Lab II, Spring 2014

Low-Speed Wind Tunnel

P. Akbari, Ph.D. Spring 2014, Columbia University

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Lab II, Spring 2014

APPLICATIONS OF AERODYNAMICS

Lab II, Spring 2014

Airflow around an airfoil will form two streamtubes over the airfoil and some under it. On top, as area in the stremtube decreases due to the surface curvature, airflow velocity (dynamic pressure) increases according to the continuity equation. Thus, static pressure decreases according to Bernolullis equation. When pressure on top is lower than pressure on bottom surface, lift is generated. Thus, lift is due to imbalance of pressure distribution over top and bottom surfaces of airfoil (or wing).

With lower pressure over upper surface and higher pressure over bottom surface, airfoil feels a net force in upward direction >> Lift

Lab II, Spring 2014 Pressure always acts normal to the surface, hence, arrows representing surface pressure are all locally perpendicular to the surface.

Most of lift is produced in first 2030% of wing (just downstream of leading edge) where the flow pressure reduces significantly

Schematic pressure distribution around the airfoil surface.

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Lab II, Spring 2014

Dimensionless Force Coefficients

1 L = V2 Scl 2 L L = cl 1 V2 S q S 2 cl = f1 ( , M , Re )

1 D = V2 Scd 2 D D cd = 1 V2 S q S 2 cd = f 2 ( , M , Re )

Lab II, Spring 2014

Pressure Coefficient
The pressure coefficient CP is an important quantity in Aerodynamics.
p p p p Cp = 1 q V2 2
The value of Cp can be measured by testing the airfoil in a wind tunnel.

By convention, plots of Cp for airfoils are usually shown with negative values above the abscissa.

Lab II, Spring 2014

Lab II, Spring 2014

Aerodynamic forces exerted by airflow comes from only two sources: 1. Pressure, p, distribution on surface Acts normal to surface 2. Shear stress, w, (friction) on surface Acts tangentially to surface

Pressure and shear are in units of force per unit area (N/m2) Net unbalance creates an aerodynamic force No matter how complex the flow field, and no matter how complex the shape of the body, the only way nature has of communicating an aerodynamic force to a solid object or surface is through the pressure and shear stress distributions that exist on the surface. The pressure and shear stress distributions are the two hands of nature that reach out and grab the body, exerting a force on the body the aerodynamic force. 8

Lab II, Spring 2014

AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

Mean Chamber Line: Set of points halfway between upper and lower surfaces Measured perpendicular to mean chamber line itself Leading Edge: Most forward point of mean chamber line Trailing Edge: Most reward point of mean chamber line Chord Line: Straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges Chord, c: Distance along the chord line from leading to trailing edge Chamber: Maximum distance between mean chamber line and chord line Measured perpendicular to chord line

Lab II, Spring 2014

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Lab II, Spring 2014

forces as shown in Figure 1.17.

Figure 1.16
Relative Wind: Direction of V We use subscript to indicate far upstream conditions. Angle of Attack, : Angle between relative wind (V) and chord line.

Figure 1.17
Intuition will tell you that lift, drag, and moment on a wing will change as the angle of attack (AOA) changes.
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Lab II, Spring 2014

Lift Coefficient

Lift on a airfoil or wing changes as (angle of attack) changes.

Lift (for now)

A symmetric airfoil generates zero lift at zero

Angle of Attack,

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Lab II, Spring 2014

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Lab II, Spring 2014

Laminar and Turbulent Flows

There are two basic types of viscous flow:

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Lab II, Spring 2014

It is experimentally observed that:

Thus:

Laminar shear stress is less than turbulent shear stress.

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Lab II, Spring 2014

Because the turbulent flow contains more kinetic energy near the surface, the flow is less inclined to separate.

Hence, a turbulent boundary layer has delayed flow field separation helping to recover the pressure in the wake as well as a smaller wake region on the back face of the body. 16

Lab II, Spring 2014

The total drag force is the sum of the friction drag and pressure drag.
The net staticpressure force acting on the front of the airfoil surface exceeds that acting on the rear surface.

D = D friction + D pressure
Total drag due to viscous effects Called Profile Drag

Drag due to skin friction

Drag due to Separation (form drag)

Less for laminar, more for turbulent

More for laminar, less for turbulent

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Lab II, Spring 2014

Drag and Angle of Attack

Increasing the angle of attack also contributes to earlier flow separation. This is due to enhancing the adverse pressure gradient on the top of the airfoil surface.

Severe flow separation due to an increase in angle of attack.

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Lab II, Spring 2014

Drag Coefficient and Angle of Attack

At higher angle of attacks, flow separation over the top surface of the airfoils begins to appear and pressure drag due to flow separation begins to increase. This is why CD increases with increasing angle of attack.
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Lab II, Spring 2014

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Lab II, Spring 2014

AOA = 2

AOA = 20

Small Lift & Drag Forces

Large Lift & Drag Forces

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