The Impact of our Environment on Concrete Durability

Mr. Charles T. Kidd President Director P.T. Sika Indonesia.

Key Trends and Considerations

1. Concrete is the number one building material in the world. It is estimated that a ton of concrete is produced annually for every human being on earth. The key factors which have mitigated, over the years, the unprecedented use of concrete in our structures are i) lower cost and ii) its inherent durability factors. From an engineering perspective both reinforced and prestressed concrete have been accepted from the standpoint of engineering behaviour; both materials can be used to give satisfactory performance under loading conditions encountered in a structures normal service life. If we consider marine structures, properly maintained, we would normally consider the design service life to be in the range of 35 to 50 years. 2. It is estimated that the human population is expected to grow to more than six billion by the end of the 20th Century. Improvements in living conditions around the world have not kept pace with this increase of population. To improve the standard of living, the search for solutions has already initiated a focus on the exploitation of coastal and undersea energy and mineral resources. The result of this trend could be that the infrastructures that we so greatly depend upon to sustain a growing population will be unable to provide the necessary service life as a result of a direct correlation to the impact of the marine environment on the durability of our structures. The result of reduced service life of critical infrastructures implies greater cost in maintenance and shorter Return on Investment considerations.

As we consider the above trends, 1) continued increased use of concrete 2) growing population demanding greater infrastructure development and 3) continued migration to coastal areas, they present clear and tangible challenges to our planners and builders. However, when we introduce the impact of the Environment we open up another dimension which requires equal consideration at the beginning of the development program rather than as a consideration at the end of the project. In the context of Indonesia we are faced with an even greater challenge when considering environmental impact on our concrete structures. We are an Island Nation. Our cities, our basic infrastructures are all exposed to a marine environment within a tropical zone, issues we need to understand as well as begin developing preventative measures to sustain our future infrastructure inventory. If we wish to implement preventative measures we need to better understand and conduct a full prognosis of the key elements. Not unlike the medical Doctor that runs his prognosis of his patient before making the proper recommendations for the cure. Understanding the Root Cause of the patients ailment or in our case the concrete structures deterioration gives us the necessary information to repair as well as create preventative measure to extend the life and service life of our new structures.

Concrete Durability
With minimum maintenance costs a concrete structure should be functional without major limitations for its projected service life. Projected service life is a function of concrete durability. Concrete durability is a function of its resistance to external influences. External influences i.e. exposure to liquids and gases demands a reduction in the capillary pore volume thereby creating a dense cement matrix. Initially concretes RESISTANCE is determined by: Concrete Mix Design Workability Placing Curing

The three elements of concrete resistance workability, placing and curing have a major impact on the durability of concrete. Low slump or low workable concrete makes it impractical to consolidate concrete without excessive vibrating etc. which leads to segregation and less durable concrete. Improper placing methods of concrete and the lack of, or, improper curing of insitu-concrete can also lead to less durable concrete. However, the first element of concrete resistance is the concrete mix design and the key element is the WATER: CEMENT / BINDER RATIO (W:C). To understand the impact of the W:C is to understand the reduction in porosity or conversely the increased density of the concrete and this relationship to the overall durability of the concrete.

Concrete Porosity
Within the matrix of concrete we deal with three types of pores 1. Air Pores: occur naturally in concrete and occupy approximately 1% of concrete volume 2. Capillary Pores: occur as a result of the cement hydration process (and inversely the W:C) 3. Gel Pores: occur as a result of the cement hydration process (and inversely the W:C) In a perfect world we assume that the majority of concrete is placed at a W:C of approximately .45 - .5 (i.e. 200 kg of water and 400 kg of cement). It is also understood that for cement to hydrate it requires only a W:C of .20 - .25 which means the excessive or Free water only factors in to help facilitate the workability and placing constraints we typically face with low slump or very low W:C concrete. It is this Free Water which directly relates to porosity and the density of the concrete and ultimately to the durability of the concrete. Lets take a closer look at the dynamics of cement hydration and porosity. 1. Capillary Water: Immediately after the gauging / mix water is added to the concrete the grains and particles of the concrete matrix form a series of connected cavities that are filled with water. 2. Until its complete hydration, cement is able to bind chemically a quantity of water corresponding to approximately 25% of its volume. 3. Because of its chemical bond the water losses approximately 25% of its volume

4. In addition to the chemically bound water, cement binds approximately 15% of its weight loosely as GEL WATER. Gel Water evaporates completely in dry air or in the drying oven at 105C but despite this loose bond it is NOT able to react with non-hydrated cement. 5. The reaction products of cement and water consist of a solid cohesive mass of a constant nature known as the CEMENT GEL. As a result of the volatility of the GEL WATER and after thorough drying, approximately 25% of the volume of the CEMENT GEL is taken up by very fine distributed pores (GEL PORES) 6. The total porosity (CAPILLARY and GEL PORES) of the hardened concrete determines its density / strength. The challenge is to find the balance between workability, placing with a mix design that maintains a proper W:C. The addition of more water to improve workability adversely impacts the density / porosity of the concrete thereby lowering its ultimate strength and its durability. Recall that we defined concrete durability as a function of its resistance to external influences. External influences i.e. exposure to liquids and gases demands a reduction in the capillary pore volume thereby creating a dense cement matrix. We of course can improve our overall mix design and improve durability / resistance to the environment through the use of Water reducing admixtures Addition of liquid polymers Addition of reactive pozzolans (microsilicas) As previously mentioned, if this were a perfect world we should be in a position to design and build structures that should last their design service life albeit 35 or 100 years, but unfortunately this is not the case.

Concrete Deterioration
Why then is repair of our concrete structures necessary and within a relative short period of time? The deficiency may be structural, architectural or environmental. To understand the environmental impact on concrete we have to understand the three fundamental weaknesses of concrete 1. Low tensile strengths: seldom exceeds 10% of compressive strength 2. Low flexural strengths and, as previously discussed 3. Concrete is porous (factor of the W:C ratio). The tensile and flexural properties are dealt with at the design stage with the introduction of steel reinforcing. With the introduction of steel reinforcing we now have a fourth variable, corrosion and we need to understand corrosions involvement in the complex equation that is concrete deterioration. By definition, corrosion is, The degradation of a metal by an electrochemical reaction with its environment. The spontaneous process whereby an anodic reaction and a corresponding cathodic reaction takes place on the same metallic component in an electrolyte leading to the production of metal ionic species. For corrosion to proceed, both the anodic reaction and the cathodic reaction must be thermodynamically capable

of proceeding and must balance (i.e. equal number of electrons must be produced and consumed).

CORROSION MECHANISM

Simply put, for corrosion to occur the Corrosion Cell made up of the Anode Cathode Electrolyte must occur simultaneously. Omit one and the corrosion process will stop. The result of steel corrosion is an expansive reaction typified by the creation of Rust. We also have to understand the dynamics of corrosion, the degradation of a metal by an electrochemical reaction with its environment. The key environmental factors affecting the corrosion rate are 1. 2. 3. 4. Moisture Oxygen Temperature Pollutants acids etc.

When we marry the above elements, concrete and steal reinforcing , into our structures we inadvertently create a system that is open to concrete deterioration. However, by themselves these two elements, concrete and steel, create a natural protection against corrosion.

PROTECTION OF STEEL IN CONCRETE

Concrete pH 12.5 - 13.5 Reinforcing Steel Passivating Layer (iron oxide ~1nm) Akaline Environment Protects Reinforcing Steel from Corrosion

The concretes high alkaline environment (pH 12.5 13.5) surrounding the reinforcing steel creates an iron oxide passivating layer thereby separating the anode and cathode located on the steel reinforcing from the electrolyte (concrete matrix) thus stopping the corrosion cell. When we introduce a third element to the equation, an environmental element, we begin to find the major Root Cause of concrete deterioration. The two major environmental influences impacting the durability of our concrete structures are Aggressive gases: mainly carbon dioxide (CO) Chlorides. (For the purpose of this paper I will focus primarily on the influence of chlorides.)

Chlorides
In general, concrete deterioration, and its propagation, is intrinsic to the environmental impact related to the break down of the naturally occurring passivating layer surrounding the reinforcing steel. Keeping in mind that the passivating layer is directly related to the high alkalinity of the surrounding concrete; lower the pH and you create an environment for corrosion leading to concrete deterioration.

Sika M&NE

2 4

Construction

CHLORIDES +

WATER -Chloride Solution (permeability) -Chloride Vapour Diffusion

CHLORIDES attack HYDROGEN IONS (passivating layer) HYDROCHLORIC ACID Lowering of the pH below 10

CONCRETE CORROSION

P.T. Sika Indonesia

With the ingress of chlorides via chloride solutions or vapour diffusion (using the existing pore structure of the concrete to penetrate to the level of the reinforcing steel) the pH of the surrounding concrete is eventually lowered to below a pH of 10. The ensuing chemical reaction depletes the passivating layer allowing the corrosion cell (anode, cathode and electrolyte) to be complete and the on set of corrosion begins. It is also imperative that we understand that chloride penetration and diffusion can begin immediately upon the exposure of the insitu concrete to the surrounding environment. The ingress of chlorides is also greatly facilitated by the relatively small molecular size of the chloride ion. If carbonation is the cancer of concrete then chlorides are the H1N1 of concrete; it can quickly spread to epidemic proportions.

CHLORIDE INDUCED CORROSION The Corrosion Cell With Cathodic Site much larger than anodic site rapid corrosion occurs A pit occurs at the anodic site

We have already discussed that concrete tensile strengths are only 10% of the compressive strength and when the expansive nature of the corrosion cell (rust) exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete a crack will occur. The crack will act as a clear conduit for further ingress of chlorides and a rapid deterioration of the concrete resulting

in loss of concrete cover and steel cross section. Both of which can lead to structural failure.
Severe loss of cross section may ultimately occur

It is important to point out, as previously mentioned, that the environmental factors that affect the rate of corrosion are moisture, oxygen, temperature and pollutants. Meaning that the higher the ambient temperature in countries with warm climates i.e. Indonesia, results in a much higher rate of corrosion in steel than in more temperate climates. Given Indonesias extensive coast line and the exposure to both water and air borne chlorides we are in a very high risk environment conducive to high rates of corrosion and concrete deterioration. Even with the undertaking of traditional concrete repair to areas exhibiting the impact of chloride contamination and concrete deterioration the insitu chlorides will have a continued negative influence through the formation of Incipient Anodes

The Formation of Incipient Anodes After patch repairs incipient anodes are formed due to the Switching of anodes

Corrosion at +ve Anode

Steel is made non-corroding -ve cathode +ve anode areas adjacent to repair

By better understanding the Root Cause of the deterioration of our concrete structures we can better design our structures to resist the impact of the environment. It also allows a better understanding of how to repair and protect existing concrete structures to ensure both functionality and structural integrity over a longer period of time. If I return to the metaphor of the medical Doctor and concrete deterioration; having completed a proper diagnostics, determining the concrete deterioration is as a result of chloride contamination, we must conclude that the Root Cause is the ingress of chlorides. The resulting symptom, as a result of the ingress of chlorides, is eventual concrete deterioration. Therefore, when we address concrete repair we cant look only at the symptom and repair the concrete we must address the Root Cause. By understanding the Root Cause we can address both new concrete structures as well as existing concrete structures in order to extend their respective service lives.

Typical chloride corrosion and concrete deterioration in a marine structure There are many ways to reduce the environmental impact on our concrete structures. We already addressed several of these issues at the outset of this paper i.e. proper mix design, lower W:C, improved workability, placing and most importantly curing of the concrete. However, we must still appreciate that given our best concrete technology and the inherent issues surrounding the placement of insitu concrete we cannot dismiss the fact that concrete is still very much exposed to the rigors of the environment which will eventually lead to concrete deterioration. Traditionally we have followed a rather simple corrosion model that brought our structures to the limit of their service life and then invested heavily into the repair of the structure to extend the service life. This incurs heavy costs and possible complete shut down of the structure during the repair process. There are other options. Routine, yearly, visual inspections of most concrete structures will generally identify hot areas of potential deterioration which can usually be addressed at a much lower cost without the inconvenience of shutting down the entire structure. Simple maintenance such as cleaning, opening blocked drainage areas etc. will also ensure a longer service life for most concrete structures. We can see this process in the Pro-Active maintenance corrosion model.

Repair and Maintenance Simplified Corrosion Model Re-active Maintenance

Repair

Micro cracking

Micro cracking

Corrosion control technique

Initiation PropagationDeterioration

Propagation

Deterioration

Repair & Maintenance Simplified Corrosion Model Pro-active Maintenance

Corrosion control technique & monitoring

Initiation

Propagation

Deterioration

It is critical that we dont forget our previous discussion on Root Cause (relative to the ingress of chlorides) leading to concrete deterioration and reduction of service life. As we address our service life expectations of new structures, taking into account the environment, we should include in our discussion protective coatings, impregnations, corrosion inhibitors etc. that will effectively reduce the ingress of chlorides, thereby, extending the service life of the structure and reducing the future investments in repair and protecti

Repair, Protection with Corrosion Inhibitors

Our discussion has evolved around the environmental impact of chloride ingress into our concrete structures and the impact on service life. This is not a losing battle, there is much that can be done to extend the service life of our concrete structures. First, we must accept the fact that we are facing a major challenge and that we understand the key issues related to concrete deterioration, the Root Cause. Then we look at viable alternatives to existing standards that will help increase the service life of both new and existing structures such as 1. 2. 3. 4. Adequate concrete cover and proper mix designs Good Quality Concrete: low W:C Protective Coatings Admixed or Surface Applied Corrosion Inhibitors

Through the use of coatings and corrosion inhibitors we can significantly extend the service life of our concrete structures. The extent of improvement is directly correlated to the quality of the existing concrete and the degree of protection afforded to the structure.

Service Life Model

Observations Concrete is the number one building material More and more of our concrete structures will be influenced by coastal or marine environments. Concrete has key weaknesses, low tensile strengths and porous Environmental conditions, moisture / humidity, oxygen, temperature and pollutants are directly related to the deterioration and reduction of service life of our concrete structures.

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 Chlorides are a leading contributor to the deterioration of our concrete structures. There are existing technologies that can help in reducing the impact of environmental influences thus extending the service life of both new and existing concrete structures. The climate (high temperature) and extensive marine environment (availability of chlorides) of Indonesia suggests that we are in a very aggressive environment. Immediate attention must be given to the environmental impact if we are to maintain our new and existing concrete structures within a reasonable service life. Conclusions The environment plays a significant roll in the durability / service life of our concrete structures. Either through naturally occurring chlorides or the introduction of carbon dioxide into the air, their impact on concrete durability has been clearly defined and documented. If we are to continue to make major investments in our existing and future infrastructures without considering the issues of concrete durability / service life, it is like making a very bad investment with little or no return. Today, governments and the private sector are aware of the cost of development and are looking very closely at the Return on the Investment. If we ignore environmental factors as the Root Cause and we dont address these issues we will find ourselves in a relatively short period of time dealing with the cost of restoration exceeding the initial cost of construction. We have the technology to address our current situation. The cost of protective coatings can range from between 3.00 US$ - 8.00 US$ / M and for corrosion inhibitors 2.50 US$ - 5.00 US$ / M. On any major infrastructure or commercial project this would translate into a very small percent of the overall cost and yet the return would be significant in terms of service life extension and reduced maintenance costs. As designers, consultants, owners and contractors we need to start immediately to focus on the environmental issues, the Root Causes of concrete deterioration if we want these structures to meet our service life expectations of 35 50 years.

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TABLE OF CONTENT 1. Abdelrazig, Dr. Baha: Corrosion of R.C. Structures, Causes and Possible Remedies: Sika R.T.S.C Malaysia 2005. 2. Batis, George; Pantazopoulou, Paraskevi: Advantage of the Simultaneous use of Corrosion Inhibitors and Inorganic Coatings; National Technical University of Athens, Greece, Cement and Concrete Technology 2000. 3. Mehta, P. Kuhmar; Concrete in the Marine Environment; Taylor and Francis Group. 4. Tsinker, Gregory P; Marine Structure Engineering, Chapman and Hall. 5. Wolfsehar and Partners AG; SikaFerroGard 903 Corrosion Inhibitor Material Technology Test., March 1997. I would also like to recognize information provided through the Sika Technical Services which has been gathered over the years as supporting documentation in support of the development of new technologies for the repair, protection with corrosion inhibitors system approach.

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Presenter: Nationality: Current Position: Post Graduate:

Mr. Charles Thomas Kidd; BA, MBA Canadian Managing Director of P.T. Sika Indonesia Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, ExMBA

Mr. Kidd has been active in the field of concrete and concrete repair and protection for over thirty (30) years. For the last twenty-six years he has worked for the Sika Group (the leader in construction chemicals) in Canada, Egypt, the Middle and Near East, Singapore and for the last three years, Indonesia. Mr. Kidd has lectured through out Canada, Middle East and Southeast Asia on many aspects related to concrete and concrete restoration and protection. Mr. Kidd is currently residing in Jakarta and is active in the Indonesian Canadian Chamber of Commerce(ICCC) in developing a stronger and better understanding of the many challenges facing the Indonesian market and business person. Mr. Kidd is also an avid golfer and scuba diver and as such Indonesia offers great opportunities for both endeavors.

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