Seismic Amplitude Versus Offset (AVO) Character of Geopressured Transition Zones

John N. Louie and Abu M. Asad Seismological Laboratory (168), The University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557-0141 19 March 1993 (nal revision 10 August)

ABSTRACT

The presence of diagenetically-cemented seals distinguishes between possible mechanisms for the maintenance of abnormal uid pressures in sedimentary basins. The velocity gradients and Poissons ratio variations surrounding a cemented seal affect the pre-stack amplitude versus offset behavior of seismic reections from the seal. Acoustic synthetic seismograms based on well logs from sealed transitions demonstrate their unusual AVO character. A long-offset COCORP reection line near Port Lavaca, Texas shows similar effects from a seal at 6000 feet (1800 m) depth. Local conductivity logs and regional drilling mud weight compilations establish the presence of this pressure transition zone. It is associated with a strong, lowfrequency reector near its base, and displays linear AVO trends markedly stronger than from lower reections within the overpressured compartment. The fact that a seal exhibits such prominent physical property characteristics suggests that AVO analysis techniques may locate other seals in basins worldwide, where proper conditions for diagenetic sealing rather than shaliness and subsidence may be needed to maintain geopressures.

Introduction Bradley (1975) and Powley (1975) proposed the existence within sedimentary basins worldwide of closed but internally-conductive "compartments" containing abnormal pore uid pressures. They and their co-workers compiled accurate downhole pressure measurements into proles showing dramatic changes in pressure gradient with depth. Based on these proles Bradley and Powley divided abnormally-pressured regions into high-gradient transition zones or "seals" surrounding hydrostatic but abnormally-pressured "compartments." Hunt (1990) reviewed this hypothesis and some of the data from which it originated. This paper briey explores how seismic reection surveys may identify such pressure seals and transition zones. We studied both models of wave propagation in seals and reection data from abnormally-pressured oil and gas elds. Our objective is to suggest seismic acquisition and analysis strategies that should increase the likelihood of identifying overpressured formations in advance of drilling. In the oil and gas industry, work on the seismic signature of abnormally-pressured formations has concentrated on the analysis of normal-incidence, stacked reection data. For many years, the highporosity, reduced-velocity rocks within large overpressured "compartments" have been identied by stacking velocity analyses (Bellotti and Giacca, 1978; Bilgeri and Ademeno, 1982). More recently, industry specialists have investigated how the presence of abnormal pressures affects the instantaneous characteristics of stacked reection wavelets.

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To complement the velocity analysis work, we investigate the seismic properties of the pressure seals or transition zones themselves rather than those of the abnormally-pressured compartment interiors. The seismic character of pressure seals may be similar for both over- and under-pressured compartments, and may allow the accurate location of vertical as well as horizontal seals. Characterization methods based on compartment velocities, on the other hand, whether based on stacking or tomographic velocity analysis, suffer from poor lateral resolution and the inability to identify underpressured formations. Bethkes (1986) modeling of the hydrodynamics of abnormally-pressured sections only requires a basin to subside and be relatively shaly to develop large pressure gradients. Bradley (1975), Powley (1975), Dewers and Ortoleva (1988), and Tigert and Al-Shaieb (1990) suggested alternatively that bands of calcite mineralization observed within transition zones, not necessarily parallel to lithologic layering, provide the sealing mechanism to maintain the overpressures below. The concept of a diagenetically-cemented seal would explain how the many basins listed by Hunt (1990) exhibiting slower subsidence and less shaliness than required by Bethke (1986) could develop abnormal pressures. We base our modeling and data analysis on the results of geological and geochemical efforts to characterize sealing mechanisms (this volume). The diagenetic silica or carbonate cementation mechanisms may yield transition zones that form seismic reectors having identiable properties. Analysis of reections before stacking may be a reliable way to detect and measure such properties. Methods Our assessment of pre-stack pressure seal reection properties took two parallel tracks. One effort modeled the properties of pressure seal reections with synthetic seismograms, to search for distinguishing seismic characteristics. The other effort analyzed seismic reection and well data to see if their characteristics matched those of the synthetics. Modeling In a sand or shale, the amount of secondary cementation required to retain overpressures also drastically alters the physical properties of the seal rocks. The presence of porosity can affect rock rigidity more than the compressional modulus (Christensen, 1985). Thus, as porosity is reduced in seals by cementation, rigidity rises faster than incompressibility, leading to distinguishable alterations in the Poissons ratio property of the seal. Pre-stack seismic analysis can often detect reectors with unusual Poissons ratios (Ostrander, 1984). The higher total incompressibility of the seal may also have other effects on offset seismograms, due to velocity gradients above and below the seal. Figure 1 shows the generalized geometry of nearand far-offset reection rays from a horizontal seal. At larger incidence angles i, the presence of a strong velocity gradient with depth at the seal can cause rays to bend in directions not predicted by simple reection theory. While at some angles the rays may bend up, throwing extra energy at some receiver interval (Figure 1, "turning ray"), at other angles rays may bend down, depriving other receivers of returned energy (Figure 1, "diving ray"). We can model this ray bending effect with purely acoustic synthetics. Velocity measurements in wells conrm that sufcient gradients exist to produce such ray bending. We generated synthetic seismograms using velocity and density proles from wells penetrating seals and abnormally-pressured compartments. Two elds in the south Texas coast provided a suite of well logs with complete shale density and sonic transit time information. The completeness of the logs allowed acoustic seismogram modeling with a minimum of assumptions. Figure 2 shows the log information from two of these wells, which we label the Sarita and the Willamar. In the Sarita well, shale density (solid curve on Figure 2) rises to high values between 8000 and 10,000 foot depths, just above the onset of overpressure. Sonic transit times (dashed curve) similarly fall to a minimum in this depth range. Thus sonic velocities would reach a maximum also.

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We call this high-density, high-velocity region within the pressure transition zone a "cap." Several wells from our south Texas suite exhibited a cap. Some did not, despite the presence of overpressure. One example, the Willamar well, is also shown in Figure 2. Instead of a distinct cap, densities and velocities simply increase to the top of the overpressured zone. Below, the high compartment pressures preserve porosity and velocity at nearly constant values in both wells. The presence of a cap suggests that the pressure seal is particularly well-cemented. The velocity gradients above and below such a cap may give the reections arising from it distinguishing characteristics. These effects will be strongest in the comparison of narrow-angle (i; Figure 1) seismograms against wider-angle seismograms, in terms of changes in reection amplitude versus source-receiver offset (AVO). The velocity gradients may not reect strongly at short wavelengths (relative to the breadth of the gradients) and at normal incidence. However, at wider angles reection rays may turn in positive velocity gradients, producing strong amplitudes. At certain angles, the reections may lose energy downwards through the negative gradients at the bottom of the cap. To investigate how the cap affects reection amplitudes relative to incidence angle we generated multi-offset, pre-stack synthetic seismic gathers with acoustic nite-difference methods. Figure 3 shows two of the gathers, from the Sarita and Willamar proles, respectively, at relatively low frequencies. We also made sets of higher-frequency synthetics. Our synthetics include all multiples, reverberation, interference, and other full-wave acoustic effects. Data Analysis We were able to obtain a public-domain seismic reection data set from an abnormally-pressured region. The Consortium for Continental Reection Proling (COCORP) program at Cornell University provided three lines from the Port Lavaca area of Texas, extending about 100 km inland. The COCORP data have several advantages for our study. First, Line 4 of the data set is close to the coast near Port Lavaca (Figure 4), so the expected depth to the onset of abnormal pressure is much shallower at 6000 feet (1800 m) than for other regions further inland or offshore (pers. comm. with R. Spiller of Maxxus Energy). Second, the COCORP line was recorded using offsets to 12 km, so it provides wide incidence angle coverage. Moreover, COCORP acquisition parameters ensure good coverage of relatively low reection frequencies between 10 and 35 Hz. Frequencies above 35 Hz are not included in the data, however, limiting resolution to features comparable in size to the 80 m seismic wavelength. Figure 4 shows a map of COCORP Texas Line 4 near Port Lavaca. The numbered dots indicate the locations of wells for which we obtained all available geophysical logs. Our search revealed principally conductivity logs. Figure 5 displays COCORPs stacked seismic section for Line 4, converted to a depth scale using velocities from regional type logs and COCORP velocity spectra. The thick lines superimposed on the section show shale conductivities we picked from eight of the nine wells. Figure 5 suggests that a relatively low-frequency reector at about 6000 foot (1800 m) depth across the section is at the base of a gradual rise in shale conductivity. The presence of a shale diapir below the southeast end of the section provides a mechanism for a relatively shallow transition to uid overpressures, as shale diapirism is often a result of the buoyancy of an under-compacted, less dense shale section. These observations suggest that the shale conductivities in Figure 5 are increasing through a pressure transition zone 1000 to 2000 feet (300-600 m) thick. Offshore information on the depth to overpressure from reported drilling mud weights (R. Spiller, pers. comm.) supports the presence of a transition zone near the depth of the low-frequency reector. The wells in this compilation closest to Line 4 reported overpressures as shallow as 6100 to 6300 feet (1860-1920 m). Further offshore, depths to the onset of geopressure in this region range from 4700 feet (1400 m) to 15,000 feet (4600 m), clustered around 8000 feet (2400 m). The local shale conductivities together with the offshore drilling information together establish the existence of a geopressured section beginning 6000 feet (1800 m) below COCORP Texas Line 4. The low-frequency reection may arise at the top of the seal or at its base, where it meets the overpressured compartment. Assuming that velocity gradients over 300 foot (100 m) depth intervals,

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as in Figure 2, control the reectivity of the seal, the seal boundaries could appear as reections having a generally lower frequency content than the reections from sharper stratigraphic intervals. The lowfrequency reection we observe in COCORP Texas Line 4 at the 6000 foot (1800 m) depth may be a direct seismic characteristic of a uid-pressure transition zone. After identifying the reections associated with the top of overpressure, we analyzed the pre-stack data for amplitude changes with incidence angle. We used the methods of Louie (1990), which most effectively nd AVO changes for reections that are strong and at-lying in a stacked section. Figure 6 shows our own stack of the southern portion of Line 4 (box on Figure 5), emphasizing the nearhorizontal structures. To develop this section we began with COCORP correlated eld tapes, and applied quantile equalization, spherical divergence correction, mutes, and crooked-line commonmidpoint sorting before normal-moveout correction and stack. Stacking velocities were picked from a set of constant-velocity stacks. Bayesian statistics applied after stack enhance the reections most continuous before stack. We applied similar techniques also to the northwestern portion of Line 4 (not shown). In the manner of Louie (1990), we developed linear AVO statistics for our stacked sections, using Figure 6 from the southern portion of Line 4. We also developed the AVO statistics for a northwestern portion of Line 4, which we do not show here. The true-amplitude stack of Figure 6 identies the strong, continuous reections above the shale diapir (Figure 4). Louie (1990) showed from COCORP data across Southern California that such events are the only ones amenable to analysis with AVO trend stacks. Figure 7 overlays the wiggle traces of the amplitude trend stack on top of the variable-density traces of the portion of the stack boxed on Figure 6. Wiggles to the right represent increasing reection amplitude with offset, whereas wiggles to the left are on top of reections having decreasing amplitude with offset. In examining reections that are strong and laterally continuous in the underlying variable-density traces, the wiggle traces show the corresponding linear trend of amplitude versus offset. Where seismic velocity gradients in the seal produce turning or diving rays, we expect to see larger absolute values for the AVO trend, from the resulting rapid changes in reection amplitude with offset. Inconsistent AVO trends appear in low-fold "wedges" near the top of the section (Figure 7). High-fold reections above 1.5 s, near the bottom of the pressure transition zone, show strong, laterally-consistent AVO changes. Reections below 1.5 s, within the overpressured compartment, do not show such strong variations in AVO.

Results For our modeling study, Figure 3 shows that the presence of a high-density, high-velocity cap at the pressure transition zone will result in strong AVO variations. The AVO is complex in that it cannot be explained in terms of reection coefcients from a single interface. Instead, it is the product of reections turning in the positive velocity versus depth gradients and leaking energy down through the negative gradients. The left panel of Figure 3 shows how as offset increases, strong reections within the cap will have sudden increases and decreases in amplitude. The amplitude of the reection from the velocity gradient at the top of the cap in the Sarita model increases at larger offsets because of turning rays (Figure 1), producing a strong linear AVO trend. In contrast, reections within a transition zone that is not well enough cemented to have developed a cap (right panel of Figure 3) have a smooth and monotonic AVO. Reection amplitudes from the Willamar model, lacking a cap (Figure 3, right inset) show only the weakest AVO trend. We have identied similar AVO phenomena in the COCORP Texas Line 4 data set, which passes over a relatively shallow seal. Shale conductivities and regional mud weight reports show the seal to be associated with a relatively low-frequency reection near 1 s time and 6000 feet (1800 m) depth on the stacked sections of Figures 5, 6, and 7. Figure 7 and stacks of other parts of Line 4 (not shown)

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indicates that this reection has large AVO variations. Below it, however, the AVO variations become much smaller. The lack of strong AVO trends suggests that these deeper reections, within the overpressured compartment, do not exhibit the degree of Poissons ratio variation or the velocity gradients associated with the almost complete cementation of the pressure transition zone above. Conclusions Our work leads to several recommendations for identifying pressure seals with seismic reection work. Essentially, high-quality reections are needed over a large range of incidence angle. In addition, relatively low frequencies may be more diagnostic than the high frequencies that must be used for development and stratigraphic work. To acquire a survey to locate seals, we suggest the use of frequencies below 50 Hz and maximum offsets of at least 60% of the target depths. In processing such data, true-amplitude techniques (such as described by Louie [1990]) need to be maintained. Finally, careful interpretation must compare the AVO trend section with the strength and quality of the stacked reections, and against other geophysical and geochemical information suggesting the depth of the transition zone. This work has only examined a top seal from a small area of the U.S. Gulf Coast. However, our verication that strong reection AVO effects are associated with the pressure transition zone suggests that it embodies steep velocity gradients or unusual variations in Poissons ratio. Coincident with an observed pressure transition zone or seal, either observation would point to the presence of a diagenetically-cemented seal as proposed generally by Bradley (1975) and Powley (1975). While regional shaliness and subsidence as advanced by Bethke (1986) could assist in the formation of geopressures in the Gulf Coast, diagenetic sealing would allow many other basins worldwide to develop abnormal uid pressures. Seismic reection techniques can locate and characterize such seals. Acknowledgments We thank the Industrial Associates of the Gas Research Institute for generously providing seismic and borehole data, and Cornell University for providing COCORP seismic sections. This study was supported by the Gas Research Institute under Contract No. 5088-260-1746, while the authors resided at the Department of Geosciences of The Pennsylvania State University at University Park. Shelton Alexander and Terry Engelder of Penn State provided valuable insights and guidance to this work. References Bellotti, P., and Giacca, D., 1978, Seismic data can detect overpressures in deep drilling: Oil and Gas Jour., v. 76, no. 34 (Aug. 21), p. 47-52. Bethke, C., 1986, Inverse hydrologic analysis of the distribution and origin of Gulf Coast-type geopressured zones, J. Geophys. Res., v. 91, p. 6535-6546. Bilgeri, D., and Ademeno, E. B., 1982, Predicting abnormally pressured sedimentary rocks: Geophysical Prospecting, v. 30, p. 608-621. Bradley, J. S., 1975, Abnormal formation pressure: Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull., v. 59, p. 957-973. Christensen, N., 1985, The inuence of pore pressure and conning pressure on dynamic elastic properties of Berea sandstone: Geophysics, v. 50, p. 207-213. Dewers, T., and Ortoleva, P., 1988, The role of geochemical self-organization in the migration and trapping of hydrocarbons: Appl. Geochemistry, v. 3, p. 287-316. Hunt, J. M., 1990, Generation and migration of petroleum from abnormally pressured uid compartments: Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull., v. 74, p. 1-12. Louie, J. N., 1990, Physical properties of deep crustal reectors in southern California from multioffset amplitude analysis: Geophysics, v. 55, p. 670-681.

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Ostrander, W. J., 1984, Plane-wave reection coefcients for gas sands at nonnormal angles of incidence: Geophysics, v. 49, p. 1637-1648. Powley, D. E., 1975, Course notes used in Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Petroleum Exploration Schools. Tigert, V., and Al-Shaieb, Z., 1990, Pressure seals: their diagenetic banding patterns: in Ortoleva, P., Hallet, B., McBirney, A., Meshri, I., Reeder, R., and Williams, P., Eds., Self-Organization of Geological Systems, proc. of workshop 26-30 June 1988 at Univ. Calif., Santa Barbara; Earth Science Rev., v. 29, p. 227-240.

Figure Captions Fig. 1 Geometry of multi-offset reection rays from a horizontal seal at a range of incidence angles i. Positive velocity gradients with depth in the top of the seal lead to turning rays at some angles of incidence. At other angles, the negative velocity gradients at the bottom of the seal bend diving rays down and away from the receivers. Fig. 2 Shale density (solid curves) and sonic transit time (dashed curves) measurements from two typical wells on the south Texas coast that penetrate pressure transition zones. The Sarita well exhibits a high-velocity, high density "cap" at the top of the overpressured section. The Willamar well shows no cap, but exhibits constant velocity and density within the overpressured section. Fig. 3 Synthetic acoustic shot records computed from the density and velocity proles of the Sarita (with cap, left) and Willamar (no cap, right) wells, of Figure 2. The arrows point to a reection near the top of the seal in each model. The insets show the amplitude of each reection versus offset. The amplitude of the reection from the velocity gradient at the top of the cap in the Sarita model (left inset) increases at larger offsets because of turning rays (Figure 1), producing a strong linear AVO trend. Reection amplitudes from the Willamar model without any cap (right inset) show little AVO trend. Fig. 4 Location map of COCORP Texas Line 4 near Port Lavaca, Texas. The numbered circles locate wells providing shale conductivity measurements. The rectangle shows the range of stack midpoints near the line of section included in Figure 5. Fig. 5 Approximately depth-converted COCORP stacked section for Texas Line 4. The superimposed curves give shale conductivities picked from the numbered wells. Greater conductivities are to the right. Where the curves are constant no shale conductivities could be picked. The box identies the area shown in Figure 6. A thick section of shale with increasing conductivity overlies a relatively low-frequency reector at 6000 feet (1800 m) depth. Fig. 6 Stacked section derived from the southern portion of the pre-stack COCORP Texas Line 4 data. Note that the N-S sense of this section is reversed relative to that of Figure 5. This image emphasizes strong, at reectors having the most predictable normal moveout before stack. The box identies the higher-fold region analyzed for reection amplitude versus offset trends. Fig. 7 Linear amplitude versus offset trends (wiggle traces) superimposed on our COCORP Texas Line 4 reection section (variable density traces). Inconsistent AVO trends appear in low-fold "wedges" near the top of the section. High-fold reections above 1.4 s, near the bottom of the pressure transition zone (dashed line), show strong, laterally-consistent AVO trends. Reections below 1.4 s, within the overpressured compartment, show only weak AVO trends.

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