Crew Resource Management

Flight Operations (FOP) Crew Resource Management Essay

Crew resource management (CRM) is a procedure and training system used primarily for improving air safety, it focuses on interpersonal communication, leadership, and decision making in the cockpit. Although the CRM training has been adopted in different industries where there are systems where human error can have devastating effects, the training originated from a NASA workshop in 1979 which found that the primary cause of most aviation accidents was human error. CRM has now been in existence for over 2 decades and despite the considerable amount of effort already devoted to CRM training, aircraft accidents attributable to human factors continue to occur. CRM was developed as a response to new insights into the causes of aircraft accidents which followed from the introduction of flight recorders and cockpit voice recorders into modern jet aircraft. Information gathered from these devices has suggested that many accidents result not from a technical malfunction of the aircraft or its systems, nor from a failure of aircraft handling skills or a lack of technical knowledge on the part of the crew; it appears instead that they are caused by the inability of crews to respond appropriately to the situation in which they find themselves. For example, inadequate communications between crew members and other parties lead in turn to a loss of situational awareness, a breakdown in teamwork in the aircraft, and ultimately to a bad decision or series of decisions which result in a serious incident or a fatal accident. The widespread introduction of the dynamic flight simulator as a training aid allowed various new theories about the causes of aircraft accidents to be studied under experimental conditions. On the basis of these results, and in an attempt to remedy the apparent deficiency in crew skills, additional training in flight deck management techniques was been introduced by some airlines. Following a period of experimentation and development, the techniques embraced by the new training became known collectively as CRM. The importance of the CRM concept and the utility of the training in promoting safer and more efficient aircraft operations have now been recognised world-wide. CRM encompasses a wide range of knowledge, skills and attitudes including communications, situational awareness, problem solving, decision making, and teamwork; together with all the attendant sub-disciplines which each of these areas entails. CRM can be defined as a management system which makes optimum use of all available resources - equipment, procedures and people to promote safety and enhance the efficiency of flight operations, because the elements which comprise CRM have been recognised in one form or another since aviation began but in the past these terms have not been defined, structured or articulated in a formal way, and CRM remedied this deficiency.

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CRM is concerned not so much with the technical knowledge and skills required to fly and operate an aircraft but rather with the cognitive and interpersonal skills needed to manage the flight within an organised aviation system. In this context, cognitive skills are defined as the mental processes used for gaining and maintaining situational awareness, for solving problems and for taking decisions. Interpersonal skills are regarded as communications and a range of behavioural activities associated with teamwork. In aviation, as in other walks of life, these skill areas often overlap with each other, and they also overlap with the technical skills required in an aviation context. Furthermore, they are not confined to multi-crew aircraft, but also relate to single pilot operations, which invariably need to interface with other aircraft and with various ground support agencies in order to complete their missions successfully. In the today's legislation for aerial transportation, it is stated that the crew must undergo a CRM training:
"ORO.FC.115 Crew resource management (CRM) training (a) Before operating, the flight crew member shall have received CRM training, appropriate to his/her role, as specified in the operations manual. (b) Elements of CRM training shall be included in the aircraft type or class training and recurrent training as well as in the command course." "ORO.FC.215 Initial operators crew resource management (CRM) training (a) The flight crew member shall have completed an initial CRM training course before commencing unsupervised line flying. (b) Initial CRM training shall be conducted by at least one suitably qualified CRM trainer who may be assisted by experts in order to address specific areas. (c) If the flight crew member has not previously received theoretical training in human factors to the ATPL level, he/she shall complete, before or combined with the initial CRM training, a theoretical course provided by the operator and based on the human performance and limitations syllabus for the ATPL as established in Annex I (Part-FCL) to Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011." "ORO.FC.220 Operator conversion training and checking (a) CRM training shall be integrated into the operator conversion training course. ..." "ORO.FC.230 Recurrent training and checking ... (b) Operator proficiency check ... (5) Notwithstanding ORO.FC.145(a)(2), for operations of other-than-complex motor-powered helicopters by day and over routes navigated by reference to visual landmarks and performance class B aeroplanes, the check may be conducted by a suitably qualified commander nominated by the operator, trained in CRM concepts and the assessment of CRM skills. The operator shall inform the competent authority about the persons nominated. (c) Line check ... (2) Notwithstanding ORO.FC.145(a)(2), line checks may be conducted by a suitably qualified commander nominated by the operator, trained in CRM concepts and the assessment of CRM skills. ... (e) CRM training

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(1) Elements of CRM shall be integrated into all appropriate phases of the recurrent training. (2) Each flight crew member shall undergo specific modular CRM training. All major topics of CRM training shall be covered by distributing modular training sessions as evenly as possible over each three-year period." "ORO.CC.200 Senior cabin crew member ... (c) The senior cabin crew training course shall cover all duties and responsibilities of senior cabin crew members and shall include at least the following elements: ... (5) human factors and crew resource management (CRM) ..." "ORO.TC.135 Recurrent training (a) Within every 12-month period, each technical crew member shall undergo recurrent training relevant to the type or class of aircraft and equipment that the technical crew member operates. Elements of CRM shall be integrated into all appropriate phases of the recurrent training."

From this paragraphs we can subtract the fact that CRM has become a must when it comes to training any crew member. To maximise their effectiveness in the aircraft, crew members not only need to acquire a sound grasp of the technical knowledge and skills necessary for the fulfilment of their particular role in the aircraft, but they also need to understand and develop the cognitive and interpersonal skills which are a prerequisite for good CRM. The nature of these latter skills, however, is such that they cannot readily be taught by the didactic training methods normally used to impart technical knowledge about the aircraft and its systems - methods sometimes referred to as chalk and talk. Cognitive and interpersonal skills - CRM skills - are mostly concerned with understanding and interpreting behaviour, particularly behaviour which occurs in a group context, so they are more appropriately developed through a process known as experiential learning. Successful experiential learning occurs when an individual reflects on his or her past behaviour in a given organisational situation and gains sufficient insight to form a rational basis for behaving in a more effective way when faced with similar circumstances in the future. Consequently, CRM training usually takes place in groups and is often assisted by a trained facilitator who is equipped with the relevant knowledge, skills and techniques to foster the learning process. The training would be more effective if it was integrated from the earliest stages of the aircrew training regime because of the considerable area of overlap between the technical knowledge and skills. It was mentioned at the begining of this esey that CRM is concerned not so much with the technical knowledge and skills required to fly and operate an aircraft but rather with the cognitive and interpersonal skills needed to manage the flight within an organised aviation system, and with the emotional climate and stress in an organised aviation system. Because of this in this next part the cognitive, interpersonal skills, emotional climate and stress will be defined. Cognitive skills: Situation awareness refers to one's ability to accurately perceive what is going on in the cockpit and outside the aircraft. It further extends to the planning of several solutions for any emergency situation which could occur in the immediate future. Maintaining a state of awareness of one's situation is a complex process, greatly motivated by the understanding that one's perception of reality sometimes differs from reality itself. This awareness promotes on-going questioning, 3|Page

cross-checking, and refinement of one's perception. Constant, conscious monitoring of the situation is required. Note that the situation referred to here includes the human environment. The evaluation of oneself and others for partial or total incapacitation is vital but often overlooked. Situational awareness involves conscious recognition of all the factors and conditions - operational, technical and human - which affect the safe operation of an aircraft. In order to establish situational awareness, human beings take in information through the 5 senses - touch, hearing, smell, sight and taste - and also sub-consciously or intuitively. For the pilot of an aircraft, much of the information from which situational awareness is derived comes from the flight instruments and the navigational equipment on board, so the process of constructing an accurate mental model of the position of the aircraft in space, its condition, and the condition of the crew, is subject to a number of degrading influences such as inattention, distraction, under-arousal, stress, boredom, fatigue, etc, etc. In these circumstances, confirming the accuracy of mental models with other crew members by sharing information and perceptions about the situation, and by stating intentions, becomes of paramount importance in the safe and effective management of the flight. Furthermore, sharing knowledge and information not only helps to avoid the more obvious incidents and accidents arising from loss of situational awareness, such as controlled flight into terrain, but also lays a firm foundation for high quality decisions regarding the overall management of the flight. Planning and Decision Making A central aim of CRM is to ensure that high quality decisions are taken across the whole spectrum of flight operations. Understanding the plan also allows individual crew members to contribute in the most effective way to decisions made in flight. It is important, therefore, as the flight progresses, that the Captain updates the crew at regular intervals on any changes to the original plan, so that individual crew members can maintain good situational awareness. Allowing subordinate crew members to participate in the decision-making process does not mean that all decisions have to be made by committee. The degree of participation or otherwise from subordinate crew members depends to some extent on the type of behaviour which underpins the decision. Skill-based behaviours rely to a large extent on prior learning and any associated decisions are made mainly subconsciously. In this situation, other crew members provide a passive monitoring role, although this may call for assertive intervention if the level of skill being displayed by the decision-maker falls below a safe standard. In these circumstances the participation of another crew member may be required to provide verification of the situation and validation of the course of action being proposed by the decision maker. Finally, knowledge-based behaviour is utilised in a situation which has not previously been encountered. In these circumstances, the crew is called upon to make a decision based upon a rational appraisal of the facts, so there may be considerable scope for the involvement of other crew members and - if time and circumstances permit - even outside agencies such as ATC or Technical Control. The degree of participation in the decision-making process also depends to a considerable extent on the organisational culture, as well as current social norms. Command style is normally based on a perception of what the company or organisation expects from each individual crew member, and effective CRM will therefore flourish only where an organisational culture exists which empowers and encourages subordinate crew members to assist the Captain by participating appropriately in the decisionmaking process whenever the need for them to do so arises. 4|Page

Interpersonal skills: Communication/interpersonal skills. Specific skills associated with good communication practices include such items as polite assertiveness and participation, active listening and feedback. In order to improve the communication channel, cultural influences must be taken into account as well as factors such as rank, age, and crew position, all of which can create barriers to communication in the cockpit situation. Polite assertiveness is a skill frequently ignored in communications training but vital to a healthy cockpit. A pilot-in- command may be open to communication but temporarily unable to receive and comprehend. Other crew members must be aware of the importance of the information they hold and have a strong feeling of self-value; a single hesitant attempt to communicate important data constitutes a failure to discharge individual responsibility. Pilots-in-command must constantly strive to emphasize this responsibility in their team-building efforts. The concept of "legitimate avenue of dissent" is an important vehicle for "clearing the air", maintaining lines of communication, and maintaining self-image. From the foregoing discussion on cognitive skills, it is evident that effective communication between crew members is an essential prerequisite for good CRM. Research has shown that in addition to its most widely perceived function of transferring information, the communication process in an aircraft fulfils several other important functions as well. It not only helps the crew to develop a shared mental model of the problems which need to be resolved in the course of the flight, thereby enhancing situational awareness, but it also allows problem solving to be shared amongst crew members by enabling individual crew members to contribute appropriately and effectively to the decision-making process. Most importantly, it establishes the interpersonal climate between crew members and is therefore a key element in setting the tone for the management of the flight. The communication process invariably takes place in a social and organisational context and it is therefore profoundly influenced by company culture. Its effectiveness also depends on the experience level of the pilot or crew members involved in the transaction and their perception of their roles and position in the chain of command. It is affected by the mode of speech employed and the linguistic context in which the transaction takes place. In this context, individual styles, body language, grammatical styles and speech act patterns all have their part to play. Because of these complexities, crew members need to be aware of and sensitive to the nuances of effective communication. They also need to understand and avoid where possible those elements which constitute a barrier to effective communication. Problem-solving/decision-making/judgement: These three topics are very broad and interrelate to a great extent with each other as well as with the other areas. One may consider problem-solving as an over-all cycle of events beginning with information input and ending with pilot judgement in making a final decision. During the phase in which information is requested and offered, some conflicting points of view may be represented. Skills in resolving conflict are therefore especially appropriate at this time. All decisions must come from the pilot-in- command because the team will fail if command authority is not maintained. This requires the support of all crew members. The inflight, immediate post-decision review is likewise a vital concept for promoting good decision-making.

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Leadership/"followership": In this area, there is clear recognition that the command role carries a special responsibility. For instance, although individual crew members should be actively planning and managing their own workloads with respect to time, the pilot-in-command is responsible for supervising the over-all management of the flight. This command authority must be acknowledged at all times. The effectiveness of command authority cannot be assumed by position alone. The credibility of a leader is built over time and must be accomplished through conscious effort. Similarly, every non-command crew member is responsible for actively contributing to the team effort, for monitoring changes in the situation, and for being assertive when necessary. Teamwork: Successful teamwork is achieved when the output of the team is greater than that which could be developed by the sum of the efforts of the individual crew members acting in isolation - a process known as synergism. Synergism is produced by a process of interaction between crew members, whereby each individual is empowered and encouraged to contribute in the most effective way to the overall task of the team. Interaction is unlikely to occur, however, unless all individual members of the team fully understand their role within the group and how this role may vary depending on the circumstances under which decisions are being made and action taken. Consequently, good communications within the group, a high degree of situational awareness and a comprehensive understanding of the decision-making process by all members of the group are all prerequisites for the creation of synergy and the effective performance of the team as a whole. For operational reasons, many crew members form part of a new team on every flight, so it is important that the overall organisation culture encourages and fosters a climate in which good teamwork can flourish. It is also evident that a healthy organisational culture, which actively promotes CRM, will also foster good teamwork, since CRM and teamwork are inextricably intertwined in the realm of effective flight management techniques. Emotional Climate: The term emotional climate refers to the way that people in the team feel about themselves and each other during flight operations. Research indicates that factors which create a positive tone individually and collectively on the flight deck and among the wider operating team enhance the effectiveness of the cognitive and interpersonal skills displayed by crew members. Factors that have been shown to affect the emotional climate in which the team operates include perceptions of safety, clarity of job and task expectations, supportive communication, participation and involvement, recognition for contribution and freedom of expression. While the climate or tone of the operation depends to a large extent on the attitude and conduct of the Captain, every crew member should, nevertheless, be aware of the significance of a good working climate, and strive to put into practice those behaviours that are conducive to it. Stress: A factor which can quickly undermine the emotional climate in which the crew is operating is stress - defined as a state of highly unpleasant emotional arousal associated variously with overload, fear, anxiety, anger and hostility - all of which threaten both individual performance and teamwork. Stress often arises as a result of a perceived gap between the demands of a situation and an individuals ability to cope with these demands. As stress involves the processes of perception and evaluation, it impinges directly on the cognitive and interpersonal skills which form the basis of good CRM. Both arousal and alertness are necessary to enable each individual to achieve optimum performance in CRM-related skills, but too much or too little arousal will have a significantly 6|Page

adverse impact on the ability of the crew to function effectively as a team. It is therefore important for crew members not only to be aware of the symptoms of stress in themselves and others, but also to understand the effects which stress can have on CRM, and to mitigate these effects where possible by taking measures to counter them. Stress management. Stress creates a special kind of problem for a crew since its effects are often subtle and difficult to assess. Although any kind of emergency situation generates stress, there is also the stress, both physical and mental, that a crew member may bring to the situation and which others may not be able to detect. A crew member's over-all fitness to fly may nevertheless decline because of fatigue, mental and emotional problems, etc., to the extent that other crew members should consider that individual as incapacitated. Skills related to stress management refer not only to one's ability to perceive and accommodate to stress in others but primarily to anticipate, recognize and cope with one's own stress as well. This would include psychological stresses such as those related to scheduling and rostering, anxiety over training courses and checks, career and achievement stresses, interpersonal problems with both cabin crew and other flight crew, as well as the home and work interface, including related domestic problems (family health, children's education, etc.). It would also include so-called life event stresses, such as those related to the death of a spouse, divorce, or marriage, all of which represent major life changes. Several operators are attempting to alleviate stress problems by encouraging open and frank communications between operational management and flight crew members, and by viewing stress as part of the "fitness to fly" concept. The prerequisite for this is management understanding of the stress problem. In at least one case the understanding required by management personnel was fostered by having managers and other non-crew personnel attend the CRM training. Crew resource managment training: Three major areas must be dealt with on the part of both operator management and course developers before attempting to develop a programme of CRM training,: global goals; awareness of "good" versus "poor" cockpit performance; and critical planning elements. There are two global goals which override all other aspects of any flying operation. First, all flying is conducted to satisfy the demands of management and these demands are mainly based on economic considerations. Second, safety must be maximized through joint management and crew responsibility as well as crew co-ordination. These two goals are sometimes mutually supportive and sometimes in conflict. A correct balance is not always easy to maintain, nor is it always clear when one goal or the other is paramount. It is essential that global goals be defined and consciously identified, for they, and the conflicts they can present, are frequently at the root of operational problems. Awareness of "good" versus "poor" performance is also vital. "`Poor" performances can be more easily identified than good, but "good" performance can be stressed through development of individual role-models. The concept of "good" performance is also vital to preservation of selfimage. While one cannot desire improvement until the need for improvement is felt, positive aspects must be stressed in the course development. The need for supportive and co-operative interrelationships among crew members must be accepted by students before a desire to alter 7|Page

individual behaviour can be evoked. Finally, flight crews must be trained to cope with difficult individuals. The following list presents critical planning elements in any course of CRM training: careful selection of instructors (or co-ordinators, as they are often called in CRM programmes). They must be credible and selected on the basis of motivation, instructional skills, and sensitivity to student needs; motivation of students; justification of CRM, CRM concepts, and the training programme itself; management support. No course will be effective without the clear support of both upper and middle management; and professional organizations. The support of the people to be trained is essential. The effectiveness of specific training techniques varies with the training phase: Awareness. This phase is weighted toward individual instruction. The principal objective is to motivate the trainees and get them off to a good start, and to provide a conceptual framework for CRM. Practice and feedback. Here the objective is to achieve an understanding of the principles as defined in the syllabus. It is best accomplished in a group. Reinforcement. This is primarily a small group function. The final goal is to achieve lasting acquisition and enhancement of the required skills in all cockpit crew members. The following basic principles are applicable to all training, regardless of the characteristics and resources of the training organization: Pilot-group participation is essential. Instructors/co-ordinators must be credible. It is important to establish and use terms and principles that are familiar to the pilots and common in the organization. Techniques that work well in one culture may not work at all in another. The availability of the personal skills and other resources required by some of the techniques is an obvious consideration. Instructor training is critical. Instructors require special training to develop understanding and skills above and beyond the basic syllabus. In virtually all instances more than one technique can be used effectively. There is considerable confusion regarding the requirement for the optimum use of simulators. As a general guideline, high-fidelity simulators are not required in awareness training. They are, however, required for handling/skill training. More than one type of medium can be effectively used in several of the techniques, and equally important, several techniques can effectively utilize the same media.

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There is a great value in enhancing "understanding" of certain topics which pertain to the interrelationships between crew members. It is of equal importance, however, to develop "skills." The following list of topics is not complete, nor is it intended to substitute for the conceptual learning which is an integral part of learning skills. However, the topics constitute the "language" and awareness that enable skills to be understood and ultimately used in an operational environment. These are the topics to understand: a common language or glossary of terms; the concept of synergy (a combined effect that exceeds the sum of individual effects); the need for individual commitment to CRM principles; guidelines for continued self-improvement (continuation training); individual attitudes and behaviour and how they affect the team effort; complacency and its effect on team efforts; fitness to fly: the concept that each individual is responsible to arrive at work "fit to fly" and the ramifications and refinements of this concept; the impact of environment, such as company policy and culture, air traffic control, aircraft type, etc.; resources available: identification and use; identification and assignment of priorities; human components and behavioural characteristics: awareness of the human being as a composite of many complex characteristics, often not controllable. Each crew member must be aware of these characteristics in order to adjust his or her own actions and behaviour; interpersonal relationships and their effect on team work: the way in which crew members approach, or respond to each other has a critical effect on team-building and team results; "team required" versus "individual" tasks: For example, if someone spills coffee on his foot, normally team effort is not required. If however, someone spills coffee on the master copy of the computer flight plan, partially destroying its legibility, team effort may be required to reconstruct vital data. Thus, some problems require a team solution while others may be solved through individual effort; identification of norms (i.e., tacitly accepted actions, procedures and expectations): Whether consistent or deviant with written policy, norms exert strong pressures upon individuals to conform;

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 pilot judgement: once all information is available to the pilot-in-command, the situation may be clear-cut or may require judgement. These judgement calls are the ones which are most likely to spark dissent, produce initial resistance and have a negative effect on the team; the statutory and regulatory position of the pilot-in-command as team leader and commander: All decision-making must be done by or funnelled through the pilot-incommand; and ground rules: policies and procedures to be followed during the course of instruction, as well as subsequent operations. For example, management support for the programme and concepts taught; management support for those who attempt to act in accordance with learned principles; and absence of punitive action during the course and afterwards in actual flight operations Conclusion CRM Efectivness Many experts consider that the CRM training concept in the future should be assessed by a neutral organization, such as a national research institution. This would include measurements at both the macro level and the micro level. It is expected that a comprehensive database, to which operators would report, could be created to serve both the research programme and the operators. A formal evaluation of CRM effectiveness should be incorporated as part of the programme. It must be stressed that such evaluations must maintain strict confidentiality of crew member data and that the objective is to evaluate the programme and not the individual. Natural limitations on human performance and complexity of the environment make error inevitable (Helmreich Pub.257). In the aviation industry, safety is the utmost priority even though they (aviation industry) can justifiably or boast about how much safer it is to travel by air then on road. The field of human factors has been a great concern since the early days of commercial aviation (Hawkins 1987). Human factors evolved from an initial combination of engineering and psychology with focus on knobs and dials to an multidisciplinary field that draws on the methods and principles of behavioural-social sciences, engineering and physiology to optimise human performance and to reduce human error (National Research Council 1989). One of the most outstanding developments in aviation safety for the past decade has been the implementations of training programs aiming to increase effectiveness and efficient in crews teamwork as well as flight-deck management (Foushee & Helmreich 1993). This development was first introduced when aircraft investigators concluded that pilot error documented in past accidents and incidents were reflected to team-communication and coordination rather then pilots stick and rudder skills proficiency (Murphy 1980). The original label for such training was known as cockpit resource management, but with recognition to its applicability of the approach to others members of the aviation community; it changes into Crew Resource Management (CRM) (Helmreich, Merritt & Wilhelm 1999). There is sufficient evidence supporting the effectiveness of CRM to warrant its use in the training environment. This conclusion is based upon several types of evidence. First, the programmes have a high degree of validity. That is, they reflect sound operating principles and are focused on areas of known weaknesses as supported by accident/incident data. Second, the skills which are targeted for improvement in these programmes and the means to achieve that 10 | P a g e

improvement have been incorporated into effective programmes already in use in other areas, such as business management. Third, feedback from pilots, training management, check pilots and others in the training community supports the need for and the effectiveness of CRM programmes. Fourth, objective data, although very limited in scope, is encouraging. United Airlines, which has one of the more established and fully integrated programmes, has reported improvements in a number of areas, including training and checking. CRM training aims to develop effective performance which consists of technical proficiency and interpersonal and team skills. The primary focus will be directed to team coordination, the attitudes and behaviours of individual (Jensen 1995). CRM courses are designed to address human behaviour which is a product of knowledge and thought process, personality, attitude and background. It is not design to change ones personality (Helmreich, Foushee, Benson & Russini 1986).

Bibliography: Crew Resource Management (A paper by the CRM standing group of the Royal Aeronautical Society) Flight Crew Training: Cockpit Resource Management (CRM) and Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) (Document published by ICAO in 1989 as Circular number 217-AN/132. Human Factors
Digest No. 2)

Comission Regulation (EU) No 965/2012 of 5 October 2012

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