Basic UMTS architecture (2-days) UMTS principles (3-days) UMTS Fundamentals Traffic balancing f r !

ice and "ac#et bearers (3-days) $mpact f %S &'B n single carrier sites ((-day) UMTS l g files analysis using )ayer 3 messages (3-days) *apacity %andling in UMTS (2-days) $dle + * nnected M de beha,i ur in UMTS+-SM (3-days) -SM ., luti n t /ards -"&S+.0-. (3-days) .0-.+-"&S Thr ughput enhancement techni1ues fr m &F perspecti,e ((-day) .fficient l ad balancing bet/een capacity and c ,erage layers (2-days) $" + .thernet Bac#hauling f r 3-+2- 3et/ r#s (3-days) Micr /a,e transmissi n planning (3-days) -SM &adi 3et/ r# "lanning (3-days)

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Technical Recruitment erial and Parallel Battery Configurations

Battery pac#s achie,e the desired perating , ltage by c nnecting se,eral cells in series7 /ith each cell adding t the t tal terminal , ltage: "arallel c nnecti n attains higher capacity f r increased current handling7 as each cell adds t the t tal current handling: S me pac#s may ha,e a c mbinati n f serial and parallel c nnecti ns: )apt p batteries c mm nly ha,e f ur 3:4! )i-i n cells in series t achie,e (2:2! and t/ in parallel t b st the capacity fr m 27255m'h t 27=55m'h: Such a c nfigurati n is called 2S2"7 meaning 2 cells are in series and 2 in parallel: $nsulating f il bet/een the cells pre,ents the c nducti,e metallic s#in fr m causing an electrical sh rt: The f il als shields against heat transfer sh uld ne cell get h t:

M st battery chemistries all / serial and parallel c nfigurati n: $t is imp rtant t use the same battery type /ith e1ual capacity thr ugh ut and ne,er mi9 different ma#es and si<es: ' /ea#er cell causes an imbalance: This is especially critical in a serial c nfigurati n and a battery is nly as str ng as the /ea#est lin#: $magine a chain /ith str ng and /ea# lin#s: This chain can pull a small /eight but /hen the tensi n rises7 the /ea#est lin# /ill brea#: The same happens /hen c nnecting cells /ith different capacities in a battery: The /ea# cells may n t 1uit immediately but get e9hausted m re 1uic#ly than the str ng nes /hen in c ntinued use: ;n charge7 the l / cells fill up bef re the str ng nes and get h t> n discharge the /ea# are empty bef re the str ng nes and they are getting stressed:

Single Cell Applications

The single-cell design is the simplest battery pac#: ' typical e9ample f this c nfigurati n is the cellular ph ne battery /ith a 3:4! lithium-i n cell: ;ther uses f a single cell are /all cl c#s7 /hich typically use a (:?! al#aline cell7 as /ell as /rist/atches and mem ry bac#up: The n minal cell , ltage f nic#el is (:2!: There is n difference bet/een the (:2! and (:2?! cell> the mar#ing is simply preference: 8hereas c nsumer batteries use (:2!+cell as the n minal rating7 industrial7 a,iati n and military batteries adhere t the riginal (:2?!: The al#aline deli,ers (:?!7 sil,er- 9ide (:4!7 lead acid 2!7 primary lithium 3!7 )i-ph sphate 3:3! and regular lithium-i n 3:4!: )i-manganese and ther lithium-based systems s metimes use 3:@!: This has n thing t d /ith electr chemistry and these batteries can ser,e as 3:4! cells: Manufacturers li#e t use a higher , ltage because l / internal resistance causes less f a , ltage dr p /ith a l ad: &ead m reA * nfusi n /ith ! ltages

Serial Connection
" rtable e1uipment needing higher , ltages use battery pac#s /ith t/ r m re cells c nnected in series: Figure 3-= sh /s a battery pac# /ith f ur (:2! nic#el-based cells in series t pr duce 2:=!: $n c mparis n7 a f ur-cell lead acid string /ith 2!+cell /ill generate =!7 and f ur )i-i n /ith 3:4!+cell /ill gi,e (2:25!: $f y u need an dd , ltage f7 say7 B:? , lts7 y u can c nnect fi,e lead acid7 eight 3iM%+3i*d)7 r three )i-i n in series: The end battery , ltage d es n t need t be e9act as l ng as it is higher than /hat the de,ice specifies: ' (2! supply sh uld / r#> m st battery- perated de,ices can t lerate s me ,er-, ltage:

Figure 1: Serial connection of four NiCd or NiMH cells 'dding cells in a string increases the , ltage> the current remains the same: * urtesy f *ade9 ' higher , ltage has the ad,antage f #eeping the c nduct r si<e small: Medium-priced c rdless p /er t ls run n (2! and (=! batteries> high-end p /er t ls use 22! and 34!: The car industry tal#ed ab ut increasing the starter battery fr m (2! ((2!) t 34!7 better #n /n as 22!7 by placing (= lead acid cells in series: ) gistics f changing the electrical c mp nents and arcing pr blems n mechanical s/itches derailed the m ,e: .arly hybrid cars run n (2=! batteries> ne/er m dels ha,e batteries /ith 2?5C?55!: Such a high-, ltage battery re1uires 255 nic#el-based cells in series: )i-i n cuts the cell c unt by three: %igh-, ltage batteries re1uire careful cell matching7 especially /hen dra/ing hea,y l ads r /hen perating in c ld temperatures: 8ith s many cells in series7 the p ssibility f ne failing is real: ;ne pen cell / uld brea# the circuit and a sh rted ne / uld l /er the ,erall , ltage: *ell matching has al/ays been a challenge /hen replacing a faulty cell in an aging pac#: ' ne/ cell has a higher capacity than the thers7 causing an imbalance: 8elded c nstructi n adds t the c mple9ity f repair and f r these reas ns7 battery pac#s are c mm nly replaced as a unit /hen ne cell fails: %igh-, ltage hybrid batteries7 in /hich a full replacement / uld be pr hibiti,e7 di,ide the pac# int bl c#s7 each c nsisting f a specific number f cells: $f ne cell fails7 the affected bl c# is replaced: Figure 2 illustrates a battery pac# in /hich Dcell 3E pr duces nly 5:4! instead f the full (:2!: 8ith depressed perating , ltage7 this battery reaches the end- f-discharge p int s ner than a n rmal pac# and the runtime /ill be se,erely sh rtened: The remaining three cells are unable t deli,er their st red energy /hen the e1uipment cuts ff due t l / , ltage: The cause f cell failure can be a partial sh rt cell that c nsumes its /n charge fr m /ithin thr ugh ele,ated self-discharge7 r a dry- ut in /hich the cell has l st electr lyte by a lea# r thr ugh inappr priate usage:

Figure 2: Serial connection with one faulty cell Faulty Dcell 3E l /ers the ,erall , ltage fr m 2:=! t 2:2!7 causing the e1uipment t cut ff prematurely: The remaining g d cells can n l nger deli,er the energy: * urtesy f *ade9

Parallel Connection
$f higher currents are needed and larger cells /ith increased ampere-h ur ('h) ratings are n t a,ailable r the design has c nstraints7 ne r m re cells are c nnected in parallel: M st chemistries all / parallel c nfigurati ns /ith little side effect: Figure 3 illustrates f ur cells c nnected in parallel: The , ltage f the illustrated pac# remains at (:2!7 but the current handling and runtime are increased f urf ld:

Figure 3: Parallel connection of four cells 8ith parallel cells7 the current handling and runtime increases /hile , ltage stays the same: * urtesy f *ade9 ' high-resistance cell7 r ne that is pen7 is less critical in a parallel circuit than in serial c nfigurati n7 h /e,er7 a /ea# cell reduces the t tal l ad capability: $tFs li#e an engine that fires n nly three cylinders instead f all f ur: 'n electrical sh rt7 n the ther hand7 c uld be de,astating because the faulty cell / uld drain energy fr m the ther cells7 causing a fire ha<ard: M st s -called sh rts are f mild nature and manifest themsel,es in ele,ated self-discharge: Figure 2 illustrates a parallel c nfigurati n /ith ne faulty cell:

Figure 4: Parallel/connection with one faulty cell ' /ea# cell /ill n t affect the , ltage but /ill pr ,ide a l / runtime due t reduced current handling: ' sh rted cell c uld cause e9cessi,e heat and bec me a fire ha<ard: * urtesy f *ade9

Serial/Parallel Connection
The serial+parallel c nfigurati n sh /n in Figure ? all /s superi r design fle9ibility and achie,es the /anted , ltage and current ratings /ith a standard cell si<e: The t tal p /er is the pr duct f , ltage times current7 and the f ur (:2!+(555m'h cells pr duce 2:=8h: Serial+parallel c nnecti ns are c mm n /ith lithium-i n7 especially f r lapt p batteries7 and the built-in pr tecti n circuit must m nit r each cell indi,idually: $ntegrated circuits ($*s) designed f r ,ari us cell c mbinati ns simplify the pac# design:

Figure : Serial/ !arallel connection of four cells This c nfigurati n pr ,ides ma9imum design fle9ibility: * urtesy f *ade9

Simple Guidelines for Using Household Primary Batteries

Geep the battery c ntacts clean: ' f ur-cell c nfigurati n has eight c ntacts (cell t h lder and h lder t ne9t cell)> each c ntact adds resistance: 3e,er mi9 batteries> replace all cells /hen /ea#: The ,erall perf rmance is nly as g d as the /ea#est lin# in the chain: ;bser,e p larity: ' re,ersed cell subtracts rather than adds t the cell , ltage:

&em ,e batteries fr m the e1uipment /hen n l nger in use t pre,ent lea#age and c rr si n: 8hile spent al#aline n rmally d n t lea#7 spent carb n-<inc discharge c rr si,e acid that can destr y the de,ice: 0 nFt st re l se cells in a metal b 9: "lace indi,idual cells in small plastic bags t pre,ent an electrical sh rt: 0 nFt carry l se cells in y ur p c#ets: Geep batteries a/ay fr m small children: $f s/all /ed7 the current fl / f the battery can ulcerate the st mach /all:The battery can als rupture and cause p is ning: 0 n t recharge n n-rechargeable batteries> hydr gen buildup can lead t an e9pl si n: "erf rm e9perimental charging nly under super,isi n:

Simple Guidelines for Using Household Secondary Batteries

;bser,e p larity /hen charging a sec ndary cell: &e,ersed p larity can cause an electrical sh rt that can lead t heat and fire if left unattended: &em ,e fully discharged batteries fr m the charger: ' c nsumer charger may n t apply the ptimal tric#le charge and the cell c uld be stressed /ith ,ercharge:

Prolonging life in "ulti!le cells through cell #alancing

'nal g fr nt ends that balance cells and eliminate mismatches f cells in series r parallel c mbinati n significantly impr ,e battery efficiency and increase the ,erall pac# capacity: 's the number f cells and l ad currents increase7 the p tential f r mismatch als increases: There are t/ #inds f mismatch in the pac#A state- f-charge (S;*) mismatch and capacity+energy (*+.) mismatch: Th ugh the S;* mismatch is m re c mm n7 each pr blem limits the pac# capacity (m'h) t the capacity f the /ea#est cell: *ell balancing principle Battery pac# cells are balanced /hen all the cells in the battery pac# meet t/ c nditi nsA (: $f all cells ha,e the same capacity7 then they are balanced /hen they ha,e the same State f *harge (S;*:) $n this case7 the ;pen *ircuit ! ltage (;*!) is a g d measure f the S;*: $f7 in an ut f balance pac#7 all cells can be differentially charged t full capacity (balanced)7 then they /ill subse1uently cycle n rmally /ith ut any additi nal adHustments: This is m stly a ne-sh t fi9:

2: $f the cells ha,e different capacities7 they are als c nsidered balanced /hen the S;* is the same: But7 since S;* is a relati,e measure7 the abs lute am unt f capacity f r each cell is different: T #eep the cells /ith different capacities at the same S;*7 cell balancing must pr ,ide differential am unts f current t cells in the series string during b th charge and discharge n e,ery cycle: *ell balancing electr nics *ell balancing is defined as the applicati n f differential currents t indi,idual cells ( r c mbinati ns f cells) in a series string: *ells in a series string n rmally recei,e identical currents: ' battery pac# re1uires additi nal c mp nents and circuitry t achie,e cell balancing: % /e,er7 the use f a fully integrated anal g fr nt end f r cell balancing reduces the re1uired e9ternal c mp nents t Hust balancing resist rs: *ell mismatch results m re fr m limitati ns in pr cess c ntr l and inspecti n than fr m ,ariati ns inherent in the lithium i n chemistry: The use f a fully integrated anal g fr nt end f r cell balancing can impr ,e the perf rmance f series c nnected )i-i n *ells by addressing b th S;* and *+. issues:I44J S;* mismatch can be remedied by balancing the cell during an initial c nditi ning peri d and subse1uently nly during the charge phase: *+. mismatch remedies are m re difficult t implement and harder t measure and re1uire balancing during b th charge and discharge peri ds: This s luti n eliminates the 1uantity f e9ternal c mp nents7 as f r discrete capacit rs7 di des7 and m st ther resist rs t achie,e balance: $his doesn%t sound li&e an earthing !ro#le"' (t sounds li&e you ha)e one or "ore faulty #atteries in your !ac&' * faulty #attery often does not show itself when fully charged+ #ut when !laced under a load you will find the )oltage will suddenly dro! and the !ac& will si"!ly sto! !ro)iding a useful charge' $o test your syste"+ "easure the )oltage of each indi)idual !ac& when the syste" is fully charged' Ma&e a note of each )oltage for each #attery' $hen run your test again+ "easuring the )oltage of each indi)idual #attery e)ery half an hour whilst the syste" is in use' ,ou will !ro#a#ly find one or two of the #atteries suddenly die at so"e !oint during your test+ !ro)iding a )oltage of 2 or 4 )olts rather than - )olts' (t is not unco""on for a #attery to actually go negati)e if it is )ery #ad' (n all !ro#a#ility+ you are going to need to re!lace this one rogue #attery' ,ou can so"eti"es re.u)enate the #attery #y ta&ing it out of the !ac&+ charging it u! indi)idually and then !utting it #ac& into the !ac&' $his can so"eti"es hel! e/tend the life of the #attery+ #ut you would !ro#a#ly find the !ro#le" #attery would fail again after a cou!le of "onths'

(t de!ends on the ca!acity of the #attery 0which is usually shown on the #atteries in a"!1hours2 and the intensity of the sun at your location' 3ets assu"e you ha)e 12) dee!1cycle #attery with a 144*h ca!acity+ which would #e a ty!ical #attery used for "any s"aller solar a!!lications' ,ou would ty!ically not want to discharge this #attery #elow 45 of its ca!acity+ so lets assu"e that you would only #e using 4*h of the energy stored in the #attery' * 12)+ -4 watt solar !anel would #e a#le to charge this #attery u! at a "a/i"u" rate of around a"!s !er hour 0-4 watts di)ided #y 12 )olts 6 a"!1hours2' $his "eans that around 14 hours of "idday sunshine would charge this #attery fro" 45 charge to 1445 charge' ,ou could+ of course+ choose to ha)e a #igger solar !anel to charge the #attery u! faster+ or you could ha)e a s"aller solar !anel to ta&e a longer ti"e' $o wor& out how long it ta&es for you to get the e7ui)alent of 14 hours of constant sunshine in your location+ you need to loo& at the online calculators on this we# site' 3oo& at the solar irradiance ta#les for your location to see what the figures loo& li&e in your area at different ti"es of the year' (n the height of su""er+ you "ay #e a#le to charge your #attery u! in less than two days' (n the de!ths of winter+ it "ay ta&e a whole wee& for you to charge u! your #attery' (t all de!ends on the cli"ate in your !art of the world in different seasons of the year' ,our !ro.ect sounds )ery e/citing' Circuit #rea&ers are rated #y a"!s 1 so di)ide the total wattage #y the )oltage to get the a"!age+ and get a circuit #rea&er that is at least this si8e' 9o a search on :oogle for %9C (solator Switch% and you should find !lenty of !roducts that will do the .o#' $hey tend to range in !rice fro" ;34 to ;1 4 for !retty "uch the sa"e de)ice+ so it does !ay to sho! around' ,ou should !ro#a#ly consider getting a ground fault interru!ter as well+ unless your in)erter already includes one' *ll the #est

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