Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Light
Statement: Light travels in straight lines. This is known as rectilinear propagation. Evidence: The formation of shadows provides evidence that this is the case.
Object
Shadow
Reflection
Mirrors reflect light rays. We can use a ray box to investigate what happens to a ray when it reflects. NORMAL Line drawn at 90o to the mirror ANGLE OF INCIDENCE angle between normal and incident ray ANGLE OF REFLECTION angle between normal and reflected ray
LAWS OF REFLECTION: 1. Angle of incidence = angle of reflection 2. Normal, incident, and reflected rays are in the same plane Remember to label the direction of light with arrows.
Refraction
Light travels at different speeds in different MEDIA. This can cause it to change direction. When light enters an optically denser medium, it slows down and turns towards the normal. When light enters a less dense medium, it speeds up and turns away from the normal. When the incident ray is along the normal, it does not change direction but it does change speed. Glass, Perspex, and water are optically denser than air.
Snells law
The REFRACTIVE INDEX (n) is a measure of the optical density of a material. The refractive index of a vacuum or air is 1. The greater the value of n, the slower the light travels in the material. For light travelling from air into another material, the relationship between refractive index, angle of incidence and angle of reflection is:
Optical fibres
Optical fibres are fine strands of glass. The fibre is covered with cladding that is less optically dense than the fibre to ensure Total Internal Reflection (TIR) takes place. There is usually a thin protective coating around the cladding. Glass fibres can be used to transmit data using digital signals. Light entering the end of the fibre undergoes TIR.
No (or very little) energy is lost so as much light leaves the fibre as enters it. Optical fibres are also used in ENDOSCOPY. One bundle of fibres takes light inside the body to illuminate it. A second bundle carries the image out to the surgeon.
Images
In a real image, rays from the object pass through it; hence it can be projected onto a screen. In a virtual image, no rays from the object pass through it; hence it cannot be projected onto a screen.
Virtual no rays pass through it (so it can NOT be projected onto a screen) Same size as the object Laterally inverted right is left, but top is still top As far behind the mirror as the object is in front (and a line joining the object and image crosses the mirror at 90o)
Density is measured in kg/m3, mass is measured in kg, and Volume is measured in m3.
g is the symbol for gravitational field strength. On earth, g = 9.8 N/kg (9.81)
Pressure
y y y y
Pressure =
Pressure can be measured in N/m2 or Pascals. A force distributed over a large area creates lower pressure than the same force acting on a small surface area. If objects are said to be blunt, they really have a larger surface area than a sharper object with a smaller surface area.
In Physics, we usually assume that forces act at points. In real life, this never happens. Forces are always spread over areas. The force divided by the area is PRESSURE. The unit of pressure is N/m2 or Pascal. Pressure (N/m2) equals force (N) divided by area (m2 ). P=
A high pressure is applied when a force is concentrated on a small area. A lower pressure is applied when a force is spread out over a large area.
Stretching springs
When a force is applied to a (helical) spring, its length increases. For most materials, the change in length is PROPORTIONAL to the force. This means that:
y y
If you double the load, the extension is doubled The graph is a straight line through the origin
When the force is removed, the spring returns to its original length. This is ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR.
Eventually, the spring (or length of wire or rubber band) reaches its elastic limit and equal increases in force produce reducing increases in length. This is INELASTIC (PLASTIC) BEHAVIOUR. Up to the elastic limit: F = kx Where F = Force, x = extension (=current length - original length). k is the spring constant1 and equals the gradient of the F-x graph. This is Hookes Law for an elastic object [springs and wires]: Load is proportional to extension.
Brownian motion
Q: What causes pollen grains to move? A:
y y y y y y
Water is made up of particles (atoms and molecules) Water molecules are too small to see They are in RANDOM motion They collide with the pollen grains These are larger and visible This causes BROWNIAN MOTION
Structure of matter
There are three states of matter. These are SOLID, LIQUID, and GAS. The KINETIC THEORY helps us understand how solids, liquids, and gases behave. This states that matter is made up of tiny particles in constant motion {only at Absolute Zero will particles not be in motion}.
Changes of state
Solid to liquid melting Liquid to gas evaporation or boiling
Types of motion
VIBRATION / OSCILLATION Motion to and fro about a fixed position
This is essentially the stiffness of the spring. It is measured in N/m, i.e. how many Newtons of force it takes to extend the spring in question by a metre.
1
TRANSLATION motion between two distinct positions ROTATION CIRCULAR MOTION about a NOMINAL position.
Static Electricity
Electrical conductors allow electrons to move about freely within them. Metals are good conductors. Insulators do not allow electrons to move about freely. Plastics are insulators. Insulating materials can be charged by FRICTION. Positive means there are fewer electrons than positive charges. The material has LOST electrons. Neutral means there are equal numbers of electrons and positive charges (earth is neutral). Negative means there are more electrons than positive charges. The material has GAINED electrons. LIKE charges repel, ad UNLIKE charges attract. REMEMBER FOR THE TOPIC OF STATIC ELECTRICITY, ONLY ELECTRONS MOVE (in solids unlike liquids in electrolyte where positive and negative charge).
Toner (powdered ink) is attracted to charged areas on a drum This is then transferred to paper and heated
2) Electrostatic precipitators
y y
Ash receives negative charge (from negative wires) as it rises It is attracted to positive plates
Connected with a large neutral body such as the Earth to neutralise it.
per second. This experiment shows that an electric current (I) is the rate of flow of charges (Q). Hence, current can be defined as the rate of flow of charge. Current (I) =
Units
Current ampere remember 1A = 1000 mA Charge Coulombs Time seconds
Voltages around a series circuit add up to the battery voltage Voltage is the same across components in parallel
Speed is a SCALAR quantity because it only has magnitude. Velocity is a VECTOR quantity because it has magnitude and direction.
Acceleration
Acceleration is a vector quantity it has magnitude and direction. Deceleration (or retardation) is a negative acceleration. Avge acceleration =
V = FINAL VELOCITY U = INITIAL VELOCITY [Dont uses for speed because it actually represents displacement] Unit of acceleration is: m/s/s (not technically correct but ok in exam) OR m/s2 OR m/s-2.
Displacement-time graphs
y y y y
Straight line means constant velocity Slope (i.e. gradient) = velocity Curve means acceleration (or deceleration) Instantaneous velocity is the slope of the tangent at that point
Velocity-time graphs
y y y y
Straight line means constant acceleration Slope = acceleration Curve means acceleration is changing Area under curve/line = distance travelled
is in the opposite direction to the motion, it will decelerate. Why does a ball decelerate on the way up and accelerate on the way down? Because the resultant force (i.e. weight and some not very significant air resistance) is in the opposite (going up) / same (going down) direction to the motion. For a constant mass, (unbalanced) Force is proportional to acceleration. The gradient of a force-acceleration graph is equal to the mass. If the unbalanced force is constant, mass is inversely proportional to acceleration.
Kinetic Energy
The Kinetic Energy of an object depends on its mass (m) and on its velocity (v): KE = .m.v2
Worked Example
A pendulum of mass 0.1kg is released from a height of 0.1m above its lowest possible point. a) What is the reduction in gPE between release and its lowest position? gPE = mass x g x h = 0.1 x 10 x 0.1 = 0.1 Joules b) What is the maximum speed? KE is max when gPE is min KE = gPE KEmax is when reduction in gPE is greatest KEmax = 0.1 Joules Speed is max when KE is max KEmax = m v2 0.1 = 0.5 x 0.1 x v2 v = 1.4m/s c) What is the speed when the height is 0.05m below the high point? gPE = KE = 0.5 x 0.1 = 0.05 Joules = m v2 0.05 = 0.5 x 0.1 x v2 v = 1m/s
Unit of Power is the Watt (W), 1W = 1J/s [The equation can be written: P = full].
Efficiency
Efficiency = Or
Or
Efficiency has no units but can be expressed as a %. It must be less than 1 (or 100%).
MOMENTS
Definition: The moment of a force about a point depends on the force and the perpendicular distance from the force to that point.
Moment of a force (N.m) = force (N) x perpendicular distance to point (m) Principle of Moments: If an object is balanced (i.e. in equilibrium) Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments. This is the principle of moments.
Perpendicular distance
MOMENTS
Resistance
Resistance reduces the flow of charge in a circuit. The greater the Resistance, the less the current (for a particular voltage). Resistance in a metal wire is caused by collisions between moving electrons and stationary atoms. These collisions are the means of energy transfer (or power consumption). Without resistance, no energy is transferred. Longer wires have more resistance than shorter wires. Thicker wires have less resistance than thinner wires. The resistance increases if the temperature increases. The units of resistance are OHMS. We calculate resistance from the formula: R (;) =
V R I
V V Resistor
V Filament bulb
V Diode
Power
Power is the rate of energy transfer. Electrical Power is: Power = Voltage x Current P (W) = V (V) x I (A)
V
Household Electricity
A direct current is always in the same direction but an alternating current changes direction. The electricity in our homes is AC with a frequency of 50 Hz. What do we pay for in our electricity bills? The answer is ENERGY. Electricity companies measure energy in Kilowatt hours (kWh). Energy = Power x time Energy in Joules = Power in Watts x Time in seconds Energy in kW.h = Power in kW x Time in hours
1 UNIT of energy is 1kWh. It is the energy converted when a 1kW appliance operates for 1 hour. The cost of electricity is simply the number of units consumed x the cost per unit. E = V.I.t
Electrical Safety
Appliances are fitted with FUSES as safety devices. The size of the fuse (in Amps) should be just above the normal operating current. Why is this? Energy is supplied into our homes using a LIVE and a NEUTRAL wire. The live wire varies from +230 Volts to -230 Volts 50 times every second. The neutral is maintained constantly at zero Volts. Circuits are completed when the live and neutral wires are connected to appliances; current flows and energy is transferred. Why must the live and neutral wire be insulated from each other? A third wire is connected to earth. Usually, no current passes through this wire. Why do we have an earth wire which normally carries no current? FUSES and CIRCUIT BREAKERS prevent FIRE due to electrical faults. Circuits can overheat when too much current flows. A fuse is designed to blow before overheating of cables, etc. can occur. A circuit breaker uses a simple electromagnet to switch off the current when it is too high. It can be reset. The earth wire together with a fuse (or circuit breaker) prevents ELECTROCUTION. If a metal casing becomes live, a very high current flows to earth. This blows the fuse and the appliance stops working. DOUBLE INSULATED appliances dont need an earth wire because any metal parts are completely surrounded by an insulating polymer.
Heat Transfer
When heat energy is transferred, the temperature of an object may change. Heat energy can be transferred by CONDUCTION, CONVECTION, RADIATION or EVAPORATION.
Conduction
Heat causes atoms to vibrate and pass on their energy to neighbouring atoms. If there are free electrons, these can transfer the energy more rapidly by bypassing immediate neighbours. Why are metals good conductors and how are they different from insulators?
Convection
When a FLUID is heated, it expands, becomes less DENSE and rises. Colder, denser fluid sinks to take its place. The process continues as convection currents are established. Why doesnt convection happen in solids?
Radiation
All objects radiate heat energy (even very cold ones!) but the power radiated depends on the temperature. Radiated heat travels as electromagnetic waves (just like light) it travels at the speed of light through a vacuum and can be reflected and focussed. Dull, black surfaces are good emitters and absorbers of heat. Shiny, white surfaces are poor emitters and absorbers. What do the following facts tell us about heat radiation? A) There is life on Earth B) Thermal imaging cameras can be used in the Arctic or the Sahara Describe experiments to show that: A) Heat can be reflected and focussed B) A white surface emits less heat than a black one
Waves
All wave motion involves OSCILLATION. Waves transfer energy but without any flow of material. There are two types of waves: TRANSVERSE waves have oscillations perpendicular to the motion of the wave (e.g. water [surface], light). LONGITUDINAL waves have oscillations in the direction of motion of the wave (e.g. sound).
Describing waves
WAVELENGTH is the distance between any point on a wave and its equivalent point on the next wave. AMPLITUDE is the maximum distance that a point moves from its resting position when a wave passes. FREQUENCY is the number of waves passing any point each second. It is measured in Hertz (Hz). It is also the number of complete oscillations per second by a particle in the wave. The amplitude depends on the energy of the wave. The PERIOD of a wave (T) is the time for one complete wave to pass measured in seconds. It is also the time for one complete oscillation (T = ; f = )
Sound
Sound travels as longitudinal waves through a medium it cannot travel in a vacuum. Echoes are caused by the reflection of sound. Sounds travel faster in solids than in liquids or gases because the particles are closer together. Sound can be reflected, refracted and diffracted [not on syllabus] (just like any other wave) and it obeys the wave equation. The frequency range for human hearing is 20 Hz 20 000 Hz. How could you measure the speed of sound? By measuring the time taken for a sound to travel a known distance, the speed can be calculated (speed = ). This can be applied to echoes (reflections of sound).
Electr
etic waves Dangers
Electromagnetic Waves carry energy and cause heating when absorbed. They can a lso be ionising and this can damage living tissue and cause cancer in the case of Ultraviolet, x -rays and gamma rays (which are very penetrating). Infra red and microwaves are more li ely to cause burns when absorbed. Radio waves carry very small amounts of energy and are relatively safe. Discuss/explain the differences between the harm caused by: a) UV gamma b) Ir microwaves
Visible: Frequency (Hz): 3.9x1014 - 7.9x1014 Wavelength (m): 3.8x10-7 - 7.6x10-7 Scale size: Bacteria Uses: y Seeing y Optical fibre communication Dangers: y Excessive amounts can damage the retina
Ultraviolet waves: Frequency (Hz): 7.9x1014 - 3.4x1016 Wavelength (m): 8x10-9 - 3.8x10-7 Scale Size: Viruses Uses: y Fluorescent lamp and secur ity coding, where surfaces coated with special paint absorb UV and emit LIGHT Dangers: y Passes through skin to the TISSUES below. Darker skin allows less penetration and provides more protection y HIGH DOES can KILL NORMAL CELLS and LOW DOSES can cause CANCER
X-rays: Frequency (Hz): 3.4x1016 - x1019 Wavelength (m): 6x10-12 - 8x10-9 Scale size: Atoms Uses: y Produce shadow pictures of BONES and METALS, materials X-rays do not easily pass through Dangers: y Pass through SOFT TISSUES, although SOME is ABSORBED
Gamma rays: Frequency (Hz): > x1019 Wavelength (m): < 6x10-12 Scale size: Nuclei Uses: y Killing cancer cells y Killing bact eria on food and surgical instruments Dangers: y Pass through SOFT TISSUES, although SOME is ABSORBED
P=
F P A S
Units: or Pascals
P=
A S
= =
h S
Density of fluid = d (d = )
= =
A S
P=dxhxg
If the atoms are [totally] stationary, this is equivalent to Ek = 0, and a temperature of 0K, or -273oC is reached. There is a range of kinetic energies in the atoms of a liquid. During evaporation, some of the fastest molecules leave the surface of the liquid. At the boiling point, all of the particles are effectively evaporating, but at the same temperature.
Gas Pressure
The atoms in a gas have a range of speeds and kinetic energies. All of the atoms are moving in random directions. When they hit each other and the walls of the container, they will exert a force, and change direction. The forces due to the individual atoms will be spread over an area, and since P = , the atoms of the gas will exert a pressure. The pressure due to a gas is used in both external and internal combustion engines. The energy of the moving atoms is used to drive a piston which in turn can be used to turn the wheels of a steam engine, car, etc. There are three macroscopic properties for a gas pressure, volume, and temperature. In this experiment, the pressure and temperature variations are investigated, while the volume is kept constant. The graph is extrapolated to find the temperature at which the pressure would be zero, i.e. the molecules have stopped moving. Kelvin moved the pressure axis to -273oC, and redefined this as 0 Kelvin. The graph is now a straight line passing through the origin, and therefore: P
absolute
temp
= constant Bourdon Pressure Gauge to measure pressure of air Fixed mass of dry air at constant temperature
P / x105 Pa
2.5 2.3 2.1 2.0 1.85 1.68 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.0
V / cm3
16 17 19 20.5 22 25 28 30 33 42
/ x10-2 6.3 5.9 5.3 4.9 4.5 4.0 3.6 3.3 3.0 2.4
PxV
40.0 39.1 39.9 41.0 40.7 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.9 42.0
The results show that within experimental error, P x V = constant, and the graph shows that pressure w (This can also be stated pressure inversely proportional to volume) This is Boyles Law.
y y y y
@P = constant x
(0,0)
y=m
y y y y y y
x+c
= constant
= constant
= constant
number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Some of the isotopes of a given element will be unstable. To become more stable, they emit radioactive radiation 4 these include , , and radiation. is a helium nucleus, 2 . is an electron emitted 1 1 0 when a neutron turns into a proton and an electron. 0 1 -1
He n p+e
Gamma radiation is a very high frequency electromagnetic wave. The emission of radioactive radiation always takes place in an attempt to improve the stability of the remaining nucleus.
Background Radiation
This is a totally random process and is present everywhere and comes from all directions. Some of the sources of background radiation are building materials (especially granite), cosmic radiation (from the Big Bang), the Sun, etc. Background radiation is greater in mountainous areas because of all the granite rocks. In radioactive experiments, the background count in Becquerels (Bq) should always be subtracted from the actual count to reduce the corrected count.
Half-life
The half-life of a radioactive sample is the time taken for half of the radioactive nuclei to decay. This decay is totally random and the initial number of radioactive nuclei is immaterial. Its value can vary for different isotopes between fractions of a second and millions of years. The curve is called an exponential decay curve.
beam of particles
U
Nuclear Energy
Natural radioactive decay energy, but at a slow rate. In a nuclear reactor, the rat e of decay is accelerated by bombarding nuclei with other particles, typically neutrons which are not charged. E.g.: 23 92
U +1 0n
236 92
144 90 1 B a Kr + energy 6 + 36 + 2 n 0 very unstable neutrons available for other fission reactions
y y y
must be above a certain cr itical mass else too many neutrons escape
without causing further fission y 238 NB: natural uranium consists mainly of two isotopes, (less than 1%)
23
Nuclear Reactor
NUCLEAR FUEL ELEMENTS Uranium dioxide, with natural uranium enr iched with extra uranium-23 . GR APHITE CORE Slow neutrons are more effective at causing fission. Graphite blocks are used to slow down the neutrons the graphit e acts as a MODERATOR. -steel CONTROL RODS Rate of fission process controlled by raising or lowering boron control rods. Boron absorbs neutrons. When the rods are raised, more neutrons are available to cause fission and core temperature r ises. The reactor can be shut down b y keeping the rods lowered.
COOLANT Heat from the fission reaction is carried away by carbon dioxide at high pressure. This heat is used to make steam to drive turbines and hence dynamos to generate electricity. WASTE PRODUCTS Spent fuel rods are removed from the core and sent to a reprocessing plant. Here, unused uranium is separated from the radioactive waste products together with small quantities of Plutonium-239. This is used as the fuel in fast breeder reactors and in the production of nuclear weapons it is the most hazardous substance known.
Paperclips Strength of electromagnet depends on: 1. Current 2. Number of turns / length 3. Nature of core (best with soft iron)
partially magnetised
Loudspeakers
An electric current is fed into the coil. There is an interaction between this electromagnetic field and the permanent magnetic field due to the pole pieces. Using Flemings left hand rule, the coil will move in and out as shown on the diagram. Music is made up of of a ser ies of alternating patterns, and these cause the cone to move backwards and forwards. This movement causes the surrounding air molecules to move backwards and forwards, so that a sound wave is produced.
CURRENT
Electromagnetism
Maxwell, Faraday, Fleming.
carbon brushes
armature
Electromagnetic induction
When there is relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field, a voltage (or electromotive force, or emf) is induced and a current will flow. The size of the induced emf and current depends on: 1. The rate at which the magnetic field is cut 2. The strength of the magnetic field 3. The length of wire affected by the field Michael Faraday discovered this around 1830.
When the magnet is brought towards the coil, the induced current flows in such a direction that it opposes the motion (i.e. a north pole is induced in the coil). The galvanometer deflects to the right. When the magnet is withdrawn from the coil, a south pole is induced, and the galvanometer deflects to the left. The induced current flows in such a direction as to oppose the motion of the magnet. This is called Lenzs Law, and it ensures that the Principle of Conservation of Energy is obeyed. Flemings Right Hand Rule can be used to predict the direction of the current.
Electromagnetic braking
strong magnet
When the magnet is moving the aluminium tube is a conductor in a moving magnetic field. As a result, an emf and current are induced in the aluminium tube. These are in a direction to oppose the motion. The resultant force (weight-induced force) is much smaller than the weight alone, and so the magnet falls at a slow, steady speed. This type of electromagnetic braking has various uses, e.g. electric trains, some theme park rides, and protection systems in lifts. Another use is in speedometers.
AC Generator
This is very similar to the motor, except that it does not involve a battery. The coil is turned by some external force, e.g. steam, in a gas-fired power station, the turning blades of a windmill, etc. When the coil is in the position shown, it is cutting the magnetic field at rightangles, and so the maximum emf and current are induced. When the coil has moved through 90o, it is then moving parallel to the magnetic field, i.e. no longer cutting the field, and the induced emf and current will be zero. It can be shown that the emf and current are sinusoidal or cosinusoidal [sin/cos waves].
brushes N
- V+
S slip rings U
Transformer theory
Current and voltage are only induced in the secondary coil when the magnetic field is changing in the soft iron core. This requires AC in the primary coil. It can be shown that:
or
(=