >one %ho is 9psycholo!ically9 hermaphrodite0 i.e., one %ho desires a hermaphrodite?: A), JB bhavapurusa >one %ho is 9psycholo!ically9 male0 i.e., one %ho desires a female?: A), JB bhavasiddhi"a >one %ho attains moksa in the present life?: )), J1"G bhavastri >one %ho is 9psycholo!ically9 female0 i.e., one %ho desires a male?: )A, J90 A), JB

bhavya >one %ho may attain moksa?: A), n. "B bhi"sunisangha >the B'ddhist order of n'ns?: )ntro. JB1, JBD bhogabhumi >earthly paradise0 an earthly realm of en2oyment from %hich moksa is not possible?: )), J"0 A), JE bodhi >ri!ht vie%0 a synonym for samya!darsana?: A), J1G / 7#G / brahma'arin >celibate0 one %ho has reached the seventh pratima?: )ntro. J70 A), JGD brahma'arya >ren'nciation of all se.'al acts, the fo'rth mahavrata?: ), n. 9 brahmana >a member of the priestly caste?: )), JGB

C
'a"radhara >a synonym for cakravartin?: )), JG" 'a"ravartin >'niversal monarch?: )), JG"0 ))), JBB, JG7 'aritramohaniya >karma that prevents proper cond'ct?: A), J" 'hala >fallacio's reasonin!0 pervertin! the sense of a term?: )), J710 ))), JBE

*
darsana >a philosophical school0 ri!ht vie%0 perception?: )ntro. JG0 ), n. 1"0 )), n. E9 darsanavaraniya >perception(obsc'rin! karma?: )), n. G# darsanavisuddhi >p'rification of samya!darsana?: )A, J1" Hasasilamatta%a >advanced B'ddhist lay%omen %ho ass'me the precepts of n'ns in Sri Ianka?: )ntro. JBD desasamyata >partially restrained0 i.e., one %ho ass'mes the an'vratas?: ), n. 11 deva >heavenly bein!?: )), n. G dharma >ri!hteo'sness0 precepts?: ))), JD"0 )A, J1 dharma-dhyana >ri!hteo's meditation?: )ntro. J1D dharma-labha >!ain in ri!hteo'sness, a blessin! 'ttered by Jaina monks?: A, ii dharma-tattva >the principle of motion?: )), n. B dharma-upa"arana >thin!s that aid in keepin! the precepts?: )ntro. J"0 )), J"E dharma-vrddhi >increase in ri!hteo'sness, a blessin! 'ttered by a Jaina monk?: A, ii Hi!ambara >sky(clad0 naked0 a synonym for na!na0 name of the Jaina sect %hose male mendicants practice ascetic n'dity?: )ntro. J70 A), i, JB#, n. 7E, n. 7$ di"sa-"alyana >the a'spicio's event of leavin! the ho'sehold life and ass'min! the mendicant vo%s by a -irthankara?: )ntro. J7B0 A), n. 11 dravya >s'bstance?: )), J11$, J17D, n. B0 A), J1

dravyanapumsa"a >hermaphrodite by !ender?: A), JD dravyapurusa >male by !ender?: A), JD dravyastri >female by !ender?: A), JD

E
e"anta >the one(sided vie%?: A), i e"endriya >one(sensed bein!s?: ), n. 9

G
gamya-gama"a-sambandha >relationship bet%een the indicator and the indicated?: )ntro. J1E, J1G0 ))), J"E, JB# ganadhara >the first mendicant disciple of a -irthankara %ho compiles the script'res0 the principal leader of the Jaina mendicant comm'nity?: )), JE0 ))), JG10 A), J7" ganini >the chief n'n?: A), JGD garbha-"alyana >the a'spicio's event of conception of a -irthankara?: )ntro. J7B gati-margana >the topic of births as h'man, animal, and so forth, %here a so'l may be reborn?: )), J17$ gunasthana >the fo'rteen sta!es of spirit'al development?: )ntro. J190 )), JE, J91, n. 170 A), JBD gupti >protections0 restraint?: ), J" gurudharma >the ei!ht ma2or r'les applied to the order of B'ddhist n'ns?: )ntro. JB70 A), n. 1G

<
hetu >reason?: )ntro. J"90 )), J1D himsa >in2'ry0 harmf'l violence?: )ntro. J"10 )), J"7, JB10 A), J7D hunda >deformed?: )), n. D"0 A), n. B$ / 7#$ /

I
indriya >sense or!an?: )), J1"", n. E9

J
Jaina >lit., a follo%er of the Jina0 a member of the Jaina comm'nity?: 1, n. 1 Jainabhasa >a false Jaina?: )), iii Jainamata >the Jaina tradition?: A, ii %anma-"alyana >the a'spicio's event of birth of a -irthankara?: )ntro.J7B %antu >small creat'res s'ch as vermin?: )), JB#

%atarupadhara >one %ho has the form at birth0 i.e., a naked mendicant?: )), iii %ati >self(ref'tin! replies in a debate?: )), J710 ))), JBE %ati"liba >con!enital hermaphrodite?: A), JDG Jina >spirit'al victor0 a synonym for -irthankara?: )ntro.J70 ), J1, JE0 )), JGB0 A), J7" %ina"alpa >lit., the 9Co'rse of the Aictors >i.e., Jinas?90 a monk %ho leads a solitary life?: )), J17, JDG, JD$, n. "D0 A), J$B, n. BD %iva >so'l0 sentient?: )), n. B %ivasthana >states of the so'l0 a synonym for !'nasthana?: )), J17" %nana >co!nition?: )), n. E9 %nanavaraniya >kno%led!e(obsc'rin! karma?: )), n. G#

4
"ala >time?: )), n. B "aliyuga >the a!e of vice?: )ntro. JBD "alyana"a >the five a'spicio's events in the career of a -irthankara?: )ntro. J7B0 A), JB" "amandalu >%ater pot for toilet p'rposes carried by mendicants?: )), J"D "arma >action0 a form of matter?: )), J$ "armabhumi >realm of action?: )), n. G0 )A, J1# "asaya >passion1a ca'se of bonda!e?: )), JD#, n. E90 A), JD1, JDD, n. "" "autilya >crookedness, a synonym for maya?: A), J$ "avalahara >eatin! morsels of food?: )), n. " "aya >body?: )), n. E9 "esava >a Jaina literary type0 a synonym for narayana, vas'deva, and visn'?: )), JGB "evala%nana >enli!htenment0 kno%led!e isolated from karmic obstr'ction0 infinite kno%led!e0 omniscience?: )ntro. J7B0 ), n. 10 A), J7B, JGG, n. 1" "evala%nana-"alyana >the a'spicio's event of attainin! kevala2nana?: )ntro. J7B @evalin >one %ho has attained kevala2nana?: ), n. 10 )), J), JGB0 A), JB1, JB7, JB" "rodha >an!er?: )), n. 17 "rtrima"liba >noncon!enital hermaphrodite?: A), JE7, n. "D "sapa"a-sreni >the !'nasthana 9ladder9 leadin! to the destr'ction of karmas?: A), JE "satriya >member of a %arrior caste?: )), JGB "saya >destr'ction?: A), JDD "sayi"a-samyagdrsti >one %hose %ron! vie% has been destroyed forever?: )), n. DG "sulla"a >an advanced Jaina layman0 a male novice?: ), JB, n. 1" "sulli"a >an advanced lay%oman0 a female novice?: ), JD, n. 1D

"ub%a >h'nchback?: )), n. D"

labdhi >s'pernat'ral po%ers?: )), J170 A), J7" labdhi-nama"arma >karma that prod'ces the capacity of sense or!ans?: )), J1"B la%%a >shame, bashf'lness?: )ntro. JB, J77, J"#0 ))), JEB, n. G1 lesya >mental colorin!s?: )), n. E9 / 7#9 / linga >o't%ard si!n or emblem of a mendicant0 !ender0 an inferential mark?: )ntro. JB, J90 ), J70 )), J9D0 A), J"7 lobha >!reed?: )), n. 17 lo'a >the pl'ckin! o't of one+s hair by hand?: A, ii lo"a"asa >the inhabited 'niverse?: )ntro. J1"

+
6adhyaloka >the middle abode0 i.e., the earth?: )ntro. J1" mahavrata >the five !reat vo%s of a mendicant?: ), J", n. 90 )), n. B0 A), J1G, JD9, J$B manahparyaya%nana >direct a%areness of tho'!ht forms of others %itho't the aid of mind or senses?: )), J17, n. 1E manusi >%oman, a synonym for stri?: )), J17", J17D, J17$ manusya >man, a synonym for p'r'sa?: )), J17", J17D manusyini >%oman, a synonym for stri?: A), ii, J$, JBD, JBE, JB$, JD#, n. G, n. "# margana >topic0 a method of e.aminin! a certain aspect of the so'l?: )), J17$, n. E9 maya >deceitf'lness0 crookedness0 c'nnin! behavior0 a synonym for ka'tilya?: )ntro. J7B0 )), JG$0 ))), J7D0 A), JD1 mithyadrsti >%ron! vie% of reality, the first !'nasthana?: ))), J$# mithyatva >holdin! a %ron! vie%, a synonym for mithyadrsti?: )), JD#0 ))), J$# mle''ha >a species of h'man bein!s %ith animal faces in Jaina cosmolo!y?: )), iv mohaniya-"arma >karma that prevents the p'rity of the so'l by !eneratin! passions and other ca'ses of bonda!e?: )ntro. J1$, J"#0 )), J1#90 ))), J7D0 A), n. B9 mo"sa >salvation, spirit'al liberation, emancipation of the so'l from the state of embodiment0 a synonym for m'kti and nirvana?: ), J1, n. 70 )), J$, n. B mu"a-"evalin >a @evalin %ho does not preach?: )ntro. J"B0 A, J"D mu"havastri"a >a piece of cloth held in front of the mo'th %hile speakin!?: A, ii mu"ti >a synonym for moksa?: )), J"1

muni >mendicant0 sa!e?: )ntro. J1, JBB muni-linga >the identifyin! feat're of a mendicant0 e.!., a %hisk broom?: )ntro. J7 mur''ha >del'sion of o%nership0 attachment to ob2ects0 a synonym for pari!raha?: )), JD"0 ))), JDG

N
nagna >naked?: )ntro. J70 ), JE0 A), J7# nairgranthya >the state of Jaina mendicancy?: ))), JDB nama-"arma >karma that determines body types as h'man, animal, male, female, etc.?: )), J1"", J1"B namas"ara >reverential !reetin!?: )), iv napumsa"alinga >hermaphrodite !ender?: )ntro. J1$ napumsa"aveda >9hermaphroditic9 libido0 i.e., sim'ltaneo's se.'al desire for both males and females?: )ntro. J1$0 A), JB narada >a Jaina literary type notorio's for c'nnin! and deceitf'l activities?: A, n. 19 nara"alo"a >hellish abodes?: )ntro. J1"0 )), n. 1G narayana >a Jaina literary type0 the companion of baladeva and slayer of the villain0 a synonym for kesava, vas'deva, and visn'?: )), J$$, n. B90 A), J7", n. 77 niragara >%itho't a ho'sehold, i.e., a reno'ncer?: ), J7, n. $ nirape"sa-samyama >the 'n5'alified mendicant restraint of a Jinakalpa monk?: )), JD# nirgrantha >'nattached0 %itho't possession0 desi!nation of a Jaina monk?: ), J", n. 170 )), J"$ / 71# / nirgranthi >a female nir!rantha0 desi!nation of a Jaina n'n?: )), J"G nir%ara >dissociation of karmas?: )), n. B nirmana-nama"arma >karmic matter responsible for prod'cin! the !eneral bodily shape?: A), J" nirvana >a synonym for moksa and m'kti?: )), J1, n. 7 nirvana-bhumi >a place %here a -irthankara has attained nirvana?: )), J$#0 A), J$1 nirvana-"alyana >the holy event of the death of a -irthankara?: )ntro. J7B nis'ela >%itho't clothes, a synonym for acelaka, Hi!ambara, and na!na?: ), n. " no"arma >karmic matter that s'stains the body and the senses?: )), J"90 ))), J7# nyagrodhaparimandala-samsthana >shape of the body %here only the 'pper part is symmetrical?: )), n. D"

P
padartha >cate!ory of e.istence?: ))), J"9 pahuda >Prakrit for prabhrta?: ), ii

palya >a meas're of time?: )), J111 pan'ama"ala >the fifth sta!e of time in Jaina cosmolo!y?: )ntro. JBD0 )), n. 77, n. "D pan'endriya-nama"arma >karma that prod'ces the five sense or!ans?: )), J1"" panipatra >a mendicant %ho 'ses his hands as a bo%l?: ), n. B papa >ina'spicio's or demeritorio's karma?: )ntro. J1" papayoni >of evil birth0 base(born?: )ntro. JB#0 A), J$7 para-gati >the hi!hest !oal0 a synonym for moksa?: )ntro. JB# parama-audari"a-sarira >s'premely p're !ross body?: )), n. "0 A), JB1, n. 7$, n. B9 parigraha >attachment to %orldly possessions0 property0 a synonym for m'rccha?: )ntro. J", J7G, J"90 )), J"70 A), J91 parigraha-parimana >placin! limits on one+s property?: ), n. 9 pariharavisuddhi >the p'rificatory co'rse follo%ed by a mendicant?: )), JDG parisaha >afflictions?: )), JBD0 A), JG9 parivra%a"a >a Brahmanical mendicant?: ), n. E parivra%i"a >a Brahmanical female mendicant?: )ntro., n. "# patra >bo%l for collectin! food?: A, ii pin'hi >a %hisk broom made of molted peacock feathers?: )ntro. J7D0 ), n. E prabhrta >Sanskrit for pah'da: !ift0 treatise?: ), ii pradesa >space points occ'pied by a so'l?: A), JB# pra"arana >treatise?: Preface pramada >carelessness, ne!li!ence, lack of concentration, apathy?: )), JD# pratile"hana >%hisk broom0 a synonym for ra2oharana?: )), J"1 pratima >the eleven sta!es of ren'nciation for a layman?: ), n. 1"0 A), JDD, JE7, JE$ pratinarayana >a Jaina literary type0 the villain0 a synonym for prativisn'?: )), n. B9 prativisnu >a synonym for pratinarayana, the villain?: )), n. B90 A), J97 pratya"hyanavarana-"asaya >the third !rade of passions, %hich prevents the ass'mption of mahavratas?: A), n. "" pratya"sa >perception?: )ntro. J9 pratye"abuddha >one %ho attains kevala2nana independent of a teacher?: )), JE pravra%ya >mendicant ordination?: ), JG, n. 1G prayas'itta >e.piation?: )), iii prayoga >a syllo!istic form'la?: )ntro. JG, J170 A, iii0 A), ii pudgala >matter?: )), n. B pumlinga >male !ender?: )ntro. J1$, JB"

/ 711 / pumveda >9male9 libido or se.'al desire for a female?: )ntro. J1$0 ))), J$70 A), JB punya >meritorio's or %holesome karma?: )ntro. J1" purusa >male0 man?: ))), J$"0 A), JB# purvapa"sa >the first or ob2ectionable ar!'ment0 the prima facie vie%?: Preface0 A), iii

R
ra%oharana >a %hisk broom made of %oolen t'fts?: )ntro. J7, J7D0 ), n. E rama >an abbreviated form of balarama?: )), JGB ratnatraya >-hree Je%els: ri!ht vie%, ri!ht kno%led!e, ri!ht cond'ct?: )ntro. J90 )), J1, n. B raudra-dhyana >cr'el thinkin!0 meditation on the perverse pleas're of ca'sin! in2'ry to others?: )ntro. J1D rudhirasrava >menstr'al flo% of blood?: )ntro. J770 A), J$9

S
sa'ela"a >a mendicant %ith clothes?: )ntro. J"70 ), iii sadhana >the middle term in a lo!ical syllo!ism?: )), J1D sadhu >monk0 a synonym for m'ni?: A), JG", J91 sadhvi >n'n0 a synonym for arya or aryika?: )ntro. J"0 A), JG" sadhya >the ma2or term in a lo!ical syllo!ism?: )ntro. J9, J"90 )), J1D sagara >9ocean9: a meas're of time in Jaina cosmolo!y?: )), J91 sala"a-purusa >an ill'strio's bein! in Jaina mytholo!y?: )), n. B9 salle"hana >rit'al death by fastin!?: )), JDD, n. 7B0 A), n. 17 sama'aturasra-samsthana >perfectly symmetrical body?: )), n. D" samanera >a B'ddhist novice?: )), n. BB samavaya >inherence?: )ntro. J1G0 ))), J"$ samayi"a >avoidin! all evil action, identical to the ass'mption of the five mahavratas?: )), J71, n. 710 ))), J17 samhanana >si. types of 2oints of bones?: )A, JG, n. "0 A), J$D sam%ni >bein!s %ith five senses and mind and hence capable of makin! spirit'al pro!ress?: )), J7# sam%valana-"asaya >the fo'rth !rade of passions, %hich prevents the total destr'ction of se.'al desires?: A), n. "" samsara >cycle of birth and death0 transmi!ration?: )ntro. JG0 )), J7, J$G, n. D samsthana >si. bodily confi!'rations?: )), J$B, J9#, n. D"0 A), J$D, n. B$ samvara >restraint?: )), n. B samyagdarsana > Z samyak(darsana, Jaina vie% of reality0 ri!ht vie%0 faith in the teachin!s of the

Jina?: )ntro. J9, J770 )), n. B samyagdrsti > Z samyak(drsti, the fo'rth !'nasthana, in %hich one attains samya!darsana: )), J$9, n. 170 ))), J$# samyag%nana >Z samyak(2nana, correct kno%led!e0 kno%led!e associated %ith samya!darsana?: )ntro. J90 )), n. B samyagmithyadrsti >Z samyak(mithyadrsti, the third !'nasthana in %hich both correct and incorrect vie%s are present?: )), J$9, n. 170 ))), J$# samya"'aritra >ri!ht cond'ct?: )ntro. J90 )), n. B samyama >restraint?: )), n. E9 samyata >mendicant?: ), J", n. 11 sandigdha >'ncertainty0 a lo!ical fallacy?: )ntro. J"9 sangha >the fo'rfold Jaina comm'nity consistin! of the order of monks, n'ns, laymen, and lay%omen?: ), iii0 )), vi0 A, JB#0 A), JG" / 717 / sape"sa-samyama >the 5'alified mendicant restraint of a sthavirakalpa monk?: )), JD# sarira >body?: A, n. 1G sasana >the Jaina -eachin!?: )), JE" sasana-devata >!'ardian deity of the Jaina reli!ion?: )ntro. J"" sasvadana-samyagdrsti >state of 9mi.ed taste90 the second !'nasthana?: )), J$9, n. 170 ))), J$# sattva >physical and spirit'al stren!th?: )), J$D($$, n. 1G0 ))), J7E, JG9 satya >tr'thf'lness, ren'nciation of all lyin! speech, the second mahavrata bindin! a Jaina monk?: ), n. 9 sayoga-"evalin >a @evalin still possessed of the activities of body, speech, and mind0 the thirteenth !'nasthana?: )), n. 170 A), JB7 Siddha >a Perfected Bein!0 i.e., a bein! %ho has attained moksa?: )ntro. J1, J1$, J190 )), J1E, JDE, JEG, JGE0 A), JB# siddhagunas >the ei!ht 5'alities of a Siddha?: )), n. 1$ Siddhaloka >the permanent abode of the Siddhas?: )ntro. J1"0 )), n. 1G0 A), J7B, JB#, n. 7" siddhanta >the ancient Jaina script're0 a synonym for a!ama?: ), i siddhi >a synonym for moksa?: )), v, J71 sila >moral restraint, the vo%s taken by a layman or a mendicant?: ))), JE# Sitambara >a synonym for Svetambara?: ))), J"9 sraddha >faith?: )), n. B sramana >a non(Aedic mendicant, 's'ally a Jaina or a B'ddhist?: )ntro. J7 sramana-sangha >the order of Jaina mendicants?: )), vi

sramani >n'n0 a synonym for arya or sadhvi0 sometimes applied to a female novice?: )ntro. JBD0 )A, J1$ srava"a >a listener0 i.e., a layman?: ), JB, n. 1"0 A), JG" sravi"a >a female listener0 i.e., a lay%oman?: A), JG" sruta-"evalin >a Jaina mendicant %ho memori,es the entire a!ama?: )), JE sthavira >an elder0 a synonym for sadh'?: ), i sthavira"alpa >lit., the 9Co'rse of 8lders90 a mendicant %ho lives in an ecclesiastical comm'nity?: )ntro. J70 )), JD#, JD$, n. "D0 A), J$B, n. BD stri >%oman?: )), J1, J9D, J117, J177, n. BD0 ))), J7G, J7$ strilinga >female !ender?: )ntro. J1$0 )), J9D0 ))), J7G striveda >9female9 libido or se.'al desire for a male?: )ntro. J1$0 )), J1#9, J11#, J11$0 A), JB subha >a'spicio's0 p're?: ))), JBB, n. BD subhagatva >pleasin! co'ntenance?: A), n. "9 su"ladhyana >the p'rest form of meditation?: )ntro. J1D0 ))), J$B, J$D, n. $E0 A), n. 71 svadara-santosa >fidelity %ithin marria!e?: ), n. 9 svargalo"a >heavenly abode?: )ntro. J1" svati-samsthana >a shape of the body %here the lo%er part is symmetrical?: )), n. D" Svetambara >clad in %hite cotton0 name of the Jaina sect %hose mendicants %ear %hite !arments?: )ntro. J70 ))), iii0 )A, J10 A), J1G, n. 1E syadvada >the Jaina method of conditional assertion of a vie%?: A), J$B

T
tapas >a'sterity?: )ntro. J"D0 )), J$G tattva >e.istent?: )), n. B / 71" / -irthankara >the omniscient spirit'al teachers of the Jainas0 a synonym for Jina?: ), JE, n. 1E0 )), JEG0 ))), JG1, JGB(GE0 A), JGD, JGG tirya"-bhava >bestial se.'ality?: )), J1"E

U
udaya >arisin!0 fr'ition of karma?: ))), J$7, J$" upa'ara >conventional 'sa!e?: ), n. 1B0 )A, J11 upadhi >re5'isites, e.!., a %ater pot, 'sed by mendicants?: )), J"$ upadhyaya >preceptor?: ))), JG7, A), i upa"arana >re5'isites 'sed by mendicants0 a synonym for 'padhi?: )), J"E

upasama >s'ppression?: )), n.DG, n. EG upasama-samyagdrsti >one %hose %ron! vie% is temporarily s'ppressed?: )), n. DG uttama-sravi"a >advanced lay%oman, a synonym for a n'n in the Hi!ambara tradition?: )ntro. JE0 )), n. "D uttarapa"sa >ref'tation of the p'rvapaksa?: Preface

V
vaisya >merchant?: )), JGB va%ra-vrsabha-nara'a-samhanana >the perfect 2oint of bones?: )A, J9, n. " vamana >d%arf?: )), n. D" varna >social order?: )), J$B vasudeva >a Jaina literary type0 a synonym for narayana and visn'?: )), JG", n. B9 veda >libido, se.'al desire?: )), J1#9, J17$, n. E90 ))), J$", J$D0 A), J", J$9 viryasrava >dischar!e of semen?: )ntro. J770 A), J$9 visnu >a Jaina literary type0 a synonym for narayana and vas'deva?: A), J97 vitaraga >one %ho is free from passion?: )ntro. J"9 vrtti >commentary?: )), vi vyapti >invariable concomitance?: )ntro. J1E0 )), J1D0 ))), J9, J"E

Y
Fapaniya >name of a Jaina sect no% e.tinct?: )), n. "D0 A, n. 70 A), n. 1E, n. 7D yatha"hyata-'aritra >mendicant cond'ct conformin! to perfect p'rity?: A, J7E, n. 17 yathalandavidhi >the 9time(bo'nd9 co'rse follo%ed by a mendicant?: )), JDG, n. B1 yoga >activities of mind, speech, and body?: )), JD#0 n. 17, n. E9 yogini >a non(Jaina female %ho practices meditation?: A), JG7, n. "G / 71D /

)iblio$ra1h'
-he follo%in! abbreviations are 'sed in the notes and biblio!raphy: BJP Bharatiya Jnanapitha P'blications >Aaranasi? J-5S Journal of the -meri'an 5riental So'iety JJ< Jivara2a Jaina <ranthamala >Sholap'r? J)) $he Jaina )ath of )urifi'ation JS( Jainendra Siddhanta (osa

IHS Ialbhai Halpatbhai Series >*hmadabad? 6HJ< 6anikacandra Hi!ambara Jaina <ranthamala >Bombay? P-S Pali -e.t Society >Iondon? :JS :a2acandra Jaina Sastramala >*!as? SJS Sin!hi Jain Series >Bombay?

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Premi, Kath'ram 19DE Jaina Sahitya"a 7tihasa . >)n ;indi.? Bombay: ;indi <rantha :atnakara. :aman'2an, *. @. 19G7 9-he )ndian +&edip's.+9 $ransa'tions of the 7ndian 7nstitute of -dvan'ed Studies , vol. 1E, pp. 17G(1"G. :ath, 6'k'nd 19$1 .alf a $ale: - Study in the !elationship Bet;een -utobiography and .istory . Jaip'r: :a2asthan Prakrit Bharati Sansthan. :oth, <'stav 19$" alli-Jnata: Das a'hte (apitel des ,ayadhamma"ahao im Se'hsten -nga des Svetambara Jaina"anons . 6ono!raphs on )ndian *rchaeolo!y, *rt, and Philolo!y, no. B. Ciesbaden: =ran, Steiner. Sastri, @ailashacandra 19G1 Satprarupanasutra . >)n ;indi.? Aaranasi: Aarni <ranthamala. Sastri, :amaprasad 19BB(19BE Digambara-Jaina-Siddhanta-Darpana 2)rofessor .iralal%i "e a"sepom "a nira"aran/ , " pts. Bombay: Hi!ambara Jaina Pamcayat. Stcherbatsky, -. 19D$ Buddhist Logi' . )ndo()ranian :eprint )A. 7 vols. -he ;a!'e: 6o'ton. Shah, Umakant P. 19$G Jaina-!upa- andana >Jaina 7'onography ?. Aol. ). Ke% Helhi: *bhinava P'blications. Shanta, K. 19$D La voie %aina: .istoire, spiritualitB, vie des as'Ctes pClerines de l=7nde . Paris: &8)I. S'therland, S. J. 19$9 9Sita and Hra'padi: *!!ressive Behavior and =emale :ole 6odels in the Sanskrit 8pics.9 J-5S , vol. 1#9, no. 1, pp. E"(G9. =orth(comin! 9Sed'ction, Co'nter(Sed'ction, and Se.'al :ole 6odels: Bedroom Politics and the )ndian 8pics.9 Journal of 7ndian )hilosophy . / 77" / -atia, Kathmal, and 6'ni 6ahendra @'mar 19$1 -spe'ts of Jaina onasti'ism . Iadn': Jaina Aisva Bharati.

Upadhye, *dinath K. 19"" 9Fapaniya San!ha: * Jaina Sect.9 Journal of the +niversity of Bombay , vol. ), no. B, pp. 77B(7"1. 19"B 9Harsanasara of Hevasena: Critical -e.t.9 -nnals of the Bhandar"ar 5riental !esear'h 7nstitute , vol. NA, parts "(B, pp. 19$(7#E. 19GB 96ore Ii!ht on the Fapaniya San!ha.9 -nnals of the Bhandar"ar 5riental !esear'h 7nstitute , vol. IA, parts 1(B, pp. 9(77. Aakil, S'ra2bhan' 19ED Strimu"ti . >)n ;indi.? <'d!aon >P'n2ab?: S'tra!ama Prakasaka Samiti. Carren, ;enry Clark 1$9E Buddhism in $ranslations . Boston: ;arvard University Press. :eprint. Ke% Fork: *thene'm, 19E". Ceaver, 6ary Jo 19$D ,e; #atholi' Women: - #ontemporary #hallenge to $raditional !eligious -uthority . San =rancisco: ;arper and :o%. Ceber, Christin Io%e 19$G Woman'hrist: - ,e; &ision of Aeminist Spirituality . San =rancisco: ;arper and :o%. Cilliams, :. 19E" Jaina *oga: - Survey of the

ediaeval Srava"a'aras . Iondon: &.ford University Press.

Maehner, :. C. 19EE .indu S'riptures . Iondon: 8veryman+s Iibrary. M%illin!, Ieonard 19$9 9;omose.'ality as Seen in )ndian B'ddhist -e.ts.9 )n -mala )ra%na: -spe'ts of Buddhist Studies >)rofessor ). &. Bapat Aeli'itation &olume ?, ed. K. ;. Samtani and ;. S. Prasad, pp. G9($D. Helhi: Sri Sat!'r' P'blications. / 77D /

IndeF o& Name%

A
*bhayadeva, ..v , B , B$ , D# *dinatha, 1$$

*disankaracarya, .iv *!ra, 1D# , 1D9 *hamindra, $9 , 1$G *2ita, 1E$ , 1$$ *2ivika, viii , ..i , 7B *kalanka, 7$ , 1#9 *mo!havarsa, BG *mrtacandra, 1"9 *nahillap'ra, 79 *nanda, .v , 7" , 7$ , 1$$ *ndhrapradesh, "1 *n'yo!a, "7 *para2ita, BE , BG , 1## , 1#" , 1#B , 1$# *rdhaphalaka, B" , BB *sadhara, 99 *sva!hosa, ..ii *varakamka, 7G

)
Balarama, E9 , 1#D Banabhatta, 7$ Banarasidas, 1D9 , 1$9 Bel!a'm, B7 Bhadrabah', 1 , "1 , "7 , B" , 9B Bhadrabahu-"athana"a , BB Bharata, E9 , 9$ , 177 , 1"E Bharata(ksetra, 9$ Bhartrhari, .i. , ..iii , 1EE Bhavanavasi, 1"1 Bhavaprabhrta , 9G Bhavasena, ..vi , B Bhutavada , 1$$ Bihar, 1#D Brahmadatta, 1D$

Brahman, G# , 9B , 1D$ Brahmanical, viii , . , .i , ..ii , 1$ , 77 , 7$ , "E , 1#D , 1B$ , 1DG , 1D$ Brahmanism, ..i Brahmi, G" , 1#D Brhaspati, D" , 17" British, viii , i. B'ddha ><a'tama?, .iv , .v , ..ii , 71 (7B, 79 , 9E , 1#B , 1$G B'ddhism, viii , .i , .ii , .iv , ..ii , 97 , 1$G B'ddhist, .iii , .v , .vi , ..iii , ..iv , 1$ , 71 , 7" , 7D , 7$ , "D , "E , "$ , B$ , 97 , 1#B , 1"D , 1B$ , 1$G , 1$$ , 19# B'rma, 7D

C
Cakresvari, 1$ , 7$ Camara, 7G Campa, 1#D Candana, 7G , "" , 1#E Candra!'pta, 1 / 77E / #hedasutra >Hi!ambara?, 99 Christianity, ..iv

*
Hasaratha, ..ii Hasasilamattava, 7E , 79 Helhi, 1D# Hevarddhi @samasramana, "1 Hevasena, B , B7 Hhana, 1G" , 1$9 Hharasena, "7 Hharmakirti, 71 , 77 , B$ Hharmasastra, 77 , 7$ Hharmottara, 7$ Hhar%ar, B7

Hi!ambara, .iii , .v (.., ..iv , ..v , 1 (77, 7B , 7E , 7G , 79 ("B, "E (B$, ED , 97 (9$, 1## (11D, 11G (7#, 177 , 17B (7G, 1"# , 1"" ("9, 1BB (DE, 1D$ (E", 1ED (EG, 1G# (9" Hra'padi, ..iv , 1BD , 1EG , 1$G Hravidasan!ha, 1D# Hrdhapraharin, 1DE , 1D$ Drstivada , 1E$ , 1$1 , 1$$

E
8kayana, 7B 8'rope, viii , i.

G
<andhi, 6. @., ..ii <an!es, G$ <ar!i Aacaknavi, 1$ <a'tami 6ahapra2apati, 7" , 1$G <irnanar, 1#D <op'cchika, 1D# <opya, B" , BB , 1B9 <opyasan!ha, 1B9 <otami, .iv <ovindara2a, ..iv <'ha >Kisada?, ..ii <'2arat, ..ii , 7D , 79 , "1 , B$ , 1#D <'lb'r!a, B7 <'naratna, ..v (..vii, B , B7 , B" , 1B$ (D#, 1DG , 1D$ , 1D9 (E7, 191

<
;ari, 1#E ;aribhadra, ..v , B , BD , BE , B$ , 111 , 1B$ ;arisena, B" , 9G ;arivamsa, 7G ;emacandra, ..v , B , B$ , 1#" , 1#D , 1D# , 1D$ , 1$# , 19# ;inayana, 7B ;ind', i. (.iv, .vi , .viii , ..i (..iv, 1#D

;ind'ism, .iii (.iv

I
)ndia, vii (.ii, .vi , .viii (.i., ..iii , 7D , "B , 1#B )ndra, 71 , D" , DB , 17" , 1$G )ndrabh'ti <a'tama, "7 , 9$ , 1E$ )slamic, i. , . , ..iii

J
Jaiminiya, 1B$ Jaina, viii , .ii (.vi, .viii (..iv, ..vi , ..viii , 11 , 1" (1D, 1$ , 71 , 77 , 7" , 7D , 7E (79, "7 ("9, B1 (BB, BG , B$ , EG , GD , $# , 97 (9$, 1#7 , 1#B ($, 171 , 1"D ("G, 1B1 , 1BE (D#, 1D7 , 1DG , 1D$ , 1E# (E1, 1EG (E$, 1$# , 1$" , 1$G ($$, 19# (91 Jainabhasa, .. , B" , 1D# Jainamata, 1B9 Jainism, .i , .ii , .v (.vii, ..i , ..ii , 7E Jamb' Jamb', DB , 9E , 9$ , 1#7 , 1"B Jamb'dvipa, 1# Jamb'vi2aya, 6'ni, ..v , B$ , 97 , 9$ , 99 , 1## , 1#1 , 1#D , 1#G Japaniya, B7 Jarasandha, 1#D Javali!eya, B7 Javiliya, B7 Jayasena, .vii , ..vii , B , 9B , 1"9 (B1, 1BE , 1E# , 1$G , 197 Jinabhadra, B1 , 9$ Jinadharmabh'pa, 1$D Jinaprabhas'ri, 1#D Jinavi2aya, 6'ni, B$ , 1## J'daism, ..iv Jyotiska, 1"7

4
@aikeyi, ..ii @ailasa >6o'nt?, 1#D @akandip'ra, 9G @alhana, ..ii

@alidasa, 1$G @anha, 7G / 77G / @apila, 71 , 7$ @armapriya, 9G @arnataka, 79 , B7 , BG , 1#1 @ashmir, ..ii @astha, 1D# @asthasan!ha, 1B9 (D# @athiavad, 7D @rsna, ..ii , ..iv , E9 , G" , 1#D (E, 1D$ @rttika, 1# , 171 @satriya, . , ..ii , G# @'bera, 1G" , 1$9 @'m'dacandra, 79 @'ndak'nda, .i. , ..iv , ..vii , " , B , 1" , "1 ("B, "E , "G , "9 (B1, BD , 9B , 9G , 99 , 1## , 1#7 , 1#B , 1#9 , 11# , 117 , 1"$ (B#, 1BE , 1BG , 1D# , 1D$ (E7, 1EE @'nti, 1BD , 1$G @'sana, BB @'tch, 79

Laghiyastraya-&ivrti , 1#9 Iaksmana, 1#D Iaos, 7D Iokayatika, G1 I'ckno% >m'se'm?, 191

+
6adhava, 1B$ 6a!adha, 1#D , 1$7 6ahabala, 1B (1D, 7$ 6ahadeviyakka, 191 6ahamatsya, 9G

6ahapadma, 7E 6ahapa2apati, .iv 6aharashtra, 1#1 6ahatamahprabha, G 6ahavira, 1 , 7 , 1B , 71 , 7" , 7D , 79 , "1 ("", "D ("$, B# , BD , 97 (9B, 9G , 9$ , 1#1 , 1#7 , 1#B (E, 1"G , 1$$ , 191 6ahayana, .v , 7B 6aitreya, 7E , "# 6alaya!iri, ..v , B , B$ , 1D# 6alli, 1B , 1D , 7G , 7$ , B# , 1#E , 1"G , 1B1 , 1BD , 1BG , 1E7 , 1G7 , 1$G , 191 6allinatha, 1D 6andapad'r!a, 1#1 6an'sottara, DB 6ar'devi, 1EG , 1$7 , 1$G 6ar%ad, 7D , 7E 6asat'sa, 1D$ , 1$1 , 1$7 , 197 6ath'ra, BB , 1"G , 1D# , 191 6ath'rasan!a, 1"G , 1B9 6a'ryan, 1 , " 6ayanalladevi, 79 6e!havi2aya, .viii , ..iii , ..iv , ..vi , ..vii , B , 1" , 11" , 1B# , 1B1 , 1BG , 1D9 (E7, 1$E , 1$G , 1$9 , 19# , 197 (9" 6er't'n!a, 79 6imamsaka, G1 6leccha, 1#1 6r!adhva2a, E" , 1#" 6'lasan!ha, 1B9 , 1D# 6'nicandra, BD , B$ 6'slims, 1#1 6yanma >Union of?, 7D , 1$G

N
Kaiyayika, 171 , 1"D ("E, 1B$ Karada, 1DE , 1D$ Karayana, G"

,ayapravesa , 1#9 Kemi, 79 , 1#D , 1#E Kemicandra, B , 1BG , 1E# ,emi'aritra , 1$# Keo(Hi!ambara, ..vii , 1G7 , 1$" , 1$9 Ki!antha Katap'tta, "$ Kir!rantha, "1 Kispiccha, 1D#

O
&s%al, 7D , 7E

P
Padmanandi, "1 Pandava, 1$G Panini, B1 , 1$# Pankaprabha, G# Parasnath ;ills, 1#D Parsva, 79 , 1E$ Parsvanatha, "E Partha, 7$ , 1$7 Patna, 1#D Pava, 1#D Prabhacandra, .vii (..vii, B , 9 , 1# , B$ , 1#G , 1#9 , 111 (1", 1"B ("9, 1D# , 1DG , 1E# , 1E1 , 1G" , 1$D ($G, 1$9 , 197 (9", 19D / 77$ / Prabhasa, 1#B Prabhend', 1E# )ramanapravesa , 1#9 )rava'anapravesa , 1#9 )rthivi'andra'aritra , 1$1 P'nnata Jinasena, 1D$ P'nyavi2aya, 6'ni, B$ )urva , "7 , D# , DB , 9B , 9D , 1#B , 1D$ , 1E$ , 1E9 , 1$1 , 1$$ , 197

P'spadanta, "7

R
:aivata, 1$7 :a2a!rha, G1 , 1#D :a2asthan, ..ii , ..iv , 7D , 1#1 :a2imati, G" , 1#D , 1#E :a2imati, 1$7 , 1$G :ama, ..ii , ..iv , 1#D , 1#E :amaka>'P?lya, G1 , 1#D :amak'nda, 1#D :astrak'ta, BG :atnaprabha, ..v , B , B$ , 1D# , 1E# :atnaprabha, G# :avana, 1#D :ohini, 1# , 171 :sabha, 71 , 77 , 7$ , BD , 1#D , 1"E , 1BD , 1$G :'kmini, 1#E , 1BD

S
Sabari, ..iii Sa!ara(Ka!ara2a(d'hita, 7B , 79 Sahasrara, D" , 9G , 11E , 11G , 1DD Saivite, 9G , 191 Sakata, 171 Sakatayana, .vii , ..v , ..vi , ..vii , 17 , B1 , BB (BG, 97 , 9B , 1## , 1#7 , 1#G , 111 (1", 1"$ , 1B# , 1D# , 1DG , 1E# (E7, 1$E , 1$G , 191 Sakra, 71 Salisiktha, 9G Salisi"tha"athana"a , 9G Samb'ka, ..ii Samkhya, 71 , B$ Samkicca, 1#B , 1B$ Sammeta >6o'nt?, G1 , 1#D Sangraha-arya , 99 , 1"D

Sankha, 1$# Santinatha, B$ Santis'ri, ..v , B , B$ , 1D# Sarvarthasiddhi, G , $ , 17" , 1G# , 1$1 , 1$$ Satr'n2aya 1$7 , 197 Satyabhama, G" , 1#E Sa'rasena, 9G Savitri, ..ii Sayanacarya, ..iii Siddhara2a, 79 Siddhivinis'aya , D$ Sita, ..ii , G" , 1#E , 1"1 , 1BD Sitak'nda, 1#D Sitambara, 117 , 171 , 1"B , 1"D Siva, GD Sivabh'ti, 1D$ , 197 Sivakoti, 99 , 1## Sivarya, BE Sivasvamin, BE , BG , D$ , 99 Sramana, i. , 7B , BG Sri Ianka, 7D , 1$G Srimali, 7D Srivi2aya, BE Sr'takevalidesiyacarya, BG Sr'tasa!ara, "B , "9 , 9G , 1#1 , 1#7 , 1D# , 1D$ Sthanakavasi, .v , 7D , 7E Sth'labhadra, "1 , "7 S'bhacandra, B" , BB , 1$G S'bhadra, 1BD , 1$G S'bha'ma, 1D$ S'dharman, 9$ S'dra, ..ii , 77 , 7$ , 197 S'ndari, GD , 1#D Svati, G1

Svayambh'ramana, 9G Svayamprabha, ..iii Svetambara, .iii (.viii, .. , ..iv (..vii, 1 (7", 7D (7G, 79 ("G, "9 (B$, 97 (9B, 9$ , 1## (1#E, 111 , 117 , 171 , 177 , 1"7 , 1"D (B#, 1BB , 1BD , 1BG (DG, 1D9 (E7, 1ED , 1EG (E9, 1G7 ($D, 1$G (9" Svetavasa, 1D#

T
-antra, BD -antric, 19 -apa!accha, 1D9 / 779 / -ara, 1$ , 7$ $attvadipi"a , 1"9 -erapanthi, 7D -hailand, 7D , 1$G -heravada, .iv , ..i , ..iii , 7D , 79 , "D , 9B , 1$G -'lsi Has, .vi

U
U22ain, B" U22ayanta, G1 , 1#D Umasvati, 1# , 11 Upanishads, 1$

V
Aada, G1 Aaddhamana, BD Aadideva, B , 79 Aadivetala(Santis'ri, ..v , B$ Aahika, G$ , G9 Aaisesika, 1B$ Aaisya, 77 , 7$ , G# , 197 Aalabhi, "1 Aalmiki, ..ii , 1#E

Aardhamana >6ahavira?, 7 Aasaha, BD Aasantakirti, 1#1 , 1#E Aas'p'2ya, 1#D Aata!rama, 1$7 Aatsyayana, ..iv , 19# , 191 Aattakera, BE Aeda, viii , . , .iv , ..i , G1 Aedic, . , .vi , 77 Aideha(ksetra, 9$ &i%aya'andra'aritra , 1$1 Aira, "7 Airasaiva, 191 Airasena, B , 9$ , 99 , 11# , 111 , 11" Aisakha, "7 Aisn'k'mara, 1"E Ayantara, 1"7

Y
Faksa, 1$G Fapana(san!ha, BB Fapaniya, .iii , .. , ..v (..vii, B , 17 , 1D , 7G , B1 (B9, D1 , DD (E9, G1 , G7 , GB , GE , GG , G9 , $1 , $" ($E, $$ , $9 , 91 , 97 , 9B , 9E , 9$ , 99 , 1## , 1#E , 1#G , 111 (1B, 11G (7#, 17" (7G, 179 , 1"# , 1"7 , 1"B ("$, 1B# , 1B9 (D#, 1DG , 1E# , 1E7 , 1$E ($9, 191 Fapaniyaka, 1D# *apaniya-tantra , 11 , BD , BE , 11# (1B Fap'liya, B7 Fasodhara, 191 Fasomati, 1$# Fasovi2aya, ..v , B , 1E# Fo!a >darsana?, "$ , 77# / 7"1 / Compositor: -homson Press >)ndia? Iimited, Ke% Helhi -e.t: 1# 1" Sabon

Hisplay: Sabon Printer: Bra'n(Br'mfield, )nc. Binder: Bra'n(Br'mfield, )nc. 1. =or concise introd'ctions to the three heterodo.ies in ancient )ndia see, for Jainism, Jaini >19G9?0 for B'ddhism no ade5'ate sin!le vol'me e.ists, b't an e.cellent 'nderstandin! of the le!ends, doctrines, and monastic r'les of early )ndian -heravada B'ddhism can be !otten from Carren >1$9E, pp. E#(E1?0 for *2ivikism see Basham >19D1?. )n the areas %ith %hich they %ere chiefly concerned1metaphysics, the e.istence, nat're, and destiny of the h'man so'l, the 'sef'lness of bha"ti , the efficacy of Aedic rit'al, and the a'thority of the Aedas themselves1these schools %ere %ell positioned to make a po%erf'l criti5'e of Brahmanism and ;ind'ism. =or, as :ana2it <'ha p'ts it >19$9, p. 71D?, 9no criticism can be f'lly activated 'nless its ob2ect is distanced from its a!ency.9 Konetheless, as %ill be sho%n belo%, this distance in the case of the heterodo. systems %as only partial. )n critical areas, s'ch as the 'nderstandin! of !ender and the role of %omen both in temporal society and in the reli!io's comm'nities %hose very raison d+Ltre is the ren'nciation of temporal society, these schools shared and even bolstered the ideolo!ical pres'ppositions of Brahmanism. 7. -h's, for e.ample, it has often been ar!'ed that <andhi derived his concerns %ith ve!etarianism and especially the techni5'e of nonviolence as a political instr'ment from his formative years in <'2arat, an area %hose c'lt're is tho'!ht to have been heavily infl'enced by the Jainas, %ho have been concentrated there in the modern period. See, for e.ample, 8rikson >19E9, pp. 1E7(1E"?. ". <'ha, for e.ample, applies his analysis of historio!raphical materials to premodern )ndian te.ts. -h's he t'rns his attention to the !a%atarangini 0, a %ell(kno%n history of @ashmir by the t%elfth( cent'ry poet(historian @alhana. -he problem here, ho%ever, is that te.ts even as 9historical9 as @alhana+s are a !reat rarity in premodern )ndia and <'ha+s analysis even of this te.t, altho'!h provocative, is filled %ith anachronisms. See <'ha >19$9, pp. 71G(719?. B. -ypical fi!'res of this type %o'ld be Sita and Savitri, e.amples of perfectly devoted %ives in the epic and pop'lar literat'res, and <'ha >the Kisada chief, not the historian?, %ho, altho'!h of lo%, even despised, class, ennobles himself thro'!h service and devotion to the @satriya !od(man, :ama. D. 8.amples of this type %o'ld be @aikeyi, the ins'fficiently s'bordinated 5'een of @in! Hasaratha, %hose name is still 'sed in )ndia as a pe2orative term for a shre%ish %ife or one %ho p'ts her o%n interests before those of her h'sband, or Samb'ka, the lo%ly sudra 0, or peasant, %ho dares to appropriate a f'nction of the 'pper classes, reli!io's penance, and is s'mmarily e.ec'ted for this offense by the kin! in the last book of the !amayana 0. See &almi"i !amayana , A)), ED(EG. E. * de!ree of e!alitarianism, %hich incl'des %omen only insofar as it e.tends to them the possibility of spirit'al liberation, becomes characteristic not only of the heterodo. !ro'ps b't of the vario's traditions of devotional ;ind'ism that, collectively, become the dominant reli!io's tradition in So'th *sia %ith the %anin! of B'ddhism and Jainism. 8ven as early as the Bhagavad-Gita 0 >i., "7?, the a'thors find it pr'dent, in makin! the case for bhakti, to have @rsna observe that %omen, alon! %ith members of the lo%er social orders, may thro'!h this method attain salvation. =or a detailed disc'ssion of the Brahmanical position on liberation for %omen and the si!nificance of the Gita 0 passa!e, %hich is even cited by one Jaina a'thor, see the )ntrod'ction >JB#? and Chapter A) >J$7 and n. B"?. G. -he ;ind' literat're, rooted as it is mainly in the social life of the comm'nity and containin! a considerable body of te.ts on erotics, both poetic and technical, is th's only partially concerned %ith overt attacks on %omen as a class. *s for B'ddhism, it sho'ld be remembered that altho'!h it is his enco'nter %ith the fo'r visions that aro'ses in the Bodhisattva his desire to leave the %orld, it is the si!ht of the partially clothed bodies of the bea'tif'l dancin! !irls sent to divert him that provides the immediate impet's for him to leave his family and become a mendicant. See Carren >1$9E, pp. DE(E1?.

Compare the elaborate treatment of this episode in *sva!hosa+s poetic renderin! of the B'ddha+s career, the Buddha'arita >v, BG(ED?, in Johnston >19"E?. -he Jaina attit'de to%ard %omen and the female body is disc'ssed at len!th belo%. $. =or e.amples of this approach see 6asson >19GB, 19GD?, :aman'2an >19G7?, <oldman >19G$, 19$D?, and S'therland >19$9, =orthcomin!?. *side from these and a fe% other st'dies, mostly by the same a'thors, most scholarship on the role of %omen in ancient )ndian literat're and society has consisted of catalo!s of references in specific te.ts or the literat're as a %hole >e.!., 6eyer, 19"#?, traditionalist apolo!ia attemptin! to demonstrate that ne!ative attit'des to%ard %omen in contemporary )ndia are the res'lt of a post()slamic de!eneration of a very different sit'ation in ancient times, or reli!io's(historical st'dies of 9the <oddess9 >e.!., @insley, 19$E?. -his last type is of little 'se in reconstr'ctin! the sociolo!y of !ender in premodern )ndia. 9. =or -heravada B'ddhism the most 'sef'l %ork is ;orner >19"#?. =or the 6ahayana schools see Pa'l >19G9?. =or a st'dy of the treatment of homose.'ality in B'ddhism, see M%illin! >19$9?. 1#. <oldman >19$B, p. DD, n. 1#G?. 11. Brhadaranya"a-upanisad 0, )ll, $, 1(170 )A, D, 1(1D. Passa!es s'ch as these have, ho%ever, been fre5'ently 'sed as the basis for claimin! that there %as complete social e5'ality for %omen in vedic )ndia. -his is hi!hly 'nlikely. 17. See, for e.ample, the stories of Sabari at !amayana 0, iii, G#, and of Svayamprabha >iv, B9(D1?. 1". -his famo's passa!e is disc'ssed in the )ntrod'ction >JB1?. * len!thy treatment is !iven in ;orner >19"#, pp. 9D(11G?. 1B. See ;orner >19"#, pp. 1#"(1#B?. 1D. See ;orner >19"#, pp. 11#(117?. 1E. Pa'l >19G9, p. 1E9?. 1G. =or a disc'ssion of the tradition concernin! these n'mbers in ancient times see Jaini >19G9, p. "G? and ;orner >19"#, pp. 1#1(1#7?. =or an indication of the relative n'mbers of monks and n'ns in modern times see Jaini >19G9, p. 7BE, n. $?. 1$. *ccordin! to the Jainas a layman, ho%ever pio's, cannot, since he or she does not practice the necessary vo%s of the monastic orders in their most ri!oro's form, attain nirvana 0. See Jaini >19G9, p. 1E#?. &f co'rse it sho'ld be noted that so restricted is the Jaina vie% in the matter of the attainment of tr'e spirit'al release that it is held that in the c'rrent de!enerate period of the Jaina cycle of time, no one, not even the most pio's monk, can attain nirvana 0. See the )ntrod'ction >JBB?. 19. *t !gveda 0, N, 9D, 1D, for e.ample, it is stated that there can be no friendship %ith %omen as they have the hearts of %olves or 2ackals >9na vai strainani sakhyani santi salavrkanam hrdayany eta9?. -he !reat commentator Sayanacarya e.plains that s'ch friendships are like those fatal ones formed by tr'stin! creat'res s'ch as calves. 7#. 71. ahabharata 0, N))), 17, 11(1D. anusmrti , v, 1B$.

77. !am'aritmanas 0, A, D$, E >p. G"E?. 7". *s mentioned above, B'ddhist te.ts often refer 'npleasantly to the female !enitalia as a %ay of c'ltivatin! aversion to the life of the senses. *ltho'!h this attit'de r'ns co'nter to the fetishistic foc's on the female anatomy and its constit'ent parts in the co'rtly erotic and romantic literat're as %ell as

the te.tbooks on erotics, some of the ;ind' literat're shares this phobic attit'de to%ard the female body. &ne %ell(kno%n verse from the collection attrib'ted to the co'rtier(t'rned(ascetic Bhartrhari is 5'oted by 6e!havi2aya. See Chapter A) >J1# and n. 1#?. 7B. See, for e.ample, the e.tensive lin!'istic ar!'mentation on this point in Chapter )) >J9D(1B1?. 7D. Compare, for e.ample, the lo!ical ar!'mentation in Chapter ))) >J$(11?. 7E. See Chapters A) >J1$? and )) >JEB(G7?. 7G. Compare the sketchy and 'ncertain references to homose.'ality in 6eyer >19"#?. -he phenomenon is all b't i!nored in the copio's epic and dharmasastra 0 literat're, %hich other%ise tends to be filled %ith prescriptions and prohibitions on virt'ally every aspect of h'man behavior. 8ven the te.ts on se.'al behavior, the "amasastra , %hich deli!ht in detailed catalo!in! of the varieties of h'man se.'al response, have little to say on this s'b2ect beyond some disc'ssion of the se.'al activities of 9napumsa"as 9 %itho't makin! it 5'ite clear %hether these are tr'e hermaphrodites, e'n'chs, or biolo!ically normal males %hose se.'al desires are aro'sed by other males. See, for e.ample, Aatsyayana+s (amasutra 0. &ther than this, homoeroticism is mentioned in ;ind' te.ts mainly in the conte.t of po%erf'l devotion, as in passa!es %here @rsna+s lovers, in the !rief and madness of separation from him, make love %ith one another. )n one interestin! passa!e, the !amayana 0 commentator <ovindara2a, attemptin! to e.plain the sense in %hich :ama is said to be 9pumsam drsti'ittapaharinam ,9 or 9one %ho ravishes the si!ht and hearts of men,9 5'otes a verse in %hich %omen, %atchin! the princess Hra'padi at her bath, 9mentally become men,9 that is, conceive a >male? se.'al passion for her. See <ovindara2a on !amayana 0 7.".79 ><'2arati Printin! Press edition, p. B79?. )n the r'les of cond'ct for B'ddhist monks the 5'estion of male homose.'ality is disc'ssed and the practice condemned, b't so far as ) can determine no theory is p't forth to e.plain it. See M%illin! >19$9?. 7$. Chapter A) >J1#?. 79. See, for e.ample, Chapter A) >J11?. "#. )n response to the Svetambara ob2ection that the male body too m'st s'pport s'ch life(forms, the Hi!ambaras reply that it does b't in s'ch relatively small n'mbers as not to present an ins'perable obstacle to the f'll adoption of the mendicant vo%s and practice. See, for e.ample, Chapter )A >JG?. "1. )nterestin!ly, the intimate association the Jainas make bet%een se.'ality and violence is rendered still more e.plicit by their ob2ection to se.'al interco'rse not merely in the 's'al terms of morality and control of the senses b't in terms of their preocc'pation %ith ahimsa. =or if, as they ar!'e, the va!inal canal is infested %ith vast s%arms of min'te bein!s, then it follo%s that the po%erf'l friction of the se.'al act m'st sla'!hter them in h'!e n'mbers. )ndeed the Jaina a'thors fre5'ently cite verses to the effect that %ith each 9blo%9 h'ndreds of tho'sands perish. -his, co'pled %ith the loss of e5'ally lar!e n'mbers of bein!s in the dischar!e of semen, makes, in the Jaina vie%, each act of se.'al interco'rse a kind of massive holoca'st of livin! bein!s. =or an ill'stration of these vie%s see Chapter A) >JE9?. "7. See, for e.ample, Chapter ))) >JB9(D7?. "". See, for e.ample, Chapter A) >J11?. "B. -here are a n'mber of s'ch st'dies no% available. See, for e.ample, Bo'cher >19$$?0 for Christianity see Ceber >19$G?. * st'dy of the feminist challen!e to patriarchal reli!io's a'thority and the resistance that it meets is to be fo'nd in Ceaver >19$D?. Similar %orks e.ist for J'daism and so on. 1. &n the canonical literat're of the t%o Jaina sects, see J)) , chap. 7. 7. -he %ord 'sed for the Jaina monks in ancient times is nirgrantha and not 9Hi!ambara9 or

9Svetambara90 see Chapter )) >n. 17?. =or a disc'ssion on the nat're of the %ina"alpa in the t%o traditions, see Chapter )) >n. "D?. ". See Chapter ) >J1($? and a commentary on these verses in Chapter )A >JE($?. B. =or vario's traditions concernin! the ori!in of the Fapaniyas, see Chapter )) >J"?. D. Selections from the Sanskrit te.ts on strimo"sa from some of these Svetambara %orks appear in the Strinirvana-(evalibhu"tipra"arane >app. ))?. E. =or this ar!'ment and its co'nterar!'ment at J9, see Chapters ))) >J1? and A >J1 and n. 1?. G. =or a lon!er list of ar!'ments a!ainst strimoksa, Chapter A) >J7D(B1?. $. =or a dia!rammatic representation of the Jaina 'niverse and a description of the abode of the liberated so'ls, see J)) , pp. 17$ and 7G#. 9. &n the s'kladhyanas that are !ained only to%ard the very end of the Jaina spirit'al path, see J)) , pp. 7DG(7G#. 1#. See Chapter ))) >J"B?. 11. See Chapter ))) >J"E(BD?. 17. 9-he perfected so'ls can be differentiated %ith reference to the re!ion, the time, the basis of birth, the !ender, the mendicant cond'ct, and so forth9 >ksetrakala!atilin!atirthacaritrapratyekab'ddhabodhita2nanava!ahana+ntarasamkhya+lpabah'tvena sadhyah0 $attvarthasutra , ., G?. 1". =or details on these vedas or 9libidos,9 see Chapter A) >J1(E?. 1B. See Chapter ))) >J$B?. 1D. See Chapter A >J1 and n. 1?. 1E. See Chapter )) >J$9?. 1G. See Chapters )) >n. DG? and )A >J1"?. 1$. See Chapter A) >J$9?. 19. Birth of a female -irthankara >itthitittham ? is listed amon! the ten e.traordinary events that take place once in an 9infinite9 time cycle: 'vasa!!a!abbhaharanam itthitittham abhaviya parisa, @anhassa *varakamka 'ttaranam camdas'riyanam. 314 ;arivamsak'l'ppatti Camar'ppao ya atthasayasiddha, asam2ayes' p'a dasavi anamtena kalena. 374 Sthananga-sutra , J1#GB >Suttagame , p. "1B?. 7#. =or the Svetambara acco'nt of 6alli, see ,ayadhamma"ahao , chap. viii0 :oth >19$"?0 $risastisala"apurusa'aritra , vol. )A, chap. E. =or the Hi!ambara version, see +ttarapurana , chap. BE. 71. -he Svetambara acco'nt of 6alli ends %ith an e.hortation that c'nnin!, even if employed in matters of piety, leads to the calamity of rebirth as a %oman: '!!atavasam2amavao pa!itthaphalasaha!assavi 2iyassa, dhammavisaye vi s'h'ma vi hoi maya anatthaya. 314 2aha 6allissa 6ahabalabhavammi titthayaranamabamdhe +vi, tavavisayathevamaya 2aya 2'vaittahet'tti. 374 ,ayadhamma"ahao , ), viii, $D. 77. See Chapter ))) >JE#?. 7". See Chapter ))) >JDG?. 7B. See Chapter ))) >JG#?.

7D. =or the story of the Jaina lo!ician *kalanka bein! helped by the !oddess Cakresvari a!ainst the B'ddhists %ho %ere bein! helped by their !oddess -ara in a debate, see ,yaya"umuda'andra , pt. 1, intro., p. "E. 7E. See Chapter A) >J1$?. 7G. See Chapter A) >J"B?. 7$. sandi!dhobhayavyatirekah, yatha1avitara!ah @apiladayah, pari!raha!rahayo!ad iti. atra vaidharmyodaharanam . . . yo vitara!o na tasya pari!raha!rahah, yatha :sabhader iti. :sabhader avitara!atvapari!raha!rahayo!ayoh sadhyasadhanadharmayoh sandi!dho vyatirekah. ,yayabinduti"a , J1"7. 79. Commentin! on the above, Hharmottara says: yatha :sabhader iti drstantah. etasmad :sabhader drstantad avitara!asya pari!raha!rahayo!asya ca sadhanasya nivrttih sandi!dha. :sabhadinam hi pari!raha!rahayo!o +pi sandi!dho vitara!atvam ca. yadi nama tatsiddhante vitara!as ca pathante tathapi sandeha eva. ,yayabindu-ti"a , J1"7. 9Ko%, it is do'btf'l %hether really in the case of this :sabha both the predicate and the reason, both the fact of bein! s'b2ect to passions and havin! the instinct of property are absent. )ndeed, it is not certain %hether :sabha and consorts are really free from the instinct of propery and from passions. *ltho'!h in their o%n school they are declared to be s'ch, b't this is nevertheless, very do'btf'l90 Stcherbatsky+s translation of the ,yayabindu in Buddhist Logi' , )), p. 7BE. "#. nasti strinam prtha! ya2Ro na vratam napy 'posanam, patim s'sr'sate yena tena svar!e mahiyate0 anusmrti , v, 1DD. pita raksati ka'mare bharta raksati ya'vane, raksanti sthavire p'tra na stri svatantryam arhati0 ibid., i., ". nasti strinam kriya mantrair iti dharmavyavasthitih, nirindriya hy amantras ca striyo +nrtam iti sthitih0 ibid., i., 1$. -he theme of strimoksa is conspic'o's by its absence in P. A. @ane+s vol'mino's .istory of Dharmasastra %ith the e.ception of a sin!le reference to the possibility of %omen sec'rin! kno%led!e of moksa >in the absence of their access to the Aedic script're? on p. 971, n. 1BE$a >vol. A, p. ))?. Several ancient literary %orks >e.!., the (adambari of Banabhatta, p. $#? refer to parivra%i"as >female %anderin! reli!io's mendicants of the Brahmanical tradition?. -hese seem to be individ'als %ho practiced asceticism %itho't formin! a comm'nity, 'nlike the Jaina or B'ddhist n'ns %ho invariably %ere members of a san!ha >comm'nity of mendicant orders?. 79. Commentin! on the above, Hharmottara says: yatha :sabhader iti drstantah. etasmad :sabhader drstantad avitara!asya pari!raha!rahayo!asya ca sadhanasya nivrttih sandi!dha. :sabhadinam hi pari!raha!rahayo!o +pi sandi!dho vitara!atvam ca. yadi nama tatsiddhante vitara!as ca pathante tathapi sandeha eva. ,yayabindu-ti"a , J1"7. 9Ko%, it is do'btf'l %hether really in the case of this :sabha both the predicate and the reason, both the fact of bein! s'b2ect to passions and havin! the instinct of property are absent. )ndeed, it is not certain %hether :sabha and consorts are really free from the instinct of propery and from passions. *ltho'!h in their o%n school they are declared to be s'ch, b't this is nevertheless, very do'btf'l90 Stcherbatsky+s translation of the ,yayabindu in Buddhist Logi' , )), p. 7BE. "#. nasti strinam prtha! ya2Ro na vratam napy 'posanam, patim s'sr'sate yena tena svar!e mahiyate0 anusmrti , v, 1DD. pita raksati ka'mare bharta raksati ya'vane, raksanti sthavire p'tra na stri svatantryam arhati0 ibid., i., ". nasti strinam kriya mantrair iti dharmavyavasthitih, nirindriya hy amantras ca striyo +nrtam iti sthitih0 ibid., i., 1$. -he theme of strimoksa is conspic'o's by its absence in P. A. @ane+s vol'mino's .istory of Dharmasastra %ith the e.ception of a sin!le reference to the possibility of %omen sec'rin! kno%led!e of moksa >in the absence of their access to the Aedic script're? on p. 971, n. 1BE$a >vol. A, p. ))?. Several ancient literary %orks >e.!., the (adambari of Banabhatta, p. $#? refer to parivra%i"as >female %anderin! reli!io's mendicants of the Brahmanical

tradition?. -hese seem to be individ'als %ho practiced asceticism %itho't formin! a comm'nity, 'nlike the Jaina or B'ddhist n'ns %ho invariably %ere members of a san!ha >comm'nity of mendicant orders?. "1. mam hi Partha vyapasritya ye +pi sy'h papayonayah, striyo vaisyas tatha s'dras te +pi yanti param !atim0 Bhagavad-Gita , i., "7. See Chapter A) >J$7, n. B"?. "7. alam *nanda, ma te r'cci mat'!amassa tatha!atappavedite dhammavinaye a!arasma ana!ariyam pabba22a. . . . bhabbo, *nanda, mat'!amo arahattaphalam pi sacchikat'm . . .0 &inaya )ita"am, #ullavagga , ., 1. "". =or these r'les in the Pali &inaya )ita"am and the Sanskrit Bhi"suni-vinaya , see Chapter A) >n. 1G?. "B. man'ssattam lim!asampatti het' sattharadassanam, pabba22a !'nasampatti adhikaro ca chandata0 atthadhammasamodhana abhiniharo sami22hati. 314 man'ssattabhavasmim yeva hi thatva B'ddhattam patthentassa patthana sami22hati, . . . man'ssattabhave pi p'risalim!e thitass+ eva patthana sami22hati, itthiya va pandakanap'msaka('bhato byan2anakanam va no sami22hati . . .0 Jata"a , ), p. 1B. "D. =or an apocryphal story >called the )adipadana%ata"a ? of <a'tama+s last female incarnation, see Jaini >19$9?. "E. pancasthanani stri adyapi na prapnoti. katamani paRcaP prathamam brahmasthanam, dvitiyam sakrasthanam, trtiyam mahara2asthanam, cat'rtham cakravartisthanam, paRcamam avaivartikabodhisattvasthanam. . . . atha tasyam velayam Sa!ara(Ka!ara2ad'hita sarvalokapratyaksam . . . tat strindriyam antarhitam, p'r'sendriyam ca prad'rbh'tam, bodhisattvabh'tam catmanam samdarsayati0 Saddharmapundari"a-sutra , chap. .i. Ioss of a female rebirth is also considered to be one of the fr'its of readin! the Saddharmapundari"asutra : sacet matr!rama imam dharmaparyayam sr'tva . . . dharayisyati, tasya sa eva pascimah stribhavo bhavisyati0 ibid., chap. ..ii. "D. =or an apocryphal story >called the )adipadana%ata"a ? of <a'tama+s last female incarnation, see Jaini >19$9?. "E. pancasthanani stri adyapi na prapnoti. katamani paRcaP prathamam brahmasthanam, dvitiyam sakrasthanam, trtiyam mahara2asthanam, cat'rtham cakravartisthanam, paRcamam avaivartikabodhisattvasthanam. . . . atha tasyam velayam Sa!ara(Ka!ara2ad'hita sarvalokapratyaksam . . . tat strindriyam antarhitam, p'r'sendriyam ca prad'rbh'tam, bodhisattvabh'tam catmanam samdarsayati0 Saddharmapundari"a-sutra , chap. .i. Ioss of a female rebirth is also considered to be one of the fr'its of readin! the Saddharmapundari"asutra : sacet matr!rama imam dharmaparyayam sr'tva . . . dharayisyati, tasya sa eva pascimah stribhavo bhavisyati0 ibid., chap. ..ii. "G. -ranslated by -h'rman, chap. G. =or a disc'ssion on the si!nificance of the se. chan!e as described in the seventh chapter >-he <oddess? of the &imala"irti-sutra , see Pa'l >19G9, chap. E?. "$. Saddharmapundari"a-sutra , chap. v, verses D9($". "9. =or the n'mber of monks and n'ns in the mendicant comm'nity of 6ahavira and that of the t%o earlier Jinas, namely Parsva and Kemi, see (alpasutra >Jacobi+s trans. 1$$B, pp. 7EG(7$D?. =or a detailed s'rvey of the mendicants of the Svetambara sect, see John Cort+s forthcomin! article 9-he Svetambar 6'rtip'2ak Sadh'.9

B#. &f the thirty(fo'r n'ns intervie%ed in the area of @'tch, for e.ample, fifteen >%ith a!es varyin! from 1E to BD? %ere %ido%s, three >a!es 7", "7, and "E? %ere married b't had been permitted by their h'sbands to become n'ns, and the remainin! si.teen >bet%een the a!es of 9 and 7"? %ere 'nmarried at the time of their ordination >di"sa ?. =or a brief acco'nt of the lives of a fe% leadin! Jaina n'ns, see Shanta >19$D, pp. B"G(D1$?. B1. sace, *nanda, nalabhissa mat'!amo . . . pabba22am, ciratthitikam, *nanda, brahmacariyam abhavissa, vassasahassam saddhammo tittheyya, . . . . paRc+eva dani, *nanda, vassasatani saddhammo thassati0 &inaya )ita"am, #ullavagga , N, ii, 7. B7. &n the state of n'ns in the -heravada tradition, see =alk and <ross >19$#?. =or a history of the Hasasilamatta%as seekin! the stat's of a n'n, see Bloss >19$G?. B". See Shanta >19$D, pp. "D$("E1?. BB. )t may be 'sef'l in this connection to dra% attention to the le!end of a sectarian debate on strimoksa reported by the Svetambara a'thor 6er't'n!a in his )rabandha'intamani , pp. EE(E9. *ccordin! to this narrative, d'rin! the rei!n of Siddhara2a >t%elfth cent'ry? in <'2arat, a !reat Hi!ambara mendicant named @'m'dacandra from the Heccan arrived in his capital city *nahillap'ra and challen!ed the Svetambara monks to en!a!e in a debate on this 5'estion. -he Svetambara acarya Heva >later to be kno%n as Aadideva? accepted his challen!e and defeated him in a p'blic debate held at the co'rt of Siddhara2a. -he Hi!ambara @'m'dacandra died of h'miliation and shock, and the Hi!ambaras in the city %ere made to leave the co'ntry in dis!race. )t is said that Siddhara2a+s chief 5'een 6ayanalladevi >probably beca'se she also hailed from @arnataka? initially favored the Hi!ambara monk and even openly 'r!ed him on to victory. Chen she %as told that the Hi!ambaras opposed liberation for %omen %hile the Svetambaras 'pheld it, ho%ever, she shifted her alle!iance to the latter. -his debate is not attested in the Hi!ambara tradition, b't it is not 'nlikely that it is based on historical fact. -his is probably the only e.tant literary evidence that openly declares a prominent %oman+s conversion to the side %hich 'pheld the spirit'al liberation of %omen in preference to the one %hich had denied this privile!e to her. -his s'pports my ass'mption that the !reat disparity in the n'mber of n'ns in the t%o sects is a reflection of %omen+s response to the more s'pportive attit'de taken by the Svetambara tradition to%ard them. BD. &n 6aitreya and the f't're Jina, see Jaini >19$$?. 1. Jinavarendra, literally the s'preme Iord of the Jinas. -he %ord 9Jina9 is derived from the root %i to con5'er and means a spirit'al victor. -his is the desi!nation of a monk %ho has attained omniscience >called "evala%nana , kno%led!e isolated from karmic bonds? b't %ho is still alive and leads the normal life of a mendicant. )n Jaina terminolo!y s'ch a person is also called a @evalin >one %ho is endo%ed %ith kevala2nana? or an *rhat >one %ho is %orthy of %orship?. Unlike the -heravada B'ddhist *rhat, ho%ever, a Jaina *rhat m'st be an &mniscient Bein!. B't not all *rhats en!a!e in teachin!0 rather it is considered to be the prero!ative of a fe% so'ls >comparable to the Bodhisattvas in B'ddhism? like 6ahavira %ho ac5'ire, by practicin! vario's perfections, those fac'lties that confer 'pon them the stat's of a -irthankara >lit., one %ho b'ilds a ford to cross the river of transmi!ration, samsara ?. -hey are therefore called the Iords of the *rhats or Jinendra. )n practice, ho%ever, the %ord 9Jina9 has been applied to the -irthankaras as %ell, the follo%ers of %hom are called the Jainas. >=or a disc'ssion on the role of -irthankaras, see J)) , pp. 79("D. =or a comparison bet%een a Bodhisattva and a -irthankara, see Jaini, 19$1.? 7. -he %ord 9moksa9 is derived from the root mu' , to release, and means emancipation of the so'l from the state of embodiment. -he initial sta!e of this state is reached %hen the so'l becomes a @evalin

as described in note 1. -he state of embodiment %ill, ho%ever, contin'e for the d'ration of the @evalin+s life. *t his death the @evalin+s so'l becomes totally free from all bonds of corporeality, and th's released it instantly rises like a flame to the s'mmit of the 'niverse >lo"a ? and abides there forever endo%ed %ith perfect p'rity and omniscience. ;enceforth this so'l %ill be called a Siddha, the Perfected Bein!. -his is the final !oal of a Jaina and is called moksa. ". ,is'ela , >lit., 9%itho't clothes9?. -he terms Hi!ambara and Svetambara disc'ssed in note 1 are conspic'o'sly absent both in the e.tant Svetambara canon and in the most ancient Hi!ambara te.ts incl'din! those by @'ndak'nda. -he canonical %ord that comes closest in meanin! to the term Hi!ambara is a'ela"a , 9%itho't clothes.9 Both sects a!ree that 6ahavira after reno'ncin! his ho'sehold had adopted total n'dity, b't they do not a!ree on %hether this practice %as re5'ired of all those %ho follo%ed his path. -he Svetambara te.ts e.plicitly state that the mendicant follo%ers of the -irthankara Parsvanatha >c. tenth cent'ry B.C. ?, the predecessor of 6ahavira, %ore clothes as did the ma2ority of 6ahavira+s o%n disciples incl'din! his !anadharas >see J)) , p. 1B?. -h's %hile the Svetambaras do not disp'te the fact of 6ahavira+s n'dity they assert that the cond'ct of the clothed monks is in f'll accordance %ith his teachin!s and leads to the same !oal of moksa. -he Hi!ambaras, ho%ever, as noted above, do not accept the a'thenticity of the Svetambara script're and insist that the vo% of n'dity is a necessary, altho'!h certainly not the only, condition of Jaina mendicancy. -hey therefore do not reco!ni,e the claim of the Svetambara monks to the stat's of mendicancy and vie% them as heretics, apostates from the tr'e mendicant path of 6ahavira. -he Svetambaras for their part maintain that altho'!h n'dity %as allo%ed d'rin! the time of 6ahavira, its practice %as proscribed for o'r de!enerate times >see Chapter )), J7"? and hence those %ho still adhere to n'dity are in violation of the script'ral in2'nctions and cannot be considered the tr'e mendicant follo%ers of 6ahavira. B. )anipatra . * Hi!ambara mendicant carries no be!!in! bo%l b't instead 'ses his 2oined palms to receive morsels of food and hence is called a panipatra >lit., 9one %ho 'ses his hands as a bo%l9?. ;e is allo%ed to eat or drink only once and only d'rin! the daytime, for %hich he visits a Jaina ho'sehold and eats, %hile standin!, the food that has been placed in his palms. )n contrast a Svetambara monk m'st not eat or drink after s'nset b't may partake of food more than once d'rin! the day. Iike his B'ddhist co'nterpart, he m'st keep a set of %ooden bo%ls for collectin! food and %ater from different, and if necessary even from non(Jaina, ho'seholds. ;e m'st brin! the food !athered to his residence and cons'me it seated in the company of his fello% mendicants. -he Hi!ambaras have claimed that the habit of eatin! in one+s palms !reatly red'ces the dependence on the ho'seholder and is a mark of tr'e ren'nciation of all attachments to s'ch %orldly possessions as bo%ls and the like. * Hi!ambara monk is, ho%ever, re5'ired to carry a !o'rd >"amandalu ? for keepin! %ater that may not be 'sed for drinkin! b't only for toilet p'rposes. D. -marga . @'ndak'nda does not specify the paths that he calls 9the %ron! paths90 b't it is evident that he is referrin! here to those %ho %ore clothes and carried be!!in! bo%ls, a description that characteri,es perfectly the Svetambara monks, in addition of co'rse to the mendicants of the Brahmanical and B'ddhist orders. E. Linga . -he %ord 9lin!a9 means an o't%ard si!n by %hich the identity of a mendicant+s order is indicated. * staff >danda ?, for e.ample, is the si!n of a certain !ro'p of Brahmanical %anderers >parivra%a"as ?, %hile the B'ddhist monks >bhi"sus ? are reco!ni,ed by their oran!e(colored robes >ra"tapata ?. )n the case of the Svetambara monks their %hite clothes >svetapata ? and the %hisk broom made of %oollen t'fts >called ra%oharana ? %o'ld be considered the o't%ard si!ns of their sect. By contrast a Hi!ambara monk is totally naked and is not allo%ed anythin! %hatsoever that co'ld be desi!nated as his distinctive mark. @'ndak'nda is s'!!estin! here that those %ho carry s'ch marks are not free from

attachments to these possessions and hence are not tr'e mendicants. )t sho'ld be remembered, ho%ever, that even a Hi!ambara monk carrries >in addition to the kamandal'? a small %hisk broom made of molted peacock feathers >called pin'hi ? by %hich he can !ently remove insects from his seat. -his can certainly be called a lin!a, b't the Hi!ambaras have contended that it is not indispensable and hence only his n'dity %o'ld distin!'ish his ren'nciation from that of the other ascetics. =or a disc'ssion on the 'se of the %ord 9lin!a9 to indicate the emblem of a reno'ncer, see &livelle >19$E, pp. 7E(79?. G. )arigraha . -he literal meanin! of pari!raha is physical property, anythin! one possesses by ri!ht of o%nership. * layman is said to possess his property, %hich incl'des his relatives and his %ealth. Chen he reno'nces the ho'sehold he is said to have reno'nced this pari!raha. -parigraha , the absence of s'ch possession, is th's considered by all Jainas as a prere5'isite of a Jaina monk and constit'tes one of his most important mendicant vo%s. -he term 9pari!raha,9 ho%ever, is not restricted only to the e.ternal possessions. )n the script'res it is applied also to passions s'ch as an!er, !reed, and pride, and hence it is defined as mur''ha , del'sion >of o%nership?, the tr'e ca'se of attachment. Chether everythin! other than one+s body >e.!., the clothes one %ears or the bo%ls in %hich one collects the alms? is also a pari!raha is a matter that %ill fi!'re prominently in these debates >see Chapter )), J""( "9?. $. ,iragara . -he %ord agara means a ho'sehold0 hence nira!ara is one %itho't a home, namely, a reno'ncer. -he conte.t s'!!ests that @'ndak'nda is 'sin! this term to demonstrate that the sacelaka monks have not tr'ly reno'nced the ho'sehold life and hence can only be called ho'seholders >sa!ara?. 9. ahavrata >lit., the !reat vo%s?. -hese constit'te the basic vo%s of both the Hi!ambara and the Svetambara mendicants and are believed to have been laid do%n by 6ahavira himself and appear in the first canonical te.t called the -'aranga-sutra . *n aspirant seekin! initiation >di"sa ? into the mendicant order 'tters the follo%in! vo%s >(alpasutra , Jacobi+s trans. 1$$B, pp. 7#7(71#? in front of his acarya: 1#. -hese refer to the !'ardin! >!'pti? of the three doors of action: mind, speech, and body. 11. -he %ord 9samyata 9 >lit., restrained? is a synonym for a mendicant %ho is restrained by the five mahavratas. * layman %ho ass'mes the an'vratas is therefore called desasamyata >partly restrained?. 17. ,irgrantha >lit., free from bonds?. -his is the desi!nation by %hich ori!inally the follo%ers of 6ahavira %ere kno%n in ancient times, and it is attested to in the B'ddhist script're %here 6ahavira himself is referred to as Ki!antha Katap'tta >his clan name0 see 6alalasekera, 19E#?. -he %ord 9grantha 9 >derived from grath , to bind? refers to the internal and e.ternal pari!rahas by %hich the so'l is bo'nd. Since for the Hi!ambaras both the attachments as %ell as the ob2ects of attachments are pari!raha, even the clothes are bindin! >!rantha?. -his is beca'se freedom from clothes implies for him freedom from the resid'al se.'al feelin!s, e.pressed by s'ch %ords as shame or bashf'lness, that one seeks to overcome by %earin! clothes. )n the opinion of the Hi!ambaras a naked person need not necessarily be free from se.'al desires, b't anyone %ho %ears clothes m'st be considered s'b2ect to s'ch desires and hence not a tr'e nir!rantha. 1". Srava"a >lit., the 9hearer,9 i.e., one %ho listens to the sermons, a layman?. Unlike the B'ddhists %ho apply this term only to their *rhats, the Jainas 'se this term for a layman %ho has ass'med the five an'vratas. * lay%oman is similarly called a sravi"a . )n the case of the mendicant his vo%s are total and hence there is no pro!ression to%ard a hi!her set of vo%s b't only the task of perfectin! those that have been ass'med at the be!innin! of his career. Since the layman+s vo%s are only partial, the Jaina teachers have dra%n a pro!ressive path of %idenin! the scope of his initial vo%s. -his path is called pratima >lit., a stat'e in meditational post're? and consists of eleven sta!es thro'!h %hich a layman c'ltivates those spirit'al observances that %ill brin! him to the point of reno'ncin! ho'sehold life. -hese are

called >1? the sta!e of ri!ht vie%s >darsana ?, >7? the sta!e of takin! the vo%s >vrata ?, >"? the sta!e of practicin! meditation >samayi"a ?, >B? the sta!e of keepin! fo'r fasts in a month >posadha ?, >D? the sta!e of continence by day >ratribha"ta ?, >E? the sta!e of absol'te continence >brahma'arya ?, >G? the sta!e of reno'ncin! 'ncooked food >sa'itta-tyaga ?, >$? the sta!e of abandonment of all professional activity >arambha-tyaga ?, >9? the sta!e of transferrin! p'blicly one+s property to a son or other relative >parigraha-tyaga ?, >1#? the sta!e of leavin! the ho'sehold and refrainin! from co'nselin! in ho'sehold matters >anumati-tyaga ?, and >11? the sta!e of not eatin! food especially prepared for oneself, that is, the sta!e of seekin! alms thro'!h be!!in! like a monk >uddista-tyaga ?. >=or f'll details and variations in sta!es in the Hi!ambara and the Svetambara te.ts, see Cilliams, 19E", pp. 1G7(1$1.? Aery fe% sravakas or sravikas reach as far as the si.th sta!e of celibacy. B't those %ho do so are enco'ra!ed to lead the life of a ren'nciant and !ive 'p their property and take their residence in a p'blic place >called upasraya ? especially maintained for s'ch p'rposes by the comm'nity. *mon! the Hi!ambaras the person at the tenth sta!e is called a "sulla"a , a novice. ;e %ears three pieces of clothin! and either collects his food in a bo%l or may eat by invitation at a Jaina ho'sehold. ;e is called here the avara or the 9lo%er layman.9 *t the eleventh sta!e he %ears only a loincloth and does not 'se even the be!!in! bo%l. )nstead he visits, only once a day, a Jaina ho'sehold in the manner of a monk b't takes the food he is offered in his 2oined palms, seated on a %ooden plank. -raditionally he has been called an aila"a >probably an *pabhramsa form of the Skt. alpa'ela"a >one %ith little cloth?, see JS( ), p. B99?. ;e is not a monk yet, as he is still %earin! a loincloth and th's cannot 5'alify to be called a nir!rantha or a Hi!ambara. *s stated by @'ndak'nda, his stat's is that of the hi!hest >ut"rsta ? sravaka, the most advanced layman, f'lly 5'alified to reno'nce the %orld and ass'me the mahavratas of a monk. 1B. -ryi"a >lit., a noble lady?. *n advanced lay%oman >sravika? of the Hi!ambara tradition on the eleventh pratima is called an arya or an aryika and also occasionally sramani and sadhvi %ords that indicate her e.alted stat's as a n'n. She %ears a sin!le article of clothin!, namely a %hite cotton sari Hespite this apparent 9pari!raha,9 at her initiation as an aryika she ass'mes the mahavratas of a monk, albeit in a conventional sense >upa'ara ?, since technically her stat's is still that of an 9advanced lay%oman9 >uttama-sravi"a ?. )n this respect her stat's is that of an ailaka, or probably a little better, since the latter+s vo%s cannot even conventionally be called mahavratas b't m'st bear the desi!nation of an'vrata 'ntil he reno'nces his loincloth. K'dity is forbidden to %omen, and the Hi!ambaras contend that since this is the hi!hest sta!e of ren'nciation she may aspire to reach in the body of a %oman her vo%s may be called mahavratas by co'rtesy >'pacara0 see Chapter )A, J11?. K'dity for %omen is forbidden amon! the Svetambaras also0 b't since they do not re5'ire n'dity even for men, their n'ns are administered the same mahavratas as their monks and th's their stat's is technically speakin! one of e5'ality, as far as the vo%s are concerned. 1D. (sulli"a , a female novice. @'ndak'nda does not 'se this %ord, b't the commentator Sr'tasa!ara s'pplies it in his !loss on the second line. She is the female co'nterpart of the ks'llaka described above. )n addition to her sari, she covers the 'pper part of her body %ith a lon! sha%l that she removes %hile takin! her meal >and th's cond'cts herself like an aryika for the d'ration of the meal?. 1E. * -irthankara, as noted above, is a person %ho in addition to bein! an &mniscient Bein! is also a teacher and becomes the fo'nder of a ne% comm'nity of mendicants. ;e is th's distin!'ished from the *rhats by certain e.traordinary events that attend his conception, birth, and ren'nciation1s'ch as the appearance of !ods, the sho%er of %ealth, and so forth. Since for the Hi!ambaras there is no mendicancy %itho't total n'dity, all -irthankaras m'st traverse the same mendicant path %itho't e.ception. -he Svetambara te.ts have claimed, ho%ever, that of the t%enty(fo'r -irthankaras of o'r time, only the first and the last, namely :sabha and 6ahavira, had ass'med the vo% of n'dity %hereas the other t%enty(t%o %ere clothed >see J)) , p. 1B, n. 7$?. @'ndak'nda seems to be re2ectin! here s'ch

a heresy0 or alternatively he may be all'din! here to the case of 6alli, the nineteenth -irthankara, %ho is claimed by the Svetambaras as a female >see Chapter )A, J1", and Chapter A), JGG?, an anathema to the Hi!ambaras accordin! to %hom a %oman does not even 5'alify to ass'me the total vo%s of a monk for the reasons so !raphically described by @'ndak'nda in verses JG and J$. 1G. )ravra%ya , lit. !oin! forth from home >to become a mendicant?. )t sho'ld be noted that @'ndak'nda denies the mendicant ordination >pravra2ya? to a %oman, technically a sravika, not only on the !ro'nds of her %earin! clothes as in the case of the Svetambara monks b't also and more f'ndamentally on the !ro'nds of her biolo!ical !ender. *ccordin! to him a %oman can never be totally free from harm >himsa? to the s'btle forms of life that her body inevitably prod'ces. -h's in @'ndak'nda+s vie% it is not the possession of clothes as m'ch as the himsa. inherent to her body that is the primary reason for a %oman+s inability to p'rs'e the hi!hest path of ren'nciation that alone can lead to moksa. )t sho'ld be noted that altho'!h the Svetambaras also share the notion that a %oman+s body en!enders s'btle life(forms >see Chapter A), JE9?, they do not thereby concl'de that the 'nintentional destr'ction of these bein!s constit'tes an obstacle to her ass'min! the mahavratas. *s for the clothin!, the Svetambaras do not re!ard it as a pari!raha, %hether for a monk or a n'n, and hence it sho'ld not prevent her from attainin! the same !oal available to a monk. 1. *rhat >one %ho is %orthy of %orship, i.e., holy? is a synonym for a @evalin or a Jina as described in Chapter ) >n. 1?. 7. -he terms 9nirvana,9 9moksa,9 and 9m'kti9 are employed synonymo'sly in all Jaina te.ts, and all have the meanin! of total liberation or emancipation of the so'l from all forms of karmic bonda!e leadin! immediately to the stat's of the Siddha as described in Chatper ) >n. "?. -he term 9nirvana9 is additionally employed by the Jainas to indicate the death of a Jina(comparable to the 'se of the term 9parinirvana 9 amon! the B'ddhists(an event re!arded as a "alyana"a >an a'spicio's occasion, to!ether %ith his conception, birth, ren'nciation, and the attainment of kevala2nana?, and the places associated %ith this event are called nirvana-bhumis >see n. D1?, common pil!rima!e sites for both the Hi!ambaras and the Svetambaras. ". (evalibhu"ti is the title of the second treatise >in thirty(seven Sanskrit verses? composed by the Fapaniya acarya Sakatayana to!ether %ith an a'tocommentary >svopa%navrtti ? edited by 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i in his vol'me entitled the Strinirvana-(evalibhu"tipra"arane >pp. "9(D7?. Chether a person may contin'e to eat >bhu"ti ? after attainin! to the stat's of a @evalin, that is, an &mniscient Bein!, is a ma2or controversy bet%een the Fapaniyas >%ho shared this vie% %ith the Svetambaras? and the Hi!ambaras. -he latter have held that desirelessness >vitaragata ? and the accompanyin! omniscience >sarva%nata ? that characteri,e an *rhat are not compatible %ith the m'ndane practices of eatin! and drinkin! that can proceed only from some form of resid'al desire. *ccordin!ly they have maintained that the Jina 6ahavira ceased to partake of food and %ater >and conse5'ently ceased also to perform s'ch bodily f'nctions as s%eatin!, ans%erin! the calls of nat're, and even sleepin!? the moment he attained kevala2nana at the a!e of forty(t%o and yet lived the normal life of a teacher for thirty more years, for the d'ration of his life, %itho't becomin! %eak or s'b2ect to any disease. -he same r'le applied to all other *rhats %hose bodies 'nder%ent a similar mirac'lo's chan!e at the attainment of kevala2nana. -he Fapaniyas and the Svetambaras have ref'ted the Hi!ambara position by the co'nterar!'ment that h'n!er and thirst e.ist independent of desire and cannot be abated merely by removin! desire for food and %ater('nlike an!er, for e.ample, %hich can be overcome by c'ltivatin! its opposite, friendship. -hey have therefore ar!'ed that even a @evalin m'st be considered s'b2ect to the la%s of nat're and hence his partakin! of food co'ld not detract from his desirelessness or his omniscience. Ko Fapaniya bio!raphy of 6ahavira is e.tant0 b't the Svetambara acco'nts of 6ahavira >as preserved in the canonical Bhagavatisutra and the postcanonical (alpasutra ? sho% that altho'!h no one sa% him eatin! or ans%erin! the calls of nat're he did eat food proc'red for

him and also that he s'ffered from diseases and partook of medicine to c're himself. >See J)) , p. 7", n. DE.? -he Hi!ambaras have re2ected these acco'nts as blasphemo's and have maintained that, sim'ltaneo'sly %ith the attainment of kevala2nana, the body of a @evalin >%hether he be a -irthankara or an ordinary *rhat? 'nder!oes a mirac'lo's chan!e. ;is ordinary body >audari"a-sarira , lit., the !ross body? that had hitherto depended 'pon morsels of food >"avalahara ? is a'tomatically transformed into a s'premely p're !ross body >parama-audari"a-sarira 0 see Chapter A), n. 7$?, and the imp're bodily fl'ids s'ch as blood, 'rine, and semen chan!e into a milklike s'bstance. -his body of the @evalin neither decays nor needs replenishment and is not s'b2ect to the normal la%s of nat're incl'din! di!estion and evac'ation. )nstead, it is s'stained for the d'ration of the remainder of his life by the infl'. of the most a'spicio's kind of karmic matter alone, called the no"arma-vargana , %hich ordinarily acco'nts for the invol'ntary biolo!ical f'nctions s'itable to the nat're of each species. -he Svetambaras, %hile they assert that the *rhat+s body is p'rer than that of the ordinary h'man bein!, emphatically re2ect the notion of s'ch a mirac'lo's body and contend that it r'ns co'nter to the doctrine of karma. =or a Hi!ambara reb'ttal, see ,yaya"umuda'andra , )), pp. $D7($ED. =or a critical disc'ssion on the nat're of the @evalin %ith partic'lar reference to this controversy, see H'ndas >19$D?. B. -he -hree Je%els to!ether constit'te the path to moksa as stated in the $attvarthasutra >i, 1?: samya!darsana2nanacaritrani moksamar!ah. &f these the first, namely the samyagdarsana , is defined as tattvarthasraddhana , faith >sradhhanam ? in the e.istents >tattva ?, %hich in fact amo'nts to holdin! the Jaina %orldvie% and hence is translated here as the 9ri!ht vie%.9 -he $attvarthasutra >i, 7? speaks of seven e.istents:2iva2ivasravabandhasamvaranir2aramoksas tattvam: >1? %iva >infinite n'mber of so'ls?0 >7? a%iva >nonso'ls?, %hich comprise the follo%in! five dravyas >s'bstances?:pudgala >the infinite n'mber of physical matter?, dharma >the principle of motion?, adharma >the principle of rest?, a"asa >infinite space?, "ala >infinite time?0 >"? asrava >infl'. of s'btle karmic matter into the space occ'pied by the so'l %ithin a !iven body?0 >B? bandha >bonda!e of the so'l by that karmic matter?0 >D? samvara >stoppin! of the ne% infl'. by the so'l?0 >E? nir%ara >dissociation of the so'l from the acc'm'lated karmic matter?0 and >G? mo"sa >total emancipation of the so'l from all karmic matter and th's freedom from all forms of embodiment?. * person %ho believes in the manner in %hich these seven tattvas are described by the Jina is said to be a tr'e Jaina endo%ed %ith the ri!ht vie%. Conversely, lack of faith in them or faith contrary to the teachin!s of the Jina is called mithyadarsana , the %ron! vie%. -he second Je%el, the ri!ht kno%led!e >samyag%nana ?, is not a ne% variety of kno%led!e b't merely the kno%led!e of these seven kno%ables accompanied by the ri!ht vie%. Corldly kno%led!e, even if correct from the conventional point of vie%, is therefore considered mithya%nana or %ron! kno%led!e if it is not accompanied by the ri!ht vie%. -he third Je%el, the ri!ht cond'ct >samya"'aritra ?, is the holy cond'ct of a person %ith the ri!ht vie%. -he partial holy cond'ct be!ins %ith the five minor vo%s >an'vratas? prescribed for the laity. -hese lead to the five !reat vo%s >mahavratas? of the mendicants, %hich are !rad'ally developed thro'!h meditational practices and c'lminate in the perfect holy cond'ct of the *rhat. Cond'ct that is devoid of the ri!ht vie%, even if it is apparently in keepin! %ith the Jaina lay and mendicant practices, is considered %ron! cond'ct, mithya'aritra , as it is not cond'cive to moksa. D. =or details on the Jaina doctrine of samsara, a be!innin!less transmi!ration of so'ls in s'ch abodes as the heavens, hells, and h'man and animal e.istences, incl'din! the most s'btle ve!etable forms of life, see J)) , chap. B. E. Sakatayana does not identify the sect a!ainst %hich this treatise is %ritten. &ne cannot disco'nt the possibility that the Fapaniya a'thor may be disp'tin! %ith a faction %ithin his o%n sect, b't in the absence of any s'pportin! evidence one can fairly ass'me that his real opponents are the Hi!ambaras

%ho, as %e kno% from the %ords of @'ndak'nda, re2ected a %oman+s ability to ass'me the five !reat vo%s of a mendicant. *ltho'!h no pre(Sakatayana Hi!ambara %ork devoted to the topic of strimoksa that mi!ht have served as the so'rce for Sakatayana+s prima facie vie% >purvapa"sa ? is e.tant, his presentation corresponds in many %ays %ith the a'thoritative Hi!ambara position as fo'nd in the s'bse5'ent %orks of Prabhacandra and Jayasena, as %ill be seen in Chapters ))) and )A. G. *ll Jaina sects a!ree that moksa can be attained only by h'man bein!s and only from the re!ions called the "armabhumis >9the re!ions of action9? as opposed to the bhogabhumis >9the realms of en2oyment9?. -he bho!abh'mis are parts of the h'man abodes in the Jaina cosmolo!y >see J)) , chap. B? %here conditions like paradise prevail. -he bein!s there are believed to be free from all strife and s'bsist on %ish(f'lfillin! trees %itho't any control or competition. Beca'se of the ease that they en2oy %itho't interr'ption, they >like devas , the bein!s in the heavenly abode? are said to be incapable of ass'min! any vo%s and hence 'nable to attain moksa in that life. -he karmabh'mis >%hich incidentally incl'de o'r planet earth? 'nder!o !reat fl'ct'ations in the climatic and other conditions and hence are s'itable for the p'rs'it of moksa. 8ven in the karmabh'mis the attainment of moksa is possible only d'rin! certain specified times %hen the Jinas may appear and establish the Jaina mendicant order. =or details on the appropriate times for these events, see J)) , chap. 1. $. <anadhara >lit., a leader of the gana , i.e., a !ro'p 3of mendicants4? refers to the immediate mendicant disciples of a Jina, responsible for compilin! his sermons into or!ani,ed script're >agama ?. =or details on the eleven !anadharas >all &f %hom %ere Brahmans by birth? of the t%enty(fo'rth Jina, 6ahavira, see J)) , chap. 7. 9. Pratyekab'ddha is a mendicant %ho attains omniscience %itho't the direct aid of a teacher. ;e is comparable to the recl'se kno%n by the same desi!nation in the -heravada canon beca'se he %as able to achieve nirvana d'rin! the period %hen a B'ddha %as not aro'nd. 1#. Sr'takevalin is a mendicant %ho has mastered the entire Jaina canon comprisin! both the )urva and the -nga . ;e is not an &mniscient Bein!, b't ranks 2'st belo% the !anadhara in the Jaina hierarchy. Bhadrabah', the !reat acarya of the Jaina mendicant comm'nity prior to the sectarian division described in Chapter ) >i?, is re!arded by the Hi!ambaras as the last Sr'takevalin of o'r era. 11. -he )urvas constit'te an ancient, no% none.tant, part of the Jaina canon. See J)) , pp. B9(D1. -he tenth book of this collection is said to have contained instr'ctions on controllin! vario's occ'lt po%ers and their presidin! deities >vidya-devatas ? that an advanced mendicant mi!ht enco'nter in his yo!ic p'rs'it. * dasapurvin >one %ho mastered the tenth )urva ? %as therefore considered a most holy mendicant, ne.t in a'thority to the Sr'takevalin in all matters of doctrine. See JS( )A, p. DD. 17. -he Jaina te.ts speak of !'nasthanas >lit., sta!es of spirit'al 5'ality? as a ladder of fo'rteen r'n!s that an aspirant m'st climb in order to reach the stat's of a Siddha, the Perfected Bein!. -he follo%in! fo'rteen sta!es mark the pro!ress of the so'l as it !rad'ally overcomes the vario's ca'ses of bonda!e: >1? mithyadrsti : the lo%est sta!e, the sta!e of %ron! vie%s. >7? sasvadana : the sta!e of 9mi.ed taste,9 reached only %hen the so'l falls from the fo'rth sta!e. >"? samya"-mithyadrsti : a mi.ed state of the ri!ht and %ron! vie%s, a transitional sta!e from the first to the fo'rth. >B? samyagdrsti : the sta!e of the ri!ht vie%, the first step in the direction of moksa. >D? desavirata >lit., the sta!e %here one refrains partially from evils?: the state attained by a samya!drsti %hen the partial vo%s >an'vrata and so forth? prescribed for the laity are ass'med. >E? sarvavirata >lit., the sta!e %here one reno'nces all evils?: the state attained %hen a layperson ass'mes the !reat vo%s >mahavratas? of a mendicant. -his sta!e indicates that s'ch a person has f'lly overcome the %ron! vie%s as %ell as all !ross forms of passions >"asaya ? s'ch as an!er >"rodha ?, pride >mana ?, crookedness >maya ?, and !reed >lobha ?. >G? apramattavirata >lit., the sta!e of refrainin! from carelessness, pramada ?: the sta!e of complete

mindf'lness, a prere5'isite for en!a!in! in meditational activities. >$? apurva"arana . >lit., the sta!e of 'nprecedented meditational activity0 >9? anivrtti"arana >lit., the sta!e of irreversible meditational activity?0 >1#? su"sma-samparaya >lit., the sta!e %here only the most s'btle passions remain?: three meditational sta!es called the 9ladder9 >sreni ?, in %hich the aspirant may pro!ressively s'ppress >upasama ? even the s'btle passions >incl'din! the se.'al desires called the vedas? or destroy >"saya ? them completely. >11? upasantamoha >lit., the sta!e %here passions, moha , are s'ppressed?: this sta!e is reached only if one climbs the ladder of s'ppression, a fall from %hich is inevitable. >17? "sinamoha >lit., the sta!e %here all passions are destroyed?: this sta!e is possible only to those %ho have climbed the ladder of destr'ction and th's s'cceeded in totally eliminatin! all forms of passion. -his is an irreversible sta!e, and the aspirant no% proceeds immediately to the ne.t sta!e called >1"? sayoga"evalin >lit., @evalin %ith activities?. -his is the state of enli!htenment, %here the aspirant %ill become an *rhat or a @evalin, endo%ed %ith infinite kno%led!e >"evala%nana ?, infinite perception >"evaladarsana ?, infinite bliss >ananta-su"ha ?, and infinite ener!y >ananta-virya ?. *oga is a Jaina technical term that means activities of mind, speech, and body. -he @evalin beca'se of his omniscience has no 'se of the senses or the mind that coordinates their f'nctions0 b't he still is not free from the vocal and physical activities s'ch as preachin! and movin! from place to place. 8ven this last vesti!e of embodiment is removed d'rin! the fe% final instants immediately precedin! his death. Chen these activities are also bro'!ht to cessation, the aspirant reaches the last sta!e called >1B? ayoga-"evalin >lit., @evalin %itho't activities?. =reed from the totality of the bonds of karma the *rhat+s so'l rises a'tomatically and instantaneo'sly to the s'mmit of the Jaina 'niverse and resides there eternally in the state of the Siddha, the Perfected Bein!. -his is a brief o'tline of the !'nasthana scheme common to all Jaina sects. =or f'rther details and a chart, see J)) , p. 7G". 1". -he second line of this verse reads: man'ya!adiye vi taha. ca'dasa !'nanamadheyani. -he p'rport of this passa!e >fo'nd in the Hi!ambara te.t )an'asangraha ? is that of the fo'r possible births accordin! to the Jaina doctrine, the bein!s in hell and bein!s in heaven can have no more than the first fo'r !'nasthanas. *nimals can have one more, namely the fifth !'nasthana, as certain sam%ni animals >those possessin! the mind and the five sense fac'lties, e.!., elephants and lions? may even ass'me certain minor vo%s of the laity. >=or a disc'ssion on this spirit'ality of animals, see Jaini, 19$G.? -he animals may not !o beyond the fifth sta!e, b't all fo'rteen !'nasthanas are possible for h'man bein!s. -he Fapaniya ar!'es that if %omen, as the Hi!ambaras alle!e, co'ld not rise to the si.th sta!e then this script're %o'ld have said so e.plicitly as it does in the case of animals. -herefore %omen m'st be considered capable of possessin! all the fo'rteen !'nasthanas that the te.t says are available to 9h'man bein!s.9 See notes E9 and G1. 1B. -he 9last moment of inactivity9 is the fo'rteenth !'nasthana, called ayo!akevalin, described above in note 17. 1D. &n the 2inakalpa, see note "D. 1E. -he manahparyaya2nana is not to be conf'sed %ith ordinary telepathy. )t is rather a special type of s'pernat'ral kno%led!e that is !ained only by the Jaina mendicants of the hi!hest p'rity, and it is believed that its ac5'isition also carne to an end %ith the death of the venerable Jamb' >see J7"?. )t m'st be noted, ho%ever, that one can achieve moksa even %itho't attainin! s'ch kno%led!e. =or details, see Sarvarthasiddhi , i, 7"(7D. 1G. =or the correspondin! Hi!ambara script're, see Chapter ))) >J11?. )n the Jaina cosmolo!y the hellish re!ion >called nara"a ? occ'pies the lo%er part of the 'niverse >adholo"a ?, immediately belo% the terrestrial level >madhyalo"a ? inhabited by animals and h'man bein!s, and consists of seven tiers each darker than the one above. >=or a chart of the Jaina 'niverse, see J)) , pp. 17$(179.? :ebirth into

the hells is not available to a heavenly bein! >deva ? or to one %ho is already an infernal bein! >nara"i ?. -he script're 5'oted above therefore !ives r'les only %ith re!ard to the species in the animal and h'man e.istences %ho alone may be reborn in the hellish abodes. -he te.t does not provide any rationale for the differences in the destinies available to the species mentioned. )t is !enerally a!reed that rebirth in a partic'lar abode is determined by the so'l+s intensity of volition, %hich to a !reat e.tent is determined by the amo'nt of physical stren!th and mental vi!or >virya or sattva? innate to a !iven state of embodiment. -h's it is e.plained that 5'adr'peds may !o to a lo%er hell than the birds and that snakes(pres'mably tho'!ht to be more cr'el beca'se of their venom(may !o to a still lo%er level. By the same token it is believed by all Jaina sects that %omen beca'se of their lack of stren!th, and the conse5'ent %eakness of their volition, may not fall into the seventh, the lo%est hell. -hat is the prero!ative of men alone, a proof of their physical and volitional stren!th(and, for the Hi!ambaras, a s're indication that men alone may reach the other e.treme of the cosmos, the Siddhaloka, the abode of the Perfected Bein!s. &ne can 'nderstand the disparity bet%een snakes and h'mans >beca'se of %hich the former %ere denied rebirth in hells lo%er than the fifth? and even !rant that %omen may be constit'tionally %eaker than men and th's incapable of committin! the most evil deeds deservin! retrib'tion in the lo%est hell. Chat is tr'ly bafflin!, ho%ever, is the sin!'lar e.ception the Jainas make of fish by admittin! the possibility of their rebirth in the seventh hell, a fate denied even to %omen beca'se of their alle!ed lack of mental vi!or. -he belief that fish can be e.tremely %icked is 5'ite old and is attested to in the Bhavaprabhrta of the acarya @'ndak'nda, %here the a'thor ill'strates the importance of volition by the story of a fish called Salisiktha: maccho vi salisittho as'ddhabhavo !ao mahanarayam >$Ea?. >9-he fish called Salisiktha 3lit., +:ice <rain+4 of imp're intensions %ent to the !reat hell.9 >@'ndak'nda does not !ive the story, b't it appears in the tenth(cent'ry Brhat"atha"osa >no. 1BG, Salisikthakathanakam? of the Hi!ambara ;arisena and %as probably the so'rce of the si.teenth(cent'ry Sr'tasa!ara+s narrative in his commentary on the Bhavaprabhrta , %hich may be briefly s'mmari,ed here. )n the city of @akandip'ra there %as a kin! named Sa'rasena born in the family of a Jaina layman >srava"a"ula ?. *ccordin! to the tradition of his reli!ion he took the vo% of not eatin! meat. B't implored by his Saivite physician he conceived a desire to cons'me meat. =earf'l of people kno%in! his %eakness, he called his favorite cook named @armapriya >9Cork Iover9? and secretly informed him of his desire. *ltho'!h the cook proc'red meats of animals on land as %ell as in the %ater, the kin! did not !et an opport'nity to eat those dishes. @armapriya, the cook, died and %as reborn as the <reat =ish >6ahamatsya? in the !reat ocean called the Svayambh'ramana >%hich circles the middle re!ion of the Jaina 'niverse?. @in! Sa'rasena died cravin! for meat dishes and %as born in the same ocean as a fish called Salisiktha >:ice <rain? beca'se of its tiny si,e. Sa1isiktha took his residence in the ear of the <reat =ish livin! on the dirt that acc'm'lated there. &ne day Salisiktha sa% the <reat =ish sleepin! and the m'ltit'de of small and lar!e schools of fish movin! in and o't of its %ide(open mo'th and tho'!ht: 9*lasS ;o% 'nfort'nate of this <reat =ishS )t cannot eat them even %hen they fall into his mo'thS )f fate had !iven me as lar!e a body as his, ) %o'ld have rendered this entire ocean empty of all lifeS9 -hinkin! th's he died and by the force of his mental a!itation %as reborn in the seventh hell. -he !reat =ish also died and %as also reborn in the same hell as a conse5'ence of his devo'rin! the m'ltit'de of bein!s in the ocean >Satprabhrtadisangrahah , pp. 7"D(7"G?. )t seems possible that @'ndak'nda %as referrin! to the story of the fish only to ill'strate the primacy of volition >bhava ? over action, b't his %ords 9!ao mahanarayam9 %ere 'nderstood by the later storytellers literally to mean the seventh hell. 1$. -he ei!ht siddhagunas : >1("? perfection of the -hree Je%els0 >B? infinite ener!y >ananta-virya ?0 >D? invisibility >su"smatva ?0 >E? ability to occ'py the same space >at the s'mmit of the Jaina 'niverse? %ith other Siddhas >avagahanatva ?0 >G? freedom from e.pansion and contraction of the so'l+s space points

>agurulaghutva ?0 and >$? freedom from both pleas're and pain >avyabadhatva ?. -he former fo'r are attained %hen one becomes an *rhat0 the latter fo'r are attained %hen the *rhat dies and is forever released from the bonda!e of embodiment and th's becomes a Siddha. =or details on the last fo'r 5'alities, see J)) , pp. 17B(17G. 19. Sahasrara is the t%elfth heavenly abode in the Jaina cosmolo!y. See Sarvarthasiddhi , iv, 19. 7#. =or a disc'ssion on the definition of a sam2ni, see Sarvarthasiddhi , ii, 7B. 71. -he samayika here probably refers to the sin!le mendicant restraint ass'med by 6ahavira himself %hen he reno'nced the %orld sayin!, 9Ko evil actions are to be committed by me.9 See J)) , p. 1G. 77. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 1G, n. 1? that this is a very old verse and is 5'oted by the Svetambara acarya Jinabhadra in his Svopa%navrtti on the &isesavasya"abhasya . -he complete verse reads as follo%s: mana(paramodhi(p'lae ahara!a(khava!a('vasame kappe, sam2amatiya(kevala(si22hana ya Jamb'mmi vocchinna. 3verse "#GE4 -he Jaina tradition 'nanimo'sly believes that the mendicant Jamb' %as the last person to attain moksa in the c'rrent time called the avasarpini-pan'ama-"ala >the fifth period of the descendin! half of the time cycle? in the Jaina cosmolo!y. ;e %as the disciple of S'dharman, one of the t%o !anadharas >the other bein! <a'tama? %ho s'rvived 6ahavaira. -he Svetambara tradition believes that S'dharman relayed the t%elvefold Jaina canon >as received from 6ahavira? orally to the mendicant Jamb', %ho th's became the chief preserver of the holy script're. Jamb' is believed to have died in BE" B.C. , si.ty(fo'r years after the nirvana of 6ahavira. *ccordin! to the fifth(cent'ry acarya Jinabhadra+s &isesavasya"abhasya , referred to above, %ith the death of Jamb' the 2inakalpa >see note "D?(s'!!ested by the term 9"appa 9 in the verse 5'oted above(ceased to e.ist, as also the attainment of moksa by anyone, %hether a monk or a n'n. Jainas are 'nanimo's in their belief that moksa cannot be attained by either a monk or a n'n 'ntil the present time cycle is completed and a ne% era be!ins and a ne% Jina appears here >after a lapse of several tho'sand years?. )n vie% of this belief the controversy over %omen+s ability to attain moksa %o'ld appear to be irrelevant, aimed rather at assertin! the validity of the sectarian position on the tr'e definition of a mendicant. )t sho'ld be remembered, ho%ever, that the path of moksa is not alto!ether closed, since it is open for h'man bein!s %ho are reborn in an area called Aideha(ksetra. -irthankaras are believed to e.ist at all times in this blessed re!ion inhabited by h'man bein!s b't lyin! far o'tside o'r kno%n earth and inaccessible to h'mans e.cept thro'!h transmi!ration. -he earth %e inhabit forms part of the area kno%n as the Bharata(ksetra >the Iand of Bharata, named after the first Jaina 'niversal monarch or cakravartin of o'r time cycle? in the Jaina cosmolo!y. See J)) , chap. 1. =or f'rther details on Jamb', see 6ehta >19G#(19G7?. 7". -he verses 5'oted are to be fo'nd in the ,isithabhasya , a Svetambara te.t. Ko Hi!ambara te.t correspondin! to this is to be fo'nd, and the Svetambara te.ts are not a'thoritative to them. &ne %onders, therefore, if the Fapaniya a'thor may be confrontin! a faction %ithin his o%n mendicant comm'nity or if the U had once accepted the script'res 5'oted by him. 7B. )t is do'btf'l %hether the 9opponent9 here also is a Hi!ambara, since the script're 5'oted is fo'nd in the Svetambara Brhat"alpa only. -o the best of my kno%led!e there is no e.tant Hi!ambara script're that specifically forbids the vo% of mendicant n'dity to a %oman. B't s'ch a prohibition m'st have obtained in their tradition, as can be ded'ced from the follo%in! statement of the Hi!ambara acarya Airasena >c. $1G? in his commentary called the Dhavala on the Sat"handagama >5'oted in JS( )ll, p. D9G, from the Dhavala , .i, B, 7.E(.ii, 11B, 11?: na ca davvatthinam ni!!amtham atthi, celadipariccaena vina tasim bhavani!!amthabhavado. na ca davvatthinav'msayavedenam celadicca!o atthi, #hedasuttena saha virohado. >9-here is no state of total mendicancy 3the state of a nir!rantha4 for

a person %ho is biolo!ically female, since there is absence of internal freedom from all bonds %itho't the abandonment of s'ch e.ternal properties as clothes and so forth. Kor is the abandonment of clothes and so forth 3allo%ed4 for those %ho are biolo!ically female or hermaphrodite, as this 3n'dity4 is contrary to the #hedasutra 3the Hi!ambara book of mendicant discipline, %hich is no lon!er e.tant4.9? )t may be mentioned in this connection that the t%elfth(cent'ry Hi!ambara layman *sadhara, in his man'al for the laity called the Sagaradharmamrta , states that a n'n >%hom he also considers only to be an advanced lay%oman and not a 9mendicant9? may, if she so %ishes, be allo%ed to ass'me the vo% of n'dity, like a man, at the last moments of her life, as part of her salle"hana rit'al >vol'ntary fastin! to death, see J)) , p. 77G(7""?: yad a'tsar!ikam anyad va lin!am 'ktam 2inaih, striyah p'mvat tad isyate, mrty'kale svalpikrtopadheh >viii, "$?. *sadhara is 'ndo'btedly follo%in! here a very old tradition preserved in the ancient Bhagavati-aradhana : itthivi ya 2am lim!am dittham 'ssa!!iyam va idaram va, tam taha hodi h' lim!am parittam 'vadhim karemtie >verse $1?. ) am informed by Hi!ambara scholars that this verse sho'ld not be constr'ed as a sanction for n'dity as the dyin! n'n m'st remain in strict privacy and, moreover, that her vo%s do not thereby become the mahavratas of a Hi!ambara monk for the biolo!ical disabilities associated %ith the female body cannot be removed. ='rthermore, acarya Sivakoti, the a'thor of the Bhagavati-aradhana , is, as seen above in section >v?, probably a Fapaniya mendicant and hence does not necessarily represent the traditional Hi!ambara position as e.pressed in the Sutraprabhrta >see Chapter ) above? of @'ndak'nda and the Dhavala of Airasena. 7D. )n modern times, this %hisk broom is made of t'fts of %ool >called ra%oharana ? or peacock feathers >called pin'hi ?0 these are 'sed by mendicants of the Svetambara and Hi!ambara sects, respectively. 7E. -his %ork is not e.tant, b't the title Siddhivinis'aya >9Hetermination of Siddhahood,9 i.e., the attainment of moksa? indicates that it too dealt %ith the topic of strimoksa. =or a disc'ssion on the identity of this acarya Sivasvamin %ith the acarya Sivakoti, the a'thor of the Bhagavati-aradhana , see Premi >19DE, pp. EG(G"?. 7G. -his 5'otation is also fo'nd only in the Svetambara Brhat"alpa . -he tala-palamba , ho%ever, is mentioned in the >FapaniyaP? Bhagavati-aradhana >verse 117B? as an ill'stration to sho% that the %ord 9tala 9 stands not only for the palm tree b't also for all trees >shoots of %hich are also forbidden for monks?. Similarly, it is said, the %ord 9'ela 9 >clothes? in the compo'nd 9acelaka9 >lit., free from clothes? stands for other possessions as %ell that m'st be !iven 'p by a mendicant. See JS( ), p. "9. 7$. -he follo%in! fo'r verses as %ell as the verse be!innin! %ith the %ords 9ye yan na bh'ktibha2ah9 >see JE9? are called sangraha-aryas >collected verses? in the Svopa%navrtti and yet are co'nted as ori!inal verses >nos. 1"(1E and "#, respectively? in 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i+s edition. )n e.plainin! this he notes >p. 1, n. 1? that in the man'scripts of the Strinirvanapra"arana the verses %ere not n'mbered at all, e.cept in one incomplete man'script %here only the last three verses %ere n'mbered respectively D7, D", and DB. *ss'min! therefore that the te.t ori!inally mi!ht have consisted of fifty(fo'r verses he decided to co'nt these five san!raha(aryas >n'mberin! them as 1"(1E and "#? also as the ori!inal verses of the Strinirvanapra"arana . ) have treated these five verses as 5'otations only, and hence the total n'mber of the Strinirvanapra"arana verses here is forty(nine instead of the fifty(fo'r in his edition. )n this re!ard ) am follo%in! the earlier edition of the Strinirvanapra"arana >p'blished by 6'ni Jinavi2aya2i as reprinted in the Sa"atayana-&ya"arana , intro. app. )), pp. 171(17B?, %hich does not contain these five verses. 79. =or a Hi!ambara reply to this point, see Chapter ))) >JD$?.

"#. See the )rava'anasara of @'ndak'nda, iii, 1G. "1. Compare this %ith the follo%in! passa!e from the Svetambara -'aranga-sutra , )), D, 1: 2e ni!!amthe tar'ne 2'!avam balavam appayamke thirasam!hayane se e!am vattham dhare22a, no bitiyam. >9)f a monk be yo'thf'l, yo'n!, stron!, healthy, and %ell set, he may %ear one robe, not t%o90 (alpasutra , Jacobi+s trans. 1$$B, p. 1DG.? Beca'se of the difference bet%een the t%o passa!es 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i >p. 1#", n. B? has s'!!ested that the present passa!e is not taken from the e.tant -'aranga-sutra b't can be traced to a non(Svetambara so'rce. -his is the famo's &i%ayodaya commentary by the Fapaniya *para2ita on the Bhagavati-aradhana of Sivakoti >%ho as noted above co'ld have been a member of the Fapaniya sect?. )n this commentary on verse B71 dealin! %ith the r'le of n'dity a 5'estioner asks: -'ara syapi dvitiyadhyayo Lo"avi'ayo nama, tasya . . . vatthesanae v'ttam: tattha 2e>P? se hirimane se!am vattham va dhare22a >Bhagavati-aradhana , p. E11?. -his sho%s that the Fapaniyas had a different recension of this canonical te.t and had interpreted the r'les pertainin! to clothes in a manner 5'ite different from that of the Svetambaras %ho advocated the 'se of clothes not as a concession to %eakness b't as a re5'irement for all Jaina mendicants. "7. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 71, n. 7? that this verse is missin! from t%o man'scripts and s'!!ests that as there is no commentary on it by Sakatayana it is probably a 5'otation from some 'nkno%n te.t. ;e !ives the follo%in! parallel passa!es from the Svetambara Sthananga-sutra : tihim thanehim vattham dhare22a, tam 2aha, hiripattiyam d'!'mchapattiyam parisahavattiyam >iii, ", 1G1?. )n this connection the e.planation !iven by the Fapaniya acarya *para2ita in his commentary on the Bhagavati-aradhana on the re5'irement of n'dity for a mendicant is %orth notin!. Commentin! on the verse >no. B71? that dealt %ith n'dity >a'ela"atva ?, *para2ita !ives a lon! disco'rse >in some forty lines? on the virt'es of n'dity and the defects inherent to %earin! robes. * 5'estioner, %ho co'ld be a proto(Svetambara, raises at this point a pertinent 5'estion as to %hy the script're directs a monk to seek robes and so forth >as 5'oted above in note "1? and ho% this command can be reconciled %ith the vo% of n'dity >evam s'tranirdiste cele acelata katham?. )n reply to this 5'estion *para2ita says: atrocyate, aryikanam a!ame +n'2natam vastram, karanapeksaya bhiks'nam(hriman ayo!yasariravayavo d'scarmabhilambamanabi2o va parisahasahane va +ksamah sa !rhnati. >9-he script're en2oins clothes for n'ns and for monks for the follo%in! reasons: a monk %ho is f'll of shame, or %hose body and limbs are not s'itable beca'se of !enital deformities, or one %ho is 'nable to bear the afflictions 3s'ch as cold4, takes clothes90 Bhagavati-aradhana , p. E17.? )t is note%orthy that *para2ita does not !ive any reason for en2oinin! clothes to n'ns, an omission that leaves room for the Hi!ambaras to 5'estion %omen+s ability to ass'me the !reat vo%s of the monks. *s for the concessions made to certain males, it m'st be noted that they r'n co'nter to the Hi!ambara r'les of mendicancy and hence are not admissible to them. ) am informed that a person s'fferin! from !enital or other defects is not eli!ible to receive initiation into the Hi!ambara mendicant order, and sho'ld he develop them s'bse5'ently he %ill be en2oined to ret'rn to the lo%er stat's of a layman. -his Hi!ambara position th's appears to be consistent %ith the position taken by the opponent in JBE. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that the Hi!ambara tradition has occasionally sho%n the ability to make concessions >s'b2ect to e.piations, etc.? 'nder diffic'lt political conditions. )n late medieval times, p'blic n'dity %as proscribed in areas r'led by 6'slims, makin! it diffic'lt for Hi!ambara monks to move freely. -he si.teenth(cent'ry commentator Sr'tasa!ara has left one record of a sit'ation %here the Hi!ambara monk Aasantakirti >of 'nkno%n date? of 6andapad'r!a >in modern :a2asthanP? allo%ed his monks an e.ceptional !arb or appearance >apavadavesa ?, namely, to cover themselves %ith a mat or a piece of cloth for the d'ration of their o'tin!s for meals and the like: kala' kila 6lecchadayo na!nam drstva 'padravam yatinam k'rvanti, tena 6andapad'r!e sri Aasantakirtina svamina caryadivelayam tattisadaradikena sariram acchadya p'nas tan m'ncatity 'padesah krtah samyaminam ity apavadavesah0 Satprabhrtadisangrahah , p. 71. Sr'tasa!ara, %hile reportin! this incident, does not

fail to comment that s'ch an apavadavesa is nevertheless heretical >mithyavesa eva0 ibid.?. Pandit Premi >19DE, p. EE? has s'!!ested that this %as the be!innin! of the Bhattaraka tradition amon! the Hi!ambaras, a ne% !ro'p of resident >and clothed? 9monks9 %ho in medieval times presided over a lar!e n'mber of temples and libraries, remnants of %hose seats >called mathas and administered by the laymen of the ks'llaka rank? can still be fo'nd in parts of :a2asthan, 6aharashtra, and @arnataka. "1. Compare this %ith the follo%in! passa!e from the Svetambara -'aranga-sutra , )), D, 1: 2e ni!!amthe tar'ne 2'!avam balavam appayamke thirasam!hayane se e!am vattham dhare22a, no bitiyam. >9)f a monk be yo'thf'l, yo'n!, stron!, healthy, and %ell set, he may %ear one robe, not t%o90 (alpasutra , Jacobi+s trans. 1$$B, p. 1DG.? Beca'se of the difference bet%een the t%o passa!es 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i >p. 1#", n. B? has s'!!ested that the present passa!e is not taken from the e.tant -'aranga-sutra b't can be traced to a non(Svetambara so'rce. -his is the famo's &i%ayodaya commentary by the Fapaniya *para2ita on the Bhagavati-aradhana of Sivakoti >%ho as noted above co'ld have been a member of the Fapaniya sect?. )n this commentary on verse B71 dealin! %ith the r'le of n'dity a 5'estioner asks: -'ara syapi dvitiyadhyayo Lo"avi'ayo nama, tasya . . . vatthesanae v'ttam: tattha 2e>P? se hirimane se!am vattham va dhare22a >Bhagavati-aradhana , p. E11?. -his sho%s that the Fapaniyas had a different recension of this canonical te.t and had interpreted the r'les pertainin! to clothes in a manner 5'ite different from that of the Svetambaras %ho advocated the 'se of clothes not as a concession to %eakness b't as a re5'irement for all Jaina mendicants. "7. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 71, n. 7? that this verse is missin! from t%o man'scripts and s'!!ests that as there is no commentary on it by Sakatayana it is probably a 5'otation from some 'nkno%n te.t. ;e !ives the follo%in! parallel passa!es from the Svetambara Sthananga-sutra : tihim thanehim vattham dhare22a, tam 2aha, hiripattiyam d'!'mchapattiyam parisahavattiyam >iii, ", 1G1?. )n this connection the e.planation !iven by the Fapaniya acarya *para2ita in his commentary on the Bhagavati-aradhana on the re5'irement of n'dity for a mendicant is %orth notin!. Commentin! on the verse >no. B71? that dealt %ith n'dity >a'ela"atva ?, *para2ita !ives a lon! disco'rse >in some forty lines? on the virt'es of n'dity and the defects inherent to %earin! robes. * 5'estioner, %ho co'ld be a proto(Svetambara, raises at this point a pertinent 5'estion as to %hy the script're directs a monk to seek robes and so forth >as 5'oted above in note "1? and ho% this command can be reconciled %ith the vo% of n'dity >evam s'tranirdiste cele acelata katham?. )n reply to this 5'estion *para2ita says: atrocyate, aryikanam a!ame +n'2natam vastram, karanapeksaya bhiks'nam(hriman ayo!yasariravayavo d'scarmabhilambamanabi2o va parisahasahane va +ksamah sa !rhnati. >9-he script're en2oins clothes for n'ns and for monks for the follo%in! reasons: a monk %ho is f'll of shame, or %hose body and limbs are not s'itable beca'se of !enital deformities, or one %ho is 'nable to bear the afflictions 3s'ch as cold4, takes clothes90 Bhagavati-aradhana , p. E17.? )t is note%orthy that *para2ita does not !ive any reason for en2oinin! clothes to n'ns, an omission that leaves room for the Hi!ambaras to 5'estion %omen+s ability to ass'me the !reat vo%s of the monks. *s for the concessions made to certain males, it m'st be noted that they r'n co'nter to the Hi!ambara r'les of mendicancy and hence are not admissible to them. ) am informed that a person s'fferin! from !enital or other defects is not eli!ible to receive initiation into the Hi!ambara mendicant order, and sho'ld he develop them s'bse5'ently he %ill be en2oined to ret'rn to the lo%er stat's of a layman. -his Hi!ambara position th's appears to be consistent %ith the position taken by the opponent in JBE. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that the Hi!ambara tradition has occasionally sho%n the ability to make concessions >s'b2ect to e.piations, etc.? 'nder diffic'lt political conditions. )n late medieval times, p'blic n'dity %as proscribed in areas r'led by 6'slims, makin! it diffic'lt for Hi!ambara monks to move freely. -he si.teenth(cent'ry commentator Sr'tasa!ara has left one record of a sit'ation %here the Hi!ambara monk Aasantakirti >of 'nkno%n date? of 6andapad'r!a >in modern :a2asthanP? allo%ed his monks an e.ceptional !arb or appearance >apavadavesa ?, namely, to cover themselves %ith a mat

or a piece of cloth for the d'ration of their o'tin!s for meals and the like: kala' kila 6lecchadayo na!nam drstva 'padravam yatinam k'rvanti, tena 6andapad'r!e sri Aasantakirtina svamina caryadivelayam tattisadaradikena sariram acchadya p'nas tan m'ncatity 'padesah krtah samyaminam ity apavadavesah0 Satprabhrtadisangrahah , p. 71. Sr'tasa!ara, %hile reportin! this incident, does not fail to comment that s'ch an apavadavesa is nevertheless heretical >mithyavesa eva0 ibid.?. Pandit Premi >19DE, p. EE? has s'!!ested that this %as the be!innin! of the Bhattaraka tradition amon! the Hi!ambaras, a ne% !ro'p of resident >and clothed? 9monks9 %ho in medieval times presided over a lar!e n'mber of temples and libraries, remnants of %hose seats >called mathas and administered by the laymen of the ks'llaka rank? can still be fo'nd in parts of :a2asthan, 6aharashtra, and @arnataka. "". 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 1#", n. 1? a co'nterte.t in the Svetambara script're: kappai ni!!amthana va ni!!amthina va celacilimiliyam dharittae va pariharittae va0 Brhat"alpa , i. 1$. "B. Compare: mithyadarsanaviratipramadakasayayo!ah bandhahetavah0 $attvarthasutra , viii, 1. =or a disc'ssion on the nat're of these five ca'ses of bonda!e, see J)) , pp. 1DG(1D9. "D. -he %ords 9sape"sa 9 >5'alified? and 9nirape"sa 9 >'n5'alified or total? samyama >mendicant restraint, i.e., vo%s?, p'rportedly 'sed here to describe the sthavira"alpa >lit., Co'rse of the 8lders? and the %ina"alpa >lit., Co'rse of the Aictors?, respectively, do not ade5'ately e.press the precise distinctions bet%een the t%o co'rses of mendicancy as 'nderstood by the Fapaniyas. Both the Hi!ambaras and the Svetambaras accept these different co'rses, b't they disa!ree on the meanin! of the terms. *ccordin! to the Svetambaras, 2inakalpa is the co'rse of a monk %ho leads a life in the manner of the Jina 6ahavira, incl'din! the adoption of the practice of n'dity0 he is not bo'nd by the r'les of the ecclesiastical comm'nity. ;e is not obli!ated to abide by the r'les of con!re!ation or en!a!e in s'ch activities as preachin!. Ieadin! an isolated life >probably beca'se of his n'dity? is th's the ma2or characteristic of a 2inakalpa monk. -he sthavirakalpa, by contrast, is a co'rse %hich re5'ires that the mendicant %ear the prescribed n'mber of clothes >no more than three? and keep be!!in! bo%ls, the %hisk broom, and other s'ch si!ns of mendicancy. ;e is s'b2ect to the ecclesiastical la%s and m'st remain loyal and obedient to his spirit'al masters, the acaryas. Propa!ation of the -eachin! is one of his d'ties, and he is enco'ra!ed to initiate his o%n disciples and to impart the la% amon! the laity as %ell. Chile the Svetambaras th's 'phold the 2inakalpa as a le!itimate and even a s'perior mode of mendicancy >since it %as practiced by 6ahavira himself?, they nevertheless believe that it is totally 'ns'itable and hence forbidden to %omen and also to the ma2ority of men, for %hom only the sthavirakalpa is recommended. K'dity is not an essential characteristic of mendicancy for them, and hence they believe that both co'rses are e5'ally capable of achievin! the !oal of moksa. -hey have f'rthermore maintained that the 2inakalpa came to an end %ith the death of the Aenerable Jamb' >see J7" and n. 77?, the last Jaina monk to have attained nirvana in the mendicant linea!e of 6ahavira, and that %hat s'rvives no% is only the sthavirakalpa. =or them the option of the 2inakalpa, or most important the practice of n'dity associated %ith it, is no lon!er available, and hence they 5'estion the le!itimacy of the c'rrent Hi!ambara order of monks. -he Hi!ambara definitions of these t%o terms, as can be e.pected, are strikin!ly different. =or the Hi!ambaras, n'dity is the essential characteristic of mendicancy, %itho't %hich a monk+s vo% of total nonpossession >apari!raha? is not complete. -herefore, in their tradition, monks of both 2inakalpa and sthavirakalpa co'rses m'st adopt n'dity. -he tr'e distinction bet%een the t%o is that a monk of the 2inakalpa order leads a solitary life %itho't belon!in! even formally to an ecclesiastical comm'nity0 he co'ld th's be described as an anchorite, en!a!ed in his o%n a'sterities and meditation. 6endicants of the sthavirakalpa order are distin!'ished by the fact that they live in a !ro'p directly 'nder the s'pervision of their acaryas and en!a!e in s'ch activities as the st'dy of the script're or preachin! the

la% to the laity0 they are cenobites. -hey also believe that as a conse5'ence of the declinin! morality associated %ith the pancamakala, the 2inakalpa ended %ith the death of the Aenerable Jamb', b't they declare that it did not spell the end of monkhood, %hich of co'rse cannot be separated from the practice of total n'dity. -he Hi!ambaras th's claim that they are the tr'e follo%ers of the sthavirakalpa tradition, %hich has contin'ed 'ninterr'pted since the days of 6ahavira, and also that it may be e.pected to last 'ntil the very end of the pancamakala, an event that %ill not take place for some seventeen tho'sand years. Since there can be no mendicancy %itho't total n'dity, and since the latter is forbidden to a %oman, a 9n'n9 in the Hi!ambara tradition belon!s neither to the 2inakalpa nor to the shavirakalpa. ;er stat's in their tradition is that of an advanced lay%oman >'ttamasravika?, as pointed o't by @'ndak'nda >see Chapter ), JG(J$?. B't she is honored by the term 9aryika9 >noble lady?, as she has reached the hi!hest stat's available to a %oman, e5'ivalent to that of a Hi!ambara monk amon! men, and may therefore be conventionally said to belon! to the sthavirakalpa. *s for the Fapaniyas, it is evident from the te.t 'nder st'dy that they, like the Svetambaras, identified the practice of n'dity %ith the 2inakalpa only and approved of the stat's of the sthavirakalpa to clothed mendicants, %hether n'ns or monks. Probably they too considered the 2inakalpa to be s'perior to the other mode, since the 2inakalpa monks did not even ret'rn the !reetin!s of the sthavirakalpa monks as sho%n in JEG. -he ma2or difference bet%een the Svetambara and the Fapaniya seems to lie in the Fapaniya r'le that clothes may be allo%ed to men not as a re!'lar practice >as %as claimed by the Svetambaras, for %hich see Chapter A, J9? b't as an e.ception, applicable only to those %ho s'ffered from the three defects pointed o't in Sakatayana+s verse 1D. B't if the Fapaniyas, as indicated above >in J7"?, also believed that the 2inakalpa came to an end after the time of the Aenerable Jamb', then they %ill have no option b't to declare all men desiro's of becomin! mendicants as 9e.ceptional cases9 and consider their 'se of clothes not as a concession to %eakness b't as the only le!itimate practice. -his co'ld res'lt in removin! any essential difference that mi!ht have e.isted bet%een the monks and n'ns, as claimed by the Hi!ambaras, and render them e5'al1a position that they c'rrently en2oy, at least in theory, in the Svetambara tradition. =or f'rther details on the 2inakalpa and the sthavirakalpa in the Svetambara and the Hi!ambara traditions, see, respectively, -atia and @'mar >19$1, pp. B1(E9? and Jnanamati >19$7, pp. 1$E(1$9?. "E. =or different varieties of these fasts, see JS( ))), p. B#D. "G. ) 'nderstand from Hi!ambara scholars that s'ch a person %ill cease to be a monk if he accepts the banda!es and %ill revert to the position of a layman. ;is case %ill be some%hat similar to the one described by Sr'tasa!ara as 5'oted above in note "7. "$. -his story of the monk 6r!adhva2a cannot be traced in e.tant Jaina literat're. =or a Hi!ambara response to this ar!'ment, see Chapter ))) >JD$?. "9. Compare: m'rccha pari!rahah0 $attvarthasutra , vii, 1G. 9Chat is m'rcchaP 6'rccha is activity relatin! to the ac5'isition or safe!'ardin! of possessions s'ch as the co%, the b'ffalo, 2e%els, pearls, and so on, and also in%ard tho'!hts like desire and so on. . .. )nfat'ation or attachment is at the root of all evils. )f a person has the idea +this is mine,+ he has to safe!'ard it. )n safe!'ardin! it, violence is bo'nd to res'lt. =or its sake he 'tters falsehood. ;e also commits theft and attempts cop'lation. *nd this res'lts in vario's kinds of pain and s'fferin! in the infernal re!ions90 Sarvarthasiddhi , vii, 1G, translated by S. *. Jain, p. 199. B#. &n the Jaina practice of vol'ntary death by fastin! called sallekhana, see J)) , pp. 77G(7"". B1. =or a disc'ssion on these t%o co'rses, %hich are differently described in the Svetambara script'res and in the &i%ayodaya commentary of the Fapaniya a'thor *para2ita >Bhagavati-aradhana , pp. "D7( "EG?, as -atia and @'mar >19$1, pp. E9(G$?0 see also Caillat >19ED, pp. D7(DD?.

B7. )f by the term 92inakalpa9 in this passa!e the Fapaniya 'nderstands the practice of n'dity >in addition to other re5'irements?, then it %o'ld follo% that the vo% of n'dity co'ld not be administered to a boy of ei!ht and, as the follo%in! 5'otation states e.plicitly, to anyone 'nder the a!e of thirty. ) am 'na%are of a Hi!ambara te.t that stip'lates the minim'm a!e re5'irement of a person eli!ible to ass'me the vo% of n'dity. ) 'nderstand from my informants that it is c'stomary to !ive this initiation only to men in their advanced a!e and only to those %ho have spent years practicin! the an'vratas and other vo%s of a layman. *s a r'le, only a ks'llaka or an ailaka %o'ld be allo%ed to become a Hi!ambara monk, and therefore the c'stom of child initiation >baladi"sa ? that openly prevailed amon! the Svetambaras in medieval times %as totally 'nkno%n amon! them. =or details on this practice, see $he Life of .ema'andra >BVhler, 1$99?. B". -his verse, the so'rce of %hich cannot be traced and the meanin! of %hich is obsc're, merits comparison %ith the follo%in! verse in the Gommatasara >and its ;indi commentary?, %hich seems to preserve certain ancient r'les applicable to a mendicant of the 2inakalpa in the Hi!ambara tradition: tisam vaso 2amme, vasap'dhattam kh' titthayaram'le, paccakkhanam padhido, sam2h'nad'!a'yaviharo. >9Commentary: * person %ho is thirty years old and has after his initiation as a monk spent ei!ht years in the st'dy of the ninth book of the )urva 'nder a -irthankara comes to possess the cond'ct called pariharavisuddhi . S'ch a person travels every day, that is, he is not s'b2ect to the r'les of mendicant retreat d'rin! the rainy season and yet remains p're in his cond'ct90 Gommatasara 2Jiva"anda ?, verse BG"?. BB. ) have been 'nable to find a script'ral a'thority to s'pport the Fapaniya statement that an ei!ht( year(old person may attain moksa. )t is, ho%ever, a!reed by the Hi!ambara that only a person over the a!e of ei!ht may become eli!ible to receive the an'vratas of the laity. >!abbhado nikkhamtapadhamasamayappah'di atthavasses' !ades' sam2ama!!ahanappao!o hodi, hettha na hodi tti eso bhavattho0 5'oted in JS( >from the Dhavala ?, )A, p. 1B1.? Compare in this conte.t the B'ddhist belief that a boy m'st be at least ei!ht years of a!e to attain *rhatship. -he Dhammapada--ttha"atha >)), p. 7B$0 B'rlin!ame, 1971? contains the story of an ei!ht(year(old boy named Samkicca %ho attained *rhatship d'rin! his ordination as a novice >samanera ?. *ltho'!h ) am 'na%are of a similar story amon! the Jainas, the tradition is 'nanimo's that Prabhasa >%hom the Hi!ambaras claim to be a naked monk?, the yo'n!est of 6ahavira+s eleven !anadharas, %as only t%enty(fo'r %hen he attained *rhatship. >See J)) , p. BB.? *ccordin!ly, the 9thirty(year(old9 a!e re5'irement for becomin! a naked monk as stated above in note B" %as not reco!ni,ed in ancient times1or, more probably, the a!e re5'irement applied only for 'ndertakin! additional a'sterities allo%ed to a >naked? monk %ho had chosen the mode of 2inakalpa. BD. )n the Hi!ambara comm'nity the 5'estion of monks ret'rnin! the !reetin!s of the n'ns does not arise, as the latter, bein! only advanced lay%omen, %ill not be treated as e5'als of the monks. )n the Fapaniya and the Svetambara comm'nities they sho'ld be treated as e5'als, yet the monks there do not ret'rn the !reetin!s of their n'ns. -he Fapaniya *para2ita in his &i%ayodaya commentary !ives the follo%in! reasons for the inferiority of the n'ns and the s'periority of monks over them: pancamahavratadharinyas cirapravra2itaya +pi 2yestho bhavaty adh'na pravra2itah p'man. ity esa saptamah sthitikalpah p'r'sa2yesthatvam. p'r'satvam namopakaram raksam ca kart'm samarthah. p'r'sapranitas ca dharma iti tasya 2yesthata. tatah sarvabhih samyatabhih vinayah kartavyo viratasya. yena ca striyo la!hvyah, paraprarthaniyah, pararakso>a?peksinyah, na tatha p'mamsa iti ca p'r'sa2yesthatvam. >9* man %ho reno'nces the ho'sehold life only today is senior to a n'n %ho keeps the five mahavratas and has reno'nced the ho'sehold life a lon! time a!o. . .. 6anhood means the ability to protect. 6oreover the dharma is ta'!ht by a man 3i.e., the -irthankaras are men only4 and th's his s'periority. -herefore it is the d'ty of all n'ns to respect a monk. Comen are inferior beca'se they

are ob2ects of men+s l'st and re5'ire protection from others, b't not so a man0 this is the reason for his s'periority90 Bhagavati-aradhana , p. E1B.? )t %ill be noticed that the reasons provided are primarily of a social nat're and reflect the social attit'des prevalent in )ndia in ancient times. *para2ita makes no reference to the physiolo!ical disabilities stressed by the Hi!ambara @'ndak'nda in his Sutraprabhrta . =or this reson the Fapaniya >and the Svetambara? Jaina r'le abo't !reetin!s of monks by the n'ns bears comparison %ith the r'les laid do%n by the B'ddha for the initiation of %omen into his comm'nity of n'ns >bhiks'ni(san!ha?, for %hich see the )ntrod'ction >JB1(B7, n. ""?. BE. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. 7D, n. D? that a complete folio is missin! at this point and that he has reconstr'cted these t%o verses >7B and 7Dabc? from the Svopa%navrtti . BG. -his verse appears as no. "# of the Strinirvanapra"arana in 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i+s edition. See note 7$ above. ) have also reordered the se5'ence of the te.t by placin! this verse ahead of verse 7Dd to maintain the contin'ity of ar!'ment pertainin! to the r'les of !reetin!. B$. -his 5'otation also appears in the ,yaya"umuda'andra 0 see Chapter ))) >JGE?. B9. Baladeva >or balabhadra ?, narayana >or vasudeva ?, and pratinarayana >or prativasudeva ? are three Jaina literary types to!ether %ith cakravartins >'niversal monarchs? and -irthankaras and are called the !reat ill'strio's bein!s >sala"apurusas ?. * baladeva is the elder brother and companion of a narayana. -he narayana is a hero, the chief destroyer of the villain called pratinarayana. -he Jaina P'ranas narrate the e.ploits of these !reat Jaina laymen %ho periodically appear %hen a cakravartin is not r'lin! the earth. -hese three cate!ories are modeled on the Brahmanical epic and P'ranic heroes, namely, :ama >of the !amayana ? and Balarama >of the ahabharata-.arivamsaparva ?, Iaksmana, the brother of :ama, and @rsna, the brother of Balarama, and :avana and Jarasandha, the chief villains of the t%o epics, respectively. =or details on these ill'strio's Jaina heroes, see ;elen Johnson+s translation >19E7? of the $risastisala"apurusa'aritra of ;emacandra. D#. -he Jaina P'ranas have maintained that @rsna and Iaksmana as %ell as :avana and Jarasandha %ere reborn, as a res'lt of the violence they perpetrated, in the fo'rth hell. -hey are all destined to be reborn as h'man bein!s in their ne.t life and, havin! reno'nced the %orld in the manner of the Jaina monks, %ill attain moksa in that very life. See $risastisala"apurusa'aritra , vol. v. D1. *ll Jainas believe that of the t%enty(fo'r Jinas of o'r time, the first >:sabha?, the t%elfth >Aas'p'2ya?, the t%enty(second >Kemi?, and the t%enty(fo'rth >6ahavira? attained nirvana respectively at 6o'nt @ailasa, Campa >in Bihar?, U22ayanta >also called <iranar in <'2arat?, and Pava >in Bihar?. -he remainin! t%enty attained the nirvana from the holy 6o'nt Sammeta >called Parasnath ;ills? near the city of Patna in Bihar. :a2a!rha %as the ancient capital of 6a!adha %here 6ahavira preached his first sermon after becomin! the Jina. =or details on these pil!rima!e sites sacred to both the Hi!ambaras and the Svetambaras, see the &ividhatirtha"alpa by the fo'rteenth(cent'ry Jinaprabhas'ri and also Jain >19GB?. D7. -he identity of :amaka>'P?lya is not kno%n. Probably the a'thor has in mind some holy sprin!s, called Sitak'nda, or :amak'nda, %hich are located at vario's ;ind' pil!rima!e spots. D". Si. confi!'rations >samsthanas? refer to the physical conditions or str'ct'res of the h'man body: >1? perfectly symmetrical body >sama'aturasra-samsthana ?, meanin! symmetry of both the 'pper and lo%er parts of the body0 >7? 'pper body symmetry >nyagrodhaparimandala-samsthana ?0 >"? lo%er body symmetry >svatisamsthana ?0 >B? h'nchback >"ub%a ?0 >D? d%arf >vamana ?0 >E? deformed >hunda ?. -he heavenly bein!s have only the first and the hell bein!s only the last samsthana, %hereas h'mans and animals can have any of the si.. See also Chapter A) >J$D and n. B$?. DB. Brahmi and S'ndari %ere t%o da'!hters of the first -irthankara :sabha, %ho became n'ns %itho't enterin! the ho'sehold life. :a2imati %as the fiancWe of

the t%enty(second -irthankara, Kemi0 on the eve of their %eddin!, her fiancW reno'nced the %orld, and :a2imati follo%ed him into mendicancy. Candana %as the head of an order of thirty(si. tho'sand n'ns in the mendicant order of 6ahavira >see 6ehta, 19G#(19G7, ), p. 7BE?. )t is to be noted that the Fapaniyas, %hile mentionin! the names of several %omen appearin! in the P'ranic literat're, have omitted the name of -irthankara 6alli, considered the only female Jina by the Svetambaras. ;er story appears in the Svetambara canonical te.t ,ayadhamma"ahao , %hich is re2ected by the Hi!ambaras, %ho declare 6alli to be a male Jina >see )ntrod'ction, J7B?. -he omission here co'ld si!nify that her story in the e.tant Svetambara canon %as not accepted as a'thentic in the Fapaniya tradition. See also Chapters )A >J1"? and A) >JGG, n. "$?. DD. Unlike her 'ltimate s'icide in the !amayana >of Aalmiki?, in the Jaina version of the epic, Sita, the %ife of the :ama, event'ally becomes a Jaina n'n. See $risastisala"apurusa'aritra , iv, 1#. DE. Satyabhama, the %ife of @rsna, also became a Jaina n'n accordin! to the Jaina .arivamsa-purana : :'kmini Satyabhamadya mahadevyo +sta sasn'sah, labdhan'2na ;areh stribhih sapatnibhih pravavra2'h >chap. E1, verse B#?. DG. Both traditions a!ree that a person %ho is in possession of samya!darsana >the ri!ht vie%? %ill not be reborn into a female body, %hether in the h'man or the deva realms. Chile it is admitted that s'ch rebirth mi!ht be possible for the upasama-samyagdrsti , %hose %ron! vie% >mithyadarsana? is only temporarily s'ppressed, it is declared absol'tely impossible for the "sayi"a-samyagdrsti , %hose %ron! vie% has been permanently obliterated. )n either case, ho%ever, if a person dies %hile still endo%ed %ith samya!darsana, he or she %ill not be reborn as a female. *ccordin! to this r'le, therefore, at the time of their birth, all %omen %o'ld have to be considered as havin! %ron! vie%s, altho'!h this %o'ld not precl'de them from developin! the samya!darsana d'rin! their lifetimes. -he tradition is 'nanimo's in declarin! that the s'rest %ay to avoid rebirth as a female is to be in possession of samya!darsana at the time of death. By this same r'le, even %omen %ho are destined to become the mothers of the -irthankaras %o'ld have to be considered mithyadrstis at the time of their conception as a female embryo. D$. -he debate here foc'ses on the 5'estion of %hether a person on the second !'nasthana, the sasvada( samya!drsti1%ho has left behind the fo'rth sta!e of samya!drsti and is h'rtlin! ine.orably to%ard the lo%er sta!e, the mithyadrsti1or the person on the third sta!e, the samya!mithyadrsti1%ho has left the mithyadrsti sta!e and is on the transition sta!e to samya!drsti1%o'ld be reborn as a %oman. -he disc'ssant declares that the second !'nasthana is, in fact, a state of %ron! vie%, and a person on that level sho'ld be treated identically to the one on the first !'nasthana, the mithyadrsti. -he third !'nasthana is, ho%ever, a state %here the ri!ht vie% is not yet firm0 even so s'ch a person can be re!arded as if he %ere a samya!drsti. ;ence, a person on the second !'nasthana %o'ld be reborn as a female, %hile a person on the third %o'ld not. D9. -his compares %ell %ith the follo%in! Hi!ambara te.t: samya!darsanas'ddha narakatiryannap'msakastritvani, d'sk'lavikrtaipay'rdaridratam. ca vra2anti napy avratikah. >9-hose %ho are p're on acco'nt of the ri!ht vie%, even if they are %itho't the vo%s of a layman, %ill not be reborn in the hells, in animal e.istences, or as hermaphrodites, or as females0 nor %ill they be born %ith deformed bodies, nor in families that are poor or lo%90 !atna"arandasrava"a'ara , verse "#.? E#. =or these Jaina desi!nations for vario's 'nits of time, see JS( ), p. 71G. E1. -his verse is also 5'oted in the ,yaya"umuda'andra 0 see Chapter ))) >J7G?. E7. -his is one more occasion %here one do'bts that the opponent here is a Hi!ambara. *s %ill be seen

belo%, the Hi!ambara a'thor Prabhacandra re2ects this evidence as 'na'thentic. See Chapter ))) >J$1?. E". Both Jaina sects a!ree that there is no necessary correlation bet%een the biolo!ical !ender >called linga or dravyaveda ? of a person and that person+s se.'al desires, or libido >called bhavaveda or only veda ?. -he Jainas have classified se.'al desire into three types, %hich are not physical b't mental states: >1? striveda , the desire of a female to mate %ith a male0 >7? pumveda , the desire of a male to mate %ith a female0 and >"? napumsa"aveda , the desire of a hermaphrodite to mate %ith another hermaphrodite. *t one e.treme, accordin! to the Jaina doctrine of karma, the heavenly bein!s, %ho are distin!'ished only as male or female, have only the libido appropriate to their !ender. *t the other e.treme, all deni,ens of hell are only hermaphrodites and may have the hermaphroditic libido only. ;'mans and animals, ho%ever, can be born %ith any one of the three biolo!ical !enders, %hich they %ill retain for the d'ration of their lifetime, b't their libidos are not fi.ed. -hey may e.perience, at different times, any of the three libidos, irrespective of their physical !ender. Beca'se of this doctrine, the opponent claims that the %ord 9stri9 >%oman? in this passa!e refers to a man >p'r'sa? at the moment of his e.periencin! the female libido >striveda?, %ho can therefore be called, psycholo!ically, a 9%oman9 altho'!h biolo!ically he is a man. *s %ill be seen belo%, the Fapaniya, or at least Sakatayana, the a'thor of this te.t, seems to hold a vie% that is not shared by the mainstream Jaina tradition1that one+s libido cannot be contrary to one+s biolo!ical !ender. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this problem, see Chapter A) >J7(G?. EB. #itta-vi"ara: 'itta is a synonym for manas >mind?. -he physical basis of manas consists of s'btle atoms of matter and is therefore called dravya-manas . -he nonphysical basis of manas, ho%ever, thro'!h %hich the so'l e.periences happiness or 'nhappiness, is a fac'lty of the so'l itself and is called the internal mind >bhava-manas ?. -he citta(vikara in this passa!e %o'ld therefore indicate the modification of the so'l that ind'ces se.'al desire. ED. )alya : *ccordin! to the Jaina doctrine of karma, a %oman can contin'e to be reborn as a female for from three to nine h'ndred palyas1an immense len!th of time stretchin! into millions of years. -he Hi!ambara is attemptin! to sho% here that beca'se no physical body can possibly last this lon!, the %ord 9female9 in this passa!e cannot refer to a %oman+s body b't to the internal se.'al feelin!. EE. *ltho'!h Siddhahood is a state achieved after the final death of an *rhat, the %ord here refers to the thirteenth !'nasthana, %here that *rhat is still alive. EG. -he ninth !'nasthana can be characteri,ed by either s'ppression >'pasama? or destr'ction >ksaya?. -he destr'ction of all three types of se.'al desire1namely, striveda, p'mveda, and nap'msakaveda1 alon! %ith the other s'btle passions takes place only %hen the aspirant enters the path leadin! to destr'ction. ;ence, attainment of this path, %here !ross passions are destroyed, en!enders a state of nonretro!ression. E$. 6'ni Jamb'vi2aya2i notes >p. "E, n. B? that an entire folio is missin! at this point and that he has reconstr'cted the portion %hich appears here in an!le brackets >i.e., verses B7 and B"?. E9. 6ar!ana refers to a Jaina method of e.amination of the states of the so'l by foc'sin! on the follo%in! fo'rteen aspects d'rin! its state of embodiment: destiny, that is, birth >gati ?, senses >indriya ?, body >"aya ?, activity >yo!a?, se.'al desire >veda?, passions >kasaya?, co!nition >%nana ?, restraint >samyama ?, perception >darsana ?, mental colorin!s >lesya ?, the capacity to attain moksa >bhavyatva ?, ri!ht vie% >samya"tva ?, mental fac'lties >sam%na ?, and intake of food >ahara ?. )n e.aminin! these aspects, the te.ts ask s'ch 5'estions as, %hich !'nasthanas are possible for a bein! in a partic'lar birthP -he ans%er here, for e.ample, is that the bein!s born in hell and heaven can have only the first fo'r !'nasthanas, as they are 'nable to ass'me any of the restraints. )n the animal births,

it is possible to attain even the fifth !'nasthana. *ll fo'rteen !'nasthanas are possible, ho%ever, for h'man bein!s. -his same analytical method is employed in e.aminin! the remainin! thirteen mar!anas. G#. -his refers to the %nanavaraniya >the kno%led!e(obsc'rin!? and the darsanavaraniya >the perception(obsc'rin!? karmas. See J)) , p. 11D. G1. -hese te.ts can be compared %ith the follo%in! s'tras of the Hi!ambara Sat"handagama : man'ssa coddass' !'natthanes' atti micchaitthi . . . a2o!ikevalitti >i, 1, s'tra 7G?0 man'sinis' micchaitthi( sasanasammaitthitthane siya pa22attiyao siya apa22attiyao >s'tra 97?0 sammamicchaitthi( asam2adasammaitthisam2a(dasam2adatthane niyama pa22attiyao >s'tra 9"?0 5'oted in JS( ))), p. 7$D. 1. Prabhacandra commences the topic of strimoksa at the end of his ref'tation of kevali(kavalahara >see Chapter )), n. "? on the !ro'nd that it is inconsistent %ith the *rhat+s possession of the =o'r Perfections 1namely, infinite kno%led!e >ananta-%nana ?, infinite perception >ananta-darsana ?, infinite bliss >ananta-su"ha ?, and infinite ener!y >ananta-virya ?. ;e no% makes the f'rther claim that the state of moksa, characteri,ed by these fo'r infinite 5'alities, is possible only to men and not to %omen. -echnically speakin!, moksa is achieved only at the end of the *rhat+s life at the time of attainin! Siddhahood0 b't the term can be applied to the earlier sta!e of the @evalin also %hen these fo'r 5'alities are perfected. See also Chapters ) >n. 7? and )) >n. 19?. 7. Prabhacandra does not mention the Fapaniya by name, b't as %as seen above >section iii? he certainly dra%s very heavily 'pon the Strinirvanapra"arana and its Svopa%navrtti in %ritin! this section of the ,yaya"umuda'andra . -he %ord 9Sitambara9 does appear once in the te.t >see J"9?, b't Prabhacandra probably 'ses that desi!nation as a !enetic term that %o'ld incl'de the Fapaniya also, the chief proponent of strinirvana. ;ence it is possible to identify the opponent in this section as the Fapaniya. ". See Chapter )) >J7?. B. &n the -hree Je%els, see Chapter )) >n. B?. D. See Chapter )) >JG?. E. See Chapter )) >JD(E?. G. See Chapter )) >J1#?. $. See Chapter )) >J11?. 9. See Chapter )) >J17?. 1#. See Chapter )) >J19?. 11. See Chapter )) >J1D?. 17. See Chapter )) >J1$?. 1". See Chapter )) >J7#?. 1B. See Chapter )) >J7#?. 1D. See Chapter )) >J71?. 1E. See Chapter )) >J7E?. )t sho'ld be noted that Prabhacandra here i!nores both the reference to the 2inakalpa mode of mendicancy, %hich came to an end after the time of Jamb' >Chapter )), J7"?, and the ,isitha-bhasya script're >Chapter )), J7E?, %hich lists t%enty cases 'nfit for mendicancy incl'din! 9a pre!nant %oman9 and 9a %oman %ith a yo'n! child.9 1G. See Chapter )) >J7G?.

1$. See Chapter )) >J7$?. &n the Hi!ambara r'le allo%in! n'dity for a n'n on her deathbed, see Chaper )) >n. 7D?. 19. See Chapter )) >J79?. -he r'le 5'oted here is from a Svetambara script're, yet Prabhacandra allo%s it to be placed in the mo'th of the Hi!ambara, s'!!estin! the possibility that this s'tra %as once common to both sects. )n the )rameya"amalamarttanda , ho%ever, he merely states that the naked mendicancy for %omen is neither en2oined in the script're nor %itnessed in the %orld >na hi strinam nirvastrah samyamo drstah pravacanapratipadito va?, p. "79. 7#. See Chapter )) >J"1?. 71. See Chapter )) >J"D and J"$?. 77. See Chapter )) >JB"?. 7". See Chapter )) >JBB?. Prabhacandra i!nores here the Fapaniya ar!'ment that a n'n+s case is similar to that of the monk %ho is allo%ed clothes beca'se he is s'b2ect to one of the three defects reco!ni,ed as valid !ro'nds for not !oin! naked >see Chapter )), JBD(BG?. ;e also passes in silence the entire ar!'ment >Chapter )), JD#(E#? that the 2inakalpa is not s'itable for all1for an ei!ht(year(old boy, for e.ample1and that the sthavirakalpa >i.e., mendicancy %ith clothes, as 'nderstood by the Svetambaras? is an e5'ally valid mode available to %omen. 7B. Compare Chapter )) >J"9?0 see the san!raha(arya 5'oted. 7D. See Chapter )) >JB#?. 7E. See Chapter )) >J"D?. 7G. See Chapter )) >JB1?. 7$. See Chapter )) >JB7?. 79. See Chapter )) >JEE?. "#. See Chapter )) >JG9?. "1. See Chapter )) >J$D?. "7. See Chapter )) >J9D?. "". See Chapter )) >J9E?. Prabhacandra i!nores the entire disc'ssion >Chapter )), J9G(11"? on the relationship bet%een %ord and meanin! in determinin! the tr'e meanin! of the %ord 9stri,9 as %ell as the Fapaniya doctrine that the se.'al desire >veda? m'st correspond to the biolo!ical !ender >lin!a?0 see Chapter )) >J1#$(11"?. "B. See Chapter )) >J11B?. "D. See Chapter )) >J11D?. "E. See Chapter )) >J11G?. "G. See Chapter )) >J11$?. "$. See Chapter )) >J119(17E?. "9. Prabhacandra appears to be the first to present the ar!'ment of the invariable relationship derived from the !amya(!amaka relationship in the conte.t of strimoksa0 it is not fo'nd in the %orks of Sakatayana. B#. -his e.amination of the B'ddhist theory on concomitance is fo'nd on pp. BBE(BB$ of the ,yaya"umuda'andra .

B1. See Chapter )) >J1E?. B7. )n the Kaiyayika vie%, independent parts are related to a %hole by the separate element kno%n as inherence >samavaya ?. -he Jainas re2ect samavaya as bein! a separate entity, for in their vie% there is merely a 95'alified identity9 bet%een the part and the %hole. B". -he %ord 9Sitambara9 is not fo'nd in the earlier %ork, the )rameya"amalamarttanda , and this is the only time it is mentioned in the ,yaya"umuda'andra . ) have been 'nable to identify the partic'lar Svetambara %riter %ho mi!ht have raised this so(called Kaiyayika ar!'ment. 6ost probably Prabhacandra himself anticipates s'ch an ob2ection and p'ts it in the mo'th of the opponent. BB. Bharata, the eldest son of :sabha, the first -irthankara, is the first of the t%elve cakravartins %ho r'led the earth d'rin! the c'rrent half of the time cycle accordin! to the Jaina cosmolo!y. See Chapter A >n. 1$?. Bharata is said to have attained moksa in that very life. =or the le!end of Bharata, see J)) , p. 7#B. BD. -he %ord 9s'bha9 >a'spicio's? m'st be 'nderstood here as suddha >p're?. Both sects have maintained that a'spicio's >i.e., meritorio's? deeds take one to heaven b't do not lead to moksa. Spirit'al liberation is possible only thro'!h p're actions1that is, actions %hich do not !enerate ne% karmas. )n the pop'lar literat're the %ord 9s'bha9 has often been 'sed to represent both the s'bha and the s'ddha cate!ories of action. =or a disc'ssion on these t%o cate!ories, see Jaini >19$D?. BE. See Chapter )) >J7#?. BG. * passa!e in the te.t >JBD, lines "($? that correlates in detail %hich bein!s are reborn in %hich hellish or heavenly abodes is omitted in the translation. B$. See Chapter )) >J1"?. B9. See Chapter )) >J71(77?. D#. See Chapter )) >J71?. D1. * Jaina monk may e.ercise s'ch s'pernat'ral po%ers in order to protect other Jaina mendicants from calamities %ro'!ht by cr'el kin!s or demi!ods. See, for e.ample, the story of the Hi!ambara monk Aisn'k'mara in the Brhat"atha"osa >no. 11?. D7. -his is pres'med to be the res'lt of s'ch !ood deeds as !ivin! alms to monks %ho have performed !reat a'sterities. )t is said that s'ch a person+s alms vessel %ill never r'n o't of food, even if a cakravartin+s army %ere to feed from it for an entire day. =or details on this and other yo!ic po%ers attained by Jaina monks, see JS( ), pp. BGD(B$G. D". See Chapter )) >J71?. DB. -he Jainas believe that animals possessed of reasonin! po%er and the five senses >sam2ni? are capable of reali,in! the ri!ht vie% >samya!darsana? as %ell as ass'min! specific types of minor restraints >an'vrata?, s'ch as refrainin! from killin!. *nimals are th's considered to be able to attain the fifth !'nasthana, a stat's identical to that of the Jaina laity. See Chapter )) >n. 1"?. DD. See Chapter )) >J"1?. DE. See Chapter )) >J""?. DG. See Chapter )) >J"", last line?. D$. See Chapter )) >J"D?.

D9. 6ost )ndian reli!io's schools a!ree that the acts of charity only lead to rebirth in a'spicio's e.istences. 6eritorio's actions themselves are never the direct ca'se of moksa0 c'm'latively, ho%ever, they may enhance one+s opport'nities to ass'me the mendicant restraints, th's indirectly helpin! the achievement of moksa. E#. See Chapter )) >J"D("E?. E1. -he Hi!ambara tradition maintains that the %hisk broom is !iven 'p by @evalins, as %ell as by monks in meditation. -here %as also a >heretic? Hi!ambara sect based in the city of 6ath'ra >6ath'rasan!ha? called nispi''hi"a >see Chapter A, ii? that !ave 'p the 'se of the %hisk broom in the belief that it %as not essential for leadin! the life of a mendicant. See JS( ), p. "BE. E7. -his ar!'ment of a Hi!ambara monk not liftin! the fallen piece of cloth >thro%n over him? is ne%. Compare in this connection the Svetambara story of 6ahavira that after his ren'nciation he had carried a sin!le piece of cloth on his sho'lders for a year b't did not care to pick it 'p %hen it fell on thorns and th's he happened to become a naked >acelaka? monk. See J)) , p. 1". E". See Chapter )) >JD7?. EB. See Chapter )) >J"B?. ED. See Chapter )) >J"B, last line?. EE. See Chapter )) >JBB?. EG. See Chapter )) >JB1?. E$. -he fo'r types of idle talk incl'de conversation abo't family and so forth. -he fo'r passions are an!er, pride, deceitf'lness, and coveto'sness. See Gommatasara-Jiva"anda , verse "B. E9. See Chapter )) >J"B?. )n the Strinirvanapra"arana , it is the Hi!ambara and not the Fapaniya %ho ar!'es that %omen are re5'ired to %ear clothes in order to dispel shame and hence the Jina is not to be fa'lted for forbiddin! n'dity to them. G#. )n the correspondin! section of the )rameya"amalamarttanda >pp. ""1(""7? Prabhacandra 5'otes ei!ht verses that ridic'le the claim of the clothed monks that they are free from desire >vira"ta ? despite the %earin! of clothes. -he ei!hth verse s'ms 'p the Hi!ambara position: only those %ho are broken by the afflictions arisin! from %omen and those %ho are bo'nd by attachment to the body accept clothes. )t is proved thereby that they are not free from either the internal or e.ternal bonds. >striparisahabha!nais ca baddhara!ais ca vi!rahe, vastram adiyate yasmat siddham !ranthadvayam tatah.? G1. -he Hi!ambaras maintain that shame >la22a? is a virt'e for lay people >bein!, in their case, the basis for appropriate modesty? b't a hindrance for those follo%in! the hi!her path of mendicancy. -hey do not consider nakedness to be invariably associated %ith freedom from desire, b't assert only that the %earin! of clothes al%ays indicates the presence of desire. -hose made 'ncomfortable by p'blic n'dity mi!ht ar!'e, therefore, that the mendicant sho'ld retain his clothes 'ntil he is free from all desire >i.e., 'ntil he act'ally becomes vitara!a at the t%elfth !'nasthana?, since the e.ternal act of !oin! naked does not itself make one free from internal desire. -he Hi!ambaras %o'ld ans%er that %hile discardin! one+s clothes is not e5'ivalent to abandonin! one+s shame >the latter involves eradication of the libido itself?, takin! the vo% of n'dity at the initial sta!es of mendicancy is nevertheless important as it amo'nts to a total ren'nciation of the ho'sehold life and its %orldly possessions. G7. See Chapter )) >JB$?.

G". See Chapter )) >JEB(EE?. GB. See Chapter )) >JG"?. GD. See Chapter )) >JE9?. GE. *ll Jainas have traditionally believed that only a man can become a -irthankara. *n e.ception to this r'le is to be fo'nd in the Svetambara belief that the nineteenth -irthankara, 6alli, %as a female. See Chapter )) >n. DB?. GG. See Chapter )) >JG1?. )t sho'ld be noted that Prabhacandra is 'sin! this Svetambara te.t >5'oted also by the Fapaniya a'thor? to make the point that n'ns are e5'al to monks. G$. See Chapter )) >J$G?. G9. See Chapter )) >J$9?. Both sects believe that the process of the destr'ction of karmas be!ins at the ei!hth !'nasthana, %hich is not accessible to anyone b't a mendicant. >=or e.ceptions to this r'le in the Svetambara tradition, see Chapter A), n. 1".? =rom this doctrine flo%s the Hi!ambara claim that a %oman %ho is barred from takin! the mendicant vo%s1that is, from reachin! the si.th !'nasthana1 cannot rise to the ei!hth !'nasthana. -h's in their vie% a %oman+s anatomy itself is obstr'ctive in initiatin! the process of the destr'ction of karmas. $#. Compare the verse 5'oted in Chapter )) >J$9?. $1. See J7G and Chapter )) >J9D?. $7. -he reason for re2ectin! the a'thenticity of this verse is evidently the %ord 9lin!a,9 %hich can only mean the physical si!n of !ender >as opposed to the %ord 9veda9 in J$7, %hich can mean both the !ender as %ell as the internal se.'al feelin!? and hence is not acceptable to the Hi!ambaras. =or an alternative te.t, see Chapter A) >J$ and n. $?. $". -he Prakrit Siddhabha"ti is attrib'ted to @'ndak'nda >see )rava'anasara , intro., p. 7D? and is daily recited by the Hi!ambara monks. )t sho'ld be noted that this verse %as not 5'oted by Sakatayana, b't Prabhacandra offers it as an alternative te.t to s'pport the Hi!ambara theory that only men can attain moksa. $B. See Chapter )) >J11D?. =or an additional ar!'ment that %omen do not have the necessary samhanana >2oints of the bones? to achieve the hi!her states of meditation, see Chapter )A >J1#?. $D. Both sides a!ree that animals1%ho can also e.perience any of the three kinds of se.'ality re!ardless of their biolo!ical !ender1are incapable of attainin! moksa, since they do not possess the necessary h'man body. $E. *ccordin! to the Hi!ambaras, one cannot attain s'kladhyana, a necessary antecedent to moksa, in a female body. =or additional 5'alifications, see Chapter A) >JG9 and n. 71?. =or details on the s'kladhyana, see J)) , pp. 7DD(7D9. $G. See Chapter )) >J11G?. $$. -he former and the latter moksas refer to the attainment of *rhatship and Siddhahood, respectively. See note 1. 1. -he editor of the )rava'anasara 'ses an asterisk to indicate that these verses are later accretions >pra"sipta ? to the ori!inal te.t. See section >i?. 7. Aerses 11, 17, and 1" are probably taken from the Sutraprabhrta of @'ndak'nda. See Chapter ) >JE( $?. ". -he Jaina karma te.ts speak of si. types of bone 2oints >samhanana?. -he first is the perfect 2oint

>called va2ra(vrsabha(naraca(samhanana?, noted for its adamantine 5'ality of !reat st'rdiness and stren!th. -he remainin! five are pro!ressively %eaker. 8ach h'man bein! is born %ith one of these si. samhananas, %hich remain the same for the d'ration of one+s life. ;'man bein!s born %ith one of the first three samhananas are said to be capable of 2oinin! the mendicant order. B't moksa is possible only for those %ho are born %ith the first samhanana. -his is beca'se only persons endo%ed %ith s'ch adamantine 2oints are said to be capable of %ithstandin! the ri!ors of a'sterities that lead to the hi!hest form of meditation called the s'kladhyana >see Chapter )ll, n. $E? %itho't %hich moksa cannot be achieved. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that birth in the seventh hell is also possible only to those bein!s >namely, men and fish0 see Chapter )) n. 1$? %ho are endo%ed %ith the first samhanana. =or details see JS( )), p. "71, and -atia and @'mar >19$1, p. $"?. B. -he 5'estion of the opponent here is that if %omen too can have the first three samhananas, then the Hi!ambara prohibition a!ainst their ass'min! the mendicant vo%s or even attainin! moksa is not s'pported by their o%n script're. Jayasena therefore cites this verse as the a'thority in s'pport of the Hi!ambara vie%. -he verse declares that the first three samhananas are available only to the %omen born in the bho!abh'mi >see Chapter )), n. G? and not to those %ho are born in the karmabh'mi. Both sects have believed that bein!s born in the bho!abh'mi cannot be reborn in hells or practice mendicancy or attain moksa0 these are possible only from a birth in the karmabh'mi. -h's accordin! to this verse %omen are barred from enterin! mendicancy and from attainin! moksa, and hence it serves as script'ral evidence for the Hi!ambara vie%. Jayasena is here 5'otin! from the eleventh(cent'ry Kemicandra+s Gommatasara-(arma"anda >verse "7?. *s %ill be seen, the Svetambara %riter 6e!havi2aya >see Chapter A), J$D? re2ects this 5'otation as 'na'thentic and hence 'nacceptable to his sect. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this passa!e see Aakil >19ED?, %ho has ar!'ed that this verse co'ld be an interpolation to 2'stify the Hi!ambara position on strimoksa. D. See Chapter ) >nn. 9 and 1B?. E. See Chapter )) >JEB?. G. =or the le!end of 6alli, see the )ntrod'ction >J7B?. $. =or a list of the si.teen observances leadin! to rebirth as a -irthankara, see $attvarthasutra , vi, 7B. =or a comparison %ith the B'ddhist doctrine of the practice of paramitas >perfections?, see Jaini >19$1?. 9. See Chapter )) >n. DG?. 1#. =or a disc'ssion on the icono!raphy of 6alli, see Chapter A) >JGG?. 11. Since the possibility of a %oman+s !oin! to heaven is not disp'ted, this ob2ection is probably sp'rio's. 17. Aerse 3X1D4 deals %ith ordination of men and hence is omitted here. 1". -his is @'ndak'nda+s ori!inal verse and serves as the script'ral a'thority for the Hi!ambara claim that n'dity is a prere5'isite for a tr'e member of the Jaina mendicant order. )t may be noted that @'ndak'nda does not even mention the %hisk broom >pinchi? or the %ater !o'rd >kamandal'? as the re5'isites, altho'!h in practice these serve to identify a Hi!ambara monk and distin!'ish him from the Svetambara mendicants %ho in addition %ear clothes and keep bo%ls for collectin! food as %ell as carry a %ooden staff. 1. -his syllo!istic ar!'ment, as %ell as the co'nterar!'ment that appears at the end >JBB?, can be traced to the ,yaya"umuda'andra >Chapter ))), J7 and JGD? and hence it is conceivable that <'naratna had

access to Prabhacandra+s %ork. 7. -he Fapaniya is no lon!er the defender of strimoksa as he %as in Chapter )). By the time of <'naratna the Svetambaras have become the champions of this doctrine and are 'sin! the Fapaniya ar!'ments almost verbatim as they %ere presented by Sakatayana in the Strinirvanapra"arana and the Svopa%navrtti . Compare the items listed here %ith Chapter )) >J17?. ". Compare Chapter )) >J7$?. B. -his seems to be a Svetambara attempt to claim that there is no basic difference bet%een men and %omen in their reason for %earin! clothes. Sakatayana, ho%ever, restricts clothes only to those men %ho are s'b2ect to the three defects elaborated in Chapter )) >J1D?. D. See Chapter 11 >J""?. E. See Chapter )) >J"D?. &nce a!ain <'naratna i!nores the Fapaniya restrictions that applied to the 'se of clothes by men. G. See Chapter )) >J"9?. $. -he only method of vol'ntary death approved by the Jaina script'res is by fastin! called sallekhana >see Chapter )), JDD?. -he Jainas have condemned all other forms of death, incl'din! those practiced by Brahmanical yo!ins s'ch as enterin! fire, or dro%nin! in %ater, or 2'mpin! from a hill. See J)) , p. 1DB. 9. See Chapter )) >J"9?. <'naratna i!nores Prabhacandra+s response to this ar!'ment as in Chapter ))) >JD$?. 1#. See Chapter )) >JB1?. =or a co'nterar!'ment %ith the 'se of this metaphor, see Chapter A) >n. 1E?. 11. See Chapter )) >J$D($$?. 17. -he yatha"hyata-'aritra , the hi!hest form of mendicant cond'ct, is achieved only by those %ho have reached perfect p'rity %ith the destr'ction of all forms of mohaniya(karma. ;ence it is possible only for those bein!s %ho have attained the t%elfth and the thirteenth !'nasthanas. -he Sarvarthasiddhi >i., 1$? e.plains it as that cond'ct the description of %hich conforms to the tr'e nat're of the self >yathatmasvabhavo +vasthitas tathaivakhyatatvat?. 1". See Chapter )) >J17?. 1B. -his seems to be in response to Prabhacandra+s ar!'ment in Chapter ))) >J"B?. 1D. See Chapter )) >J1$?. <'naratna i!nores Prabhacandra+s response to this ar!'ment in Chapter ))) >JBB?. 1E. =or the story of the fish that %ent to the seventh hell, see Chapter )), n. 1G. 1G. Compare Chapter )) >J7#?. 1$. <'naratna is probably referrin! here to the story of a Hi!ambara monk named Sivabh'ti mentioned in @'ndak'nda+s Bhavaprabhrta : t'samasam !hosamto bhavavis'ddho mahan'bhavo ya, namena ya Sivabh'i kevalanani ph'dam 2ao 3D"4. Sr'tasa!ara, commentin! on this verse, narrates the follo%in! story. -here %as a certain monk called Sivabh'ti of p're heart. H'e to %eak memory he co'ld not remember the technical terms 'sed for so'l and body >namely, %iva and sarira ? that %ere necessary for distin!'ishin! them accordin! to the Jaina teachin!. &ne day he sa% a %oman %ashin! lentils and asked her %hat she %as doin!. ;er ans%er that she %as separatin! lentils >masa ? from the chaff >tusa ? made him repeat the form'la 9p'lses are separate from chaff,9 %hich led him to the reali,ation, even %itho't 'sin! the technical terms, of the separation of his so'l from the body and he instantly achieved

kevala2nana0 Satprabhrtadisangrahah , p. 7#1. <'naratna is 'sin! this Hi!ambara story of the 96asat'sa9 monk to prove the point that the lack of formal learnin! of the sacred te.ts need not prevent %omen from attainin! moksa. =or a disc'ssion on the relevance of the st'dy of the )urva te.ts >forbidden to %omen? in attainin! moksa, see Chapter A) >n. B1?. 19. &f the t%elve cakravartins %ho r'led d'rin! the c'rrent half of the Jaina time cycle, ten attained moksa at their death %hile t%o >S'bha'ma, no. $, and Brahmadatta, no. 17? %ere reborn in the seventh hell. See JS( )A, p. 17. 7#. -his is probably a reference to Karada >a contemporary of @rsna the 9narayana90 see Chaper )), n. B9? %ho is said to have attained moksa in the .arivamsapurana of the ei!hth(cent'ry Hi!ambara acarya P'nnata Jinasena: Karado +pi narasresthah pravara2ya tapaso balat, krtva bhavaksayam moksam aksayam sam'peyivan0 sar!a ED, verse 7B. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that the term 9narada 9 appears in the Jaina P'ranas as a desi!nation of a literary type, an imitation of the Brahmanical sa!e Karada, %ho %ith his c'nnin! nat're brin!s abo't the conflict bet%een the narayana and the pratinarayana >see Chapter )), n. B9?. -he Hi!ambara tradition describes the naradas as contemporaries of the vas'devas, fond of 5'arrelin! b't also occasionally leadin! ri!hteo's lives0 they are %orthy of attainin! moksa, b't d'e to the defect of violence >%hich they help to perpetrate? they are reborn in hell: kalahappiya kadaim dhammaraha vas'devasamakala, bhavva niraya!adim te himsadosena !acchamti0 $rilo"asara , verse $"D, 5'oted in the .arivamsapurana , p. $##, n. 1. )n vie% of this te.t, Pandit Pannalal Jain, the editor of the .arivamsapurana , has 5'estioned the acc'racy of the statement that Karada attained moksa >ibid.?. =or vario's entries 'nder this name in the Svetambara canon, see 6ehta >19G#(19G7, 1, "71?. 19. &f the t%elve cakravartins %ho r'led d'rin! the c'rrent half of the Jaina time cycle, ten attained moksa at their death %hile t%o >S'bha'ma, no. $, and Brahmadatta, no. 17? %ere reborn in the seventh hell. See JS( )A, p. 17. 7#. -his is probably a reference to Karada >a contemporary of @rsna the 9narayana90 see Chaper )), n. B9? %ho is said to have attained moksa in the .arivamsapurana of the ei!hth(cent'ry Hi!ambara acarya P'nnata Jinasena: Karado +pi narasresthah pravara2ya tapaso balat, krtva bhavaksayam moksam aksayam sam'peyivan0 sar!a ED, verse 7B. )t sho'ld be noted, ho%ever, that the term 9narada 9 appears in the Jaina P'ranas as a desi!nation of a literary type, an imitation of the Brahmanical sa!e Karada, %ho %ith his c'nnin! nat're brin!s abo't the conflict bet%een the narayana and the pratinarayana >see Chapter )), n. B9?. -he Hi!ambara tradition describes the naradas as contemporaries of the vas'devas, fond of 5'arrelin! b't also occasionally leadin! ri!hteo's lives0 they are %orthy of attainin! moksa, b't d'e to the defect of violence >%hich they help to perpetrate? they are reborn in hell: kalahappiya kadaim dhammaraha vas'devasamakala, bhavva niraya!adim te himsadosena !acchamti0 $rilo"asara , verse $"D, 5'oted in the .arivamsapurana , p. $##, n. 1. )n vie% of this te.t, Pandit Pannalal Jain, the editor of the .arivamsapurana , has 5'estioned the acc'racy of the statement that Karada attained moksa >ibid.?. =or vario's entries 'nder this name in the Svetambara canon, see 6ehta >19G#(19G7, 1, "71?. 71. ;emacandra in his *ogasastra-svopa%navrtti narrates at len!th the story of Hrdhapraharin >lit., &ne Cho ;its ;ard?. ;e %as a chieftain of the thieves and had killed a co%, a Brahman, and his pre!nant %ife and th's deserved to be reborn in the seventh hell. ;o%ever, he repented his evil deeds, became a Jaina monk, practiced severe penances, and attained moksa in that very life: brahma(stri(bhr'na(!o( !hata(patakan narakatitheh, Hrdhaprahariprabhrter yo!o hastavalambanam0 i, verse 17. =or other references, see 6ehta >19G#(19G7, ), p. "DD?. ;is story is not fo'nd in the e.tant Hi!ambara literat're. 1. *n asterisk follo%ed by the n'mber of the pa!es and lines indicates the portion omitted here from the ori!inal edition of the te.t of the *u"tiprabodha-Svopa%navrtti >197$?.

7. -he te.t at this sta!e >p. GE, line E, to p. G$, line D? cites verbatim a lon! passa!e from the Gommatasara-vrtti >verses E9B(G#1? dealin! %ith the !'nasthanas attained by a so'l in a !iven state of e.istence. >See Chapter )), nn. 17 and 1", for a s'mmary.? ;'man bein!s born in the realm of action >karmabh'mi? alone may attain all fo'rteen !'nasthanas >i.e., may attain moksa in that very life?. -he a'thor here dra%s attention to the script're in %hich all h'man bein!s, and not only males, are said to be able to attain the fo'rteen !'nasthanas >an ar!'ment first p't forth by the Fapaniya a'thor Sakatayana in Chapter )), J1"G? and hence, even accordin! to the Hi!ambara script're >see Chapter )), n. G#?, %omen can attain moksa. ". 6e!havi2aya is consistent in referrin! to this te.t as Gomattasara instead of Gommatasara , its traditional title. -his error has been corrected thro'!ho't. B. =or this variety of the mohaniya(karma, see J)) , pp. 11G(171. D. &n the concepts of the realms of pleas're and action, see Chapter )) >n. G?. E. -he ladder of destr'ction of karmas >ksapaka(sreni, for %hich see Chapter )), J11$ and n. EG?, %hich can be commenced %ith any libido by an aspirant, be!ins at the ei!hth !'nasthana. )n the ninth sta!e all three libidos are totally destroyed. &nly a s'btle variety of the passion called lobha >desire for life? remains, %hich is also destroyed at the t%elfth !'nasthana. -his is an irreversible co'rse and the so'l m'st proceed immediately to the sta!e of *rhatship >the thirteenth !'nasthana? and m'st attain moksa at the end >fo'rteenth !'nasthana? of that life. =or details, see J)) , chap. $. G. anusyini is the Sanskriti,ed form of the Prakrit manusini employed in the oldest >C. *.H. 1D#? Hi!ambara te.t Sat"handagama >s'tras 97 and 9"? for a female >as opposed to Pkt. manussa , Skt. manusya , i.e., male?. )n describin! %hich h'man bein! may have %hich !'nasthanas, this te.t mentions both man'sya and man'syini separately and states that both can attain all fo'rteen !'nasthanas. >See the te.t 5'oted at Chapter )), n. G1.? Since the thirteenth and fo'rteenth !'nasthanas are attained only by a @evalin >%ho m'st attain moksa at the end of that life?, this Hi!ambara te.t allo%in! the attainment of these !'nasthanas by man'syini !oes a!ainst the professed Hi!ambara doctrine that %omen cannot attain moksa in that life. -he Hi!ambara commentators as seen above >Chapter ))), ii? have concl'ded that the term 9man'syini9 refers not to a biolo!ical female b't to a biolo!ical male %ho is psycholo!ically female. Prabhacandra, as %e sa% earlier, i!nores this %hole disc'ssion, b't 6e!havi2aya is persistent in his e.amination of the Hi!ambara interpretation of this term, %hich has evaded resol'tion even to this day. $. Both sects believe that at one instant >samaya ? a minim'm of one and a ma.im'm of one h'ndred and ei!ht so'ls attain moksa >samkhya(2a!hanyena ekasamaye ekah siddhyati, 'tkarsenastottarasatasamkhyah0 Sarvarthasiddhi , ., 90 see JS( )ll, p. ""9?. Since the Hi!ambaras do not believe in the moksa of anyone b't a male, the n'mber of one h'ndred and ei!ht is not f'rther divided to sho% the physical !ender as is clone in the verse 5'oted by 6e!havi2aya. -his verse is therefore not a'thoritative for the Hi!ambaras0 nor is the one 5'oted by the Fapaniya a'thor Sakatayana >at Chapter )), J9D?, %hich %as e.pressly re2ected by Prabhacandra >see Chapter ))), J$1 and n. $7?. 9. -hat %omen have e.cessive crookedness >maya or ka'tilya? is not necessarily an e.cl'sive Hi!ambara ar!'ment based on any si!nificant karma theory applyin! only to %omen0 rather, it reflects a !eneral attit'de of )ndian men shared by the Svetambaras and the Fapaniyas alike. 1#. -here is perhaps an all'sion here to the !reat poet @alidasa, %hose hero, the Faksa, makes a ha'ntin! reference to the %aghana of a beloved %oman in eghaduta , verse BD. 11. )t may be noted that in the Jaina order only monks can administer the mahavratas to a %oman, after

%hich she is handed over to a n'n >%ho had sponsored her? for s'pervision. =or a detailed acco'nt of the initiation >di"sa ? of a n'n in the Svetambara sect, see Shanta >19$D, pp. "B"("EB?. )n B'ddhism the B'ddha is said to have allo%ed the first n'n, 6ahapra2apati <a'tami, the privile!e of ordainin! a n'n, a c'stom that is said to prevent the monks of s'ch -heravada co'ntries as Sri Ianka, the Union of 6yanma, and -hailand from ordainin! %omen to revive the e.tinct order of n'ns in present times. Since %omen may not initiate themselves, they m'st apparently a%ait the arrival of the ne% B'ddha to reestablish the bhiks'ni(san!ha. See the )ntrod'ction >JBD?. 17. )t is 'niversally believed by the Jainas that, d'rin! those times %hen moksa is not possible >s'ch as the present a!e?, both monks and n'ns %ho keep their vo%s properly and attain peacef'l death thro'!h the holy practice of sallekhana >see Chapter )), JDD? are first born in heaven and then reborn as h'mans to res'me their holy career. *ltho'!h n'ns may th's be reborn in heavens, both sects believe that they may not be able to achieve the stat's of the kin! of !ods >)ndra or *hamindra?, a position reserved for monks only. 1". 6ar'devi %as the mother of the first -irthankara :sabha. -he Svetambaras believe that she attained kevala2nana and died immediately >i.e., achieved Siddhahood?, %hile still a lay%oman, at the si!ht of the omniscient !lory of her son. &f co'rse, the Hi!ambaras re2ect this belief since in their doctrine neither a %oman nor a ho'seholder can attain moksa. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this controversy, see J)) , p. 7#B. 1B. Hra'padi, the heroine of the ahabharata and %ife of the five Pandava brothers, also appears in the Jaina P'ranas >e.!., $risastisala"apurusa'aritra , A, p. 19$? as the %ife of the five Pandavas and becomes a Jaina n'n %hen her h'sbands are initiated as Jaina monks. -he Hi!ambaras re2ect the claim that Hra'padi >as %ell as 6ar'devi and other %omen? attained moksa, believin! that they %ere born in heaven and %ill event'ally attain moksa later in a f't're life %hen reborn as men. S'bhacandra >c. 1E##? in his )andavapurana >sar!a ..v? stresses this point in the follo%in! Hi!ambara acco'nt of Hra'padi and other n'ns: :a2imati tatha @'nti S'bhadra Hra'padi p'nah, samyaktvena samam vrttam vavrire ta vrsodyatah. 31B#4 svay'rante ca samnyasya svaradhanacat'stayam, m'ktasavah samaradhya 2a!m's tah sodasam divam. 31B"4 s'ratvasamsritah sarvah p'mvedodayabha2inah, samanikas'ra bh'tva tatratyam bh'n2ate s'kham. 31BB4 te nrloke nrtam etya tapas taptva s'd'staram, dhyanayo!ena setsyanti krtva karmaksayam narah. 31BG4 1D. =or the Svetambara story of 6alli, see the )ntrod'ction >J7B?, Jayasena+s ar!'ments >Chapter )A, J1B?, and 6e!havi2aya+s re2oinder at JGG and note "$ belo%. 1E. -he specific mention of the %hite(clad monks >svetavaso bhiks'nam, i.e., the Svetambaras? in this conte.t is si!nificant. -he opponents of the Hi!ambaras here are not the Fapaniya monks, %ho adhered to the r'les of n'dity b't so'!ht to make an e.ception of their n'ns so that they co'ld contin'e to %ear clothes b't still attain moksa in that very life0 as a r'le, ho%ever, they did not claim this concession for male mendicants >other than for those %ho %ere s'b2ect to three defects0 see Chapter )), JBD?. -he Svetambara monks did not observe the r'les re!ardin! n'dity, %hich %ere inc'mbent, accordin! to the Hi!ambaras, on all mendicants. )n the opinion of the Hi!ambaras, they %ere %orse than n'ns, beca'se %hile n'ns %ore clothin! in accordance %ith the r'les of the discipline, monks had no s'ch dispensation. ;ence the Hi!ambaras remind their Svetambara opponents here that by 'sin! this >false? ar!'ment to claim moksa for %omen despite the 'se of clothes, they r'n the risk of denyin! the tr'e stat's of their o%n monks and their mahavratas. =or the earlier 'se of this metaphor >a pop'lar one amon! the mercantile comm'nities to %hich the Jainas have traditionally belon!ed? of the loss of capital in search of profit, see Chapter A >J71?. 1G. Compare this Jaina r'le %ith the first of the ei!ht gurudharmas of the B'ddhist la% pertainin! to the n'ns: >a? vassasat'pasampannaya bhikkh'niya tadah+ 'pasampannassa bhikkh'no abhivadanam

pacc'tthanam an2alikammam samicikammam katabbam. ayam pi dhammo sakkatva !ar'katva manetva p'2etva yava2ivam anatikkamaniyo. &inaya, #ullavagga , ., 7. >b? varsasatopasampannaye *nanda bhiks'niye tadahopa 3sam4 pannassa bhiks'sya sirasa pada vanditavya. ayam *nanda bhiks'ninam prathamo !ar'dharmo yo bhiks'nihi yava22ivam satkartavyo yava anatikramaniyo vela(m(iva mahasam'drena. Bhi"suni-&inaya , p. 1G. 1$. =or this Svetambara tradition, see Hevendra >(alpasutra , app. ), nn. G(1#?, %ho 5'otes the follo%in! in s'pport of these beliefs: 9acelatvam sri *dinatha(6ahavira(sadh'nam manapramanasahitam 2irnaprayam dhavalam ca kalpate. sri *2itadivimsatitirthakarasadh'nam t' pancavarnam >(alpa-sutra"alpalata ?0 acel'kko dhammo p'rimassa ya pacchimassa ya 2inassa0 ma22hima!ana 2inanam hoi sacelo acelo ya >(alpasamarthana ?.9 19. =or a disc'ssion on the variation of the mendicant r'les 'nder different -irthankaras, see J)) , pp. 17(7#. 7#. =or the verse 9a'ela""uddesiya 9 see Chapter )) >JBE?. 71. -his verse sho'ld be read %ith the verse DB$: 2ati vi ya Bhutavade savvassa vayo!atassa otaro, ni22'hana tadha vi h' d'mmedhe pappa itthi ya. 3DB$4 2ati !aha. yady api Drstivade samastavanmayavataras tathapi d'rmedhasam ayo!yanam strinam can'!rahartham anyasr'tavisesopadesah, sravakanam ca. &isesavasya"abhasya , verse DB$. )t sho'ld be noted in this connection that the first t%o s'kladhyanas, attained immediately prior to attainin! the kevala2nana, are possible only to those %ho kno% the )urvas >accordin! to the r'le: s'kle cadye p'rvavidah, $attvarthasutra , i., "9?. -he Svetambaras nevertheless claim that a n'n %ho is forbidden the st'dy of the )urvas may yet attain kevala2nana. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this problem, see JG9. 77. &n narayana and baladeva, see Chapter )) >n. B9?. 7". -he Jaina cosmolo!y locates the abode of the Siddhas at the s'mmit of the 'niverse, immediately above the Sarvarthasiddhi heaven. See Chapter )) >n. 1$? and J)) , p. 17G. 7B. See Chapter )) >n. D1?. 7D. -his syllo!ism %as first p't forth by Prabhacandra >Chapter ))), JDG? in response to the Fapaniya ar!'ment at Chapter )) >J"9?. 7E. -hese neo(Hi!ambaras are the follo%ers of Banarasidas mentioned in my introd'ction >i?. 7G. =or the concept of the space >pradesa? occ'pied by material atoms and immaterial s'bstances >incl'din! so'ls?, see J)) , pp. 9$(1##. 7$. )n the disc'ssion on the a'darika and the parama(a'darika(sarira >Chapter )), n. "? it %as seen that the Svetambaras, to!ether %ith the Fapaniyas, re2ect the Hi!ambara theory of the ordinary body t'rnin! into the parama(a'darika(sarira at the moment of attainin! *rhatship. -hey believe that the *rhat m'st contin'e to take food and %ater as before, s'b2ect to the same physical needs >s'ch as the necessity to eat and drink and respond to calls of nat're? as any other h'man bein!. *s for %omen, the Hi!ambaras do not admit that they may attain kevala2nana, and hence in their doctrine %omen are a'tomatically e.cl'ded from havin! a parama(a'darika body. Since the Svetambaras do admit that %omen may attain kevala2nana, they m'st acco'nt for the %ay in %hich female @evalins %o'ld cope %ith their menstr'al periods, %hich, in the absence of the theory of a parama(a'darika(sarira, m'st occ'r in all mat're females. =or the Svetambara reply to this 5'estion, see J$9 and note B9 belo%. 79. 6e!havi2aya is obvio'sly referrin! here to Prabhacandra >see J97?, the e.ponent of the Hi!ambara doctrine. -he last line, %hich says that Hhana >i.e., @'bera? %o'ld contin'e to look 'pon %omen %ith lovin! eyes, is a fi!'rative %ay of sayin! that a %oman m'st remain content %ith a rebirth in heaven

rather than attainin! moksa in that very life. "#. -he te.t at this sta!e >from pp. $$, line 17, to p. 91 line 1"? cites lar!e passa!es from the Gommatasara-vrtti and the )an'asangraha re!ardin! the vario's kinds of !'nasthanas attained by different so'ls thro'!h the process of !rad'ally eliminatin! vario's types of karmas. -his is an attempt to sho% that the Hi!ambaras are %ron! in takin! the %ord 9man'syini9 to mean a biolo!ical male %ho has temporarily become psycholo!ically female by e.periencin! the female libido. "1. Chether a %oman %ho desires a man is more or less perverted than a man %ho desires a man is a cr'cial 5'estion in this debate b't is never addressed by the Hi!ambaras. -he Svetambara line of 5'estionin! implies that they feel s'ch a man >i.e., a homose.'al? %o'ld be inferior to a %oman or, at very least, sho'ld not fare better than a %oman in follo%in! the spirit'al path. -he Hi!ambara ans%er %o'ld appear to be that the presence of female libido in a monk at the ei!hth !'nasthana is not of any si!nificance, since all three libidos m'st be destroyed at the ninth !'nasthana, before that monk+s pro!ress to%ard the state of a @evalin. See the verse from the )ra"rta-Siddhabha"ti 5'oted by the Hi!ambara in J$ above. "7. -he Hi!ambara applies the same method, namely the reco'rse to the past state >bh'tap'rvanyaya?, in describin! the t%elve kinds of Siddhas mentioned in the $attvarthasutra , ., 9. =or e.ample, a 5'estion is asked: Cith %hat !ender >lin!a? can a person attain SiddhahoodP *ns%er: Physically, only %ith male !ender. &r one can take the %ord 9lin!a9 in the s'tra to mean the mendicant emblem. &ne attains Siddhahood by the emblem of a nir!rantha. By the emblem of one %ith property >sa!rantha? also, if one %ere to ans%er by takin! into acco'nt only the past state of that person. >lin!ena kena siddhihP . . . dravyatah p'llin!enaiva. athava nir!rantha( lin!ena. sa!ranthalin!ena va siddhir bh'tap'rvanayapeksaya. Sarvarthasiddhi , ., 1#0 5'oted in JS( ))), p. ""$.? "". -his first !rade of the passions >kasaya? is called anantanubandhi , %hich is overcome %hen the fo'rth !'nasthana of the ri!ht vie% has been attained. -he second !rade is called apratya"hyanavarana >that %hich prevents the ass'mption of the vo%s of the laity?0 it is overcome in the fifth !'nasthana. -he third !rade is called pratya"hyanavarana >that %hich prevents the ass'mption of the vo%s of the mendicant?0 it is overcome on the si.th !'nasthana %hen the mendicant vo%s are accepted. -he final !rade, sam%valana , incl'des the three kinds of libido >p'mveda, striveda, and nap'msakaveda? as %ell as the most s'btle kind of attachment for life. -he libido is eliminated in the ninth sta!e, and the remainin! passion is totally overcome in the tenth thro'!h t%elfth !'nasthanas. -he Hi!ambaras claim that a %oman is incapable of ascendin! any farther than the fifth !'nasthana(that is, she is 'nable to ass'me the mendicant vo%s. )n technical terms, this %o'ld mean that a %oman is 'nable to overcome the third !rade of passions, a claim that is evident to the Hi!ambaras on acco'nt of her contin'ed bashf'lness and so forth. -he Svetambaras re2ect this claim. =or details see J)) , chap. B. "B. So'ls %ho lack all possibility of ever attainin! moksa and are th's destined forever to remain in samsara are called abhavya0 those %ho may attain receive the desi!nation of bhavya. =or a disc'ssion on this Jaina theory of 9predestination,9 see Jaini >19GG?. "D. (rtrima"liba >lit., one %ho has been rendered a hermaphrodite?. Since the %ord is employed in distinction to a con!enital hermaphrodite >%atinapumsa"a ?, it appears that the %ord is 'sed to refer to a person %ho is born male b't %as rendered a 9hermaphrodite9 by s'ch means as castration, as in the case of a e'n'ch. -he Svetambaras, as maintained by 6e!havi2aya, %ill have no diffic'lty in admittin! s'ch a person >essentially a male? to their mendicant ranks as he %ill be clothed accordin! to their r'les. *ltho'!h the Hi!ambara response to this Svetambara statement is not clearly set forth, it is %ell kno%n that a noncon!enital hermaphrodite, on acco'nt of his !enital deformity, %o'ld not be allo%ed to become a Hi!ambara monk, %ho m'st !o n'de. -his position clearly emphasi,es the aspect of

biolo!ical !ender in the ass'mption of the mahavratas and the attainment of moksa, re!ardless of %hat libido mi!ht be entertained. )n this respect, the stat's of a noncon!enital hermaphrodite in the Hi!ambara tradition %o'ld be similar to that of a %oman. =or a disc'ssion on the krtrimakliba in the B'ddhist te.ts, see M%illin! >19$9?. "E. *ccordin! to another passa!e it is not a bamboo t'be alone b't one filled %ith sesame seeds that is compared to the va!ina filled %ith min'te bein!s. Compare: yad vedara!ayo!an maith'nam abhidhiyate tad abrahma, avatarati tatra himsa vadhasya sarvatra sadbhavat. 314 himsyante tilanalyam taptayasi vinihite tila yadvat, bahavo 2iva yona' himsyante maith'ne tadvat. 374 )urusarthasiddhyupaya , verses 1#G(1#$. Compare: yoniyantrasam'tpannah s's'ksma 2ant'rasayah, pidyamana vipadyante yatra tan maith'nam tya2et. *ogasastra-Svopa%navrtti , ), ii, G9. ;emacandra 5'otes a passa!e from the (amasastra in s'pport of the Jaina belief: yona' 2ant'sadbhavam samvadena dradhayati(2ant'sadbhavam Aatsyayano +py aha. Aatsyayanah (amasastra karah anena ca Aatsyayanasamvadadhinam asya pramanyam iti nocyate, na hi Jainam sasanam anyasamvadadhina( "D. (rtrima"liba >lit., one %ho has been rendered a hermaphrodite?. Since the %ord is employed in distinction to a con!enital hermaphrodite >%atinapumsa"a ?, it appears that the %ord is 'sed to refer to a person %ho is born male b't %as rendered a 9hermaphrodite9 by s'ch means as castration, as in the case of a e'n'ch. -he Svetambaras, as maintained by 6e!havi2aya, %ill have no diffic'lty in admittin! s'ch a person >essentially a male? to their mendicant ranks as he %ill be clothed accordin! to their r'les. *ltho'!h the Hi!ambara response to this Svetambara statement is not clearly set forth, it is %ell kno%n that a noncon!enital hermaphrodite, on acco'nt of his !enital deformity, %o'ld not be allo%ed to become a Hi!ambara monk, %ho m'st !o n'de. -his position clearly emphasi,es the aspect of biolo!ical !ender in the ass'mption of the mahavratas and the attainment of moksa, re!ardless of %hat libido mi!ht be entertained. )n this respect, the stat's of a noncon!enital hermaphrodite in the Hi!ambara tradition %o'ld be similar to that of a %oman. =or a disc'ssion on the krtrimakliba in the B'ddhist te.ts, see M%illin! >19$9?. "E. *ccordin! to another passa!e it is not a bamboo t'be alone b't one filled %ith sesame seeds that is compared to the va!ina filled %ith min'te bein!s. Compare: yad vedara!ayo!an maith'nam abhidhiyate tad abrahma, avatarati tatra himsa vadhasya sarvatra sadbhavat. 314 himsyante tilanalyam taptayasi vinihite tila yadvat, bahavo 2iva yona' himsyante maith'ne tadvat. 374 )urusarthasiddhyupaya , verses 1#G(1#$. Compare: yoniyantrasam'tpannah s's'ksma 2ant'rasayah, pidyamana vipadyante yatra tan maith'nam tya2et. *ogasastra-Svopa%navrtti , ), ii, G9. ;emacandra 5'otes a passa!e from the (amasastra in s'pport of the Jaina belief: yona' 2ant'sadbhavam samvadena dradhayati(2ant'sadbhavam Aatsyayano +py aha. Aatsyayanah (amasastra karah anena ca Aatsyayanasamvadadhinam asya pramanyam iti nocyate, na hi Jainam sasanam anyasamvadadhina( pramanyam, kint' ye +pi kamapradhanas tair api 2ant'sadbhavo napahn'ta ity 'cyate. Aatsyayanasloko yatha1rakta2ah. krmayah s'ksma mrd'madhyadhisa(ktayah, 2anmavartmas' kand'tim 2anayanti tathavidham. )bid., ), ii, $#. -his verse %ith a sli!ht variation appears not in the e.tant (amasutra b't in the Jayamangalati"a on it by Fasodhara. See the (amasutram of Aatsyayana, p. G$. "G. By naked female yo!ins o'r a'thor probably has in mind certain Saivite female ascetics %ho are kno%n to have practiced n'dity. &ne s'ch e.ample is the Airasaiva saint 6ahadeviyakka0 for details see Kandimath >19ED, vol. ), pp. G, $, 1", 71D?. "$. &n the Svetambara le!end of the female -irthankara 6alli, see the )ntrod'ction >J7B?. *s %as seen earlier >Chapter )), n. DB?, Sakatayana refrains from any all'sion to 6alli, a c'rio's omission %hich indicates the possibility that the Fapaniyas, like the Hi!ambaras, did not consider 6alli to be a %oman. =or f'rther disc'ssion on this le!end see Shah >19$G, pp. 1D9(1E#?. Plate IA)) in that %ork ill'strates a headless stone ima!e >from the I'ckno% m'se'm? of a %oman seated in the yo!ic post're similar to

that of a male -irthankara and pres'med to be the only e.tant ima!e of the female 6alli. -he ima!e bears no inscription, b't the front side sho%s prominent breasts %itho't the trace of a halter %hile the reverse side sho%s the braided hair reachin! the bare hips. Ko Jaina sect, ho%ever, allo%s a n'n to be naked or permits her to retain braided hair. Chile there is no do'bt that this is a Jaina ima!e, f'rther evidence is re5'ired for establishin! the tr'e identity of the person it depicts. "9. Pleasin! co'ntenance >subhagatva ? is a characteristic res'ltin! from the meritorio's kind of body( prod'cin!, that is, the nama(karma. Both sects believe that %ith the attainment of the kevala2nana, the hair on the head and other parts of the body as %ell as nails of an *rhat stop !ro%in! forever, beca'se of this s'bha!anamakarma. =or this reason the Jina ima!es of both sects are depicted %itho't m'stache and beard and %ith only small c'rly hair >e.cept that of the first Jina, %ho is depicted %ith lon! hair fallin! on his sho'lders?. -he Svetambara ima!es, even of 6ahavira, %ho accordin! to their o%n te.ts %ent totally naked, still depict him %ith a loincloth in order to preserve the decency of the ima!e. -he Hi!ambara ima!es, as is %ell kno%n, are al%ays made to sho% the n'de fi!'re complete %ith the male member, since accordin! to them holy n'dity is not opposed to decency and reflects the tr'e state of the Jina+s perfected mendicancy. -he oldest standin! Jina ima!es invariably depict the state of n'dity. )n the case of the seated ima!es >s'ch as fo'nd in 6ath'ra? the male members %ere nat'rally covered by the foldin! of the le!s in the lot's post're0 these ima!es %ere probably %orshipped by adherents of both the Hi!ambara and the Svetambara sects. )t is only %hen the sectarian disp'te reached a point of total separation of the t%o mendicant comm'nities that the Svetambaras, sometime in the early <'pta era >c. fifth cent'ry? appear to have be!'n carvin! e.cl'sively Svetambara ima!es draped in styli,ed loincloths. =or f'rther disc'ssion on the development of the Svetambara icono!raphy, see Shah >19$G, intro.?. B#. )aryusana"alpa %o'ld appear to be the te.t kno%n as Samayari >:'les for *scetics?, %hich forms part of the (alpasutra and contains r'les for monks and n'ns for the period of the retreat d'rin! the rainy season. See Jacobi+s translation of the (alpasutra >1$$B, pp. 79E("11?. B1. <'naratna first introd'ced this ar!'ment and referred to the story of the monk %ho had reali,ed moksa thro'!h the metaphor of the lentils and chaff >Chapter A, J"E?. )n the Hi!ambara version of this story >Chapter A, n. 1G? of the 96asat'sa9 monk Sivabh'ti, he %as not said to be 'nintelli!ent, as maintained by 6e!havi2aya, b't only lackin! memory. Chether he had received any instr'ction in the )urvas is not clear from the Hi!ambara te.t. Since the first t%o s'kladhyanas are not possible %itho't the kno%led!e of the )urvas >see n. 71 above?, one %o'ld have to ass'me that the Hi!ambaras %o'ld not a!ree %ith 6e!havi2aya+s contention that s'ch monks co'ld have attained moksa %itho't st'dy of the )urvas . B7. =or the temples on 6o'nt Satr'n2aya, see B'r!ess >1$E9?. B". -he verse 5'oted from the Bhagavad-Gita tells only that %omen >to!ether %ith men of s'ch lo% castes as the Aaisyas and S'dras? can attain moksa b't it does not assert, as 6e!havi2aya seems to claim, that they attain it in that same life. )t sho'ld be noted f'rther that the Svetambara is not 5'otin! this heretical te.t in s'pport of his thesis b't rather to ridic'le the Hi!ambara claim that 2'st beca'se somethin! is believed by somebody or is %ell kno%n to some people >e.!., the places of nirvana of certain monks?, it sho'ld be accepted by all as a'thoritative. Keither the Hi!ambaras nor the Svetambaras believe that the hi!hest !oal >para gati ? spoken of in the Gita is identical %ith the Jaina concept of moksa. BB. 3X p. 11", line G(p. 17", line E4 6e!havi2aya+s ref'tations of the Hi!ambara ar!'ments >%hich %ere !iven above from J7D to J"9? are omitted here as they are almost identical, albeit presented in a more detailed form, %ith those fo'nd in the Strinirvanapra"arana >Chapter ))? and the

$ar"arahasyadipi"avrtti >Chapter A? disc'ssed above. &nly ne% ar!'ments or si!nificantly ne% form'lations of the old ar!'ments are reprod'ced in sections J$B thro'!h J97. BD. ;ere 6e!havi2aya seems to be respondin! to Prabhacandra+s ar!'ment in Chapter ))) >JE$?, %hich dre% a contrast bet%een the sacelasamyama of a n'n and the acelasamyama of a monk. )t sho'ld be noted that Prabhacandra does not 'se the terms 9sthavirakalpa9 and 92inakalpa9 to describe these t%o practices. =or the variation in the meanin! attached to these t%o modes in the Svetambara and the Hi!ambara sects, see Chapter )) >n. "D?. BE. &n samhanana, see Chapter )A >n. "?. BG. 6e!havi2aya is re2ectin! here the script're 5'oted by Jayasena at Chapter )A >J1#?. B$. &n the si. kinds of samsthanas or str'ct'res of a h'man body see Chapter )) >n. D"?. )t is believed that the entirely 'nsymmetrical or deformed body >h'ndasamsthana? is the res'lt of e.tremely evil karmas. ;o%ever, havin! a deformed body of this kind is not considered by the Svetambaras to be an impediment to attainin! moksa in that very life. )t sho'ld be noted that the Hi!ambaras do not a!ree %ith this vie%. -hey have maintained that a man %ith a deformed body may not be initiated into mendicancy and hence may not attain moksa in the same life. See )rava'anasara , iii, 7D 3X 1D4 for the physical 5'alifications of an aspirant seekin! initiation as a Hi!ambara monk. B9. *s described in note 7$ above, the Hi!ambara believes that the *rhat+s body, bein! p're >parama( a'darika? and able to s'stain itself %itho't food or %ater, is totally free from s'ch imp're s'bstances as blood, semen, or 'rine. Since in their doctrine a %oman may not attain *rhatship, she cannot escape the imp'rities that m'st res'lt from the in!estion of food and %ater. -he Svetambaras re2ect the theory of the 9p're body9 claimed by the Hi!ambaras for the *rhat and maintain that the latter+s body contin'es to f'nction as before. -he presence of semen in a male *rhat+s body and its dischar!e, ho%ever, present a problem for the Svetambaras. -hey cannot deny the e.istence of semen in a yo'n! male body, b't they m'st deny the possibility of its dischar!e in an *rhat beca'se it is believed that seminal dischar!e cannot occ'r %itho't e.periencin! the veda or libido. Since libido, %hich is the res'lt of the mohaniya >i.e., the passion(!eneratin!? karma, is eliminated prior to the attainment of *rhatship, the Svetambaras believe that no dischar!e of semen is possible for an *rhat. By the same token, it is ar!'ed by the Svetambaras that the menstr'al flo% of a female *rhat, even if she is yo'n!, %ill cease to e.ist beca'se, like the male *rhat, she %ill also have eradicated the libido that is said to be the primary ca'se for the e.istence of the menstr'al flo%. Chereas the invariable connection bet%een the seminal dischar!e and libido is evident to all, only the Svetambaras seem to connect the menstr'al flo% %ith libido. D#. 6e!havi2aya disc'sses this point at !reat len!th in his treatment of the controversy over the kevali( kavalahara >from p. 1DG, line E, to p. 1D9, line 1#?. D1. Since the %ord 9prabhendu 9 'ndo'btedly refers to the Hi!ambara a'thor Prabhacandra, the ad2ective 9dvi%ihvabharana ,9 in addition to si!nifyin! a villaino's or do'ble(ton!'ed person, probably refers to the t%o famo's %orks of Prabhacandra, namely, the )rameya"amalamarttanda and the ,yaya"umuda'andra , %hich contain the most forcef'l defense of the Hi!ambara position on strimoksa. D7. &isnu and prativisnu are synonyms for narayana and pratinarayana, the personifications of a hero and a villain respectively. -hey are born enemies and both are destined to be reborn in hell at the end of that life as a conse5'ence of their %arfare. Both sects a!ree that visn' and prativisn' m'st be males. See Chapter )) >n. B9?.

Preferred Citation: Jaini, Padmanabh S. Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1991 1991. http: ark.cdlib.or! ark: 1"#"# ft1"$nb#%k