1026

PROCEEDINGS OF THE I.R.E.

October

Performance of Short Antennas*

CARL E. SMITHt, SENIOR MEMBER, I.R.E., AND EARL M. JOHNSONt, SENIOR MEMBER, I.R.E.
Summary-The purpose of this paper is to present experimental data on the performance of vertical antennas having a physical height of less than one-eighth wavelength. These data cover many conditions of top loading performed on a 300-foot, self-supporting, tapered vertical tower with measurements of antenna resistance and reactance from 120 to 400 kilocycles. For these conditions, fieldintensity measurements were made to determine the unattenuated field intensity at one mile over a frequency range from 139 to 260 kilocycles. Field-intensity measurements along eight radials were made to determine the horizontal pattern and root-mean-square field intensity. The best results are obtained when adequate top loading is used in conjunction with a good ground system. Such top loading increases the value of the radiation-resistance component and lowers the capacitive-reactance component of the driving point impedance. Since the loss resistance remains essentially constant with various types of loading, the radiation efficiency of the antenna is materially improved by raising the value of the radiation resistance. Increasing the radiation resistance and lowering the capacitive reactance both tend to lower the effective Q of the antenna circuit. In wide-frequency-band applications a low value of Q is very important. With short antennas having a small resistance and a large capacitive reactance, extra precautions should be taken to minimize base insulator losses. With high humidity, mist, fog, or rain the input loss resistance of a short unloaded tower may increase several times over its normal dry value. Extensive ground systems and high-Q loading coils are also of prime importance.

prove the validity of top loading to improve the performance of short antennas.
II. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

1. Vertical Patterns An antenna of infinitesimal height, assuming no loss, will radiate a field having an intensity of 186 millivolts per meter at one mile in the horizontal plane for 1.0 kilowatt input. An antenna one-eighth wavelength in height under similar conditions provides 189 millivolts per meter at one mile, an improvement of only 1.6 per cent. A one-fourth wavelength antenna has a field intensity of only 195 millivolts per meter at one mile, which is an improvement of 4.8 per cent over an antenna of infinitesimal height. The vertical patterns have essentially the same semicircular shape, which accounts for the horizontal fields having nearly the same strength.
2. Power Radiated and

Dissipated

In actual practice the above theoretical values of the field intensity can not be realized because of loss resistance in the conductors of the antenna and coupling network, finite conductivity of the ground system, and dielectric losses in the insulators. Due to the fact that the I. INTRODUCTION radiation resistance approaches zero as the height is reA REVIEW of the literature regarding vertical duced and the loss resistance increases due to the dielecantennas reveals that most investigations in the tric losses in the base insulators, the efficiency of the past few years have been made on antennas hav- antenna system must approach zero. ing a height of from one-eighth wavelength to the order The ratio of power radiated to power input to the anof one-half wavelength.'-3 Mlost of these studies have tenna system can be taken as the criterion of over-all been directed toward improving broadcasting coverage performance of the antenna system. In equation form: by increasing the ground-wave signal and reducing the PR fading caused by the sky wave. antenna system efficiency = -- 100 per cent (1) In the past, it has been rather common practice at the low frequencies to use antennas about one-quarter wavelength in height, where possible, or to use loading of the where PR=antenna pow er radiated in watts and Pr T or inverted-L types for very short antennas. It has = antenna-system input power in watts. The power radiated from the antenna can be deterbeen the opinion of the authors for some time that other types of top loading would be practical. It is the purpose mined by measuring the unattenuated root-mean-square of this paper to discuss this problem and to report on a field intensity at one mile and comparing it with the series of experiments that were made to prove or dis- theoretical unattenuated field intensity which can be computed for a given antenna configuration. Thus,
* Decimal classification: R320. Original manuscript received by the Institute, July 25, 1946; revised manuscript received, December 1946. 2, t Formerly, Office of Chief Signal Office', United States Army; now, United Broadcasting Company, Cleveland, Ohio. t Formerly, Office of Chief Signal Officer, United States Army; now, Mutual Broadcasting System, New York, N. Y. I W. L. McPherson, "Electrical properties of aerials for medium and long wave broadcasting," Elec. Commun., vol. 16, pp. 306-320; April, 1938; and vol. 17, pp. 44-65: July, 1938. 2 G. H. Brown, R. F. Lewis, and J. Epstein, "Ground systems as a factor in antenna efficiency," PROC. I.R.E., vol. 25, pp. 753-787; June, 1937. 3 C. E. Smith, "A critical study of two broadcast antennas," PROC. I.R.E., vol. 24, pp. 1329-1341; October. 1936.

PR

1000

[Em1 -2
L

Eti

(2)

where E,, = measured unattenuated field intensity at one mile in millivolts per meter for 1.0 kilowatt input and Et=theoretical unattenuated field intensity at one mile in millivolts per meter for 1.0 kilowatt input. The antenna-system input power can also be considered as the transmitter output power since the input power supplies the losses in the antenna-system coupling

1947

Smith and Johnson: Performance of Short Antennas

1027

network between the transmitter terminals and the antenna as shown in Fig. 1. The total power lost in the
Antenno

The reactance of a short antenna is capacitive and becomes larger with decreasing height. An approximate formula is

Xc- Zo cot h

(7)

ANTENNA

SYSTEM

where X,=base capacitive reactance in ohms, Zo=60 (loge(h/r)-1) ohms, h=height of antenna in degrees,. and r =radius of antenna in degrees. This equation assumes a uniform cross-section tower with sinusoidal current distribution and no shunting insulator capacitance at the base.
4. A ntenna-System Performance The performance of a nondirectional antenna system depends upon the vertical directivity gain of the antenna and the losses in the system. For short antennas the directivity gain will not change appreciably from one condition to another so long as there is not a reversal of current on the antenna. The vertical pattern for most caszes will be somewhere between that of an infinitesimal antenna and a quarter-wave antenna. The term "antenna system" is used in this discussion to include the coupling network between the transmitter and the antenna proper as shown in Fig. 1. It is important to include this network since its losses PNL may be an appreciable factor in determining the over-all efficiency of the antenna system. In both the theoretical and practical case, as the antenna is made shorter the radiation resistance decreases and the capacitive reactance increases. To transform this antenna impedance to a value that will properly load the transmitter, it is common practice to insert a coil in series with the antenna that will neutralize the capacitive reactance and leave enough inductive reactance so that a capacitor in parallel will antiresonate the circuit to give the desired value of impedance for the transmission line or transmitter as the case may be. The losses in this network can be determined by capacitor (3). Since the loss in this network may be large for very short antennas, it is desirable to take measures to increase the antenna terminal resistance and lower the capacitive-reactance component. Both of these conditions are improved by proper top loading of the antenna. The power PAL lost in heating the antenna itself will usually be quite small providing the conductor surface is large, the antenna-tower members are thoroughly bonded and the material of the tower is itself a good conductor. In any event, it would be difficult to separate this loss from that of the ground-system loss PGL and the insulator loss PDL. During the course of these experiments, measurements indicated that the reactance of the base insulator was small in comparison to its loss-resistance component. Under these conditions the power lost in the insulator PDL may be considered separately if it is first considered that the equivalent circuit of a short antenna consists of a resistance R and a capacitive re-

PI =PR + PL

Fig. 1-Power in various parts of the antenna system.

antenna system

can

be expressed

as

follows: (3)

PL

PNL + PAL + PDL + PGL

where PL = total power lost in the antenna system measured in watts, PN. = antenna-system coupling-network power lost measured in watts, PAL=antenna-resistance power lost measured in watts, PDL = insulatordielectric pow-er lost measured in watts, and PaL = ground-system power lost measured in watts. The power lost in the antenna-system coupling network can be determined by measuring the input and output power and using the equation:
PNL
=

PI -PA

(4)

where PA=antenna input in watts measured at the antenna terminals as shown in Fig. 1. The power lost in the antenna itself, PAL, in the insulator dielectric, PDL, and the ground system, PGL, can be lumped together and determined from the following equation:
PA
-

PR

PAL + PDL + PGL.

(5)

3. Antenna Impedance For an antenna without top loading that is shorter than one-eighth wavelength (45 degrees), the radiation resistance is small and approximately proportional to the square of the height. A useful approximation is

RR .32

h2

(6)

where RR = base radiation resistance in ohms, and h =height of antenna in degrees. This equation has been plotted (see Fig. 13) to show its accuracy as compared with the theoretical radiationresistance curve for a thin vertical wire with sinusoidal current distribution. Equation (6) gives fair accuracy up to one-eighth wavelength. Above this wavelength the values are too low. As the top loading is increased the slope of the radiation-resistance curve increases and this approximation loses its accuracy.

1028

PROCEEDINGS OF THE I.R.E.

OCtOber

actance X in series, as shown in Fig. 2(a). The resistance R is assumed to be made up of all resistances as measR

The percentage of the antenna input power PA lost in the insulator is equal to
PDL =

100

z-~~~~. ~-ix
(a)
R
I RDL

RRDL
I

(12)

R2

+ X2

(b)
22

An adequate ground system is of extreme importance where short antennas are employed. The per cent power loss for various types of buried-copper-wire radial ground systems, expressed as a function of antenna height for an unloaded tower, is shown in Fig. 3. These curves are derived from field-intensity measurements made in the standard broadcast band and on file with the Federal Communications Commission and from those shown in the paper of Brown, Lewis, and Epstein.2

ROL

R
-

2^

~~~~jX

(c) Fig. 2-Equivalent circuits for determining power loss in base insulators: (a) assuming no insulator loss, (b) insulator shunting antenna terminals with resistance RDL, and (c) insulator effective series loss resistance R2+X2/RDL.

ured at the antenna terminals except the insulator loss resistance. The impedance of this circuit is given by,
Zi= R-jX.
(8)

If the antenna circuit is shunted with a lossy insulator represented by a resistance RDL, the circuit becomes that shown in Fig. 2(b), with impedance Z2 given by
Z 2 =.
R2RDL + X2RDL + RRDL2 (R + RDL )2 + X2
-

jXRDL2

(9 A

In practice the insulator loss resistance RDL is usually very much greater than the resistance R and the reactance X, so that the equivalent circuit may, to a very close approximation, be represented by Fig. 2(c) and the equation for Z2 simplifies to,
Z2 *

D-

R2 + X2 + R-jX. SRDL

10 20 30 40 50 60 HEIGHT OF ANTENNA IN DEGREES

70

10

HEIGHT OF ANTENNA IN DEGREES

20

30

40

SO

60

(10)

Comparing (8) and (10), it may be seen that they differ oInly in the term (R2+X2)/RDL, the insulator effective series loss resistance. Since the antenna current I The effect of conductivity in the immediate vicinity must flow through both resistances, (R2+X2)/RDL and R, of the transmitter becomes very important when poor the power is divided between them and the power lost ground systems are used. Under such conditions the in the insulator PDL is given by losses w-ill be different from those shown in Fig. 3, which are for average soil conductivities. On low frequencies, l(11) where physical limitations may prevent the installation PDL = 12 of an ideal ground system, careful selection of transRDL

Fig. 3-Per cent power loss in the ground system for various lengths of buried-copper-wire radials, as identified on the curves, plotted as a function of antenna height for the indicated number of radials.

1947

Smith and Johnson: Performance of Short Antennas

1029

mitter sites is essential. Whenever possible, a site having a high conductivity for the first few miles should be selected. It should be noted that these curves have been prepared for an unloaded vertical tower. Where top loading is used, it is necessary to determine the radiation resistance for that structure and select an unloaded tower having a height that will give the same radiation resistance. The equivalent unloaded height is then used to estimate the power lost in the ground system. This procedure assumes that the ground-loss resistance RGL remains constant for loaded and unloaded towers. Although there is some change in RGL with loading, it is generally not of sufficient magnitude to alter the results appreciably. Preparation of the curves to indicate the per cent power loss in the ground system allows direct addition of this loss in (3) for determination of over-all antennasystem loss PL. For a given quantity of copper wire, less loss will occur if the ground radials are made. in the order of 0.4wavelength long rather than placing this same quantity of wire in a greater number of shorter radials. Due to the phvsical dimensions of a 0.4-wavelength ground system, it may not always be practical to install sr'ch a system. Where the number of ground radials is limited, the use of a ground screen will improve stability as well as reduce losses. In many applications of radio, the effective Q or bandwidth of the antenna circuit is of greater significance than the efficiency of the system. The bandwidth of the antenna may be determined from the resistance and reactance measurements made at the base of the tower. If the bandwidth is considered to be the frequency band within which the power is equal to or greater than one-half the power at resonance, then in equation form 2RA (13) Af =
dX

the bridge. A Hammarlund receiver with two low-frequency bands was used as the bridge detector. The operating frequency was measured with a type SCR-211 frequency meter. In making the measurements over a range of frequencies from 120 to 400 kilocycles, care was taken to get accurate values of the resistance component. Corrections were made to take into account the loss in the capacitor placed in series with the unknown. The loss of this capacitor varied considerably over the frequency range. The generator signal was unmodulated and the null point was determined by the dip of the "R" meter in the Hammarlund receiver.
2. Determination of the Unattenuated Root-Mean-Square Field Intensity at 1 Mile The initial tests were made on a 300-foot self-supporting tower without top loading. A photograph of this tower with the eight umbrella wires connected is shown in Fig. 4. The groun'] system installed consisted of 500 buried-copper-wire radials out to a distance of 75 feet, and 250 buried-copper-wire radials out to a distance of 400 feet. To measure the performance of this antenna, a rather complete survey was made to determine the unattenuated root-mean-square field intensity at one mile when operating on a frequency of 170 kilocycles. Top-loading conditions were then referred to this unloaded condition of operation.

df
where Af=bandwidth in kilocycles between half-power points, RA = measured antenna resistance in ohms, and .dX/df =slope of reactance curve at resonant frequency. This equation assumes a generator impedance of zero ohms. When the generator is matched to the antenna circuit, the effective bandwidth will be doubled.
III. EXPERIMENTAL DATA 1. Impedance-Measuring Equipment A General Radio type 516-C radio-frequency bridge was modified with a type 578-C low-frequency transformer and a ratio arm with 1000 ohms in each arm to give better sensitivity in this frequency range. A specially constructed composite oscillator having an output up to 25 volts was used as the generator voltage for

Fig. 4-View of WHK's 300-foot tower with the eight umbrella wires in place.

The antenna was driven with a type BC-191 transmitter. The field-intensity measurements were made

1030

PROCEEDINGS OF THE I.R.E.

October

with a Radio Corporation of America type 308-A fieldintensity meter mounted in a four-wheel-drive carry-all truck. This truck was also equipped with two-way radio-communication equipment. In order to determine the power radiated, field-intensity measurements were made along 8 radials. A plot of the measurements along the respective radials was used to determine the unattenuated field intensity at one mile. From these data the horizontal pattern was constructed as shown in Fig. 5.

4. Ratio Method of Determining the Root-Mean-Square Field Intensity for the Various Conditions of Operation over a Frequency Range To determine the performance for numerous conditions of loading, a reference point was selected 1.5 miles from the antenna. Field-intensity measurements were made at this point on the following frequencies: 139, 150, 159, 170, 183, 193, 230, and 260 kilocycles, foleach condition of loading. During these measurements, the antenna current was maintained at 3.0 amperes or the field measurements were corrected to correspond to this value of antenna current. This method gives a check on measurements at a given frequency in addition to adding the frequency-range parameter. Field-intensity measurements indicated that the horizontal pattern remains substantially u nchanged from the condition of zero top loading; hence, the unattenuated root-mean-square field intensity at one mile and the radiation resistance can be computed over a frequency range for each condition of top loading.

5. Top Loading with Eight Umbrella Wires The loading afforded by the use of the 30-footdiameter capacitive hat, although increasing the power radiated, did not appear to offer the optimum degree of loading. The mechanical difficulties involved in enlarging the size of the hat made such a procedure impractical. As a means of increasing the amount of loading, eight umbrella wires were fastened between the top of the tower and ground. These wires were uniformly spaced in the horizontal plane and were made FIG. 5-Plot of unattenuated field intensity at 1 mile: frequency, taut by means of blocks and tackles fastened to stakes 170 kilocycles; antenna, 300-foot self-supporting tower with top loading; ground system, 500 radials under asphalt pavement out driven in the ground 350 feet from the center of the 75 feet, plus 250 radials out 400 feet; impedance, 2.5-j 465 ohms; tower. Each wire was broken with insulators at regular antenna current, 3.8 amperes; and root-mean-square field, 17.9 intervals. By opening and shorting pertinent insumillivolts per meter. lators, it was possible to vary the length of these wires so as to present different amounts of top loading. Two 3. Ratio Method of Determining the Root-Mean-Square types of umbrella loading were tried. The first involved Field Intensity for the Tower with the 30-Foot-Diameter varying the length of the eight umbrella wires, so that Capacitive Hat their lengths were 100, 200, 300, 375, and 450 feet. The The capacitive hat was connected to the top of the second involved connecting the outer or free ends of the tower through the contacts of a relay which could be umbrella wires with a wire skirt and varying the radial readily controlled from the tuning house at the base of length to 100, 200, and 300 feet. Resistance, reactance, and field-intensity measurethe tower. Resistance and reactance measurements for were made over a frequency range for each of the ments made over the 120 both conditions were frequency range of umbrella loading. The radiation renine conditions to 400 kilocycles. Field-intensity measurements were and are plotted along with determined were sistances each then made at a few esfablished points along radial, and reactance in Figs. 6 resistance base the measured and then it off. with The first with the capacitive hat on is shown on each installation of the sketch 7. A and aid of the radio two-way work was speeded up with the values of reFor curve. comparison purposes, communication between the tuning house and the field of curves in families as been have actance replotted car. Enough measurements were made to establish 8 and 9. the fact that the horizontal patterns were essentially Figs. If the measured base resistance is plotted against the same for both conditions of operation. At 170 kilolength of umbrella wires for the lower frequencies, inthe the field same input current cycles and with variation will be observed. This arises 11 hat was cent considerable the with greater per capacitive tensity that resistance measurements for the the fact from tower without for the than top loading.

26

650
26

650

24 60O
24 550

600

22
500

550
500
A)

2C
450,,, t V
1

I IA

1I
16 350 w
0 z

450 2 z
0 400 z

In

16

_ -400 o
-350Ow 300 z
4 250 LU
en 10
LU

14
i

g 12

z - 14

LU14
300 4

o l12

lo
200

0
150
150
''I

250 w I ae 200

ot

1100
50

E 0o
50

!5

,50
TOWER WITH 30' HAT

75

-4:

100 125 ISO 175 200 225 250 275 3001325 350 37 5 400 FREQUENCY IN KILOCYCLES PER SECOND

TlO 7 5 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325: FREQUENCY IN KILOCYCLES PER SECOND

O 00

TOWER WITH NO LOADING

TOWER WITH 100' UMBRELLA WIRES AND SKIRT

26

241

22:
(n

20;
In Ix

18:
2
0 z

z 16.

0
0 z
I-

W 14-

Iz

4
tl"

12-

SECTIONAL roP VIEW OF TOWER wIrH SKIRT OErAIL

0 41 Z

10

:r

FREQUENCY IN KILOCYCLES PER SECOND

TOWER WITH 200' UMBRELLA WIRES AND SKIRT

Fig. 6-Plot of resistance and reactance measurements on a 300-foot self-supporting tower, top-loaded with eight uniformly umbrella wires connected at the ends with a wire skirt as shown in the sketch.

spaced

i~~~~~~~~~~.
4002
400 2 7- 16

I.I

Ii II 16
i iT TT)rT

16i

-4300d

0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

14

4: 3w Z z
0 5S0 00 125 175 25 300 325 350 375 40 ISO 75 25

0Xg3i 11iil>
6

2509 200 .150

L ll IIlll}l
20Z 25 250 0S 25
50 75 0 125 ISO 175 200 225 25 275 30 325 350 375

0
L
FREQUlENCY IN KILOCYCLES PER SECOND

25

50

75

100 125

2r| l t F t l m l L t i l lE ~ ~ ~ ~L3w14
TOWER WITH 200 UMBsRELLA WIRES
T4

150 175 200 225 250 275 500 325 350 375 400 FRE:QUENCY IN KILOCYCLES PER? SECOND

TOWER WITH 100' UMBRELLA WIRES

lOWER WITH 300' UMBRELLA WIRES

FREQUENCY IN KILOCYCLES PER SECOND

400

150~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5

12

2 4 | 0 ng g iaE 2 12 ='4
275300325.......... 530 37501 SEC;OND 0 50 25 7S 001251501752W00225207

432S
35037540

25

50

75

10012512S0 175 2002D 250 FREQUJENCY IN KiLOCYCLES PER

TOWER WITH 375' UMBRELLA WIRES

............FREQUENCY IN KILOYLS PER SECN

TOWER WITH 40' UMBRELLA WIRES

Fig. 7- Plot of resistance and reactance measurements on a 300-foot self-supporting tower, toploaded with eight uniformly spaced umbrella wires.

1947
various

Smith and Johnson: Performance of Short Antennas

1033

amounts of loading were made on different sistance RDL as a function of the amount of loading at nights under different weather conditions, and thus at a number of frequencies and for a number of assumed values of leakage resistance for the measured tower. The variable values of insulator dielectric loss PDL. diagrams in this figure demonstrate the importance of having insulators with low leakage resistance when using antennas with high base reactance and low radiation resistance. The tower insulators consisted of six porcelain compression members and two bakelite straiin members at -t00
-200
501
98
9

-300

9(

:2 -`400

74
_SC

-500

a -60C

-700

U
2(

-90g

UMBIRELLA LENGTH IN FEET

-1001
-lb20

590

501
9

-520(
-130(

9(
7(

el
?I

.00

140

t60

190

200

280 260 220 30W 300 FREQUENCY IN KILOCYCLES PER SECONO

.4U

UAO

400

421

s--

61

I r'

Fig. 8-Reactance curves of inverted-L- and T-type antennas compared with various lengths of eight umbrella wires, with skirt wire connecting the outer extremity, used as top loading on a selfsupporting tower.
30C

4(

21

UMBRELLA LEN6TH

INPFEET

10

-20Z XI(
0

li w

If

a -40
30
0 200 300

400

500

UMBRELLA LENGTH IN FEET

iE_ 3 m X1 DX41~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4,}to IS 1g .!!!J~~~~~~~H each of the four tower legs. The insulators were in need of maintenance since the surface of the bakelite strain members had become rough and dirty from exposure to the weather. Measurements were made of -1401~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ actual leakage resistance to determine the order of magnitude of insulator leakage resistance which may ' 8 4002 W 320 34 lo 20. 140 160 IGOQ200 220 240 ?6O 20 encountered in practice with dirty insulators when be PER SECOND
.N

Fig. 10-Per cent antenna input power lost in base insulator versus length of eight umbrella wires for various values of insulator leakage resistance shunted across measured base impedance of antenna at low operating frequencies.

-1

4-i

comFig. 9-Reactance curves of inverted-L- and T-type antennas pared with umbrella-type loading with eight radial wires of various lengths, as indicated. Fig. 10 gives the calculated percentage of antenna input power PA lost in the insulator-dielectric loss re-

FREOUENC IN KILOCYCLES

adverse weather conditions exist. Under particularly bad foggy or sleety weather conditions, the series base resistance at 170 kilocycles was measured to be 12.8 ohms; whereas the measured value under dry conditions was only 2.8 ohms. The measured

1034

PROCEEDINGS OF THE I.R.E.

October

reactance was 391 ohmns and was not appreciably dif- loaded with a nonradiating capacitive hat has been calferent than under dry conditions. This increase in base culated for a number of conditions as shown in Fig. 13. resistance represents an equivalent insulator leakage The formula for these calculations is given in the figure.

LENGTH OF UMBRELLA WIRES IN FEET

LENGTH OF UMBRELLA WIRES IN FEET

LENGTH OF UMBRELLA WIRES IN FEET

Fig. 11-Bandwidth in kilocycles for a 300-foot self-supporting tower, top-loaded with eight umbrella wires, as a function of length of umbrella wires for five frequencies, with loading coils having Q's of 200, and 100. without skirt.) ( -- with skirt,
00,

resistance RDL of approximately 15,000 ohms, as determined by solving for RDL" in (10). The fact that the insulator leakage was responsible for this effect was definitely ascertained by throwing a pitcher of water on one of the base insulators and obcerving the measured base resistance increase from 2.6 to 7.6 ohms at 130 kilocycles. This represents an insulator loss resistance of approximately 200,000 ohms. Insulator leakage losses can be kept at a minimum by the selection of proper insulators and regular maintenance. In this connection, the use of heated insulators having water shields and surfaces which tend to prevent the formation of water films may prove beneficial. At standard broadcast frequencies, where the base resistance of this tower is comparatively high and the reactance low, the dielectric losses in the insulator are so small that they are of no practical importance. The effective bandwidth has been calculated for each condition of umbrella loading. Since the Q of the antenna-loading coil will alter the results, the calculations have been made for coils having a Q of c, 200, and 100. A plot of bandwidth versus length of umbrella wires for frequencies of 120, 170, 230, 290, and 350 kilocycles is shown in Fig. 11. From these curves it can be seen that, for maximum bandwidth, the optimum length of umbrella wires is dependent upon both the frequency involved and the Q of the loading coil. The field-intensity measurements have been analyzed and the radiation resistance calculated for the above five frequencies. A plot of the resistance versus length of umbrella wires for each of these frequencies is shown in Fig. 12. It is interesting to note that the degree of top loading which produces maximum radiation resistance is essentially independent of frequency. The radiation resistance of a thin, vertical wire top-

These curves have been prepared to show the correlation with the experimental results plotted in Figs. 6 and 7. It will be noted that for the unloaded tower the radiation resistance curve is approximately a squared

LENGTH OF U

WIRES __ --WITH SKIRT

1 e i i 4 *, WITHOUTil SKIRirrLrrLTrrrSrT
.... ~~~~~~~~~A

...

AiiSllXnTLnLL LILrTA

7-----

2 I]|

ft$$ 42 04tIt
30

2-

0 K20 030 x0

ldLl-t-t:ItAIINIIIIrtlllllIST
40C0
0

XS lgI-t-ttIiiiiitLiilIIlIIll

12Rdito reitac fo vaiu codtin of Fi.

+++

function up to4ders. As th dereitop | >1tl-il oflloadin K exoeta rte23 grete th sqae tha power.!0ttUXSX

C---NMUt O4
300 400 500

unattenuated fil inest The a on iehsbe t ____t_ deemie for+ eac codto of to fo ledn theiiillFllklkrrllF frqenis 1i 20,170, 230 i|I| 290 an 350 d L L+Lklocycles. A
0

l00

200

600

700

Fig. 12 Radiation resistance for various conditions of umbrella top loading.

LENGTH OF UMBRELLA WIRES IN FEET

function up to '45 degrees. As the degree of top loading is increased, the radiation resistance increases at an exponential rate gr'eater than the squared power. The unattenuated field intensity at one mile has been determined for each condition of top lead'ing for the frequenci'es 120, 170, 230, 290, and 350 kilocycles. A

1947
Rb

Smith and Johnson: Performance of Short Antennas

((A)-SI 2GA) -cos2 Gf3
-s
(A)

1035

WHERE: A - ANTENNA HEIGHT IN RADIANS 8 * AMOUNT OF TOP LOADING IN RADIANS G : A+8 Rb BASE RADIATION RESISTANCE OF LOADED ANTENNAS IN OHMS

IC 2

0
LLJ-

a: cr
z
ui a r:

IC

IC

ANTENNA HEIGHT IN DEGREES

Fig. 13-Theoretical radiation resistance for various degrees of top loading.

200
.++2

200,so

_~

K _29 K

t-

__._t+_t______

Hfi..:+Hif -:- +H4H!H,-KM290 KG

0 2100

Ki .....r HHHi 350

1-4c

a_t

i0 x

t
2

x w 1-w
De w a. (1)

I NJ
Ii TT g T T3~~~I T
: H

40 :HfF,

le
2

10

ITOKC-:

-i -i

2
H
1Pto

2
Z
U) z w II.z

z
-z

a -j w
U.
I...IIIIII IIIII

40

2S

iII!IIr

--Hfii
0

IIIIiI IIIiI

- - - WITH SKIRT

WITHOUT SKIRT
...... 1-

flill;iIIIIIIII ilillilifill

.tH lt

100 200 300 400 LENGTH OF UMBRELLA WIRES IN FEET

-#TiLE i"d
-

1i'+Ll

WITH SKIRT y0: K WITHOUT SKiRT

500

100 200 300 400 LENGTH OF UMBRELLA WIRES IN FEET

500

Fig. 14-Unattenuated field intensity at I mile radiated in millivolts per meter for 1.0 kilowatt from a 300-foot self -suppor1 ing tower, employing umbrella-type loading, as a function of length of eight umbrella wires for five frequencies with loading coils having a Q of oo, 200, and 100.

1036

PROCEEDINGS OF THE I.R.E.

October

plot of

the unattenuated field

of umbrella wires for

and 100 is shown in

is necessary to well
as

as a function of length loading coils having Q's of oo, 200, Fig. 14. In viewing these curves, it

keep

in mind that the

the antenna

ground system as increasces in electrical length with

increasing frequency. The amount of gain to be realized from top loading of a short antenna is dependent upon the losses i'n the
system. If there
field
are no

losses in the

sy'stem,

the

gailn

in

-intensity
at

is

top loading

negligible. However, with optimum 120 kilocycles, the experimental results using
a

particular result, as shown in Fi'gs. 11, 12, and 14. Where high powers are involved, a wire skirt is a useful method of reducing corona losses. Another method of accomplishing substantially the same results would be to increase the number of umbrella wires. Also, if the size of the umbrella wires is increased, the corona loss will be further decreased. The formation of wire cages is a common method of i'ncreasing the effective size of conductors. The construction and maintenance of an umbrella with a wire skirt is more difficult than increasing the number or size of umbrella wires.
6. Top Loading by Means of Inverted-L- and T- Type .An'tennas Inverted-L- and T-type antennas were erected between two 300-foot towers spaced 410 feet apart. The height of the vertical lead of the inverted-L-type an'tenna, was 290 feet and the T-type was 280 feet. The length, of, the flat-top in each case was 350 feet. Resistance, reactance, and field-intensity measurements. were made for both types of antennas. A plot of the resistance and reactance measurements is shown in Fig. 15. At the lower frequencies, where loading afforded by
:1

indicate that, when

loading coil
350

hav'ing
a

of

100,

gain of

6.5

decilbels,
Q,
the

which is equivalent to

power
a

increase of 4.5, is realized.

O.n

kilocycles,
decibels,

using
or a

coil

having the

same

gain

is 2.6

power

increase of 1.8.
The results indicate that substantial radiated with
and

gains in
be

power

bandwi'dth

acceptance

can

reali'zed

easy and

umbrella-type loadi'ng on short towers. It is an inexpensive way to buy power and improve performance. The placing of a wire skirt around the
end of
of

outer

the

umbrella wires
wires

shortens
to

the radial

length
r- V-

the

umbrella

required
4

produce

09

21PLOT
OF

I II

500

RESISTANCE

AND.REACTANCE

MEASUREMENTS

on

22

an

inverted-L type
shown

antenna

suopported

between

2-300-foot towers
as

spaced

410-feet apart

no0

in

sketch.

2
1000

20

Is-

3900

16
INSULArOR
30

So

0-

Ir

700
14

ROPE

ROPE

"I.
1.

IC)

.00
INPU T TERMINAL$
3:1

45;t
I
p

"""

I"

~~~410'
TYPE ANTENNA

INVERTED-L

014..
tt,3 .I 0'47r&.,

III

Im

aa
4

I*no

2I

P-QQ
25
75

100

155

IS0

175

200
IN

2i5

250

275

325

3 75

FREQUEN.CY

KILOCYCLES

PER

SECOND

Fig. 15(a)-Plot of resistance and

reactance measurements

for

an

inverted-L- type

antenna.

1947

Smith and Johnson: Performance of Short Antennas

1037

in this paper, it is important to have an area of good conductivity immediately surrounding the antenna. In is appreciably higher than that offered by umbrella- certain instances, it might be possible to erect a single type loading. This is as expected, since the character- tower where an effective salt-water ground would preistic impedance of a thin wire is much higher than of a TABLE I tower having considerable cross section. Where wideFIELD INTENSITY AT ONE MILE FOR 1.0 KILOWATT ON band transmission is of importance, the cross section 170 KILOCYCLES FOR LOADING COILS HAVING Q'S AS of the antenna should be as large as practical. The INDICATED bandwidth of both the inverted-L- and T-type antennas Q=CO Q = 200 Qn=100 have been plotted as a function of frequency in Fig. 16. Type of Antenna 103 The field-intensity measurements indicate that, over Inverted L 66 78.5 115 76.6 61.4 the frequency range considered, the unattenuated field T 94 Tower with no loading 67 56 for both the inverted-L- and T-type antennas were in- Tower with optimum umbrella loading 125 104 92 ferior to the optimum afforded by umbrella-type loading as shown in Table I. Had a larger flat-top been used, the efficiencies of the various types of loading would vail but, due to physical limitations, it might not be probably be about the same. However, the bandwidth feasible to install a second tower with the required afforded by umbrella-type loading will be superior separation. In the case of the inverted-L-type antenna, unless cages having dimensions comparable to a tower there is also the problem of radiation from the flat-top. are used. Both the inverted-L- and T-type antennas When the length of the flat-top is less than the height of require the installation of two towers. In addition to vertical lead and the combined electrical length is less the extra cost involved, there are certain other disad- than 90 degrees, the radiation from the flat-top will be a vantages of requiring two towers. As pointed out early small percentage of the total power radiated.
the 350-foot flat-top is inadequate, the reactance component of both the inverted-L- and the T-type antennas
00,1

20

1000

)l
I.
INSUVLA^rOR
_
1

PLOT

OF

RESISTANCE

AND

L LI

REACTANCE MEASUREMENTS
o T type antenna supported between _2-300- foot towers spoced 41 0 ft. apart as shown in sketch.
on

1900

890eo

14
,JOPE

700
ROPE

600

OQ
I-

<

r~~~~~~~~ERMINALSm

500

to

Bf /7/7

rm7

7/ 77/&1///7777777777//J ///77 rrS

T TYPE ANTENNA

400

(4

Ni

1300
"A
4
LVw

--I
0

I00

so

1O0

125

150

175

200

250

275

300

325

350

375

btiQO
4o0

FAREOVENCY

IN K<LOCYCLES PER SECOND

Fig. 15(b)-Plot of resistance and reactance measurements for a T-type

antenna.

1038

PROCEEDINGS OF THE I.R.E.

October

14

12

_,12-

10E INVERTED-L

TYPE

IN

YLES

10

50

20

foa

20

20

30

40

_44

150 loo 200

250

300

150

400

100

ISO

FRECOJENCY IN KILOCYCLES

200 250 350 500 400 FREOUENCY IN KILOCYCLES

Fig. 16-Bandwidth for various conditions of inverted-L- and T-type antennas.

7. Top Leading With Capacitive Hat and Coil To increase the degree of loading afforded by the 30-foot diameter hat, a coil was connected between the capacitive hat and top of the tower. This coil had a Q of approximately 100 and an inductance range up to 1.9 millihenries. The amount of coil inserted was varied by means of a slider connection. Resistance, reactance, and field-intensity measurements were made at 170 kilocycles for each condition of loading. A plot of the measured base resistance and reactance and the radiation resistance at 170 kilocycles as a function of the amount of reactance in the coil is shown in Fig. 17; the unattenuated field at one mile has been plotted against the reactance of the top-loading coil in Fig. 17. It is seen that an increase in power radiated is obtained by inserting a small portion of the coil. However, on increasing the amount of coil, the antenna efficiency is reduced. Above a certain quantity of coil the reflected loss resistance more than offsets the gain made by increasing radiation resistance. Unless a coil having a Q considerably greater than 100 is used, the results obtained do not appear to justify such an installation. Similar measurements were made for the coil between the tower and the 100-foot umbrella wires connected with a wire skirt. A plot of these measurements is also shown in Fig. 17.
IV. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance given by Anthony Carnavale and Eugene Smith, both of the Camp Coles Signal Laboratory, Red Bank, N. J., for their part in collecting the field data; and to Ross Bateman and Jack W. Herbstreit, both of the Radio Propagation Section, Communication Liaison Branch, Plans and Operation Division, Office of the Chief Signal Officer, for their part in the calculation of theoretical curves presented in Figs. 10 and 13. This work was carried out under W. L. Everitt, director Operational Staff, Office of the Chief Signal Officer, United States Army. Finally, the authors wish to thank H. K. Carpenter,

1000 _ 700 _ 500 F_

300 _

i-

30-

PLOT OF RESISTANCE AND REACTANCE MEASUREMENTS

ON

200_
,^n_
z

CR
0

70 50

30
20

A 300 FOOT SELF-SUPPORTING TOWER TOP-LOADED WITH A TUNED 30-FOOT DIAMETER CAPACITY HAT AND PLOTTED AS A FUNCTION OF THE DEGREE OF INDUCTIVE TUNING BETWEEN THE CAPACITY HAT AND THE TOWER AS SHOWN IN SKETCH

10
7

5
3

- Xz X rl~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1--1
0

I I

0.7 0.5

500

TUNING REACTANCE IN OHMS

ooo

500

2000

2500

30

1000
w a

700 500 300 200

A
(f

Ct)
ll

cr

100 70 50
30 20

Sf
un

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

TUNING REACTANCE IN OHMS

Fig. 17-Plot of resistance, reactance, and field intensity for various degrees of tuning a top-loaded tower.

executive vice president of the United Broadcasting Company, for making the facilities of station WHK available for this experimental project.