Ch.

1-4 Chemistry

8/28/2012 7:43:00 AM

Scientific Method Hypothesisa tentative explanation or prediction based on experimental observations After formulating hypothesis, scientists conduct experiments to confirm or invalidate. Quantitative and qualitative information is collected. o Quantitativeis numerical data, such as the temperature at which chemical substance melts or its mass. o Qualitativeconsists of nonnumeric observations, such as the color of a substance or its physical appearance. After numerous experiments by many scientists over an extended period of time a hypothesis may become a lawa concise verbal or mathematical statement of a behavior or a relation that seems always to be the same under the same conditions. o We base much of what we do in science on laws b/c they help us predict what may occur under a new set of circumstances. Once enough reproducible experiments have been conducted and experimental results have been generalized as a law or general rule, it may be possible to conceive a theory to explain the observation. A theory is a well-tested, unifying principle that explains a body of facts and the laws based on them. It is capable of suggesting new hypotheses that can be tested experimentally. o A theory is based on carefully determined and reproducible evidence. Experimental results should be reproducible. The results should be reported in the scientific literature in sufficient detail that they can be used or reproduced by others. Conclusions should be reasonable and unbiased Credit should be given where it is due.

Green chemistry?!?! Matterphysical material that has mass and occupies space. An easily observed property of matter is its state, whether a substance is a solid, liquid, or gas.

Solidsrigid shape and fixed volume Liquidsfixed volume, but is fluid, takes on shape of its container and has no def shape of its own. Gasesfluid as well, but volume is determined by size of container. Varies by changes in temp/pressure Kinetic molecular theory of matterhelps us interpret the properties of solids, liquids, and gases. All matter consists of tiny particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) that are in constant motion. In solids, particles are packed closely together, usually in a regular array. Particles vibrate back and forth, but seldom do they squeeze past their neighbor. In liquids, particles are arranged randomly rather than in regular patterns found in solids. Liquids/gases are fluid b/c the particles are not confined to specific locations and can move past one another. Under normal conditions, the particles in gas are far apart. Molecules move extremely fast and arent constrained by neighbors. Collide with one another and with walls of container. **The higher the temperature, the faster the particles move** The energy of motion of the particles, their KE, acts to overcome the forces of attraction b/w particles. Increasing temperature corresponds to faster and faster motions of atoms and molecules. Macroscopicobserved by unaided human senses. Determined using samples of matter large enough to be seen, measured, and handled. Submicroscopic or particulateworld of atoms and molecules . Atoms, molecules, and ions cannot be seen in the same way that one views the macroscopic world, but they are no less real. Pure substancehas a set of unique properties. Cannot be separated into 2 or more diff species by any physical technique at ordinary temperatures. If it could be separated, it would be classified as a mixture. Melting point and boiling point Mixtureconsists of two or more pure substances that can be separated by physical techniques.

Heterogenous mixturesand on the beach (solids & liquids); unseen texture of the material can be detected. Homogenous mixtureuniform composition throughout. Two or more substances in the same phase. Often called solutions. Ex: air, soft drink Substances like hydrogen and oxygen that are composed of only one type of atom are classified as elements. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristic chemical properties of that element. Chemical compoundpure substance like sugar, salt, or H2O, is composed of two or more different elements held together by chemical bonds. A compound has distinctly different characteristics from its parent elements, and it has a definite percentage composition (by mass) of its combining elements. Some compounds are composed of ions, which are electrically charged atoms or groups of atoms. Other compoundssuch as water and sugarconsist of molecules, the smallest discrete units that retain the composition and chemical characteristics of the compound. Physical propertiescan be observed and measured without changing the composition of a substance. Ex: color, state of matter, melting/boiling point, density, solubility, etc. Densityratio of the mass of an object to its volume. Temperatureoften affects the numerical values of its properties. Extensive properties-depend on the amount of substance present. Intensive propertiesdo not depend on the amount. Ex: mass/volume of an object is extensive. Useful in identifying an object. Physical changes are changes in physical properties. The identity of a substance is preserved even though it may have changed its physical state or the size/shape of its pieces. The substance present before and after the change are the same. Ex: ice melting, molecules present both before and after the change are H2O molecules.

Chemical changeone or more substances (reactants) are transformed into one or more different substances (products). Ex: H & O molecules create H2O. Energy Basics Classified as kinetic or potential. o Kineticassociated with motion of atoms, molecules, or ions at the submicroscopic level (thermal energy). All matter has thermal energy. Motion of macrosopic objects such as a moving tennis ball (mechanical energy) Movement of electrons in a conductor (electrical energy) Compression and expansion of the spaces b/w molecules in the transmission of sound (acoustic) o Potential Results from objects position Energy possessed by a ball held above the floor and by water at the top of a water wheel (gravitational energy) Energy stored in an extended spring Energy stored in fuels (chemical) Energy associated with the separation of 2 electrical charges (electrostatic energy) o Potential energy and kinetic can be interconverted. Law of Conservation of Energyenergy can neither be created nor destroyed. The total energy of the universe is constant. When expressing energy quantities, most use the joule (J), the SI unit. The joule is related to the units used for mechanical energy: 1 J = 1 kg * m2/s2 Precision of a measurement indicates how well several determinations of the same quantity agree. Accuracy is the agreement of a measurement with the accepted value of the quantity.

Standard deviation of a series of measurements is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the deviations for each measurement from the average, divided by one less than the number of measurements. Significant figures are the digits in a measured quantity that were observed with the measuring device. Rules: When adding/subtracting, the # of decimal places in the answer is equal to the number of decimal places in the number with the fewest digits after the decimal. In multiplication or division, the number of sig figs in the answer is determined by the quantity with the fewest sig figs When a number is rounded off, the last digits to be retained is increased by one only if the following digit is 5 or greater

Atomic structure All atoms of a given element have the same number of protons in the nucleus. Atomic number = protons We use relative masses with the standard today being Carbon. A carbon atom has 6 protons and 6 neutrons and is assigned a value of 12. Masses of fundamental atomic particles are often expressed in atomic mass units. One AMU, is 1/12the the mass of an atom of carbon with 6 p and 6 n. This carbon atom has a mass of exactly 12. Sum of the number of protons and neutrons for an atom is called its mass number = protons + electrons Atoms with the same atomic number but diff mass numbers are called isotopes. Different numbers of neutrons. % abundance - # of atoms of a given isotope X100% total atoms of all isotopes of that element The masses of isotopes and their abundances are determined experimentally using a mass spectrometer. A gaseous sample of an element is introduced into the evacuated chamber of the

spectrometer, and the atoms or molecules of the sample are converted to positively charged particles called ions. The atomic weight of an element is always closer to the mass of the most abundant isotope or isotopes.

Atomic weight = (% abundance isotope 1/100) (mass of isotope 1) + (same thing) The SI Base Units Mass-Kg Length-meter Timesecond TemperatureKelvin Amount of substancemole Electric currentampere Luminous intensitycandela 273.15K=0C The Milliliter and cubic centimeter are interchangeable 125mL=125Cm3 Elements are arranged so that those w/similar chemical and physical properties lie in vertical columns called groups or families. Group 1Aalkali metals Group 2Aalkaline earth metals Group 3Ametals; Al(most abundant) B(metalloid) Group 4Anonmetals included with metalloids Group 5Ahas Nitrogen Group 6Acontains Oxygen Calcogens Group 7AFl, Cl, Br, I, are nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules; most reactive of all elements and combine with alkali metals to form salts like NaCl; known as halogens Group 8Agases; He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Ra, least reactive; noble gases Groups 1B-8B are transition elements

 Lanthanides/actinides Allotropesone aspect of chemistry of the nonmetals is that a particular element can often exist in several different and distinct forms Ex: Carbon; Graphite, Diamond, Buckyballsbuckministerfullerenes Ethanol Molecular FormulaC2H6O; describes the composition Condensed FormulaCH3CH2OHindicates how certain atoms are grouped together Structural Formulagives higher level of structural detail, showing how atoms are attached within a molecule Molecular model Ball-and-stick model Space-filling modelsoffer a better rep of relative sizes of atoms and their proximity to each other when in a molecule. Disadvantage: atoms can often be hidden from view Molecular Compoundsconsist of discrete molecules at the particulate level Ionic Compoundsconstitute another major class of compounds b/c they consist of ions, atoms, or groups of atoms that bear a positive or negative electric charge

Cationpositively charged ion; if an atom loses an electron Anionnegatively charged ion; if an atom gains one or more electrons Monatomic Ions Metals typically lose electrons to form monatomic cations, and nonmetals typically gain electrons to form monatomic anions. Metals from Groups 1A-3A form + ions having a charge equal to the group number of the metal. Transition metals also form cations. Nonmetals often form ions having a negative charge equal to the group number of the element minus 8.

For group 1A and 2A metals and aluminum, the number of electrons remaining on the cation is the same as the number of electrons in an atom of the noble gas that precedes it in the periodic table. Polyatomic Ions Made up of two or more atoms, and the collection has an electric charge. The symbol of the cation is given first, followed by the anion symbol Common Polyatomic Ions

Naming Positive Ions (cations)

For a monatomic positive ion (a metal cation) the name is that of the metal plus the word cation Some cases occur, especially in the transition series, in which a metal can form more than one type of positive ion. In these cases the charge of the ion is indicated by a Roman numeral in parentheses immediately following the ions name. o Ex: Co2+ --cobalt (II) cation and Co3+ --cobalt (III) cation

Naming Negative Ions(anions) A monatomic negative ion is named by adding ide to the stem of the name of the nonmetal element from which the ion is derived. The anions of the Group 7A elements, the halogens, are known as the fluoride, chloride, bromide, and iodide ions and as a group are called halide ions. Polyatomic negative ions are common, esp those containing oxygen (called oxoanions). o The oxoanion having the greater number of oxygen atoms is given the suffix ate, and the oxoanion having the smaller number of oxygen atoms has the suffix ite. o ClO4-perchlorate ion o ClO3-chlorate ion o ClO2-chlorite ion o ClO-hypochlorite ion When a particle having a negative electric charge is brought near another particle having a positive electric charge, there is a force of attraction b/w them. o There is a repulsive force when two particles with the same chargeboth positive or both negativeare brought together. These forces are called electrostatic forces and the force of attraction (or repulsion) b/w ions is given by Coulombs law. o As the ion charges (n+ and n-) increase. Thus, the attraction b/w ions having charges of 2+ and 2- is greater than that b/w ions having 1+ and 1= charges o As the distance b/w the ions becomes smaller

o Ionic solid consists of millions upon millions of ions arranged in an extended 3-dimensional network called a crystal lattice. o Ions such as Li+ and F- are held together by an electrostatic force. Here a lithium ion is attracted to a fluoride ion, and the distance b/w the nuclei of the two ions is d. o Forces of attraction b/w ions of opposite charge increase w/increasing ion charge and decrease with increasing distance (d). Ion charge increases, force of attraction increases; distance increases, force of attraction decreases o Ionic compounds have characteristic properties that can be understood in terms of the charges of the ions and their arrangement in the lattice b/c each ion is surrounded by oppositely charged nearest neighbors, it is held tightly in its allotted location. Most ionic compounds are hard solids. That is, the solids are not pliable or soft. The reason for this characteristic is again related to the lattice of ions. The nearest neighbors of a cation in a lattice are anions and the force of attraction makes the lattice rigid. o A mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities. o 1 mole = 6.0221415 x 10^23Avogadros number o The mass in grams of one mole of any element (6.0221415 x 10^23) is the molar mass of that element. An elements molar mass is the amount in grams numerically equal to its atomic weight. It is essential to be able to convert moles to mass and from mass to moles The formula of a compound tells you the type of atoms or ions in the compound and the relative number of each. Ex: One molecule of methane (CH4) is made of one atom of C and four atoms of H.

Empirical Formula Molecular formula Law of Conservation of Mattermatter can neither be created nor destroyed Ionic compounds are generally solid whereas molecular compounds can range from gases to liquids to solids at ordinary temps. Binary compounds of nonmetals can be named in a systematic way. Hydrogen forms binary compounds with all of the nonmetals except the noble gases. o Ex: HFHydrogen fluoride o HClhydrogen chloride o H2SHydrogen sulfide NF3nitrogen trifluoride NOnitrogen monoxide NO2nitrogen dioxide Hydrocarbons o CH4methane o C2H6ethane o C3H8propane

Chemical analysis deals with the determination of formulas and structures Molecular composition determined in 3 ways o The number of atoms of each type per molecule or per formula unitby giving formula of the compound o The mass of each element per mole of compound o The mass of each element in the compound relative to the total mass of the compoundpercent mass Mass spectrometryif a compound can be turned into a vapor, the vapor can be passed through an electron beam in a mass spectrometer where high energy electrons collide w/the gas phase molecules. These high-energy

collisions cause the molecule to lose electrons and turn the molecules into positive ions. These ions usually break apart or fragment into smaller pieces. A mass spectrometer detects and records the masses of the diff particles. Compounds in which molecules of water are associated with the ions of the compound are called hydrated compounds. Ex: copper (II) chloride is always written w/2 waters, which indicates that 2 mol of water are associated w/every mole of CuCl2name of the compound is copper chloride dihydrate The formula of a hydrated compound can be determined by heating a weighed sample enough to cause the compound to release its water of hydration. Knowing the mass of the hydrated compound before heating and the mass of the anhydrous compound after heating, we can determine the mass of H2O in the original sample When a substance is w/o water it is called anhydrous Chapter 3: Chemical Reactions Atoms are arranged differently after a reaction takes place, but the same amount must appear in the products as there was in the reaction The relationship b/w the quantities of chemical reactants and products is called stoichiometry, and the coefficients in a balanced eqn are the stoichiometric coefficients. A chemical equilibrium occurs when no further macroscopic change is observed; the amounts of N, H, and NH3 in the container stop changing but the forward and reverse rxns continue. The rxn vessel will contain all three substances: N, H, and NH3. B/c both the forward and reverse processes are still occurring (but at equal rates), we refer to this state as a dynamic equilibrium. Dynamic equilibrium is denoted by a double arrow symbol

Chemical rxns always proceed spontaneously toward equilibrium. A solution is a homogenous mixture of 2 or more substancesone substance is generally considered the solvent, the medium in which the another substancethe soluteis dissolved. Aqueous solutionswater is the solvent in these types Dissolving an ionic solid requires separating each ion from the oppositely charged ions that surround it in the solid state. Water is good at dissolving ionic compounds b/c each H2O molecules has a positively charged end and a negatively charged end. When an ionic compound dissolves in water, each negative ion becomes surrounded by H2O molecules w/the + ends of water molecules pointing toward it, and each + ion becomes surrounded by the ends of several H2O molecules. o The water-encased ions produced by dissolving an ionic compound are free to move about in SLN.-->random movement Exception: if 2 electrodes are placed in the solution and connected to a battery, ion movement is no longer random. + cations move through the sln to the negative electrode and negative anions move to the + electrode. Compounds whose aqueous SLNs conduct electricity are called electrolytes. o All ionic compounds that are soluble in water electrolytes. Sodium chloride yields Na+ and Cl- in a solution in a 1:1 ratio. The ionic compound barium chloride is also a strong electrolyte, and yields 2 chloride ions for each barium ion. Compounds whose aqueous SLNs do not conduct electricity are called non-electrolytes. o The solute particles present in these aq slns are molecules, not ions.

o Most molecular compounds that dissolve in water are nonelectrolytes Some molecular compounds are weak electrolytes. When these compounds dissolve in water only a small fraction of the molecules forms ions; the majority remains intact. --place solubility rules heree! Precipitation Rxns Double replacement b/c the ions of the reactants change partners Produces a water-insoluble solid product, known as a precipitate The reactants are generally water-soluble ionic compounds o Ex: silver nitrate and potassium chloride yield insoluble silver chloride and soluble potassium nitrate.

Net Ionic Eqns Showing the soluble ionic compounds present in sln as dissociated ions. Using silver nitrate and potassium chloride as an example, a complete ionic eqn would show the ions of the compounds and also show the insoluble silver chloride as well. We can simplify the eqn by writing Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl (s) o This net ionic eqn leaves out the spectator ions o (K+ and NO3-) b/c they appear on both the reactant and product sides, and do not participate in the net rxn. o Theres always a charge balance as well as a mass balance in a balanced chem eqn.

Rules for writing Net Ionic Eqns: Commonly written for chem. Rxns in aqueous sln b/c they describe the actual chem. Species involved in a rxn. We must know which compound exist as ions in sln 1) strong acids, strong bases, and soluble salts exist as ions in sln. Ex: HCl and HNO3, NaOH, NaCl and CuCl2

2) all other species should be represented by their complete formulas. Weak acids such as acetic acid (CH3CO2H) exist in aq slns primarily as molecules. **Insoluble salts such as CaCO3(s) or insoluble bases such as Mg(OH)2 shouldnt be written in ionic form, even though theyre ionic compounds.** --write a complete balanced eqn --then rewrite the whole eqn, writing all the strong acids, strong bases, and soluble salts as ions. --some ions may remain unchanged in the rxn(the ions that appear in the eqn both as reactants and products). These spectator ions are not part of the chem. That is going on and you can cancel them from each side of the eqn Acids and Bases two important classes of compounds Arrhenius definition: An acid is a substance that, when dissolved in water, increases the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+, in solution A base is a substance, that when dissolved in water, increases the concentration of hydroxide ions, OH-, in the solution. The rxn of an acid and a base produces a salt and water. b/c the characteristic properties of an acid are lost when a base is added, and vice versa, acid-base rxns were logically described as resulting from the combination of H+ and OH- to form water. o HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O Acids are strong based on how much they ionize in water. Water soluble compounds that contain hydroxide ions, such as sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are strong electrolytes and strong bases Bronsted Lowry definition An acid is a proton donor A base is a proton acceptor An acid base rxn involves the transfer of a proton from an acid to a base to form a new base and a new acid. The rxn is written as an

equilibrium rxn and the equilibrium favors the weaker acid and base. Some species are defined as amphiprotic, they can function either as acids or as bases depending on the rxn. Reaction of Acids and Bases: Acids and bases in aq. sln usually react to produce a salt and water. o The word salt has come into the language of chem. To describe any ionic compound whose cation comes from a base and anion comes from an acid o Hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide are strong electrolytes, so their net ionic eqn looks like H3O+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- 2H2O + Na+ + Cl b/c na/cl appear on both sides of the eqn, the net ionic eqn is H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) 2H2O(l) This is ALWAYS the net ionic eqn when a strong acid reacts w/a strong base. o Rxns b/w strong acids and strong bases are called neutralization rxns b/c, on completion of the rxn, the sln is neutral if exactly the same amounts (# of moles) of the acid and base are mixed; that is, it is neither acidic nor basic Oxides of Nonmetals and Metals Oxides of nonmetals, such as carbon dioxide and sulfur trioxide have no H atoms but react w/water to produce H3O+ ions. o Oxides like CO2 that can react w/water to produce H3O+ ions are known as acidic oxides. o Oxides of metals are called basic oxides b/c they give basic solutions if they dissolve appreciably in water. Ex: CaO (s) + H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (s)

Gas-Forming Rxns All metal carbonates react w/acids to produce carbonic acid (H2CO3), which in turn decomposes rapidly to CO2 and H2O o Ex: CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2CO3 H2CO3 H2O + CO2 Overall rxn: CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Oxidation-Reduction Rxns A rxn between iron (III) oxide with carbon monoxide gives Iron and carbon dioxide. Fe2O3 loses oxygen and is reduced; CO is the reducing agent. It gains oxygen and is oxidized. In this rxn, CO is the agent that brings about the reduction of iron ore to iron metal, so carbon monoxide is called the reducing agent. o The carbon monoxide (CO) is therefore oxidized by the addition of oxygen to give carbon dioxide. Any process in which oxygen is added to another substance is an oxidation. When a substance accepts electrons, it is said to be reduced b/c there is a reduction in the numerical value of the charge on an atom of the substance. Ex: Cu is the reducing agent in this example b/c Cu metal supplies e- and causes Ag+ to be reduced. [INSERT IMAGE HERE] When a substance loses electrons, the numerical value of the charge on an atom of the substance increases. The substance is

said to have been oxidized. Ag+ is the oxidizing agent in the above example. **In every oxidation-reduction rxn, one reactant is reduced (and therefore is the oxidizing agent) and one reactant is oxidized (and therefore is the reducing agent). One reactant is oxidized (and therefore is the reducing agent) To spot oxidation-reduction rxns: Look at the oxidation number of an atom in a molecule or ion; it is defined as the charge an atom has, or appears to have, as determined by the following rules: 1. each atom in a pure element has an oxidation number of zero. The oxidation number of Cu in metallic copper is 0, and it is 0 for each atom in I2 and S8. 2. for monatomic ions, the oxidation number is equal to the charge on the ion. You know the Mg forms ions with a 2+ charge; the oxidation number of Mg in this ion is therefore +2.

3. When combined w/another element, fluorine always has an oxidation number of -1. 4. the oxidation number of O is 2 in most compounds. Exception: when oxygen is combined with fluorine (O takes on pos oxidation #) in compounds called peroxides (such as Na2O2) and superoxides (such as KO2) in which oxygen has an oxidation number of 1 and 1/2 5. Cl, Br, and I have oxidation numbers of 1 in compounds, except when combined with oxygen and fluorine. This means that Cl has an oxidation number of 1 in NaCl (in which Nas oxidation number is +1, as predicted by the fact that it is an element of group 1A). In the ion ClO-, however, the Cl atom has an oxidation number of +1 (and O has an oxidation number of 2) 6. The oxidation number of H is +1 in most compounds. Exception when H forms binary compound w/a metal. In such cases, the metal forms positive ion and H becomes a hydride ion, H-. Thus, in CaH2 the oxidation number of Ca is +2 and that of H is 1. 7. The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers for the atoms in a neutral compound must be zero; in a polyatomic ion, the sum must be equal to the ion charge. Ex, in HClO4, the H atom is assigned +1 and each O atom is assigned 2. This means Cl atom is +7.

8/28/2012 7:43:00 AM

8/28/2012 7:43:00 AM