Pulse Polio

Pulse Polio is an immunisation campaign established by the government of India in 1995-96 to eradicate poliomyelitis (polio) in India by vaccinating all children under the age of five years against polio virus. This project deals with the ways to fight poliomyelitis through a large scale immunisation programme, co-operating with various international institutions, state governments and Non Governmental Organisations. In India, vaccination against Polio started in 1978 with Expanded Program in Immunisation (EPI). By 1984, it was successful in covering around 40% of all infants, giving 3 doses of OPV to each. In 1985, the Universal Immunisation Program (UIP) was launched to cover all the districts of the country. UIP became a part of child safe and survical motherland program (CSSM) in 1992 and Reproductive and Child Health Program (RCH) in 1997. This program led to a significant increase in coverage, up to 95%. The number of reported cases of polio also declined from 28,757 during 1987 to 3,265 in 1995. In 1995, following the Polio Eradication Initiative of World Health Organization (1988), India launched Pulse Polio Immunisation Program along with Universal Immunisation Program which aimed at 100% coverage. In 2012, India was declared free of polio by WHO.

Key objectives
The Pulse Polio Initiative (PPI) aims at covering every individual in the country. It aspires to reach even children in remote communities through an improved social mobilisation plan.[1]

Not a single child should miss the immunisation, leaving no chance of polio occurrence. Cases of Acute Flaccid Paralysis (AFP) to be reported in time and stool specimens of them to be collected within 14 days. Outbreak Response Immunisation (ORI) to be conducted as early as possible. Maintaining high level of surveillance. Performance of good mop-up operations where polio has disappeared. India to be polio-free by 2005.[1]

Steps involved

Setting up of booths in all parts of the country.[1] Initialising walk-in cold rooms, freezer rooms, deep freezers, ice-lined refrigerators and cold boxes for ensuring steady supply of vaccine to booths. Arranging employees, volunteers and vaccines. Ensuring vaccine vial monitor on each vaccine vial. Immunising children with OPV on National Immunisation Days. Identifying missing children from immunisation process. Surveillance of efficacy.

The Gujarat caseIn 1998, in Bhavnagar district of Gujarat, immunisation officers reported that 98 children out of the total of 2,000 missed the vaccine. Health workers were first prevented from coming to village. Later, when the booths were established and the program did start, lot of parents did not bring their children to the booth. According to them, children from their village developed polio-paralysis even after the immunisation. The Bengal Case-[2] Health officers who visited the village in West Bengal, saw utter discontent amongst the people as they stated that two children contracted the virus after the vaccine. In another instance, parents of a two-anda-half-year-old child who developed cellulites in the heel were convinced that it had been caused by the

vaccine that was given to their child a week before. The doctor who gave the vaccine was forced to pay the entire amount for the childs treatment. Therefore, the reasons for non-compliance by the people can be anything from lack of attitude to lack of awareness, from vaccinating an ill child to apprehension about the side-effects of polio drops (including fever, loose motion, death, infertility etc.)[3] It is found out that poor participation of doctors and nurses, difficulty in maintaining and procuring vaccine, difficulty in procuring vehicles, inadequate support from community members are also reasons why the program has not been completely successful.[4] India free of polio 2012 The last reported cases of polio in India were in West Bengal and Gujarat on 13 January 2011.[5] On 25 February 2012, India was officially struck off the list of polio-endemic countries by the World Health Organization (WHO).[6] July 30 2013 - A nine-month-old boy from Navi Mumbai has tested positive for Vaccine- Derived Poliovirus (VDPV) type 2 and is now on ventilator at BJ Wadia Hospital in Parel. This is the fourth such case recorded in the country this year.

Election Commissioner of India

he Chief Election Commissioner heads the Election Commission of India, a body constitutionally empowered to conduct free and fair elections to the national and state legislatures. Chief Election Commissioner of India is usually a member of the Indian Civil Service and mostly from the Indian Administrative Service. It is very

difficult to remove the authority of the Chief Election Commissioner once elected by the President, as twothirds of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha need to vote against him for disorderly conduct or improper actions. Despite the recent changes in the hierarchy, the system always had powers to impose unambiguous rules and guidelines that applied across the entire nation e.g. as to how the ballots will be cast and counted, what will be regarded as 'unqualified' vote (something whose importance became very evident during US presidential election in 2000). India was probably one of the first countries in the World to go for a completely electronic ballot in the last elections. What made this remarkable was the fact that the Office of the Chief Election Commissioner had successfully implemented this across the entire diverse Indian population that also consisted of the rural illiterate people. While the office has always been an important one in the machinery of the Indian political process, it gained significant public attention during the tenure of T.N. Seshan, from 1990-1996. Mr. Seshan is widely credited with undertaking a zealous effort to end corruption and manipulation in Indian elections. Though he made significant progress, several politicians attempted to derail these efforts. In particular, the expansion of the Election Commission to include the two Election Commissioners (in addition to the Chief Commissioner) was seen as a move to curtail the commissioner's ability to act aggressively.

he Chief Election Commissioner heads the Election Commission of India, a body constitutionally empowered to conduct free and fair elections to the national and state legislatures. Chief Election Commissioner of India is usually a member of the Indian Civil Service and mostly from the Indian Administrative Service. It is very difficult to remove the authority of the Chief Election Commissioner once elected by the President, as twothirds of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha need to vote against him for disorderly conduct or improper actions. Despite the recent changes in the hierarchy, the system always had powers to impose unambiguous rules and guidelines that applied across the entire nation e.g. as to how the ballots will be cast and counted, what will be regarded as 'unqualified' vote (something whose importance became very evident during US presidential

election in 2000). India was probably one of the first countries in the World to go for a completely electronic ballot in the last elections. What made this remarkable was the fact that the Office of the Chief Election Commissioner had successfully implemented this across the entire diverse Indian population that also consisted of the rural illiterate people. While the office has always been an important one in the machinery of the Indian political process, it gained significant public attention during the tenure of T.N. Seshan, from 1990-1996. Mr. Seshan is widely credited with undertaking a zealous effort to end corruption and manipulation in Indian elections. Though he made significant progress, several politicians attempted to derail these efforts. In particular, the expansion of the Election Commission to include the two Election Commissioners (in addition to the Chief Commissioner) was seen as a move to curtail the commissioner's ability to act aggressively.

Appointment and removal

The President of India (based on a recommendation from incumbent Govt of India) appoints the Chief Election Commissioner. Conventionally, senior-most Election Commissioner is appointed as CEC. He has tenure of six years, or up to the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. He enjoys the same official status, salary and perks as available to Judges of the Supreme Court of India and High court. The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed only through impeachment by the Parliament.[4]
Suggested reforms

In June 2012, Lal Krishna Advani a veteran Indian politician and former Deputy Prime Minister of India (as well as former Leader of the Opposition in Indian Parliament)[5] suggested that appointment of CEC (as well as the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)) should be made by a bipartisan collegium consisting of the Prime Minister, the Chief Justice, the Law Minister and the Leaders of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha.[6][7] Subsequently, M Karunanidhi, the head of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) party and five times Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu[8] supported the suggestion. Advani made this demand to remove any impression of bias or lack of transparency and fairness because, according to him, the current system was open to "manipulation and partisanship".[6][7] Similar demand was made by many former CEC's such as B B Tandon, N Gopalaswamy and S Y Quraishi,[9] however the government did not seem too keen.[10]

Compensation

First Election Commissioner of India Sukumar Sen.

The salary and other conditions of service of the Chief Election Commissioner is determined by the Parliament of India through "Election Commission (Condition Of Service Of Election Commissions And Transaction Of Business) Act, 1991". As per the act, his salary is the same as salary of a Judge of Supreme Court of India.[2]

Salary of Chief Election Commissioner Date Salary

1 January 2006 90,000 (US$1,400)[2][3]

Chief Election Commissioners

The following have held the post of the Chief Election Commissioner of India.[11]
List of Chief Election Commissioners # Name Portrait Took Office Left Office

Sukumar Sen

21 March 1950

19 December 1958

2 Kalyan Sundaram

20 December 1958 30 September 1967

3 4 5

S. P. Sen Verma Nagendra Singh T. Swaminathan

1 October 1967 1 October 1972 7 February 1973

30 September 1972 6 February 1973 17 June 1977

S. L. Shakdhar

18 June 1977

17 June 1982

R. K. Trivedi

18 June 1982 1 January 1986

31 December 1985 25 November 1990

8 R. V. S. Peri Sastri

List of Chief Election Commissioners # Name Portrait Took Office Left Office

V. S. Ramadevi

26 November 1990 11 December 1990

10

T. N. Seshan

12 December 1990 11 December 1996

11

M. S. Gill

12 December 1996

13 June 2001

12

J. M. Lyngdoh

14 June 2001

7 February 2004

12 T. S. Krishnamurthy

8 February 2004

15 May 2005

13

B. B. Tandon

16 May 2005

29 June 2006

14 N. Gopalaswami

30 June 2006

20 April 2009

15

Navin Chawla

21 April 2009

29 July 2010

List of Chief Election Commissioners # Name Portrait Took Office Left Office

16

S. Y. Quraishi

30 July 2010

10 June 2012

17

V. S. Sampath

10 June 2012

incumbent

Fire Accident
Fire is a very good servant, but, a very bad master. As long as fire is under our control, it serves a lot of useful purposes for us, but, once it goes out of our control, it can create a lot of destruction. However, despite the presence of fire safety measures, the occurrence of accidents is oftentimes inevitable.

It is this combination (of good servant and bad master), which is dangerous. Because of the useful purposes that it serves, people keep sources of fire in/around their houses/workplace. And, these sources could sometimes result in "undesired" fire. Had fire been something, which serves no useful

purpose the number of incidents of fire would have been very less as people wont keep sources of fire around them. Causes Of Fire The most common causes of fire are: Electrical Pantry Area Smoking Electrical Incidents of Fire mainly caused due to overloading, short circuit etc. As people start staying in a new apartment, or, a new office, they start making modifications to the wall socket outlets in order to be able to plug in additional apparatus etc. Then, there reaches a time, when the total amount of current drawn from all the sockets together could exceed the rated capacity of the internal wiring. A simple solution to this is - not to make too many changes to the electrical circuitry inside your apartment/work-place. And, any alterations etc. if done, should keep in mind the capacity of the wires used. As time progresses, due to various minor repairs etc. wires might be changed, jumbled up etc., or, the insulation among wires might break down. This might cause some wires to come in contact with each other, and, thus, create a short circuit. This short-circuit can cause a very high current flow through the wires and, thus causing fires. A simple solution to this is: periodic inspection of the conditions of the wiring, and, taking preventive action, whenever needed. And, install MCBs (Miniature Circuit Breakers), so that any short-circuit would result in immediate disconnection of the current flow. Pantry Area Incidents involving cooking gas, cooking oil etc. Leakage of cooking gas, accompanied by a spark around the leakage could cause fire. These are typically very dangerous. Sources of sparks could be anything: - a burning item, turning on/off of electrical gadgets/switches etc. The leak itself can be in the gas cylinder itself, the pipeline carrying the gas, the regulator, joints etc. Some simple precautions to be taken for this include:

Regular inspection of gas pipes, and, timely replacement. No sparks etc. in case there is any trace of LPG smell. LPG itself does not have any odour. A trace odour is put in the LPG only so that any leakage might be detected. Just like electrical points, turn off gases at multiple points, when not in use, rather than just at the point of usage.

While cooking, sometimes, the cooking medium could get overheated, resulting in fire. These are more frequent, but, fortunately - relatively easy to manage (if attended to immediately).

A simple precaution to be taken for this is - never let cooking oil etc. unattended, when its being heated, nor, do keep bottles of oil etc. in contact with very hot object, like, hot utensils etc. Smoking Smoking in/around combustible materials could cause fire, due to hot ashes falling from the cigarette. Some simple precautions to be taken include:

Dont smoke in/around bed, sofa etc. When you throw away the cigarette etc. always stub it out Always try to dispose off the cigarette-ash at proper places

Uneven Distribution Of Incidents Incidents of fires are usually not evenly distributed. There are higher number of fires during:

Summer season: Due to higher ambient temperature; as well as leaves etc. being dry - catch fire easily. This is the time, when many forest-fires start. Some specific festive events due to use/availability of fire-crackers, and/or lights etc. Fire based lights could pose a direct fire-risk, while, electricity based lighting could cause the risk due to overloading.

Hence, its more important to be specially careful during these periods. Not only are the chances of incidents higher, but, the chances of your local fire department being overloaded is also very high. This might have an impact on their ability to respond swiftly to your call in case there is a need as they could be busy fighting fire elsewhere.

Conditions Needed For A Fire For a fire to take shape (as well as continue), the following three conditions should be met: 1. A combustible material 2. A specific temperature at which the above material would burn 3. Some fuel (mostly oxygen) to aid the burning When petrol/gasoline is burning, the petrol/gasoline is the combustible material, and, the atmosphere provides the fuel (oxygen). The presence of the above 3 elements together is called the fire triangle. Each of these 3 elements have to be present to start a fire, and for the fire to continue. Sometime, one element may aid in producing the other element. Lets consider an example of how one element aids in the production of another element. Lets say, we want to burn a piece of cloth. The cloth is lying there in front of us. There is enough oxygen in the atmosphere. But, the cloth does not burn. So, we now douse the cloth in gasoline. Still, there is no fire. Now, we burn a matchstick by rubbing a matchstick against the matchbox/matchbook. This rubbing causes a minor increase in temperature. At this temperature, the matchstick lights up. The lighted matchstick creates still higher temperature. Now, when the matchstick is touched to the doused (with petrol/gasoline) piece of cloth, the petrol/gasoline also starts burning. This further increases the

temperature, which causes the cloth to start burning, which can now produce still higher temperature. So, here, friction caused an increase in temperature. This increase in temperature converted the matchstick into a combustible element. This in turn raised the temperature further, and so on. Now, that we know that for a fire to be sustained, we need all 3 arms of the fire-triangle. This forms the fundamental principle behind all fire-fighting techniques. If we have to control a fire, the way to extinguish it is to remove atleast one arm of the fire-triangle. Sometimes, we might want to simultaneously attack 2 arms also. That is because, we know that one arm could aid the other arm. So, by trying to simultaneously fight two arms, we might achieve the results faster. Its a matter of experience and the situation which decides which arm to fight. Usually, you try to remove that arm, which is the easiest to remove. Types Of Fire Extinguishers Water Based Foam Based CO2 Based CFC Based Dry Chemical Based

Water Based

These are most effective on Class A fires. On Class B fires, these are mostly ineffective. This is because, oil/petrol/gasoline etc. being lighter than water continues to float over water, and, thus, it continues to burn. In some cases, use of water based extinguishers on Class B fires could turn out to be injurious also. That is because, as water is thrown over burning fuel, the force due to water-stream could cause burning petrol etc. to be sputtered, and, this hot fuel could cause injury, if it falls on somebody. On Class C fires, these should never be used. Use of water based extinguishers on Class C fires would surely be fatal. That is because, water is a good conductor of electricity, and, the electric current flows through the water-jet directly into the hands of the person who is holding the waterhose, resulting in immediate electrocution. The way, these extinguishers work is: As water reaches the burning material because of the high temperature, it vaporizes. While vaporizing, it extracts the latent heat from the burning element, thereby reducing the temperature. Besides, as it vaporizes, it expands. Usually, the expansion is in the order of 100 times (by volume). The need for higher volume of steam (vaporized water) displaces oxygen from the immediate vicinity of the burning material, thus, cutting off the oxygen supply. This will help bring down the temperature thus, cutting off another arm.

Class C Fire Use of incorrect extinguishing agent (water or foam based) on a class C fire would simply be fatal. Hence, first thing to do would be to convert it into a Class A fire.

Also, water being non-combustible material also tries to form a coating between the atmosphere (which is supplying the oxygen) and the combustible material. Thus, it tries to reduce temperature, as well as displace oxygen, thus, attacking two arms of the fire-triangle, while, making a very feeble attack on the third arm also.

Foam Based These are used mostly on Class B fires. It can also be used on Class A fires. These should never be used on Class C fires. The main constituent of foam being water it can easily prove to be fatal on a Class C fire. Foam being lighter engulfs the burning liquid. By covering the burning liquid, it cuts off the supply of oxygen to the burning material. Besides, the vaporization of water also helps in reduction of temperature due to extraction of latent heat. The basic principle is thus, similar to Water Based Extinguisher. The only difference is, foam stays above burning oil, thus, trying to engulf it - something that water could not do. CO2 Based

These are mostly used on Class C fires. It can also be used on Class A and Class B fires. These kind of extinguishers might also be used to extinguish fires in computers, costly electronic equipments etc. where, usage of water etc. could cause damage to the equipment. The biggest advantage of these kinds of extinguishers are that it does not leave any residue, smell or mess. However, usage of these kinds of extinguishers in confined space could result in poisoning. Because, under lack of oxygen, carbon-di-oxide could act as a fuel, and, the resulting gas produced could be carbon-monoxide which is highly poisonous. The way these extinguishers work is: A stream of dry-ice (trade name for solidified carbon-di-oxide) is directed towards fire. Dry ice being very cold helps to reduce the temperature. Being heavy, carbon-dioxide gas settles on the burning equipments, thus blowing away the oxygen thereby cutting out the availability of oxygen. Sometimes, the printed circuit boards (PCBs) of these electrical equipments could develop a crack, because the burning material which was hot is suddenly subjected to a very cold temperature (of dry ice). However, having a few cracks on a few boards might be a better choice than using water/foam, which will cause total short-circuit within the electrical circuit. Carbon-di-oxide based extinguishers have an additional advantage. Being primarily gaseous in nature, the extinguishing agent can easily percolate inside machinery through fine slots (usually provided for

ventilation/heat dissipation) on the outer casing of the equipments. So, it can be much more effective in fires which are inside the casing of electronic equipments. CFC Based These are mostly used on Class C fires. It can also be used on Class A and Class B fires. The main difference between CO2 Based Extinguisher and CFC based extinguishers is that instead of carbon-di-oxide, it uses some inert gases, like: CFCs. These extinguishers also do not leave any residue, smell or mess. However, these are highly damaging to the environment (because of the tendency of CFCs to deplete the ozone layer). Many variants of CFCs are already banned. Some newer (and, cleaner) variants are already under consideration. These extinguishers are very costly (both in terms of money as well as impact on environment), and hence, should be used only on very costly, specialty equipments. The working of these equipments is very simple. They simply displace the oxygen at the burning site. And, these being highly inert gases would not take part in any chemical reaction (including the process of burning), nor would let the burning material take part in the burning process thereby extinguishing the fire. These kind of extinguishers can also be used on metallic fires (Class D). Other extinguishers mentioned earlier could have mixed results on Class D fire, depending on which metal is burning.

Dry Chemical Based These are most commonly used type of extinguishers. It can be used on Class A, B and C fire. Hence, its popularly also called as ABC type extinguisher. Its impact on Class D fire could be varied, depending on the type of metal being burnt. It works in the following way: It stores dry yellowish chemical powder (mono-ammonium phosphate) under pressure of nitrogen gas (or, any other inert gas). When turned on, the dry powder is sprayed with pressure onto the burning material, along with the inert gas. Nitrogen displaces oxygen. The powder itself sits on the burning material thus removing contact between burning material and its other two arms of fire. The powder is a non-conductor of electricity hence, its equally effective on Class C fire. Fire Fighting Strategies Now we know all the constituents of a fire and various kinds of fire-extinguishers. If you have to fight a fire, depending on the circumstances, you have to decide as to what method/strategy (i.e. which arm to fight) you would like to use. Accordingly, you might want to choose an appropriate extinguisher. Lets look at some different fire-situations and the corresponding strategies: Smothering a fire

Say: A persons clothing catches a fire. You could simply wrap the person in blankets (or, any other thick piece of clothing layer), and, roll the person on the ground. The fire gets extinguished due to lack of oxygen supply. Letting it die Sometimes, you might just isolate the burning material from other combustible material. The fire would simply die down, once it has burnt the burning material as it finds nothing else to burn. Fire in pantry area say oil/ghee on fire Simply cover the utensil which contains the burning oil etc. Lack of oxygen supply will simply extinguish the fire. Meanwhile, dont forget to turn off the stove. This can be done by turning off the electric supply. However, if you are suspecting gas-leak also, dont flip the switch. Even after you have turned off the switch, one needs to exercise caution. If the main and neutral connections are reversed, while the switch might be turned off the wires would still be energized. This would provide a false sense of security, while, the fire is still Class C. Hence, its very important that at the time of construction/renovation, electrical wirings are done/supervised by appropriately qualified electricians. Thus, do not ever pour/direct water jet/stream on a Class C fire (or, even where electrical involvement is suspected). It will be fatal. If you have to use water (only as a last resort), throw mugful of water from a safe distance, such that the last drop of water has left the mug, before the first drop of water touches the electrical line. This way, the continuity of the water stream is broken, and, electricity can not reach your body. This method is to be used only in case no other alternative is visible, and, also, extreme caution is to be used. This method should never be used with more than one person simultaneously trying this method. Because, water leaving from different mugs could together form a continuity, thereby turning FATAL for somebody. LPG Cylinder related fire First and foremost, keep the cylinder standing upright. An upright cylinder, with a fire at its mouth is not necessarily that dangerous (though, it might appear to be really scary). Its simply equivalent to a refinery-chimney flaring excess gases. Cylinder on fire in a rolled-down position/upward-down is an explosive. Stay away from it. The regulator of LPG cylinders are not designed to handle rolled-down cylinder. The fire can enter the cylinder causing the pressure in its neck area thus causing an explosion. Fire around the base of the cylinder is also dangerous. It can cause explosion. In order to put out a fire at the mouth of a cylinder, pour approximately 60 litres of water in one go at the base of the fire. In very high probability, the fire would be extinguished. Even if the fire is out, a gas-leak could still be involved which is equally dangerous. Do not confuse a LPG fire and LPG leak. These are two different things, and, both need to be tacked individually. Using An Extinguisher So, now that you have decided how to fight a fire, and, what kind of extinguishers to use, lets see, how to use an extinguisher. Most extinguishers are based on PASS System. P -> Pull the Pin on the extinguisher. This pin is kept to prevent accidental discharge while carrying/transporting the extinguishers. 2. A -> Aim the nozzle of the extinguisher at the base of the fire. Its very important that the discharge from the extinguisher is directed towards the base of the fire. Most people make the mistake of directing the extinguishing agent on the fire itself. Thats ineffective. The extinguishing agent should be directed at the base of the fire where the burning material is located. That is the point, where the fire-triangle is established, which needs to be broken. 1.

3. S -> Squeeze the trigger, so that the extinguishing agent starts flowing out of the cylinder, and, onto the burning material at the base of the fire. 4. S -> Swipe the nozzle sideways to coat the entire burning material, with the extinguishing agent. PASS is an acronym to remember the steps involved Pull (the pin), Aim (the nozzle), Squeeze (the trigger), Swipe (sideways).

Precautions While Fighting A Fire When fighting a fire: 1. Always stay upwind: It protects you from heat, smoke etc. It allows you to go closer to fire thus, being able to better direct your extinguishing agent. It protects you from inhalation of poisonous gases, which might be given out during the fire. 2. Keep under observation, even when the fire is extinguished. Smoldering particles can easily rekindle, thus, catching you off-guard. 3. Pour extinguishing agent in adequate quantity, rather than small quantities. Doing it in installments does not help. One discharge of 60 liters of water is not the same as two discharges of 30 liters each. E.g. If you have to pour 4 buckets of water, have the 4 buckets ready, and, pour all 4 buckets in one go. Instead, if you pour two buckets of water, refill them, and, pour again its not the same. Deciding Whether To Fight The Fire Or Leave The Site So, now that you are well equipped in fighting a fire you just need to decide, whether you want to fight a fire, or, flee away from it. Remember, in general, timely action helps a lot in containing the damage. Besides, more often than not, general fires (specially Class A fires) dont spread suddenly unless, chemical reactions are involved. This means that if you can nip a fire in the bud, you should try to fight and extinguish it. Still, no material is worth more than human life. So, dont fight, if any of the following conditions are involved: 1. You dont have sufficient/right material to fight the fire. The time spent in fighting could impact your ability to evacuate 2. You dont have backup. You should be able to get help, in case, there is a need 3. Fire seems to be blocking your exit path 4. You have no idea what is burning For example - Class D fire would need specialized knowledge of the metal under fire, and, how will that metal react with different extinguishing agents at high temperature 5. Fire seems to be spreading too fast 6. There are explosives around 7. You dont feel comfortable and confident During The Fire So, there could be a possibility that many people are not going to take part in fighting against a fire. These people need to evacuate. Hence, there needs to be an evacuation plan in place. This evacuation plan should be in place - before the incident of fire.

The evacuation plan should have the following items identified, and, well communicated to everybody: A command and control structure, which should be effective and operational as soon as a fire is reported - Assembly area - Mechanism and responsibility for head-count etc. In case of a fire, one should never use escalators (irrespective of the height of building which is being evacuated). Escalators could be unreliable due to failure of electrical circuits which operate it, or, it could have mechanical failure due to snapping of wires/ropes causing it to go into a free-fall. At the minimum, there is a high risk of smoke inhalation, as, smoke has a tendency to go up, and, hence, will always try to enter escalator pits from where, it can go all the way up to the top, without any hindrance. If there is lot of smoke, crawl on the floor. Because of smokes tendency to go up, even during very dense smoke conditions, the lower few inches of the ground are expected to be relatively free of smoke. To reduce smoke inhalation, put a wet handkerchief to cover your nose. If there is no water available, use your own saliva to wet a small portion of the handkerchief, and, use that portion to cover your nostrils. If you can go to an open-area (for example uncovered terrace, open ground etc.), there will be no risk of smoke-inhalation. However, use your own judgment if you decide to go to the terrace of a high-rise building. While there will be no risk of smoke-inhalation, rescue efforts could become difficult and is dependent on the level of sophistication that the local fire department has (e.g. access to snorkel, very long ladders-capable of reaching high-rise buildings, rescue-helicopters etc.). Always evacuate in an orderly manner. A building housing 200 or so people (normal, healthy adults) across 3-4 floors with a single exit can easily be evacuated in less than 2-3 minutes if done in an orderly manner. If people push and shove, stampede can occur, causing much more injury, and, it might take much longer to evacuate. Worse: Backing up might be impossible. Say, while, people are evacuating towards an exit, and, its found that the specific exit is blocked, there might be a need to backup. If the evacuation is not proceeding in an orderly manner, it might not be possible to back-up; as people towards the end of the evacuation queue (who are not aware of the blockage at the exit) will try to push forward, while, those at the front of the queue (who are aware of the blockage) want to back-up. Since, panic might set in, during a fire thereby clouding peoples thought process and ability to think reasonably, its highly likely that during a fire, people forget these simple tenets, and, in their attempt to rush out, actually create chaos and disorderliness. Thus, its important that regular mock evacuationdrills are carried out. That will cause people to behave in a much more orderly manner during an actual fire. While evacuating, do a quick survey to see, if there is somebody around you, who might need some assistance, e.g. somebody who is old, too weak, injured, child, any disability etc. If possible, provide assistance to such a person. Even if you yourself are not in a position to provide assistance, at least request for help on this persons behalf. If an area is already clear, while, evacuating, close the door behind you. It will serve several purposes: 1. Will isolate the area, thereby, causing an impediment to the spread of the fire. 2. Will save time for others, who might want to recede the area. While, you should close the door, lock it only if you are absolutely sure that there is nobody inside. Because, if there was even a single person inside it, and, you have locked it, the chances of that person being rescued is diminished by a huge factor.

If you are inside a closed door with fire outside: Feel the inside of the door with your hand. If the door feels hot, many a times, it might be safer to stay inside. At this time, whether your should stay inside, or, still venture out could be a judgment call, depending on: how long do you expect a rescue team to arrive and/or alternative avenues (e.g. possibility of jumping from the window). If you are on the high floor of room, with windows having strong grills and the local fire-department is not well-equipped/staffed, then, the time that you spend inside the room is actually going against you as the fire outside becomes more vigorous. If you do decide to stay inside the room, wet towels, bed sheets etc. and put below the doors to prevent smoke etc. from coming inside your room. When On Road

1. Always give way to fire-engines. 2. Even if you are not coming directly in the way of fire-engines, goto the extreme side of the road, and, stop your vehicle to let the fire-engine pass. 3. Do not rubber-neck/crowd the site of a fire incident: as you could hamper movement of rescue teams/material

Road Accident
A traffic collision, also known as a traffic accident, motor vehicle collision, motor vehicle accident, car accident, automobile accident, road traffic collision, road traffic accident, wreck (USA), car crash, or car smash (Australian) occurs when a vehicle collides with another vehicle, pedestrian, animal, road debris, or other stationary obstruction, such as a tree or utility pole. Traffic collisions may result in injury, death, vehicle damage, and property damage. A number of factors contribute to the risk of collision, including vehicle design, speed of operation, road design, road environment, driver skill and/or impairment, and driver behaviour. Worldwide, motor vehicle collisions lead to death and disability as well as financial costs to both society and the individuals involved. Terminology

Traffic collision See also: Road collision types Traffic collisions can be classified by general type. Types of collision include head-on, road departure, rear-end, side collisions, and rollovers. Many different terms are commonly used to describe vehicle collisions. The World Health Organization use the term road traffic injury,[1] while the U.S. Census Bureau uses the term motor vehicle accidents (MVA),[2] and Transport Canada uses the term "motor vehicle traffic collision" (MVTC).[3] Other terms that are commonly used include auto accident, car accident, car crash, car smash, car wreck, motor vehicle collision (MVC), personal injury collision (PIC), road accident, road traffic accident (RTA), road traffic collision (RTC), road traffic incident (RTI), road traffic accident and later road traffic collision, as well as more unofficial terms including smash-up, pile-up, and fender bender. Some organizations have begun to avoid the term "accident". Although auto collisions are rare in terms of the number of vehicles on the road and the distance they travel, addressing the contributing factors can reduce their likelihood. For example, proper signage can decrease driver error and thereby reduce crash frequency by a third or more.[4] That is why these organizations prefer the term "collision" rather than "accident". However, treating collisions as anything other than "accidents" has been criticized for holding back safety improvements, because a culture of blame may discourage the involved parties from fully disclosing the facts, and thus frustrate attempts to address the real root causes.[5]

Causes Driver factors 57% 27% 6% 3% 1% 2% Vehicle factors 3% Roadway factors

Breakdown of British and American crash causes A 1985 study by K. Rumar, using British and American crash reports as data, found that 57% of crashes were due solely to driver factors, 27% to combined roadway and driver factors, 6% to combined vehicle and driver factors, 3% solely to roadway factors, 3% to combined roadway, driver, and vehicle factors, 2% solely to vehicle factors, and 1% to combined roadway and vehicle factors.[6] Human factors Human factors in vehicle collisions include all factors related to drivers and other road users that may contribute to a collision. Examples include driver behavior, visual and auditory acuity, decision-making ability, and reaction speed. A 1985 report based on British and American crash data found driver error, intoxication and other human factors contribute wholly or partly to about 93% of crashes.[6] An RAC survey of British drivers found that most thought they were better than average drivers; a contradictory result showing overconfidence in their abilities. Nearly all drivers who had been in a crash did not believe themselves to be at fault.[7] One survey of drivers reported that they thought the key elements of good driving were:[8]

controlling a car including a good awareness of the car's size and capabilities reading and reacting to road conditions, weather, road signs and the environment alertness, reading and anticipating the behavior of other drivers.

Although proficiency in these skills is taught and tested as part of the driving exam, a 'good' driver can still be at a high risk of crashing because: ...the feeling of being confident in more and more challenging situations is experienced as evidence of driving ability, and that 'proven' ability reinforces the feelings of confidence. Confidence feeds itself and grows unchecked until something happens a near-miss or an accident.[8]

An AXA survey concluded Irish drivers are very safety-conscious relative to other European drivers. However, this does not translate to significantly lower crash rates in Ireland.[9] Accompanying changes to road designs have been wide-scale adoptions of rules of the road alongside law enforcement policies that included drink-driving laws, setting of speed limits, and speed enforcement systems such as speed cameras. Some countries' driving tests have been expanded to test a new driver's behavior during emergencies, and their hazard perception. There are demographic differences in crash rates. For example, although young people tend to have good reaction times, disproportionately more young male drivers feature in accidents,[10] with researchers observing that many exhibit behaviors and attitudes to risk that can place them in more hazardous situations than other road users.[8] This is reflected by actuaries when they set insurance rates for different age groups, partly based on their age, sex, and choice of vehicle. Older drivers with slower reactions might be expected to be involved in more accidents, but this has not been the case as they tend to drive less and, apparently, more cautiously.[11] Attempts to impose traffic policies can be complicated by local circumstances and driver behavior. In 1969 Leeming warned that there is a balance to be struck when "improving" the safety of a road:[12] Conversely, a location that does not look dangerous may have a high crash frequency. This is, in part, because if drivers perceive a location as hazardous, they take more care. Accidents may be more likely to happen when hazardous road or traffic conditions are not obvious at a glance, or where the conditions are too complicated for the limited human machine to perceive and react in the time and distance available. (This fact can be used to improve safety, by putting up signs in accident-prone locations, like ones stated above.) This phenomenon has been observed in risk compensation research, where the predicted reductions in accident rates have not occurred after legislative or technical changes. One study observed that the introduction of improved brakes resulted in more aggressive driving,[13] and another argued that compulsory seat belt laws have not been accompanied by a clearly attributed fall in overall fatalities.[14] In the 1990s, Hans Monderman's studies of driver behavior led him to the realization that signs and regulations had an adverse effect on a driver's ability to interact safely with other road users. Monderman developed shared space principles, rooted in the principles of the woonerven of the 1970s. He found that the removal of highway clutter, while allowing drivers and other road users to mingle with equal priority, could help drivers recognize environmental clues. They relied on their cognitive skills alone, reducing traffic speeds radically and resulting in lower levels of road casualties and lower levels of congestion.[15] Some crashes are intended; staged crashes, for example, involve at least one party who hopes to crash a vehicle in order to submit lucrative claims to an insurance company. [16] In the USA in the 1990s, criminals recruited Latin immigrants to deliberately crash cars, usually by cutting in front of another car and slamming on the brakes. It was an illegal and risky job, and they were typically paid only $100. Jose Luis Lopez Perez, a staged crash driver, died after one such maneuver, leading to an investigation that uncovered the increasing frequency of this type of crash.[17] Motor vehicle speed The U.S. Department of Transportation's Federal Highway Administration review research on traffic speed in 1998.[18] The summary states:

That the evidence shows that the risk of having a crash is increased both for vehicles traveling slower than the average speed, and for those traveling above the average speed. That the risk of being injured increases exponentially with speeds much faster than the median speed. That the severity/lethality of a crash depends on the vehicle speed change at impact. That there is limited evidence that suggests that lower speed limits result in lower speeds on a system wide basis. That most crashes related to speed involve speed too fast for the conditions. That more research is needed to determine the effectiveness of traffic calming.

The Road and Traffic Authority (RTA) of the Australian state of New South Wales (NSW) asserts speeding (traveling too fast for the prevailing conditions or above the posted speed limit[19]) is a factor in about 40 percent of road deaths.[20] The RTA also say speeding increases the risk of a crash and its severity.[20] On another web page, the RTA qualify their claims by referring to one specific piece of research from 1997, and stating "research has shown that the risk of a crash causing death or injury increases rapidly, even with small increases above an appropriately set speed limit."[21] The contributory factor report in the official British road casualty statistics show for 2006, that "exceeding speed limit" was a contributory factor in 5% of all casualty crashes (14% of all fatal crashes), and that "traveling too fast for conditions" was a contributory factor in 11% of all casualty crashes (18% of all fatal crashes).[22]

Driver impairment
Driver impairment describes factors that prevent the driver from driving at their normal level of skill. Common impairments include: Alcohol Main article: Driving under the influence

Relative risk of an accident based on blood alcohol levels. [23] In Canada, almost 40% of motor vehicle deaths were associated with alcohol use.[24] See also: alcoholrelated traffic crashes in the United States; Physical impairment Poor eyesight and/or physical impairment, with many jurisdictions setting simple sight tests and/or requiring appropriate vehicle modifications before being allowed to drive;

Youth
Insurance statistics demonstrate a notably higher incidence of accidents and fatalities among teenage and early twenty-aged drivers, with insurance rates reflecting this data. Teens and early twenty-aged drivers have the highest incidence of both accidents and fatalities among all driving age groups. This was observed to be true well before the advent of mobile phones. Females in this age group suffer a somewhat lower accident and fatality rate than males but still well above the median across all age groups. Also within this group, the highest accident incidence rate occurs within the first year of licensed driving. For this reason many US states have enacted a zero-tolerance policy wherein receiving a moving violation within the first six months to one year of obtaining a license results in automatic license suspension. No US state allows fourteen year-olds to obtain drivers licenses any longer. Old age Old age, with some jurisdictions requiring driver retesting for reaction speed and eyesight after a certain age; Drug use Including some prescription drugs, over the counter drugs (notably antihistamines, opioids and muscarinic antagonists), and illegal drugs. Distraction Research suggests that the driver's attention is affected by distracting sounds such as conversations and operating a mobile phone while driving. Many jurisdictions now restrict or outlaw the use of some types of phone within the car. Recent research conducted by British scientists suggests that music can also have an effect; classical music is considered to be calming, yet too much could relax the driver to a condition of distraction. On the other hand, hard rock may encourage the driver to step on the acceleration pedal, thus creating a potentially dangerous situation on the road.[25] Combinations of factors Several conditions can combine to create a much worse situation, for example:

Combining low doses of alcohol and cannabis has a more severe effect on driving performance than either cannabis or alcohol in isolation,[26] or Taking recommended doses of several drugs together, which individually do not cause impairment, may combine to bring on drowsiness or other impairment. This could be more pronounced in an elderly person whose renal function is less efficient than a younger person's. [27]

Thus there are situations when a person may be impaired, but still legally allowed to drive, and becomes a potential hazard to themselves and other road users. Pedestrians or cyclists are affected in the same way and can similarly jeopardize themselves or others when on the road. Road design Main articles: Highway engineering and Road safety

A potential long fall stopped by an early guardrail, ca. 1920. Guardrails, median barriers, or other physical objects can help reduce the consequences of an accident or minimize damage. A 1985 US study showed that about 34% of serious crashes had contributing factors related to the roadway or its environment. Most of these crashes also involved a human factor.[6] The road or environmental factor was either noted as making a significant contribution to the circumstances of the crash, or did not allow room to recover. In these circumstances it is frequently the driver who is blamed rather than the road; those reporting the accident have a tendency to overlook the human factors involved, such as the subtleties of design and maintenance that a driver could fail to observe or inadequately compensate for.[28] Research has shown that careful design and maintenance, with well-designed intersections, road surfaces, visibility and traffic control devices, can result in significant improvements in accident rates. Individual roads also have widely differing performance in the event of an impact. In Europe there are now EuroRAP tests that indicate how "self-explaining" and forgiving a particular road and its roadside would be in the event of a major incident. In the UK, research has shown that investment in a safe road infrastructure program could yield a reduction in road deaths, saving as much as 6 billion per year.[29] A consortium of 13 major road safety stakeholders have formed the Campaign for Safe Road Design, which is calling on the UK Government to make safe road design a national transport priority. Vehicle design and maintenance Main article: Automobile safety

A 2005 Chevrolet Malibu involved in a rollover crash.

Seatbelts Research has shown that, across all collision types, it is less likely that seat belts were worn in collisions involving death or serious injury, rather than light injury; wearing a seat belt reduces the risk of death by about two thirds.[30] Seat belt use is controversial, with notable critics such as Professor John Adams suggesting that their use may lead to a net increase in road casualties due to a phenomenon known as risk compensation.[31] Maintenance A well-designed and well-maintained vehicle, with good brakes, tires and well-adjusted suspension will be more controllable in an emergency and thus be better equipped to avoid collisions. Some mandatory vehicle inspection schemes include tests for some aspects of roadworthiness, such as the UK's MOT test or German TV conformance inspection. The design of vehicles has also evolved to improve protection after collision, both for vehicle occupants and for those outside of the vehicle. Much of this work was led by automotive industry competition and technological innovation, leading to measures such as Saab's safety cage and reinforced roof pillars of 1946, Fords 1956 Lifeguard safety package, and Saab and Volvo's introduction of standard fit seatbelts in 1959. Other initiatives were accelerated as a reaction to consumer pressure, after publications such as Ralph Nader's 1965 book Unsafe at Any Speed accused motor manufacturers of indifference towards safety. In the early 1970s British Leyland started an intensive programme of vehicle safety research, producing a number of prototype experimental safety vehicles demonstrating various innovations for occupant and pedestrian protection such as: air bags, anti-lock brakes, impact-absorbing side-panels, front and rear head restraints, run-flat tires, smooth and deformable front-ends, impact-absorbing bumpers, and retractable headlamps.[32] Design has also been influenced by government legislation, such as the Euro NCAP impact test. Common features designed to improve safety include: thicker pillars, safety glass, interiors with no sharp edges, stronger bodies, other active or passive safety features, and smooth exteriors to reduce the consequences of an impact with pedestrians. The UK Department for Transport publish road casualty statistics for each type of collision and vehicle through its Road Casualties Great Britain report.[33] These statistics show a ten to one ratio of in-vehicle fatalities between types of car. In most cars, occupants have a 28% chance of death in a two-car collision. Center of gravity

An Opel Astra involved in a rollover crash. Some crash types tend to have more serious consequences, Rollovers have become more common in recent years, perhaps due to increased popularity of taller SUVs, people carriers, and minivans, which have a higher center of gravity than standard passenger cars. Rollovers can be fatal, especially if the occupants are ejected because they were not wearing seat belts (83% of ejections during rollovers were fatal when the driver did not wear a seat belt, compared to 25% when they did).[30] After a new design of Mercedes Benz notoriously failed a 'moose test' (sudden swerving to avoid an obstacle), some manufacturers enhance suspension using stability control linked to an anti-lock braking system to reduce the likelihood of rollover. After retrofitting these systems to its models in 19992000, Mercedes saw its models involved in fewer crashes[34] Now, about 40% of new US vehicles, mainly the SUVs, vans and pickup trucks that are more susceptible to rollover, are being produced with a lower center of gravity and enhanced suspension with stability control linked to its anti-lock braking system to reduce the risk of rollover and meet US federal requirements that mandate anti-rollover technology by September 2011.[35] Motorcycles Motorcyclists have little protection other than their clothing; this difference is reflected in the casualty statistics, where they are more than twice as likely to suffer severely after a collision. In 2005 there were 198,735 road crashes with 271,017 reported casualties on roads in Great Britain. This included 3,201 deaths (1.1%) and 28,954 serious injuries (10.7%) overall. Of these casualties 178,302 (66%) were car users and 24,824 (9%) were motorcyclists, of whom 569 were killed (2.3%) and 5,939 seriously injured (24%).[36]

Prevention
A large body of knowledge has been amassed on how to prevent car crashes, and reduce the severity of those that do occur. See Road Traffic Safety.

United Nations response

Owing to the global and massive scale of the issue, with predictions that by 2020 road traffic deaths and injuries will exceed HIV/AIDS as a burden of death and disability,[37] the United Nations and its

subsidiary bodies have passed resolutions and held conferences on the issue. The first United Nations General Assembly resolution and debate was in 2003[38] The World Day of Remembrance for Road Traffic Victims was declared in 2005. In 2009 the first high level ministerial conference on road safety was held in Moscow. The World Health Organization, a specialized agency of the United Nations Organization, in its Global Status Report on Road Safety 2009, states that over 90% of the worlds fatalities on the roads occur in low-income and middle-income countries, which have only 48% of the worlds registered vehicles, and predicts that road traffic injuries will rise to become the fifth leading cause of death

CAUSES,EFFECTS AND SOLUTIONS OF ROAD ACCIDENTS.

Road accidents is a global tragedy with ever raising trend.They are common fare in our daily news as we see these accidents happen almost everyday.Accidents are generally classified as single vehicle either colliding with fixed objects or multiple vehicle accidents in which two or more vehicle can collide head-on.Most people continue to be negligent and ignore the dangers involved in their driving and so,these accidents happen. Carelessness is one of the cause of road accidents in our country.Under carelessness, we have various examples which include,using a handheld mobile telephone while the vehicle is moving,driving through the red light,emerging from a side road into the path of another vehicle. Lack of experience and licencing untrained drivers (that is those without the knowledge of road signs) and also those with the blur eye sight who drive at night is one of the major cause of escalating accidents rate in this country. Drunkeness.Most drivers drive under the influence of alcohol,intoxicated substances and under stress caused by economic or family problems which because of the state of mind affect them causing road accidents.According to Dr. Lawrence Edusei, A Pathologist, from Korle-bu Teaching Hospital,In the year 2006, most drivers had high percentages of blood alcohol (ranging from 300-383/100ml), which is far above the accepted level of 2.43/100ml. This is enough to cause motor accidents. Also,Lack of sensitivity and responsibility on the part of state authorities to look into situations on the roads like mal-functioning traffic lights.It shows that human sensibility and life respecting emotions of state authorities have been dulled and desentilized on our roads.It is a sad reflection of deterioration in the effectiveness and debility of governance in the country. In addition,Disregarding of road signs and warning signs.Some drivers are more concerned of getting to their destination than of how they would get there.These drivers violate road signs and laws just to get to where they are going. Issues that need to be considered in order to curb accidents are policies made by the government to make sure that roads are well constructed and maintained.

There should be strategies that will eliminate corruption at the D.V.L.A to make sure the right thing is done.Thats issuing of fake driving licence and also licence to individuals who havnt gone through the driving test by th D.V.L.A. Passengers should also be vigilant enough to check drivers when they are overspeeding and driving under the influence of alcohol.Police men and women should help in playing major role to check drivers do the right thing to eliminate road accidents. Enforcements of appropriate legislation to make sure that all commercial and private drivers are well trained before they attain driving license to drive on the streets. The Ghana Police should also make sure that all broken down vehicles are towed off the streets. The urgency and the need for action lies in the fact that every nations best resources are its people.When road accidents are taken cognisance of, the cost of police and fire personnels responding to accidents will be reduced and productive time will be saved.