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ELECTIVE-IV (GROUP D) MODERN POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION Subject Code No. of Lecture Hrs./ Week Total No. of Lecture Hrs. IA Marks Exam Hours Exam Marks

: 06EE831 : 04 : 52

: :

25 03

: 100

PART - A

UNIT - 1

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STATIC RELAYS: Introduction, Basic construction, Classification, Basic Circuits, Smoothing Circuits, Voltage regulation, square wave Generator, Time delay Circuits, Level Detectors, Summation device, Sampling Circuits, Zero crossing detector, output devices. 8 Hours

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COMPARATORS: Replica impedance, Mixing Transformers, General equation of phase and Amplitude, Comparators, Realization of ohm, mho, Impedance and offset impedance characteristics, Duality principle, Static amplifier comparator Rectifier bridge circulations current type, sampling comparator, static phase comparator coincidence circuits type Rectifier phase comparator, Block split comparator, Zener diode phase comparator, 12 Hours

UNIT - 4

PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL/ NUMERICAL RELAYS: Definition of Numerical Protection System, Advantages of Numerical relays, Block diagram of Numerical Relays, Processing Unit, non machines Interface, communication in protective relays, Information handling with sub station monitoring system. 6 Hours

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UNIT - 2 & 3

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PART - B UNIT - 5 STATIC OVER CURRENT, TIMER AND VOLTAGE RELAYS: Instantanense over current Relay, Definite time lag relay, inverse time over current relay, static timer relay, Basic relay circuits, monostable delay circuits Single phase Instantaneous over voltage and under voltage relays, instantaneous over voltage relay using Op-amp. 10 Hours

DISTANCE RELAY: general Principle of operation, Zone discrimination, Fault area on impedance diagram, Basic measuring elements, Different characteristics used in distance relaying- Impedance, Reactance, Admittance. Ohm, Distance relay settings, Distance measurement Problems.

UNIT - 8

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DIGITAL RELAYS: Block Schematic approach of microprocessor based relays, over current relay Protection, Transformer differential protection, Directional relay scheme, Impedance relay scheme. 6 Hours

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UNIT - 6 & 7

10 Hours

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CONTENT SL NO 1 Topic UNIT - 1: STATIC RELAYS Introduction, Basic construction, Classification. Basic Circuits, Smoothing Circuits. Voltage regulation, square wave Generator. Time delay Circuits, Level Detectors. Summation device, Sampling Circuits. Zero crossing detector, output devices. 2 UNIT 2 & 3 COMPARATORS Page No 4-28

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Replica impedance, Mixing Transformers.

Realization of ohm, mho, Impedance and offset impedance characteristics.

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static phase comparator coincidence circuits type Rectifier phase comparator, Block split comparator. Zener diode phase comparator. UNIT - 4 PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL/ NUMERICAL 45-50 RELAYS Definition of Numerical Protection System. Advantages of Numerical relays, Block diagram of Numerical Relays. Processing Unit. Non machines Interface.

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Duality principle, Static amplifier comparator Rectifier bridge circulations current type, sampling comparator.

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General equation of phase and Amplitude, Comparators.

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Communication in protective relays. Information handling with substation monitoring system. 4 UNIT 5 STATIC OVER CURRENT, TIMER AND VOLTAGE RELAYS Instantaneous over current Relay. Definite time lag relay. Inverse time over current relay. Static timer relay, Basic relay circuits. Monostable delay circuits. 51-62

Instantaneous over voltage relay using Op-amp.

General Principle of operation. Zone discrimination.

Fault area on impedance diagram. Basic measuring elements.

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Different characteristics used in distance relaying- Impedance, Reactance, Ohm, Distance relay settings. Distance measurement Problems. UNIT - 8 DIGITAL RELAYS Block Schematic approach of microprocessor based relays. Over current relay Protection. Transformer differential protection. Directional relay scheme. Impedance relay scheme. 76-90

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UNIT 6 & 7 DISTANCE RELAY

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Single phase Instantaneous over /under voltage relays.

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UNIT - 1
STATIC RELAYS: Introduction, Basic construction, Classification, Basic Circuits, Smoothing Circuits, Voltage regulation, square wave Generator, Time delay Circuits, Level Detectors, Summation device, Sampling Circuits, Zero crossing detector, output devices. 8 Hours UNIT - ONE

1.1.

History of electronic Relays and their Relation to

Electromechanical counterparts

References to the design and application of electronic relays for power system protection can be found in the literature from the year 1928 onwards. In that year Fitzerald (205) published a scheme for pilot wire protection. Wideroe (31) in 1934 brought out a series of circuits for the common types of protective relays while Loving in 1949 published refinements to these. Macpherson, Warrington and McConnell (35) updated the developments upto 1948, and these were extended in later years by Barnes, Kennedy, Honey, Reedman, Dlouhy, Cahen and Chevallier. In all these schemes, either thyratrons or thermionic tubes have been employed. None of these types has found general application for power system protection for reasons to be discussed later. In the field of carrier current relaying, however, electronic protection with thermionic tubes has been successfully employed. Even in this field, with the heavy power

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supplies required for the electronic tubes, combined with the rapid development of

semiconductor components, the attention has been rapidly diverted to building carrier

equipment with solid state circuits. Appendix A. 1.1 to Chapter 1 discusses briefly he basic electromechanical relay elements and their relation to static devices. The discussion therein is brief and greater details can be found in later chapters. In appendices A. 1.2, A. 1.3 and A. 1.4 at the end of Chapter 1, the following details are given: A. 1.2-Details of device numbers accepted internationally A. 1.3-List of symbols for relays and protection A. 1.4-Glossary of common relay terms

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General introduction to Static Relays

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1.2.

Application of Electronic Relays to Protection

The adequacy or otherwise of the present methods is always one of the most important factors influencing technological research and development. Over 75% of the existing protective relay requirements are met without undue difficulty by electromagnetic relay elements. The scheme in use depend on the characteristics of induction disc or cup, moving coil or moving armature (hinged armature) elements. However, there are bigger issues and considerations which have influenced the pace of development in static relays, such as the

(a) Better performance and characteristics, e.g. higher speed with greater accuracy and sensitivity in distance relays. (b) Greater standardization in manufacture.

(c) Easier manufacture and reduction in maintenance time.

Edgeley and Hamilton (37) in 1952 claimed test and constructional advantages for their relays employing transductors (magnetic amplifiers).

1.3.

Reasons for the Short-lived Research into Relays Using Thermionic Tubes

As already mentioned,(the research effort up to the year 1956 was predominantly towards circuits employing thermionic tubes, thyratrons etc., since till then solid state devices like transistors, were just in their infancy. None of these circuits reached the commercial stage and the research effort rapidly tapered off. However, there were certain disadvantages in thermionic tube circuits in relaying and the main ones were the following:

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the power supplies. under References.

(a) Provision of special power supplies for valve heaters-this imposes constant drain on

(b) Provision of appreciable voltages for valve anodes and electrode bias. (c) Incorrect operation under transient conditions.

In view of these disadvantages, attention has been diverted to the development of static relays using solid state components. As there is at present no interest in relays using electronic valves and as they are of historical importance only, we shall not further discuss such r elays in this book. The reader is referred to the various papers appearing in the literature mentioned

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following:

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1.4 Advantages of Static Relays Static relays in general possess the following advantages: (a) Low burden on current and voltage transformers, since the operating power is, in many cases, from an auxiliary d.c. supply. (b) Absence of mechanical inertia and bouncing contacts, high resistance to shock and vibration. (c) Very fast operation and long life.

(e) Quick reset action and absence of overshoot.

(f) Ease of providing amplification enables greater sensitivity. (g) Unconventional characteristics are possible-the

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basic building Static Current 0.33 VA at 1.0 A 1.00 VA at 5.0 A 0.04 to 8.7 VA dependent on

(d) Low maintenance owing to the absence of moving parts and bearing friction.

blocks

of

semiconductor circuitry permit a greater degree of sophistication in the shaping of operating characteristics, enabling the practical utilization of relays with operating characteristics more closely approaching the ideal requirements.

relay modules.

Table 1.1 shows the comparative VA burdens of some static and electromechanical relays, taken from certain manufacturers.

Table 1.1-Comparison of Burdens of Static and Electromechanical Relays. Types of relay or protection scheme Electromechanical Voltage A.C. 110V 25 VA D.C. 110V 10W

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Current -

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(h) The low energy levels required in the measuring circuits permit miniaturization of the

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20 VA

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Voltage A.C. 110V 2.4 VA D.C. 110V 4.46 W

Definite time delay relay

Biased differential relay

Operating Coil 0.6 VA at 40% setting 3.7 VA at 100% setting Bias Coil 0.4 VA at 40% setting 0.4 to 8.5 VA dependent on setting

Mho distance relays: 3-step protection

8.7 to 11.2 VA
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Switched distance scheme for phase and earth faults Time-overcurrent relay (IDMT)

0.4 to 8.5 VA dependent on setting 0.75 to 1.3 VA dependent on setting

20 VA

1A, 2A, or 5A and setting 2 to 3 VA

8 to 9 VA

Instantaneous overcurrent relay Overvoltage relay

0.7 to 10 VA dependent on setting -

2.0 VA

Static relays with solid state components have certain limitations (as mentioned below) but these can be overcome as indicated in each case.

(a) Temperature sensitivity-temperature compensation circuits have been developed (e.g. use of thermistors).

(b) Ageing-this is eliminated by presoaking of components for several hours at a relatively high temperature.

(c) Sensitivity to voltage spikes-this can be eliminated by filters and shielding. (d) Damage due to overloading-this is eliminated by careful circuit design. Static relays may be single, two or multi-input devices. Individual modules are now being developed to provide critical measuring as well as non-critical switching functions to

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be discussed in detail later.

Timing and counting requirements are much better satisfied by solid state circuit than

with electromagnetic elements. Availability of reed relays has made these more useful as they have very high operating speed (1-2 ms). Thyristors are coming up rapidly as tripping

elements.

1.5 What Are Static Relays? The term static relay is generally referred to a relay incorporating solid state components like transistors, diodes, resistors, capacitors, etc. In this type of relay, they functions o f comparison and measurement are performed by static circuits wherein there are no moving
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0.2 VA

0.02 to 0.13 VA dependent on setting and current rating 100 mVA

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parts. According to a recent decision of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which has been adopted by the Indian Standards Institution, the following are the terms relating to static relays. Static relay- A relay in which the designed response is developed by electronic, magnetic or other components without mechanical motion. Static relay with output contacts-A static relay having a contact in one or more of its output circuit(s). The term previously applied to this type of relay was semistatic relay.

The term previously applied to this type of relay was fully static relay.

Most present-day static relays, incorporate a hinged armature or a polarized moving coil relay in miniature size as the output device to provide at a low cost a number output contacts capable of duly tripping. The alternatives are reed relays or thyristors (as indicated in Section 4) which are being considered in recent designs but not yet adopted commercially. With the growth of power systems in both complexity and fault levels, the need for

semiconductors overcame the supply problems associated with thermionic valves. The use of transistor amplifiers, etc. deriving their power from an external source, or in some cases selfpowered from the current and voltage transformers, made it possible to achieve greater sensitivity and at the same time obtain excellent mechanical stability. The individual components should be chosen carefully and should be used well within their designed rating. It should be clearly understood that it is not usually economical to replace existing

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electromechnical relays with their static counterparts just to reduce maintenance; source gain

in technical performance should also be obtained. At present protective relays are supplied from iron-cored current transformer and hence excessive saturation should be avoided to ensure high speed and discriminative operation. The use of static relays in general reduces the burden on the current transferers. One may be surprised to find that static relays have first been commercially produced only in such cases as distance or differential schemes, while in the case of the much simper overcurrent relay schemes, they have not been brought out. The reason behind this is the fact that distance and differential schemes are more amenable to mathematical analysis while the overcurrent characteristics like those given by the induction disc relays, are more empirical
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more sensitive and faster, reliable protection schemes has arisen. The advent of the

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Static relay without output contacts-A static relay having no contact in its output circuit(s).

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and less mathematical. This a static relay cannot compete with the electromechanical standard inverse time overcurrent relay as this characteristic is readily achieved by the saturation characteristics of the electromagnet. On the other hand, the inverse time replay required for overload protection of rectifiers has a characteristic of the form I8t=K which can be achieved with static circuits, but would be extremely difficult to achieve with an induction disc relay. In the field of distance protection, it is possible to derive many varied and complex characteristics with the use of multi-input static comparators. It is possible to accommodate a

and the cost of interconnecting wiring.

When static relays were first developed availability of components and their reliability were poor. Now these components have attained a record of reliability much better than conventional components. Many thousands of static relays have already been manufactured and used-the field experience over the last decade has proved their superiorit y in more than one sense.

As already mentioned, static relays using thermionic valves could not meet practical requirements and never reached the commercial state. Rectifier relays, first used in Germany, revolutionized the development of static relays. Transductors offered the advantage of d.c. isolation between control and output circuits. They were widely employed in protective relay applications, but have been discarded due to their slow speed of operation. Hall effect relay permit instantaneous analogue multiplication of two measured valued. However, because of their high cost they have not been sued in practical relays.

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Gauss-effect relay employ semi-conductors whose resistance varies when a magnetic field is applied. They are also quite expensive. Measuring elements of static relays have been successfully and economically built up

from diodes, zener diodes, avalanche diodes, unijunction transistors, p-n-p and n-p-n

bijunction transistors, field effect transistors or their combinations. The main reason for the rapid progress of transistors into static relays is the instantaneous readiness of operation due to the absence of heaters and their substantially long working life Further, in recent years, the manufacture of components has achieved considerable advances like encapsulation, planner and epitoxial construction techniques, printed circuits, etc. Integrated circuits now occupy a

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complete distance scheme in one or two conventional relay cases thus reducing panel space

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predominant place. These techniques have increased the reliability of the components and reduced the sizes of the modules to small chips.

1.6. Basic Construction of Static Protective Relays Basically, protective relays are analogue-binary signal converters with measuring functions.

by differentiation, integration of other arithmetical operations, appear always as analogue signals at the input of the measuring unit. The output will always have a binary signal, i.e. either an open (or OFF) signal if the relay is not to trip or a close (or ON) signa l if the relay is to trip. These output signals can therefore be easily evaluated by subsequent control elements requiring very little technical effort. Each protective relay is built up of individual elements in accordance with the basic block diagram show in Fig. 1.1. The signals, which occur in analogue and therefore in the continuously variable

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1. Measuring Circuit 2. Measuring Signals 3. Converter Element 4. Measuring Element 5. Output element 6. Output signal 7. Controlled Element 8. Feed Element 9. Aux. Voltage Source 10. Measuring Circuit Supply Fig. 1.1 Basic block diagram of protective relays

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The variables such as current, voltage, phase angle or frequency and derived values obtained

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form from the measuring circuit (C.T and/or V.T) are first fed to the converter unit in the protective relay. This converts the measured signals so that they can be easily processed by the measuring element which follows. This measuring element will be operated when the input signal reaches a certain value-providing a close signal at its output. The output element amplifies this binary but weak signal and transfers it to one or more controlled elements. The controlled elements carry out the final switching functions as opening of circuit breakers, etc. Power is supplied to the measuring or output element by a feed element. This power is

1.6.1 Converter Element

This element contains chiefly he matching transformers to obtain the required signal level. The rest of the construction depends on whether one or two or more inputs are to be handled by the relay.

Relays for one quantity are supplied with only one electrical quantity, e.g. current or voltage. After suitable transformation by the matching transformers, this quantity is fed to diode bridges at whose output it appears as a d.c. variable with ripple. Through setting networks consisting of fixed and variable resistors, clipping diodes, etc. the measured value of the quantity is fed into a harmonic filter (if the speed requirements are not too stringent) since the subsequent measuring element deals only with d.c. variables. Sometimes smoothing

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also a pulse type

filters are used to eliminate ripples, but in high speed relays such filters cannot be used. In relays for two quantities the converter element is fed at its input with two electrical

quantities. In each case the comparison can be either amplitude or phase comparison between

the two signals, the signals being converter to voltage or current signals (Fig. 1.2). There is

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obtained either from an auxiliary voltage source or from the measuring circuit itself.

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1. Measuring Element 2. Feed-back Resistors CURRENT COMPARISON 1. Measuring Element 2. Resistors

comparison in which one of the variables is converted into a pulse when passing through zero and the second is converted into a rectangular block. When the pulse and the block coincide,

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response time.

a close signal appears at the output of the comparator circuit. This gives extremely short

In relays for three or more quantities, the converter element is supplied with three or

more electrical quantities. In Fig. 1.3 it will be noticed that in two of the measuring bridges the feed-back resistors are combined into one.

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Fig. 1.2 Basic voltage and current comparators-two inputs

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VOLTAGE COMPARISON

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Fig 1.3 Basic voltage comparison-three inputs

VOLTAGE COMPARISON

1.6.2 Measuring Element

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1.6.3 Output Element

This is an analogue-binary signal converter with measuring functions. In the simplest form it consists of the Schmitt trigger circuit shown in Fig. 1.4 as the basic circuit. The Schmitt

trigger circuit (which will be discussed in detail later in chapter 14) can be compared to an

extremely fast polarized d.c. relay and acts as a level detector. Transistors are used in common emitter connection giving high input resistance and large current gain. The level

detector gives a step output when the input voltages exceed a specified level.

This element amplifies the output signal from the measuring element, multiplies it, may combine it with certain other signals and also introduce a delay if necessary. Since it has to process only binary signals, this need not be a precision element. It may thus take the form of
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1. Measuring Element 2. Feed-back Resistor

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auxiliary relays or contactors. These provide potential separation between controlling and controlled circuits. It many also take the form of a bistable or monostable mult ivibrator circuit and if required modulated by logic circuits like AND, OR, NOR or timing elements. Where large powers are involved, e.g. operating trip coils of circuit breakers, silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) are used after the logic element.

1.6.4. Feed Element

power is obtained either from a built-in auxiliary supply (nickel cadmium rechargeable cells) or from station battery. In many cases it is derived from the measuring circuit itself. In all case the feed element should supply a stabilized voltage to the static circuits, so that the measuring accuracy is not impaired. In the initial stages of development, nickel cadmium rechargeable cells. (commonly known as button cells) were used in the commercially produced static relays, specially in the U.K., but experience has shown that their reliability is poor. They are being given up at present and in their place station batteries with suitable taps at the appropriate voltage are being preferred. In the case of several types of relays, the supply is derived from the current and voltage transformers themselves, as mentioned above with the refinement that the power supply to the relay is switched on only in case of a fault being detected by a suitable fault detector.

1.7 Complete Electronic Protective Relays

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1.7.1 Overcurrent Relays

We have seen how a static relay is basically designed. The detailed circuit in each case will be discussed in the succeeding chapters of this book. We will also discuss briefly here (details will be found in the respective chapters) the complete relay systems. These relays can be built up in accordance with a unit construction system. This

system can be extended not only to individual relays but also to entire relay assemblies.

In a three phase system of relays, it is economical to build it on a single phase basis. Thus there will be three converter elements, one for each phase, but thereafter the rest of the

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The function of this element is to supply the power necessary to operate the circuits and the

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circuits (e.g. measuring element, output element, etc.) will be common to all the three circuits. This is shown in Fig. 1.5.

Element; S Feed Element.

Fig 1.5 Block diagram of an electronic three phase time-over current relay IR, I Y, IB=Three 1.7.2 Protective System for Generators and Transformers Here again instead of three elements for the individual three phase relays, a single measuring

modulate the high power control units. With this method it is also possible to combine various measuring elements to save unit construction elements. This is shown in Figs. 1.6 and

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1.7.3. Busbar Protection application for coupled or

1.7.

Figs. 1.8 and 1.9 show the static busbar protection scheme. This scheme offers (i) high operating speed, (ii) use of current transformers of any desired characteristic, (iii) independence of C.T. saturation, (iv) independence of the effect of load-in resistance, (v)

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element and a single output unit are used. There are combined in Or-gates which in turn

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V Converter Element; OR OR Gate; M Measuring Element; t Timing Element; O Output

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I C.T. Connections, V V.T. Connections, CD Circuit Breaker, ES De-excitation switch Fig.

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current.
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1.6 Electronic protection of generator-transformer unit N K=External voltage supply subdivided busbars while maintaining the tripping selectivity of each section, (vi) avoidance

of C.T> change over, (vii) facilities for output signaling, and (viii) simple extensibility for later extension of the busbar system. In case of (vi) there is thus no risk of opening of C.T.

secondary circuits since change over takes place only in the logic part of the circuit. In the case of a short circuit fault, the protective system will measure the phase angle of all outgoing currents, compare the phase angle of each busbar section and operate if a ll these angles are within + 90 electrical degrees. The differential current is used as starting quantity, while the reference value is a quantity which is an phase with the short circuit

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1.8. Complete System of Protection Protective relays, being component parts of electrical switchgear, should be closely associated with the control section of such systems, e.g. indicating and signaling systems. Thus the signaling and

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PROTECTION D Differential, MI Overcurrent, MV Overvotlage, RM Antimotoring, SE Stator E/F, RE Rotor E/F OTHER ELEMENTS
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V Converter, M Measuring, t Timing, S Signalling, OR OR Gate, NOT NOT Gate, AS Genral Signal, BS Fire Protection

indicating systems must also be designed on a static basis. The plug in type modular chassis has been widely adopted already in electronic regulating and control equipment. These contain a self contained plug in section which consists mainly of a printed circuit with the appropriate circuit components as well as the front panel with setting scales, set ting

being used more and more. All functional units are mounted in a single rack and for more comprehensive systems, several racks are combined into the hinged frame. The same procedure is adopted for protective relays as well.

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B Reference Values BS Busbar Protection I Feeder Current I Difference Current L Circuit Breaker BUS Busbar W Current Transformers Fig 1.8 Busbars protected

F Feeders.

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potentiometers and signaling elements. With the development of integrated circuits, these are

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The future circuit breaker may also follow these lines of static development and may ultimately be a static device.

M Measuring Element V Converter Element NOR NOR-Gate AND AND-Gate

Fig. 1.9 Block diagram of busbar protection

1.9 Characteristic Functions of Protective Relays It is possible to obtain similar functions and characteristic from replay elements using

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chapter. 1.9.1 Summation

different operating principles. These principles and design criteria determine how well the

basic function is performed and how in practice it deviates from the ideal. Static relays can achieve such a high performance that the departures from the ideal in practice are negligible. This high performance combined with the design flexibility makes it possible to satisfy a wide variety of requirements with a limited number of functional units. The basic elements

needed to cover such a wide range of functions are discussed in the remaining sections of this

The combination of a number of electrical quantities into a single quantity through static equipment like summation transformers and sequence networks is already well known. These
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fit into the concept of static relaying. Summing units can be reduced in size by using new components and techniques, including active elements. Semiconductor circuits are well suited to the use of summing junctions (sued in the analogue computation field) and can be applied into protective relaying.

1.9.2. Single Input Devices (Fig. 1.10) These form the basis of many protective and control schemes as in the following: power gain of the order of 103, with a multiplicity of segregated outputs-these may be in form of contacts. These devices are generally instantaneous with operating speeds of the order of 20 ms. Or less. They may also have an associated time-delay function. Since these devices are either unenergized of energized very much in excess of marginal conditions they ensure fast response and good contact pressure in the case of electromechanical devices. Examples of this type are : attracted armature replays (telephone type), reed relays (with high speeds of the order of 1-2 ms are now available), semiconductors (specially thyristors). Repeat functions are usually initiated by outputs from critical or measuring elements [Fig. 1.10 (a)]. (b) Critical or measuring function-This requires a response to an input when the latter exceeds a prescribed critical level. Switching gain may be included but is not essential since repeat devices can be provided. Practical requirements are fast response, accuracy of setting and high reset ratio. This function is used in many protection

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systems such as overcurrent, undervoltage, overvoltage, differential systems etc. The elements used for these functions many be attracted armature, induction or moving

coil types. This function can also be derived through semiconductor circuits driving

electromagnetic relay like polarized moving coil or attracted armature types or reed relays or thyristors [Fig. 1.10 (b)].

(c) Fixed time or definite time function-This necessitates a delay between input and output (between the application of an input and the occurrence of an output or between the removal of an input and the resetting of the output). The input is to be only non-critical (either nothing or greatly in excess of the critical level) and switching gains and multiple outputs are possible. The device can also provide a
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(a) Non-critical repeat function (all-or-nothing relays)-This usually produces a switching

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repeat

function.

Measuring

functions

can

be

combined

in

the

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inputs circuit. Practical requirements from these devices are accuracy of time setting and repeatability under successive application [Fig. 1.10 (c)]. (d) Function time-dependent on inputThe commonest form of such characteristic is t=f(Sn) where n is negative and real. Examples of this are over current and overload

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protection. These may also contain in addition low set and high set instantaneous critical function. [Figs. 1.10 (d) and (e)].

1.9.3 Two Input Devices (Fig. 1.11) With two inputs, it is possible to obtain a wide range of characteristics using different operating principles. The function is generally defined by the relationship between inputs, which governs the boundary condition of operation. The two basic forms are as follows:

operating quantity so that an output is obtained when the ratio of these quantities is less than a critical value. Ideally the comparison of the amplitudes of the two inputs is independent of the level and phase relationship, of the inputs. The function is represented by a circle in the complex plane with its centre at the origin-defining the boundary of marginal operation. Examples of this are biased relays and impedance type distance relays [Fig. 1.11 (a)].

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(i) Amplitude comparison-One input is a restraining quantity and the other is an

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(ii) Phase comparison-Output appears when the inputs have a phase relationship lying

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within specified limits. Both inputs must exist for an output of occur-ideally the output is independent of their magnitudes, but dependent only on their phase relationship. The function as defined by the boundary of marginal operation is represented by two straight lines from the origin of the complex plane. Examples of

these are directional relays, distance relays excluding the impedance type and other phase comparison relays [Fig. 1.11 (b)].

These will be discussed in detail in the subsequent chapters. It will also be shown that either comparator becomes equivalent to the other if it is fed through the appropriate mixing units giving the sum and difference of the original inputs. Thus any relay characteristic can be obtained by using the amplitude or the phase comparison principle, although practical considerations might dictate preference for one scheme out of the two.
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1.9.4 Multi-input Devices (Fig. 1.12) With more than two inputs, the range of complex characteristics is extended. Using amplitude comparison, the remaining conic section curves like ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, etc, can be obtained.

effective zone is the common area given by a number of straight lines and/or circular characteristics.

1.10 Semiconductors to Obtain Functional Requirements

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The characteristics of modern transistors are specially suited to the functional requirements mentioned above. These along with the other semiconductor and other components have

made possible commercial production of static relays. The properties particularly useful in the realization of the functional requirements are amplification, switching characteristics,

sensitivity, high speeds of response, flexibility of design and application, long life, compact and rugged construction, and simplified power requirements. The development of miniaturization resulting in the integrated circuit chips has accelerated the pace of development and exploitation to commercial standards of the principles of static relaying.

1.11 Practical Non-critical Switching Circuits The two main functions of such circuits in relation to protection are the following:
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Equivalence of phase and amplitude comparators does not apply to multi-input case.

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Using phase comparison, characteristics are obtained which contain discontinuities as the

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(i) Provision of a final signal for tripping to the circuit breaker; may also give supplementary functions like inter-tripping, alarm and visual indication. (ii) Acting as intermediate switching stages within the assembly of function elements. Both the above duties have been met in the past by using electromagnetic relays. For (i) e.m. relays have proved to be economical and reliable, of course accounting nevertheless for 10-30 ms of overall tripping time. For (ii) the operating time of e.m. relays may become unduly long, while being reliable, but with unsuitable contact performance sometimes.

functions if their operating times are tolerable. Progressively efforts have been made to replace e/m/ relays by (a) reed relays and (b) static switching circuits using transistors or or thyristors.

Reed relays have been found to be reliable with high operating speeds of the order of 1-2 ms even at small multiples of setting. They can therefore be sued for the intermediate switching stages giving segregation between input and output. This gives added flexibilit y

stage of transitor amplification with positive feed-back.

Transistor switching circuits are also suitable for the intermediate switching functions and have been used extensively as such. The rating of trip circuits is generally unsuited to transistor switching circuits and if a fully static trip circuit is required for various reasons, then thyristors may be used subject to certain restrictions like interface problems.

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1.12 Practical Critical Level Detectors The inputs in such level detectors are generally at power frequency and may vary over a wide

range relative to the critical level. Basic requirements are accuracy, lo ng-term consistency, fast operation and a controllable reset ratio of high magnitude. Obtaining these with e.m.

relays has always presented problems. When designing a static equivalent of an e.m. relay; the circuit should be such that it retains the best features of the e.m. relay, but overcomes its disadvantages. An example of such a design is shown in Fig. 1.13. Here the reset ratio is high and snap action is retained. The circuit can be made relatively insensitive to the offset transient conditions present in the fault currents. It may also be made self-energizing since it permits associated units, for which auxiliary supplies may be essential, to be normally
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and freedom of interconnection. Their operating power may, however, require a preceding

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Conventional e.m. relays have been accepted in association with static relays for non-critical

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unenergized. The circuit uses two basic elements, as shown in Fig. 1.13. (a), the critical level detector and the pulse integrating circuit. The level detector compares an unsmoothed rectified or an alternating signal against a d.c. datum. For peak inputs below the datum, the output is zero, but at the critical peak input there is a finite output pulse the width of which is determined by

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the reset ratio. The output pulse widens with increasing input, but at the critical level the width substantially exceeds the marginal operating level of the second element. This circuit retains snap action, even when the reset ratio inherently exceeds 1.0. With the exception of the datum signals in the level detector, the design parameters are non-critical. A practical self-energized circuit using these principles is shown in Fig. 1.13 (b). A is the measuring and switching circuit and B is the pulse integrating circuit. The rectified unsmoothed signal feeds two alternative paths ( I1 and I2). Below the critical level, the

is zero. The datum Vz is derived through a zener diode ZD and is substantially d.c. at the critical level input. The loading on the input circuit up to the critical level input. The loading on the input circuit up to the critical level is controlled so lely by R3 which provides the voltage for the measuring and switching circuit through R1 R2. The critical level occurs when the voltage across R1 exceeds Vz by V required to operate the switching circuit, which then switches to a high output impedance and diverts the current I2 into the pulse integrating circuit. The measuring accuracy depends only on Vz and resistors R1, R2 and R3 if V is small compared to Vz. Temperature compensation can also be incorporated in the circuit. At the instant of switching, the input through R1 increases to a value dependent on the input impedance of the pulse integrating circuit, relative to R3. This provides positive feed-back in the measuring circuit, which controls the instantaneous, reset level. Surge and overload protection are easily incorporated by using non-linear resistors on the input and an electrostatic screen on the interposing transformer.

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An alternative simple non-transistor arrangement based on reed relays is shown in

Fig. 1.14. The accuracy of the operating level of the first reed relay is important but the reset ratio is not critical. Such a device can provide operating times of 5-10 ms at 2-3 times the setting. The overall reser ratio can be about 0.95.

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measuring and switching circuit is fully conducting so that current I2 for all practical purposes

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+, ....

. ..E .-Ie_m_en_'---"" ,....

._j_:t: ...

.:... J

A.C.

ReedElement

t.J

Fig. I.J4 Level deteclor using reed relays

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UNIT - 2 & 3
COMPARATORS: Replica impedance, Mixing Transformers, General equation of phase and Amplitude, Comparators, Realization of ohm, mho, Impedance and offset impedance characteristics, Duality principle, Static amplifier comparator Rectifier bridge circulations current type, sampling comparator, static phase comparator coincidence circuits type Rectifier phase comparator, Block split comparator, Zener diode phase comparator. 12 Hours

UNIT TWO & THREE

Comparators and Associated Elements 2.1 Introduction

The basic block diagram of a static relay has been discussed in Chapter1. As per this diagram the converter element is the heart of a static relay. This element contains the means for converting system currents to voltages or vice versa and then comparing them in phase or amplitude. Taking the case of the general two-input comparators, the inputs S1 and S2 can be represented in the following form:

Where K1 and K2 are constants multiplying the system voltages and

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S1 =K1 VL+ZR1 IL

S2=K2 VL+ZR2 IL

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impedances which convert the system current IL into suitable voltages. The comparator is shown in Fig. 2.1, which shows the manner in which the two inputs are derived and applied to the comparator.

In a static relay, it is therefore essential to convert the inputs to the comparator to quantities of the same dimensions, e.g., voltages or currents. The values of K1 and K2 are

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and

are complex

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obtained through suitable potentio meters, while impedances.

and

are suitable transfer or replica

2.2 Transfer or Replica Impedance This could be either a self or a mutual-impedance as shown in Fig 2.2. Fig. 2.2 (a) shows a self-inductance used as replica impedance. This is an iron core reactor with an air gap in the core to give

linearity in the voltage/current relationship up to the highest value of current expected. We have

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shown to be

And

where LS is the self-inductance of the reactor and r the resistance of the coil. This type of

impedance offers no isolation between IL and VS. In many relay circuit applications this isolation becomes essential. Fig. 2.2 (b) shows a mutual inductance used as replica impedance. There are two windings- one is primary and the other is secondary, wound over an air gapped iron core to give linearity of transformation over the required current range. The secondary winding is loaded by a suitable resistance R2 (which includes the internal resistance of the winding). The ratio of secondary voltage to the primary current can be

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Here R2 is the resistance connected on the secondary side, L2 is the self-inductance of secondary, M is the mutual inductance between primary and secondary, and tan . This device being a combination of a reactor and a tranfermer is known as Transactor, and offers complete isolation between the primary and secondary circuits, i.e., between IL and VS. In the case of the self-inductance the angle and in the case of the transactor the angle are designed to give the appropriate value depending on the particular relay application.

The inputs given in Eq. (1) are obtained through addit ion or subtraction of different voltages or different currents. The addition or subtraction is done usually through appropriate transformers. Some examples are shown in Fig. 2.3.

In Fig. 2.3 (a) voltage input V is derived by the addition or subtraction of two voltage, one derived from the system voltage through a voltage transformer and the other from the system current through a current transformer and a transactor. Thus

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In Fig. 2.3 (b) current input I is derived by the addition or subtraction of two currents,

on derived from the system current IL through a current transformer and the other derived from the system voltage through a voltage transformer and a reactor.

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2.3 Mixing Transformers or Circuits

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Thus

These will be discussed in greater detail under the discussion of static circuit applications to different relays. Fig. 2.3 derivation of inputs: (a) ; and (b) current input. 2.4 Phase and Amplitude comparators

The most important component of the converter element is the comparator (where the inputs

this chapter will be confined to two input devices, while multi-input devices will be introduced later in Chapter 10.

2.4.1. Classification

Letting the two singnals be S1 and S2, the amplitude comparator gives positive (yes) output

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between the signals. relation inputs.

only if , i.e. only if Ideally this comparison should be purely scalar or in the other words independent of the phase relations The output of a phase comparator is positive (yes) only if =arg (S1 /S2) satisfies the . The comparison, ideally, should not depend on the amplitudes of the two

Both types of comparator can be arranged either for direct ( instantaneous) comparison, when they would be known as direct (instantaneous) comparators or their output integrated over each half-cycle, when they are called integrating comparators.
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are compared in phase or amplitude) which was introduced in Chapter 1. The discussion in

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2.4.2 General Equation for comparators To cover the complete range of conventional relay characteristics, let the two input signals S1 and S2 be derived from the power system voltage and current as follows:

Fig. 2.3 has shown the manner in which these inputs are derived.

Then

In the following discussion, K1 and K2 will be considered as real numbers, and VL taken as the reference vector. This

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2.4.2.1 Phase Comparator (Cosine Type) Criterion for operations of the comparator in general is 1 = 1 = 2. Thus the criterion for operation will be i.e. co s 0
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and cos

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symmetrical phase comparator 1 = 2 and all conventional characteristics are obtained when

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Putting these in the complex form,

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Therefore the locus for zero torque (or the characteristic curve) for the comparator is obtained when co s = ac+bd = 0 Thus

Therefore (ac+bd)

Thus the criterion for operation becomes

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(2)
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Let Dividing Eq. (2) throughout by

the impedance seen by the comparator.

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be predicted as follows. Directional characteristic Putting i.e. and
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Fig. 2.4 Directional characteristic (phase comparison)

The characteristic obtained by this is shown in Fig. 2.4, where operation occurs to the right of the straight lines shown shaded. The slope of the line may be controlled by varying 2. Ohm characteristic Putting

This is shown in Fig. 2.5(a). This is a general case and particular cases of this are

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Resistance characteristic or See Fig. 2.5 (b) Reactance characteristic

resistance and reactance characteristics.

In the above general case, if = 0,

In the above general case, if = 90 o or

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See Fig. 2.5 (c) In all the characteristics, positive operation taken place to the left of the line and negative operations to the right of the line.

Offset impedance characteristic Putting

This is the equation to a circle of radius

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and with centre at . This is shown in Fig. 2.6(a). This I the general case and its particular
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cases are the impedance and Mho characteristics.

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Duality Between Phase and Amplitude Comparators: Taking two input comparators, has shown that any relay characteristics could be obtained by either phase or amplitude comparison of the input quantities. Let So and Sr be the operating and restraining inputs respectively into an amp litude comparator. Thus operation is indicated when So > Sr. This can be written as Z <=1 where Z = Sr/So

Let S1 and S2 be two input quantities such as that So = (S1 + S2) and Sr = (S1-S2) In which case for operation (s1+S2) > (S1-S2)

If now S1/S2= W where W is a complex quantity with an argument Y, then W+1 >=W-1

This gives a straight line as shown in fig. along the vertical axis through the origin.

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The shaded area (to the right of the line) indicates the operating region while the unshaded area (to the left of the line) indicates the restraining region. This is the characteristic of the ideal phase (cosine) comparator and the operating angular criterion can be expressed as de. Tr

2< 1 2 This shows that S1 and SA satisfy phase comparison requirements while SI-f-S2=5; and S1---St=S, satisfy amplitude camparison requirements. The converse of this can also be shown to be true. In general, therefore, any relay characteristic w hich can be produced by one comparator, can also be produced by the other comparator with the sum and difference of the original inputs. The required relations are as follows:
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The characteristics of this equation is a circle on a polar graph as shown in fig.

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So = Si +SA Sr Si S,f Sr St 2 St- 2 The circuit arrangements necessary are shown in Fig. 2.10. It may be mentioned here that the phase comparator in this case must be a cosine comparator, i.e. one in which zero torque is produced when the angle between the two input quantities is n/2. Such cosine com-parators are possible only with static circuits using solid state devices. In case of electromagnetic elements the phase comparison is of the sine type, i.e. one in which zero torque is produced when the angle between

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Though a given relay characteristic can be obtained using either of the two comparators, considerations of the constants calculated for the required characteristic would indicate which
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type of comparator is preferable. In general, an inherent comparator is better than die convert ed type, because if one quantity is very large compared with the other, a small error in the large quantity may cause an incorrect comparison when their sum and difference are supplied as inputs to the relay. Static Types Static amplitude comparator may use two voltages, two currents, one current and one voltage, or one voltage (or current) and one fixed reference as the two input signals. Present static comparators are made from semiconductor elements. Use of therinionic valves

discussed in detail.

Rectifier Bridge Comparators Circulating current type The ccmparator uses current input signals. As shown in Fig. 2.13, i, and i, are rectified full-wave and their difference Is averaged. The full-wave bridge rectifiers are connected such that the two currents circulate within the two bridges. The output device used should be an integrating device operating on the average value of the difference between It, and ir.

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Such device is a polarized moving coil relay or an integrating circuit followed by a level detector to be discussed in detail later. The bridge rectifier consists of silicon or selenium diodes. The operation is as follows. When io is zero, small values of i, flow in the polarized relay in the blocking direction. This current raises the voltage drop across the relay, and acts in the forward direction of the operating bridge. If is increased further, the voltage drop across the relay rises further to V, the threshold voltage of the operating bridge (whic h is twice the threshold voltage of each diode) when the operating bridge starts conduction. This
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is not favoured. Transductors arc sometimes but not much emplo yed. These will be now

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makes the current through the relay flat topped half waves. The action is similar when 1, 0 and lo is circulated. When io and i, flow simultaneously, the output device can respond to small differences between the two currents. The current in the relay at all times is proportional to the difference between the two currents io and Ir. It will be found that due to the non-linear nature of the rectifiers, the current through the relay does not exceed a maximum value and the balance current flows through the rectifier bridge having the smaller of the currents. This is shown in Fig. 2.I4(c). The voltage across the relay is limited to twice

sensitive, and also protecting the bridge rectifier and the relay from damage due to high currents and voltages.

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the threshold voltage of each diode. Thus there is a limiting action making thc relay very

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and I,, but in practice the wave shape is dependent on the phase angle. When the two sinusoidal input currents io and are out of phase, (io ir) has both positive and negative loops in- the wave shape and, combined w:th the limiting action described above, the wave shape is of the form shown in Fig. 2.14 (b). When io > i, the positive loop becomes larger in time duration compared to negative loop. When io < in the negative loop becomes larger in time duration compared to the positive loop. When i,, the positive and negative loops arc equal, each loop occupying one fourth of the time duration of one cycle of the input currents. Thus the output waveform is a double frequency pulsation. The output device should therefore be, as stated earlier, an integrating device responding to the average area over one cycle of the output waveform. When lo and 1, are in phase, the output waveform is as shown in Fig. 2.I4(a).
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Only in this case, a continuous unidirectional output is obtained. The maximum current that can flow in the relay is dependent on the maxi-mum voltage drop attainable by the bridge rectifier. It is also necessary in this case to have large values of source impedances for the current sources io and 1, giving near ideal current sources. This also prevents mutual effects between the two bridges. For the same reason, it is also necessary to have isolating transformers between each source and the bridge rectifier as shown in Fig. 2.13. Further discussion regarding its behaviour for relay schemes will be given in different chapters under

torque when vo=1),. This type of comparator has no limiting action against high

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applications. Opposed voltage type This is shown in Fig. 2.15. The output relay has zero

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Figg. 2.30(a) shows the coincidence type. This is a cosine type two input phase comparator delivering to a pulse duration detector, a pulse during the positive coincidence period of two
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sinusoidal inputs. The pulse duration detector can be a telephone type relay which operates if the pulse duration exceeds 5 ms (90' duration) for a SO Hz system. 'Hie amplitude of the output pulse is equal to only half tlac zener voltage due to the potential divider arrangement. Hence a very sensitive output relay is needed. The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.30 (b) for the positive coincidence period. In this case during the coincidence period Zat is conducting with negligible voltage drop across it while ZD, is reverse biased with zener voltage Vi across it. If the telephone relay has negligible resistance and an inductance of L henries with N turns, the pick-up current will have to be Vz i --(1exp(-0.005R12L),1 R

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case.

Fig. 2.31. Zener dio.le non-coincidence comparator (a) non-coincidence comparator; and (t)

Thevenin equivalent circuit. Fig. 2.31 (a) shows the phase detector for non-coincidence detection and Fig. 2.31(b) its Thevenin equivalent circuit. Voltage is developed across the telephone relay only during the non-coincidence periodduring the period ZD, is reverse biased and ZD2 is forward biased. If the relay picks up at the same current as in the previous case, the following values arc obtained. External resistance=R ohms Relay inductance =2L henries Vz 1=-R(I exp( 0.005RI2L)] The pick-up m.m.f. is as follows for the above

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UNIT - 4
PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL/ NUMERICAL RELAYS: Definition of Numerical Protection System, Advantages of Numerical relays, Block diagram of Numerical Relays, Processing Unit, non machines Interface, communication in protective relays, Information handling with sub station monitoring system. 6 Hours DEFINITION OF A NUMERICAL PROTECTION SYSTEM According to ABB Review 1/93 (authors Majda liar and Gunnar Strannc of ABB Relays, Switzerland and Sweden), the definition of a numerical protection system is as follows: (a) A real time microprocessor system utilises sampled or pre-processed power system waveform data. (b) Digital filtering and numerical calculations take place on the basis of a continuous stream of data from the power system. (c) Programmes, algorithms and settings are stored in the memory used by the microprocessor. (d) Extensive hardware and software monitoring ensures high availability. (e) The protection system can communicate with the Station Control System (SCS) and Station Monitoring System (SMS). (f) Event and disturbance recording on printouts, with time tagging, is initiated by abnormal power system conditions, being available on request afterwards. (g) The interface for the man-machine communication (MMC) is either a personal computer, a mounted terminal or a remote terminal (with a modem). Communication via the personal computer is menu-driven, highly structured and provides full documentation of all the settings and recorded information. The implementation of suitable algorithms allows an adaptive response by the protection functions to changing

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power system conditions and changed system parameters.

ADVANTAGES OF NUMERICAL RELAYS The introduction of numerical tahnology in protective relays los increased the performance and flexibility of the equipment and has iricorporared new features such as self-supervision and the possibility to store faults. These improvements have increased reliability and allowed more efficient use of primary equipment. ABB introduced the nticroproctssor.based fault locator called Rants in 1982. This was the first time that a truly numerical approach was used to calculate the distance to the fault. resulting in significantly improved fault location accuracy. The next big step was adding communication capabilities to the protection relays during the mid-1980s. The first communicating sub-station was delivered in 1987. It was
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equipped with the SPAC 500 series (of the SPAC()M family) feeder terminals with protection and bay control. Full utilisation of the benefits of communicating relays and fullyautomated sub-stations became possible when the devices were combined with monitoring and control software programmes, such as Micro SCADA. running on microprocessor computers. This facilitated the fully integrated remote control of sub-stations.

They were also connected to. say. a Micro SCADA.based network control system thereby Most numerical relays have a self-checking featurethey are capable of periodically checking their hardware and software and in case of any problem. the relay gives an alarm fin corrective action. It is easy to service a numerical relay as in most cases, it requires only certain cards to be replaced. Many relays have built-in diagnostics so that the can identify their own faults, thereby making repairs easy. The information can be accessed quickly and effectively by means of the remote communication links resulting in improved post -fault analysis of the faults. Thc relay hardware has to withstand sub-station environment including temperature, humidity and dust. besides the electromagnetic interference generated within the sub-station as well as the effects caused by lightning strokes. Hence tests are conducted as per IR:. and ANSI standards. A microcomputer system is generally built with separate bus structures for all internal connections between the processor and memory devices for Faster access, while the input/output devices can be slower in operation while using filter circuits and physkal separation to prevent els-Lulea] noise from corrupt ng the processor operation.

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The internal power supplies for the processor are 5 V dc/12 V de for the circuits while external supply voltages are the station battery voltages which car be 24,48.110 or 220 V dc.

Usually ddcic convenes, arc used. The twitching frequency is over 80 kHz in order to keep the magnitudes small in size. The isolation of various circuits is necessary in the relay cases

as the electric circuits operate at a very low power. Hence sufficient screening has to be providedbetween vatious circuits:Mc progressof numerical relay development from the 1970. to the present is indicated in Fig. 6.1

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allowingcomplete information exchange between the sub-station level and the network level.

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PROCESSING UNIT

For high speed applications, digital signal processors are used. They provide high speed

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computation on the input data winds enables the designer to implement complex algorithms for a variety of protection functions and to perform real time calculation of impedances.

superimposed quantities, analysis of power system waveforms. etc. The requirement of processing power for any relay increase, as the implementation of the protection functions becomes more and more algorithmic. The newer versions of these relays have the capabilit y to include communication, fault location and disturbance recording. The core of the numerical relay is mark up of a CPU an with 8-16 Nt processor depending upon the application. The programme memory is used for holding the algorithm and code associated with the man-machine interface. The data mernory consists of RAM for storing the sample rabies of use in the algorithm and thedisturbance recorder funaions.The relay settings are stored as a kuinp database, which is usually an EEPRON1. These values stored in rhe
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EEPROM are used for computing the results. The input block consists of an ADC and its associated circuits for processing the analogue signals.

MAN-MACHINE INTERFACE (MMI) This allows the user to make the entry of relay settings and to read the relay internal information. The MMI usually consists of an alphanumeric LCD or LED display unit. Knobs and switches are provided thus allowing the user to enter the information using the Menu mode. Normally different levels of securities are

make changes in the settings to the relay. Local printers are also provided to print out the settings and any stored information on the fault conditions and disturbances. Features like remote communication links remove the need for the operating personnel to visit the substation for collecting the information on the disturbance. The remote communication feature can be used to simulate the display on the relay at the remote terminal. Thus the information is available at a central station and a decision can be taken about the expertise needed for conducting the mainte-nance work.

COMMUNICATION IN PROTECTION RELAYS

The most common transmission medium is the RS 232 link, which allows communication from one relay to a monitor PC. It is also possible to make the system multi-terminal. wherein up to 32 relays can be connected to a central computer by using suitable i 'ICC( face equipment.This interface standard is RS 485. which use, only one pair of lines to connect up

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to a distance of I km. RS 485 is a balanced interface and is less susceptible to common mode interference. Another method of interconnection is through fibre optics. which are capable of high data rates and very good noise immunity. However, they arc expensive and require special purpose transmittertheceivers. Hence their use is restricted to transmission lines.

Optical fibres are very fine strands of glass or plastic with the ability to transmit light. They are made up of a glass core inside a glass adding. The refractive index of the glass cadding is lower than that of the core. When a ray of light is incident on the junction of the core and the cadding. total internal reflection occurs if the angle of incidence exceeds the Okla angle. If the diameter of the core is quite large with respect to the wavelength of the light, there will be a multitude of light ray paths down which the light ray will pass. The input electrical signals
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usually provided by means of a password so that only authorised personnel are allowed to

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are converted into light signals by using suitable transmitters. Optical fibres arc usually of core diameters of 50 microns with a cladding diameter of 125 microns. INFORMATION HANDLING WITH SUB-STATION MONITORING SYSTEM (SMS) Numerical protection and control terminals have a high functionality and contain huge amounts of information.,' number of parameters need to be set for deriving benefit from the flexibility of the terminals. The SMS is a tool for structured handling of information. It cats be used for setting parameters, monitoring service values and self-supervision status and

can be implemented locally at the station or remotely in a central office via a public telephone network or a standard "civil' network. With direct access to selected information, the data stored in the numerical devices can be utilised in a much more efficient way. This is shown in Fig. 6.2. The use of suitable software facilitates the clubbing of a number of protection functions in one relay.

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event handling, and the collection and evaluation of disturbance information. The functions

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STATIC OVER CURRENT, TIMER AND VOLTAGE RELAYS: Instantaneous over current Relay, Definite time lag relay, inverse time over current relay, static timer relay, Basic relay circuits, monostable delay circuits Single phase Instantaneous over voltage and under voltage relays, instantaneous over voltage relay using Op-amp. 10 Hours

Introduction

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Overcurrent relays fall under the categories of instantaneous and time-overcurrent relays. It will he realized that in the development of static relays, the first relays to be converted to the static form were the high speed differential and distance relays, while the directional relay came next and the time-overcurrent relay the last in the developmental series. The reasons for the simplest relay to be taken up last are not far to seek. The distance, directional and differential relays are based on mathemati-cal analysis and It is easy to build a mathematical model or the circuit. On the other hand the time overcurrent relays built through induction disc elements gave characteristics which are not amenable to simple mathematical analysis. In fact the inverse definite minimum Vine (IDMT) characteristic has been evolved because o f the induction disc element, the stopc of the curve being determined by the saturation pro perties of the magnetic core of the electromagnet. The four points specified by the Ind ian Standards Institution (1.5.1 I and the British Standards Institution (13.51) have been entirely
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Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

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Fir.6.I Instantaneous vacuum War and is smoothed by the capacitor C,. The transistor T, (etp-n) and T, ( p-np) a-.r normally cut oft When the base voltage of T, exceeds the pick-up value set by the potentiometer P., the transistor T, conducts leading to the switching on of transistor T, and the trip relay TR. Thermistor Thin the collector T, is for temperature compensation, and diode D is for the protection of the trip relay coil. The current pick-up adjustment is made by means of the auxiliary transformer taps and the Potentiometer P,. In
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The circuit is indicated in Fig 6.1. The input from the main C.T. is fed to an auxiliary C.T. (preferably a transactor to 'convert current to a voltage) with a tapped secondary winding. The secondary current is fed to a full-wave bridge rectifier which is protected from transient overvoltage Spikes by means of the 125-C1 filter. The bridge output is then fed to the base of transistor T. The output is developed across the resistor R,

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due to the above curve being accepted in practice Moreover, from the systems authorities, there was no demand for a static time overcurrent relay as the induction disc element presented a rugged type or relay needing very little attention or adjustments. Similarly, the hinged armature unit offered a rugged type for the instantaneous overcurrent relay. Static circuits are on the other hand more complicated especially in the case of time-overcurrert relays giving the hitherto accepted types of characteristics (e g. 'MIT, very inverse, extremely inverse) as the circuit elements have to be manipulated to produce these characteristics as will be shown in this chapter. Althou-gh complicated in circuit construction, static overcurrent relays offer the advantages of ,vw CT. burdens (about 1.10th of those for induction disc relays; anti reduced space on the Nee atIdtt:On to the general It is, however, felt that for some years it is unlikely that all electro-magnetic overcurrent relays will be replaced by static ones till such time that a digital computer is universally employed for relay setting and introduction of automatic test methods bv the manufacturers.

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the case of instantaneous relays there is a tendency for OVCISCASiii vity under transient fault currents with D.C. components. This can be prevented by making the auxiliary transformer saturate just above the pick-up value. The transient filter described above well also reduce this tendency Fast reset is usually not necessary in overcurrent relays since the setting value is much higher than the rated current, unlike voltage relays whose settings are near to rated values and hence need fast reset features. Improved Version of the Relay An improved commercial version of the static instantaneous over current relay is given in block diagram form in Fig. 6.2(a) and in detailed circuit form in Fig. 6.2(b).

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voltage is then compared against a pre-set pick-up value and if it exceeds it a signal is given to the output transistor through an amplifier. The output transistor is then driven to saturation energizing the output relay (trip relay). The circuit design is such that no d.e. biasing voltage is necessary separately for the circuit operation. The detailed circuit shows the current from the main C.T. being given to the primary of the transactor which produces a proportional ac. voltage. The ratio of primary current to secondary voltage of the transactor is made adjustable
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by providing taps on its secondary so as to obtain different current settings. This voltage is then rectified through a bridge rectifier and smoothed partially. Partial filtering only is used to maintain high speed of operation. A zener diode ZD, acts as a limiter of the rectified voltage to spfe values even when the input current is very high under fault conditions. A fixed portion of the rectified voltage (through a potential divider) is compared against the breakdown voltage of another zener diode ZDI. If the rectified voltage is greater than the reference voltage, output transistor T2 is driven to conduction through the amplifier stage TI-

from high reverse voltages induced when the inductive output circuit is opened.

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R2, whereupon the trip relay is energized. Reverse-biased DI protects the output transistor T2

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magnetization in rush currents. Also, this is used as back-up relays for differential and distance schemes. Definite time feature when used with inverse characteristic is more useful

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and gists inserse with definite time characteristic. An example IT protection of induction motors against overloads using extremely inverse curve (n 2L In such cases it is desirable to base an instantaneous or definite time operation at current levels corresponding to blocked rotor operation. Definite time is pre-ferred to instantaneous to serve as A check against short

MC asymmetrical currents. (b) Very inverse Ore 1) This is generally employed in eases where the source impedance is much smaller than the line impedance. Because of the steep nature of the curve, they permit the use of the same time multiplier setting for several relays in series. This reduces time errors and OveltraVel so that time margin for grading can te reduced They are more suitable for earth fault protection as there is n greater variation of zero sequence currents with distance than with phase faults. (c) Extremely inverse (nw, 2) Fuse coordination and thermal protec-tion of transformers and induction motors require such
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application is the differential protection of transformers to present maloperation during

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characte-ristic. They are useful, in conjunction with negative sequence filters to protect against unbalanced operation of generators. The occurrence of an outage resulting in a complete stsridsull of refrigerator Motors, factory equipments and lighting load and subsequent restoration is another situation where this characteris-tic is useful -after an outage, if power is switched on suddenly, there is a sudden inrush of current as the impedance during hot conditions is 10 times the impedance during cold conditions. Extremely inverse relays can distinguish between this condition and fault condition, since the former decays very fast (d) Third power Inverse relay (a 31 This can be used advantage-ously for coordination of H V. fuses, In such eases, the slope 3 characteristic provides greater selectivity on load pickup than slope 3.

(e) Octal invent relay (n-8) One application of this is for the protection of mercury arc rectifiers. A general expression for the operating time of a time-current relay is KM I^ -- I*, where / is the multiple of tap current, l, is the multiple of tap current at which pick-up occurs, K is design constant, and M is the time multiplier setting. If the relay picks up at tap value of current, the above equation is simplified as follows: KM Fry As already mentioned, because of the nonlinear design factors ol induction disc relays, the time characteristics that have been accepted in India and the U.K. are as follows in approximate mathematical form (for conversion to static form). Type Approximate mathematical form 0.14 (a) IDMT t aye-cry 13.3 (b) Very inverse I w (/ I) 130 (4) Extremely inverse (P-1) The definite-time characteristic needs no equation as the time of operation becomes constant after pick-up. IDMT curses accepted in the USA. are somewhat

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less inverse at the low current end than the above. Initially there will be a tendency for power

system authorities to have SIMI< overturrent relays with time-current characteristics to match the existing induction disc relays. Howeser, in future, the characteristics will be of the form r = giving a straight line on a log- r log I graph. Since this curve will no longer be

asymptotic to the pick-up value of current, the pick-up will be controlled by a separate unit. (In fact this is the practice even with static relays giving the conventional time-current

characteristics). The IDMT curve may be altogether eliminated and the definite time portion will then be provided by a separate unit. Such simplified time-current curves will save considerable time in the calcula-tion of relay settings and computers could be employed for the purpose. This will also facilitate automatic gang testing of relays with a master relay.
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(c) Octal inver.u relay (n =B) One application of this is for the protection of mercury arc rectifiers. A general expression for the operating time of a time-current relay is KM
I

As already mentioned, because of the nonlinear design factors of induction disc relays, the time characteristics t bat have been accepted in India and tbe U .K, are as foHows in approximate mathematical form (for
conversion to static form). Type

(b) Very inverse


(c) Extremely inverse

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I =

(a) IDMT

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The definite-time characteris-tic needs no equation as the time of operation becomes constant after pickup. IDMT curves accepted in the USA.. are somewhat Jess inverse at the low current end than the above. Initially there wHI be a tendency for power system authorities to have static overcurrent relay.s with time urrent characteristics to match the existing induction disc relays. However, in future, the characteristics will
be of the form t = {. giving a straight line on a log- t - log I graph.

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.Approximate mathematical form
t
C:::::

4 ._ _c0.1 _
(]1101. 1)

13.5 (/-1)

= ([2-1)

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where I is the multiple of tap current, 1.is the multiple of tap current at which pick-up occurs. K is design constant, and M is the time multipfiu setting. If the relay picks up at tap value of current. the above equation is simplified as follows: KM t = J -1

= /"-/

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Fia. 14.17

Monostable multivibrator

Rt n

c
0

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Vp
Fie. 14.18 lC monostable circuit

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Overvoltage and Undervoltage Relays

Instantaneous relays of the overvoltage and undervoltage type can be built ou t of the ba ic Schmitt trigger or level detector ci rcuit . These are shown in Fig. 4.JO(a) and {b). ln the case of the overvoltage relay, the em i tter bjas voltage across R keeps the ransistor.T1 off wh le T2 is condu ting. When the voltage i npu a t the bndge rcc t1fier V," mcreases the preset magnitude, producing a

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voltage ncross resistor R 1 , it overcomes the emitter bias voltage and makes T 1 conduct turni ng off T:!. When T!! is turned off, An output voltage V., is produced ncross the co11ector ofTt In the case of the undervoltage relay, the input bias voltage across R, tries to keep the transistor T 1 conducti ng, while the voltage input V,.

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high reset ratio (i.e. drop-out/ nick-up).

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both cases. capacitor C is used for smoothing the input voltage Yin after full-wave rectification. The relays described are of the instantaneous type. In case delays are required of instantaneous overvoltage/undervoltage relays, it is important that the circuit should hase a Over-and Under-Voltage Relay (a) Single phase Two types of circuits are taken. In Fig 4.11(a) the relay ha :3 a polarity protection diode (for d.c. input voltages) against incorrect polarity. The voltage supplied to the relay is fed to a voltage divider and compared with a reference voltage. Depending on the difference voltage the level detector and the amplifier

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(IC) are operated and the em. output relay picks up. Operating values are set by altering the resistance of the voltage divider with a potentiometer. Since the reference voltage is obtained

from the supply voltage, no separate auxiliary voltage is necessary. Resetting ratios are : Over voltage: > 97%; and undervoltage: < 1037. In Fig. 4 .11( b) it is a combined over/under voltage relay. There are voltage level sensing transistor circuits. The circuit uses the so called 7:- stabilized zener diode chains. Auxiliary 24V d.c. is necessary. Other things are as follows. Setting range-under: 80-95%. over: 105-120; operating time 160 ms; resetting ratio over :
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these could he incorporated by R-C delay circuits as discussed under timer relays. In the case

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98-997-0', under: 101-102%; accuracy + 1% for ambient temperature variation between 4- 5 C and -1- 50C and auxiliary voltage between 20V to 30V. Power consumption measuring circuit: 0.2VA at 220V or 380V; and auxiliary voltage: 3.8W, 24V d.c. (h) Three-phase--In Fig. 4.II(c) it is a three phase relayoperating both for symmetrical and asymmetrical decreases or increases in the voltage and for phase open circuit. The three-phase voltages are rectified and smoothed and they are applied to a diode circuit which acts as an OR circuit at operation and as an AND circuit at reset; at operation of overvoltage relay it senses the

The undervoltage relay has the opposite function. The two voltages obtained after the diode circuits are appled to level sensing circuits which actuate em. output relays. The values of various parameters involved are as inlInws

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highest of the three voltages; while at reset all three voltages must be lower than the set value.

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(C)

Fia. 4.11 OveJand under voltagerelays (a} and (b) si ngle phase: a nd (c) three phase.

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: 24V d .c. is necessary : Overvohage: 105-120% Undervoltage: 70-90% Resetting ratio : Overvoltage: 95-97% 107-110% Undervoltage: Power consumption : Measuring circuit: 0.4 VA voltage Auxiliary circuit: 4.2W Separate auxiliary Setting ranges Operating time

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Overvoltage c;; 70 ms Undervoltage 200 ms Operating value deviates byJess than 1% when ambient temperature varies between - 5 and + S5C and auxiliary voltage varies between 20 and JIV.

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UNIT - 6 & 7
DISTANCE RELAY: General Principle of operation, Zone discrimination, Fault area on impedance diagram, Basic measuring elements, Different characteristics used in distance relaying- Impedance, Reactance, Admittance. Ohm, Distance relay settings, Distance measurement Problems. 10 Hours General Principle of operation: In electrical engineering, a protective relay is an electromechanical apparatus, often with more than one coil, designed to calculate operating conditions on an electrical circuit and trip circuit breakers when a fault is detected. Unlike switching type relays with fixed and usually illdefined operating voltage thresholds and operating times, protective relays have wellestablished, selectable, time/current (or other operating parameter) operating characteristics. Protection relays may use arrays of induction disks, shaded-pole magnets, operating and restraint coils, solenoid-type operators, telephone-relay contacts, and phase-shifting networks. Protection relays respond to such conditions as over-current, over-voltage, reverse power flow, over- and under- frequency. Distance relays trip for faults up to a certain distance away from a substation but not beyond that point. An important transmission line or generator unit will have cubicles dedicated to protection, with many individual electromechanical devices. The various protective functions available on a given relay are denoted by standard ANSI Device Numbers. For example, a relay including function 51 would be a timed overcurrent protective relay.

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Electromechanical protective relays at ahydroelectric generating plant. The relays are in round glass cases. The rectangular devices are test connection blocks, used for testing and isolation of instrument transformer circuits. The theory and application of these protective devices is an important part of the education of an electrical engineer who specializes in power systems. In new installations, these devices are nearly entirely replaced with microprocessor-based digital protective relays (numerical relays) that emulate their electromechanical ancestors with great precision and convenience
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in application. By combining several functions in one case, numerical relays also save capital cost and maintenance cost over electromechanical relays. However, due to their very long life span, tens of thousands of these "silent sentinels" are still protecting transmission lines and electrical apparatus all over the world. Operation principles Electromechanical protective relays operate by either magnetic attraction, or magnetic induction.

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Protective relays can also be classified by the type of measurement they make. A protective relay may respond to the magnitude of a quantity such as voltage or current. Induction types of relay can respond to the product of two quantities in two field coils, which could for example represent the power in a circuit. Although an electromechanical relay calculating the ratio of two quantities is not practical, the same effect can be obtained by a balance between two operating coils, which can be arranged to effectively give the same result. Several operating coils can be used to provide "bias" to the relay, allowing the sensitivity o f response in one circuit to be controlled by another. Various combinations of "operate torque" and "restraint torque" can be produced in the relay.

By use of a permanent magnet in the magnetic circuit, a relay can be made to respond differently to current in one direction than in another. Such polarized relays are used on direct-current circuits to detect, for example, reverse current into a generator. These relays can be made bistable, maintaining a contact closed with no coil current and requiring reverse current to reset. For AC circuits, the principle is extended with a polarizing winding connected to a reference voltage source.

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"Induction" disk meters work by inducing currents in a disk that is free to rotate; the rotary motion of the disk operates a contact. Induction relays require alternating current; if two or more coils are used, they must be at the same frequency otherwise no net operating force is produced.

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"Moving coil" meters use a loop of wire turns in a stationary magnet, similar to a galvanometer but with a contact lever instead of a pointer. These can be made with very high sensitivity. Another type of moving coil suspends the coil from two conductive ligaments, allowing very long travel of the coil.

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A variant application of the attraction principle is the plunger-type or solenoid operator. A reed relay is another example of the attraction principle.

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"Armature"-type relays have a pivoted lever supported on a hinge or knife-edge pivot, which carries a moving contact. These relays may work on either alternating or direct current, but for alternating current, a shading coil on the pole is used to maintain contact force throughout the alternating current cycle. Because the air gap between the fixed coil and the moving armature becomes much smaller when the relay has operated, the current required to maintain the relay closed is much smaller than the current to first operate it. The "returning ratio" or "differential" is the measure of how much the current must be reduced to reset the relay.

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Light weight contacts make for sensitive relays that operate quickly, but small contacts can't carry or break heavy currents. Often auxiliary telephone-type armature relays are triggered by the measuring relay. In a large installation of electromechanical relays, it would be difficult to determine which device originated the signal that tripped the circuit. This information is useful to operating personnel to determine the likely cause of the fault and to prevent its re-occurrence. Relays may be fitted with a "target" or "flag" unit, which is released when the relay operates, to display a distinctive colored signal when the relay has tripped.

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Lfllt trap flldacttlllet l()()v.H: N'pfl111cqtJ itor 10()() pF

Band

Mldba11d f"qt urry kHr

Btlltdwldth kHz

75.,
2
J

7 11
I0-9S
90-100

17.S

99.5 112

..
s
0

JOG-125
110.1<10

138
HI

12 H8 130175
15 214

I 9
10

179 22S )SJ

11 280 2S SOO

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The fourth closing side of the characteristic is obtained by the zone differentiating circuit as shown in Fig. 10.17. For faults within zone I reach, zone I AND gate opens at the arrival of the fart pulse and goes to the output stage via the OR gate. For faults within zone 2 and zone 3 reach, the respective gates open after required time delays. The block diagrams of the complete relay circuits arc shown in Fig. 10.18 (a) and (b). Two alternatives have been given for zone 2 and zone 3 discrimination.

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Wramt I Fig. 10.18(01 A - Pulse circuit B - Buffer amplifier CWel swing detector I (to be described later) Power swing blocking E - Phase comparator F VT G - Phase splatter and rectifier H'- RC terser I - Threshold detector timer , PAT - Pulse amplifier and thyristor sou Lit 2 If tg. 10.13 (b)I Significance of various blocks are the 411Tte as in whew I except the following: - Monostable timer I. Backward monmlable circuit Some of the detailed circuits are shown in Fig. 10.19. In Fig.10.19(a) the input circuits are shown. The auxiliary VT has six secondary wind. rigs. One of them has two taps K. and K, for zone land zone 3 measure -roans. Phase splitting network with diodes is shown in Fig. 10.19 (b) for obtaining direct voltages with loss ripple content. Pulse shaping and phase detector circuits arc shown in
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Fig. 10.19 (c). Under normal no fault conditions T, and T, are conducting and the pulse arriving at the collector cf T, is shorted. When a fault occurs inside tripping,' area, input voltages V. VI. -5C' and (h R VI) ha-Come positive simultane-ously when the sampling pulse is present. Transistors T, and T. stop conduction, allowing the pulse logo through. Power swing Mocking-Here either rate of rive of current or blinders can be used for detection o f power swings. In the method using blinders, the sampling tuts: hta is taken through another gate with control Input positive 'and' of (Vt + leR.) and (leR, - Vt) and the NAND of a the phase detector. The output from this gate feeds the monostable multisibrator which blocks the phase detector (transistor T,) for a preset time. Now, R, is taken larger than the maximum setting of R (for the phase detector). Steady lamp indc+- lion or continuous alarm for uncleared faults in the non-tripping dire-ction of the relay or when a power swing is in the buffer area without receding or passing through the trip area of the relay, can be ptosided as shown This is shown in Fig. 10.19(d). In the rate of rise current detection, normally the phase detector AND gate is closed by the nrgato es bias provided by the flip-lop circuit. In the tvert of a fault, the high value of dIrMr produces pulse of height proportional to Wadi thioughing the flip-flop into another state of stability and brings the relay into operation This is shown in Fig. 10.19(e).

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Zone differentiatorZone I AND gate is an instantaneous amplitude comparator the output from this triggers a thyristor sia an OR gate and a pulse amplifier. Zone 2 and Zone 3 time delays are provided by means of (i) RC circuit or (ii) by moncstable circuit. In the RC timing method, a level detector is used to measure the voltage across the capacitor, while in the monos-table circuit method, delay is obtained by it s setting. A backward mono-stable circuit is used with an AND gate to prevent the output of the monostable circuit from unwanted triggering of the thyristor, in case the fault is cleared by the earlier zone units. TYPE 2: In this type of multi-input comparator two phase detectors are used one for zone I and the other for zone 2 and zone 3. Zone
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tripping limits are 8,<4<8, The trip area is controlled by ft and', For the case of 90 shift, the operating criterion is Ze<Zat, cos (8, Oland el<4<e, Thus for the same value of 5, the trip area as compared with that for r 90'. can be increased or decreased by adjusting r< or ....90 ; the maximum value being (180' 8,), respectively. Zone 2 and :one 3 operation The inputs are =ii fare, (pulse) S. (hR Ye) S, S. 90* This comparator is exactly similar to the one in type I previously discussed and hence needs no further discussion. Zone differentiation is provided as before. Complete Relay Circuit--The complete relay circuit in block form is shown in Fig. 10.21. The AND gates are normally blocked by the nega-tive bias provided by the flip-flop circuit. The sudden collapse of Ye under a fault triggers the flip-flop thereby removing the blockingthis prevents false operation when voltage is first applied or when it recovers after the clearing of a nearby fault. For Zone I fault, AND gates of comparator D and M, open at the arrival of sampling pulse Vt. This finally triggers the thyristor. SCR can be reset by the auxiliary contact on the CB. A chain of flip-flop circuits (F) arranged for negative
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Zone I operation : Angle 8, of Z., is made equal to fine angle 8, Ye is converted to a negative pulse at its zero point. The sampling pulse will appear at the output only if all the inputs S .S' and S, are simul-taneously positive when the pulse appears. The angular limit of the phase comparison p -- 8,). Operating criterion is sin (I, + 4) Ze < and sin,

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triggering is used to provide time delay T, for zone 2 the time delay can be counted in terms of the number of cycles since the sampling pulse is produced once every cycle. The delay provided by a chain of three flipiflop circuits is 8 cycles. For zone 3 time delay, a monostablc circuit is used. A backward monostablc circuit is used as in type I for preventing unwanted triggering nf SCR In Fir,. 10-71. the vannut hIneka are as. (Allows :

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The relay makes measurement Once every cycle at the appearance of the sampling pulse, i.e. when Pc passes from positive to negative. The time required for operation depends only on the angle after 180 at which the fault occurs. Faults which occur just before 180 have nearly zero operating time while fault occurring just after 180 have a one cycle operating time. The operating time can be reduced to half-cycle by duplicating the circuitry for the other polarity so that phase angle measurement is made on both half cycles. With 100% d.c. transient, the range of the relay could reach a value of about 50 and the transient overreach less than 10%. (iii) 4 AloOed Technique for Quadrilateral Distance Relay The principle of this method is illustrated in Fig. I0.22(a) and (b). If a point P, is defined by the phasor Zr, and the quadrilateral chracte.istic is defined by the extremsties of the phasors 4, Z., and Z,, then the relaying inputs are

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S, Zi. a la, kit S. et Z. - Zt liZ, Vt. 5, a Zt. hZ0 S, where Vi. hZt It can be stated that whenever the point P, is in the restraining region, all the relaying inputs are confined to 180 phase angle margin, while if the same point is in the trip region [as Pt in Fig. 10.22 (b)) all the relaying

inputs are conned to more than ISO' phase angle margin as shown in the figure. There will be finite coincidence period in the restraining region governed by two extreme phasors, while in the tripping region there is no coincidence period. The above is realized by circuits shown in Fig. 10.23. Fig. 10.23(a) shows the block diagram. The relay input* are derived by the help of replica impedance Z., Z., 4 and an auxiliary V.T. as shown in Fig. 10.23 (b). These inputs are fcd to a coincidence gate, which delivers output pulses periodically, every 20 ms based on a power frequency of SO Ile for 7,e in the restraining region. The pulse stretcher, which is a 20 ms monostable triggering on the leading edge of the input pulses, delivers continuous output to energize is slave relay having normally closed con-tacts. The contacts are thus kept open for the restraining region. When Ze falls in the operating region, the coincidence gate and the pulse stretcher deliver no output resulting in the drop-out of the slave relayclosing its contacts. Fig. 10.23(c) shows the transistor circuitry consis. ring of four clippers, and NAND gate. a monostable gate as a 20 ms pulse stretcher and the slave reed relay. It is claimed that this technique require: only 4 inputs, has an accuracy of I0 up to a range of 30 with a maximum transient overreach of 7%. The VA burdens have been claimed to be very low e.g 0.4 VA and 0.5 VA on the V.T. and CT.. respectively. It may be noticed that the circuits stated above are more complicated. In Western Europe, where the quadrilateral re/ay has gained popularity, the normal practice is to separate the direction and distance measure-ments by having two restricted directional characteristics looking in opposite directions (these are AND compounded). This permits the use of sound phase voltages for directional measurements resulting in the following advantages (i) Unlimited directional sensitivity in the esent of as)numerical faults.

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(i) Unl imited di recti onal faults.

ensitivity in the event of asymmetrical

PhOM

Sl!lflinv 8 5-limf!\otion
(ill

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Fig. 10.2J Cireu it1

(or quadrilateral diMance rday: (a) blOC>)( drarrom Cb) dc:rivnt ion of relay in puts; and fc) del:lied circuli. '

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Here Io Zr produces a negative pulse at its zero point and is applied to a phase detector AND circuit. This pulse will appear at the output if Vo L90' is positive at the same time this gate operates a directional element. The pulse is then applied to a zone differentiation circuit these gates arc controlled by rectified voltage I I KV:. I I (IL + 3Kqe. VA for amplitude comparison. The characteristic obtained is also shown in the same figure.

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UNIT - 8
DIGITAL RELAYS: Block Schematic approach of microprocessor based relays, over current relay Protection, Transformer differential protection, Directional relay scheme, Impedance relay scheme. 6 Hours Over Current Relays: An over current relay is the simplest form of protective relay which operates when the current in any circuit exceeds a certain predetermined value, ie the pickup value. It is extensively used for the protection of distribution lines, industrial motors and equipment. Using a multiplexer, the micro processor can sense the fault currents of a number of circuits. If the fault current in any circuit exceeds the pickup value, the microprocessor sends a tripping signal to the circuit breaker of the faulty circuits. As the microprocessor accepts signals in voltage form, the current signal derived from the current transformer is converted into a proportional voltage signal using a current to voltage converter. The ac voltage proportional to the load current is converted into dc using a precision rectifier. Thus the microprocessor accepts dc voltage proportional to the load current.

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The bloack schematic diagram of the relay is shown in fig. The output of the rectifier is fed to the multiplexer. The microcomputer sends a command to switch on the desired channel of the multiplexer to obtain the rectifier voltage proportional to the current in a particular circuit. The output of the mux is fed to the A/D converter to obtain the signal in digital for.

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as follows.
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microcomputer reads the end of conversion signal to examine whether the conversion is over or not. As soon as the conversion is over, the microcomputer reads the current signal in digital form and then compares it with the pick-up value. In the case of a definite time ovcrcurrent relay, the microcomputer sends the tripping signal to the circuit breaker after a predctumined time delay if the fault current exceeds the pick-up value. In case of instantaneous overcurrent relay there is no intentional time delay. In order to obtain inverse-time charac-teristics, the operating times for different values of currents are noted for a particular characteristic. These values are stored in the memory in tabular form. The microcomputer first dettsmints the magnitude of the fault current and then selects the corresponding time of operation from the look-up table. A delay subroutine is started and the trip signal is sent after the desired delay. Using the same program, any characteristic such as IDMT, very inverse or extremely inverse can be realised by simply changing the data of the look-up delay subroutine is started and the trip signal is sent after the desired delay. Using the same program, any characteristic such as IDMT, very inverse or extremely inverse can be realised by simply changing the data of the look-up table according to the desired characteristic to be realised. The microcomputer continuously measures the current and moves in a loop and if the measured current exceeds the pick-up value, it compares the measured value of the current with the digital values of current given in the look-up table in order to select the corresponding count for a time delay. Then it goes in delay subrou-tine and sends a trip signal to the circuit breaker after the predetermined time delay. The program flowchart is shown in Fig. 8.1(b) and the program is

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Memory Machine
Address Oxles

Label Mnemonics Operands

Comments

201E 2021
2022
2023

21,00,22 46
23

LXJ
MOV

H,2200
B,M H M
AHEAD B

Count for lookup table

in reg. B. SEEK

BE

2024 2027
2028

OS C2A20
24

D2-.2E,20

202-B
202E

CA,04,20

lNX CMP JNC OCR JNZ JZ

SEEK
MESH H B,M Count for delay in B. C.FF D,FF
D MOVE

202F
2030 2032

46
OE,FF
16.FF

MOV
BBHlNO MVl CHAIN MVl MOVE DCR JNZ

2034
2035

15 C2,34,20

05 C2,30,20 3E,Ol DJ,Ol 76

JNZ

A.Ol
01

MVl
OUT

Send trip signal.

HLT

Look-up Table

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Memory Address 2200 2201 2202 2203 2204 2205 2206 2207 2208 2209 220A 2208 220C

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16 lE

Digital Values Memory Address of Current OC(a:>UNl) 7F' 2301 7A 2302 60 230.3 66 2304 60 2305

SA
46

2306 2307

40
4(1

2308

2309
230C

230A

3A 33

2308

In order to llvoid false tripping of an overcurrcnt relay due to transicniS the program can he modincd slightly.When the fault current exceeds the pick-up value., the fault current i.s measured once again by the microprocessor to confirm wbetber it is a rault current or tran.'iient. ln case of any ttan,.!cai of sbort dumtion, the mea.orurcd currcntabovcpickwup valuewillool appear in the secund measwement. But if lhete is an actual fault, it wiII again appear in the second measurement also, and then the microproc.e&'>Or will issue a tripping signal to disconnect the faulty pan of lhe system.1be program flowchart is shown 1n Fig. 8.2 and the program is given below.

DE
Count for Delay in Register B
3 5 9

OD tO

2D 50
7D DB

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Delay Time ins

2038 2039 203C 2030 2040 2042 2044

OD

c
CHAIN
B BEHIND

C2,32,20

OCR JNZ OCR

0.19
0.32

0.51
0.70 0.&3

1.00
.1.40

1.90

2.90
5.10 8.00 14.00

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Transformer Differential Protection:

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Generally Differential protection is provided in the electrical power transformer rated more than 5MVA. The Differential Protection of Transformer has many advantages over other schemes of protection.

1) The faults occur in the transformer inside the insulating oil can be detected by Buchholz relay. But if any fault occurs in the transformer but not in oil then it can not be detected by Buchholz relay. Any flash over at the bushings are not adequately covered by Buchholz relay. Differential relays can detect such type of faults. Moreover Buchholz relay is provided in transformer for detecting any internal fault in the transformer but Differential Protection scheme detects the same in more faster way. 2) The differential relays normally response to those faults which occur in side the differential protection zone of transformer.

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Differential Protection Scheme in a Power Transformer Principle of Differential Protection Principle of Differential Protection scheme is one simple conceptual technique. The differential relay actually compares between primary current and secondary current of power transformer, if any unbalance found in between primary and secondary currents the relay will actuate and inter trip both the primary and secondary circuit breaker o f the transformer. Suppose you have one transformer which has primary rated current I p and secondary current Is. If you install CT of ratio Ip/1A at primary side and similarly, CT of ratio Is/1A at secondary side of the transformer. The secondaries of these both CTs are connected together in such a manner that secondary currents of both CTs will oppose each other. In other words, the secondaries of both CTs should be connected to same current coil of differential relay in such a opposite manner that there will be no resultant current in that coil in normal working condition of the transformer. But if any major fault occurs inside the transformer due to which the normal ratio of the transformer disturbed then the secondary current of both transformer will not remain the same and one resultant current will flow through the current coil of the differential relay, which will actuate the relay and inter trip both the primary and secondary circuit breakers. To correct phase shift of current because of star - delta connection of transformer winding in case of three phase transformer, the current transformer and star as shown secondaries should be connected in delta here.

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At maximum through fault current, the spill output produced by the small percentage unbalance may be substantial. Therefore, differential protection of transformer should be provided with a proportional bias of an amount which exceeds in effect the maximum ratio deviation. Directional Over Current Relay:
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The classic electromechanical and solid state relay, as well as some common numeric relays, determines the direction to fault by comparing the phase angle relationship of phase currents to phase voltages. If only per phase watt flow (32 element) is to be considered, the basic concept would be that if IPh is in phase with VPh-N (0, 90), then power flow on that phase is indicated as forward (or reverse, depending on ones perspective). However, for a phase to ground fault, the VPh-Nmay collapse to 0, and I may be highly lagging, so that VPh-N x IPh may be mostly VAR flow, and thus prevent the relay from making a correct directional decision. To resolve the low

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The angle setting is commonly referred to as the maximum torque angle, MTA. In some designs of this concept, the current signal is skewed rather than the voltage signal. In some designs, other phase voltages are used. For instance, IA could be compared to VAB, VCA, VBN, or VCN, and the detection algorithm would work, though the quadrature voltage VBC gives the most independence of the voltage signal

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voltage issue, quadrature voltages (i.e., VBC vs. IA) are commonly used. To resolve the issue that fault current is typically highly lagging, the relay current vs. voltage detection algorithm is skewed so that the relay is optimized to detect lagging current conditions rather then 1.0 power factor conditions. One approach, seen in Fig. 1, is to phase shift the voltage signal so that the relays internal voltage signal (VPolarity, abbreviated as VPol) is in phase with current when current lags the 1.0 power factor condition by some setting, typically between 300 and 900.

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from

the

effects

of

an

A-N,

A-B,

or

A-C

fault.

OVERCURRENT AND DIRECTIONAL ELEMENT NAMES AND CONTROL

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One needs to understand which directional decision controls which overcurrent element. There is no standard way to name all of the overcurrent elements that are involved. Assume for the discussion that there are 67/51P (phase), 67/51G (ground) and 67/51Q (negative sequence) elements and similar 67/50 elements, and that each has a forward or reverse looking mode with different settings for each direction. There are three directional elements called the 67POS (positive sequence), 67NEG (negative sequence), and 67ZERO (zero sequence) that control the 67/51 and 67/50 elements. The protective elements and their directional controls are: A given relay may have more than one copy, or no copy, of the indicated element, and a given relay may or may not give the user direct access to 67POS, 67NEG, and 67ZERO.

IMPEDANCE RELAY SCHEME

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Impedance relays are used whenever overcurrent relays do not provide adequate protection. They function even if the short circuit current is relatively low. The speed of operation is independent of current magnitude. Impedance relays monitor the impedance between the relay location and the fault. If the impedance falls within the relay setting, the relay will operate. The basic construction for impedance relays on which the principle of operation is easily explained is the balanced beam.

The torque caused by the current through the current coil is where Ki is a constant of proportionality that depends on the relay construction

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When the torques are balanced,

The torque caused by the voltage coil is where Kv is a constant of proportionality that depends on the relay construction

The ratio of voltage and current is the impedance the relay detects at the point of its connection.

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The relay consists of a balanced beam. At each end of the balanced beam is a coil that exerts a force on the beam at that end. One coil is connected to a current from a current transformer, the other coil is connected to a potential transformer. The voltage coil functions as a restraining coil, the current coil functions as an operating coil. Under normal conditions, the contact of the relay is kept open. During a fault, the voltage drops, and the current rises. The torque due to the current coil overpowers the torque due to the voltage coil, and the relay closes its contact.

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Figure: Principle of Impedance Relay

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To close its contacts,

The contacts will close anytime the impedance the relay sees is less than a preset value given by This can be represented on an impedance graph X vs R

Figure: Operating Diagram of an Impedance Relay

This type of impedance relay is not directional. It will detect a fault in any direction. If it is used, it is used together with a directional relay that eliminates half of its characteristic.

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Figure: Operating Diagram of an Impedance Relay with a Directional Unit OFFSET IMPEDANCE RELAY

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Offset impedance relay is also known under names ADMITTANCE RELAY or MHO RELAY

Phasor Diagram

The torque of the watt element is

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construction Relay operates if

The torque caused by the voltage coil is where Kv is a constant of proportionality that depends on the relay construction

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where Kw is a constant of proportionality that depends on the relay

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The phase angle q depends on impedance Zs . Zs can be chosen so that q = 0. Also, both voltage coils are connected to the same voltage V. ( It follows that )

Similarly as for the impedance relay, this impedance can be represented by an X vs R graph. This time the circle is offset from the center.

Figure: Operating Diagram for an Offset Impedance Relay with Characteristic Angle equal to 0 If impedance Zs is chosen so that q 0, the circle shifts:

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Figure: Operating Diagram for an Offset Impedance Relay with Characteristic Angle Different from 0

For impedance relays detecting short circuits on transmission lines, impedance Z s is chosen so that q is the same as the impedance angle of the line. This relay will detect a fault in only one direction.

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RESISTANCE AND REACTANCE RELAYS

The torque of the watt element is

where Kw is a constant of proportionality that depends on the relay construction The torque caused by the current coil is

where Ki is a constant of proportionality that depends on the relay construction

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It follows that

Relay operates if

The phase angle q depends on impedance Zs . Zs can be chosen so that q = 0. Also, both current coils are connected to the same current I.

The operating characteristic of this relay is a straight line

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Figure: Operating Diagram for a Reactance Relay

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Zones of Protection

All distance relays are connected to the power system through instrument transformers. The relay monitors the impedance in secondary ohms. Secondary ohms are related to the primary ohms by the equation

where CTR is the current transformer ratio

PTR is the potential transformer ratio

In general, distance protection includes three steps of protection, with each step reaching a fixed preset distance and operating in a preset time.

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Figure: Operating Diagram for a Resistance Relay

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Zone 1 reaches 80 - 90% of the protected line. The tripping is instantaneous. Zone 2 extends beyond the protected line up to about 50% of the adjacent line. The tripping has a time delay, usually set to a value between 0.3 s to 0.5 s.

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Zone 3 covers the protected line, the adjacent line, and up to 25% of the line next to the adjacent line. Tripping is delayed between 0.6 s to 1.0 s.

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