FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY OWERRI P.M.

B 1526
A TERM PAPER ON MODEL RECOVERY EQUATION COURSE CODE: CHM 607 COURSE TITLE: POLLUTION RECOVERY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SURFACE WATER BY

ODOEMENAM CHINONSO O.
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
SUBMITTED TO DR. J.I. ALINOR

FEB. 2013

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF M.SC IN ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY.

MODEL RECOVERY EQUATION

INRODUCTION A model recovery equation is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language. A model may help to explain a system and to study the effects of different components, and to make predictions about behavior. It can also be seen as a set of mathematical expressions defining the physical, chemical and biological processes that are assumed to take place in a water body. In many cases, the quality of a scientific field depends on how well the mathematical models developed on the theoretical side agree with results of repeatable experiments. Lack of agreement between theoretical mathematical models and experimental measurements often leads to important advances as better theories are developed. Stream sanitation attains ever increasing importance as a countrys population grows and as industrial and agricultural operations expand to improve nations economies. The ability of a stream to recover from pollution loads under natural forces determines not only the degree of treatment required for the wastes it receives but also the permissible contamination reaching it from all sources. A quantitative knowledge of the natural assimilative capacity of streams is therefore essential to define the extent to which it can be used by man as a sink for wastes. At the present time no definite answer can be given to the question of how long a time period is required for a river in a tropical country to recover from a sudden pollutional load imposed on it. This knowledge would be of great value in determining location sites for new Industries and for waste water treatment plants, in regulating properly the volume of waste waters which could be safely discharged into receiving streams and in establishing guidelines for adequate legislation and pollution of the streams. It would thus contribute to a better utilization of the available water resources. SOURCES OF STREAM POLLUTION. Sources of stream pollution are normally classified as point or nonpoint sources. A point source (PS) discharges effluent, such as wastewater from sewage treatment and industrial plants. Simply put, a point source is usually easily identified as end of the pipe pollution: it emanates from a concentrated source or sources. In addition to organic pollution received from the effluents of sewage treatment plants, other sources of organic pollution include runoffs and dissolution of minerals throughout an area that are not from one or more concentrated sources. Non concentrated sources are known as nonpoint sources (NPSs). NPS pollution, unlike pollution from industrial and sewage treatment plants, comes from many diffuse sources. Rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the ground carries NPS

pollution. As the runoff moves, it picks up and carries away natural and man-made pollutants, finally depositing them into streams, lakes, wetlands, rivers, coastal waters, and even our underground sources of drinking water. These pollutants include: Excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides from agricultural lands and residential areas. Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production Sediment from improperly managed construction sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding stream Banks. Salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage from abandoned mines. Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes, and faulty septic systems. Atmospheric deposition and hydromodification are also sources of nonpoint source pollution. Of particular interest to environmentalists in recent years have been agricultural effluents. As a case in point, take, for example, farm silage effluent, estimated as more than 200 times as potent (in terms of BOD) as treated sewage. DILUTION CAPACITY OF RUNNING WATERS. Within limits, dilution is an effective means of dealing with a discharged waste-stream. Immediately beyond the point of discharge, the process of mixing and dilution begins. However, complete mixing does not take place at the outfall. Instead, a waste plume is formed that gradually widens. The length and width (dispersion) of the plume depend upon running water geometry, flow velocity, and flow depth. Beyond the mixing zone, the dilution capacity of running waters can be calculated using the principles of mass balance relation, using worst case scenario conditions a 7-day, 10-year low flow for stream flow condition. A simple dilution equation can be written as QsCs + QwCw Cd Qs + Qw where Cd= completely mixed constituent concentration downstream of the effluent, mg/L Qs= stream flow upstream of the effluent, ft3/S Cs= constituent concentration of upstream flow, mg/L Qw= flow of the effluent, ft3/S Cw= constituent concentration of the effluent, mg/L OXYGEN SAG (DEOXYGENATION) Biochemical oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen required to decay or break down a certain amount of organic matter. Measuring the BOD of a stream is one way to determine pollution levels. When too much organic waste, such as raw sewage, is added to the stream, all of the available oxygen will be used up. The high BOD reduces .. (i)

the DO because they are interrelated. A typical DO vs. time or distance curve is somewhat spoon shaped because of the reaeration process. This spoon-shaped curve, commonly called the oxygen sag curve, is obtained using the Streeter Phelps equation (to be discussed later). Simply stated, an oxygen sag curve is a graph of the measured concentration of DO in water samples collected (1) upstream from a significant point source (PS) of readily degradable organic material (pollution); (2) from the area of the discharge; and (3) from some distance downstream from the discharge, plotted by sample location. The amount of DO is typically high upstream, diminishes at and just downstream from the discharge location (causing a sag in the line graph), and returns to the upstream levels at some distance downstream from the source of pollution or discharge. The oxygen-sag curve is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Oxygen-sag curve. (From Spellman, F.R., 1996, Stream Ecology & SelfPurification. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company.) From the figure, we see that the percentage of DO vs. time or distance shows a characteristic sag, which occurs because the organisms breaking down the wastes use up the DO in the decomposition process. When the wastes are decomposed, recovery takes place and the DO rate rises again. Several factors determine the extent of recovery. First, the minimum level of dissolved oxygen found below a sewage outfall depends on the BOD strength and quantity of the waste, as well as other factors. These other factors include velocity of the stream, stream length, biotic content, and the initial DO content. The rates of reaeration and deoxygenation determine the amount of DO in the stream. If no reaeration occurs, the DO will reach zero in a short period of time after the initial discharge of sewage into the stream. Because of reaeration (the rate of which is influenced directly by the rate of deoxygenation), enough compensation for aerobic decomposition of organic matter occurs. When the stream velocity is too low and the

stream too deep, the DO level may reach zero. Depletion of oxygen causes an oxygen deficit, which in turn causes absorption of atmospheric oxygen at the air liquid interface. Thorough mixing from turbulence brings about effective reaeration. A shallow, rapid stream has a higher rate of reaeration (constantly saturated with oxygen) and purifies itself faster than a deep sluggish one will. STREAM PURIFICATION: A QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS Note: The important concepts presented in this section are heavily excerpted from Spellmans Stream Ecology & Self-Purification (1996). Before sewage is dumped into a stream, determining the maximum BOD loading for the stream is important to avoid rendering it septic. The most common method of ultimate wastewater disposal is discharge into a selected body of water. The receiving water, stream, lake, or river is given the final job of purification. The degree of purification that takes place depends upon the flow or volume, oxygen content, and reoxygenation ability of the receiving water. Self-purification is a dynamic variable, changing from day to day, and closely following the hydrological variation characteristic of each stream. Additional variables include stream runoff, water temperature, reaeration, and the time of passage down the stream. The purification process is carried out by several different aquatic organisms. Mathematical expressions help in determining the oxygen response of the receiving stream. Keep in mind, however, that because the biota and conditions in various parts of the stream change (that is, decomposition of organic matter in a stream is a function of degradation by microorganisms, and oxygenation by reaeration competing processes working simultaneously); quantifying variables and results is difficult. Streeter and Phelps first described the most common and well-known mathematical equation for oxygen sag for streams and rivers in 1925. Note: Laboratory and field tests have shown that the rate at which deoxygenation occurs through the bactertial oxidation of organic matter follows that of a first order reaction, being therefore dependent on concentration of oxidizable material present and that it is dependent on temperature. Reaeration, or the absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere, occurs at a rate which is proportional to the degree of unsaturation of the absorbing liquid and once absorbed at the surface the oxygen spreads throughout the water by molecular diffusion and by mechanical mixing of the layers of the fluid. The fundamental Sag Curve equation that defines the combined effects of deoxygenation and reaeration is: dD= K1L K2D .(xii) dt where; dD= rate of change of oxygen deficit (D) dt K1L= rate of increase in the oxygen deficit due to the removal of organic matter

(K1= organic matter removal constant & L= concentration of organic matter) K2D= rate of decrease in the oxygen deficit due to reaeration (K2D= reaeration constant) Integration of equation (i) between the limits Do at a reference point X= 0 and L= 0, and D at a point distant a time of flow from the reference point yields The StreeterPhelps equation The StreeterPhelps equation is: D= K1LA (e-K1t - e-K2t) + Doe-K2t (xiii) K2K1

where D = dissolved oxygen deficit (ppm) t = time of flow (days) LA = ultimate BOD of the stream after the waste enters DA = initial oxygen deficit (before discharge) (ppm) K1 = BOD rate coefficient (per day) K2 = reaeration constant (per day) In general, when organic matter is removed by oxidation only, it may be assumed that the rate of deoxygenation is equal to the rate of B.O.D removal. CONCLUSION The Model Equations give a clear picture of the relationship and dependence of different factors governing the recovery characteristics of polluted Surface water. The major factors considered in the equations include: reaeration constant, stream depth, stream velocity, concentration of organic matter, time of flow (days), and distance of flow (Km). The equations thus describe the recovery characteristics of a polluted stream with respect to the aforementioned factors and with emphasis majorly on re-aeration.

REFERENCES. 1) R. Munoz et al, 1969, The Self-Purification of Polluted Streams in Puerto Rico, Water Resources Research Institute, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. 2) Spellman, F.R. and Whiting, N.E. (1999). Water Pollution Control Technology: Concepts and Applications. Rockville, M.D: Government Institutes. 3) Gupta, R.S. (1997). Environmental Engineering and Science: An Introduction. Rockville, M.D: Government Institutes. 4) APHA, AWWA, and WEF. (1995). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 19th edition. Washington, D.C,: American Public Health Association. 5) Moore, E.W.; Sewage Works Journal; 8 , 561 (1941). 6) Porteous, A. (1992). Dictionary of Environmental Science and Technology (revised edition). New York: John Wiley & Sons.