CONTENT:

1. The term DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING and Design for ! ". A#stra$t %. Introd&$tion %.1 'istor( %." S$o)e of DFM %.% *asi$ )rin$i)+es of DFM %., DFM G&ide+ines %.- DFM a))roa$h %.. *enefits of DFM ,. Con$+&sion -. Referen$es

/ 1. The term DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING!

A ma0or )art of the )rod&$t1s $ost 2 a#o&t 3456 is $ommitted at the design stage. The de$isions arri7ed at this stage great+( inf+&en$e the ease or hardshi) 8ith 8hi$h s&#se9&ent a$ti7ities of )rod&$t de7e+o)ment and man&fa$t&ring are $arried o&t. The design de$isions a+so inf+&en$e other a$ti7ities d&ring the +ife of )rod&$t &) to re$($+ing it. Reorienting the design )ro$ess so as to ma:e these a$ti7ities d&ring the )rod&$t de7e+o)ment and )rod&$t +ife $($+es is referred as Design for X (DFX), X refers to a number of factors such as Manufacture Assembl Mass customi!ation "ualit Cost #afet #er$iceabilit En$ironment etc

The term DF ; Design for e<$e++en$e; in7o+7e the designer 8ith other f&n$tiona+ de)artments; s&$h as mar:eting; man&fa$t&ring and engineering ser7i$es; 7ia Con$&rrent Engineering 2CE6 methods. In fa$t; DF is often $onsidered as a s&#set 2Di7ision6 of CE. Sin$e the other de)artments in7o+7e themse+7es at the ear+( stages of design and he+) designers to dete$t and $orre$t f+o8s; s&$h a CE en7ironment is in$reasing+( #eing referred as Co++a#orati7e Engineering. DF $an #e defined as a knowledge-based approach that attempts to design products that maximize all desirable characteristics-such as high-quality, reliability, serviceability, safety, user friendliness, environmental friendliness, and short-time-tomarket in a product design while at the same time minimizing lifetime costs, including manufacturing costs. As 8e are main+( $on$erned 8ith DFM on+(; the ma0or o#0e$ti7e of it is to ens&re that the )rod&$t 2in$+&ding materia+ se+e$tion6 and the )ro$ess are designed together. In the #roadest sense; DFM in$+&des an( ste); method or s(stem that )ro7ides a )rod&$t design that eases the tas: of man&fa$t&ring and +o8ers the man&fa$t&ring $ost. DFM is a :no8+edge #ased te$hni9&e that in7o+7es a series of g&ide+ines; )rin$i)+es; re$ommendations or r&+es of th&m# for designing a )rod&$t so that it is eas( to ma:e. The )rimar( o#0e$ti7e of DFM is TO IM=RO>E MANUFACTURA*I?IT@.

DFM in$+&des detai+ed e<aminations of design so that it is most easi+( and ine<)ensi7e+( man&fa$t&red #( the intended )ro$ess.

% &' (NT)OD*CT(ON
Designing )arts for &se in a f+e<i#+e a&tomation s(stem $an ha7e )rofo&nd res&+ts on the o7era++ effe$ti7eness of the s(stem. Ahi+e sim)+( attem)ting to a&tomate the assem#+( of e<isting designs is )ossi#+e; the res&+ting o)eration is often )rone to error and $ontin&a+ fai+&re. More than often; the root of man( of the )ro#+ems $an #e tra$ed #a$: to the )arts and assem#+( )ro$ed&res #eing &sed. Design for man&fa$t&re and assem#+( 2DFMA6 is the )ro$ess #( 8hi$h designs and assem#+( se9&en$es and )ro$ed&res are a+tered to in$rease the ease and effe$ti7eness of a&tomated assem#+(. 'o8e7er; a))+(ing this a))roa$h to a&tomation re9&ires a )aradigm shift in the a))roa$h to man&fa$t&ring if it is to #e effe$ti7e.

In the )ast; design and man&fa$t&re tas:s ha7e #een )erformed inde)endent+(. In this s$enario; the designer designs a )rod&$t and BBtosses it o7er the 8a++11 to the man&fa$t&rer to )rod&$e. There is no intera$tion #et8een the designer and man&fa$t&rer and often 8hat res&+ts is a design that is diffi$&+t to )rod&$e &sing a&tomation. Ahat is re9&ired is a $o++a#oration #et8een a++ as)e$ts of the engineering staff; #eginning 8ith )rod&$t $on$e)tion a++ the 8a( thro&gh de+i7er(. *( ta))ing into the e<)ertise of a++ engineering areas 2design; a&tomation; man&fa$t&ring; ...6; an e9&a++( f&n$tiona+ and high 9&a+it( design 8i++ res&+t; #&t it 8i++ #e m&$h easier to re+ia#+( man&fa$t&re in an a&tomated s(stem. In )ra$ti$e; this a))roa$h is often diffi$&+t to im)+ement; es)e$ia++( if the )rod&$t designers are em)+o(ed #( one s&#C$ontra$tor; the ma$hine #&i+ders #( another; and the ra8 $om)onents man&fa$t&red #( a third. 'o8e7er; time s)ent #( a++ in7o+7ed )arties in m&t&a+ $ons&+tation at the design )hase 8i++ far o&t 8eigh an( in$on7enien$es.

Man( times the o#0e$tions to this a))roa$h to man&fa$t&ring $omes from the designers and those in mar:eting 8ho ha7e a )re$on$ei7ed idea that the( 8i++ +ose $ontro+. Their )re+iminar( 0o# f&n$tion is to )rod&$e a )rod&$t that the $ons&mers 8i++ desire. 'o8e7er; this notion is often in error. The :no8+edge gained into the man&fa$t&ring )ro$ess 8i++ far o&t8eigh an( i++ effe$ts. Ma:ing a )art more man&fa$t&ra#+e does not a+8a(s mean a $om)+ete redesign. A+terations in )art designs do not ha7e to #e drasti$. For e<am)+e; on+( a s+ight redistri#&tion of mass ma( #e ne$essar( to im)ro7e the )ro#a#i+it( of a )arti$&+ar sta#+e rest )osition; there#( im)ro7ing f+e<i#+e feeder thro&gh)&t. Or a s+ight shifting of a 7ision registration fid&$ia+ $an #e s&ffi$ient to )ro7ide an as(mmetr( 8hi$h $an #e &sed to determine )ose. Or a +arger $hamfer $an 7ast+( im)ro7e the re+ia#i+it( of an assem#+( tas:. These t()es of
3

sma++ $hanges to a design $an ha7e a ma0or im)a$t on the 9&a+it( and ease of a&tomated man&fa$t&re.

Ahi+e man( g&ide+ines and )ro$ed&res ha7e #een de7e+o)ed in the )ast; man( of these g&ide+ines are not dire$t+( a))+i$a#+e to f+e<i#+e ro#oti$ assem#+(. M&$h of the )re7io&s 8or: has #een s)e$ifi$ to man&a+ assem#+(. It is the )&r)ose of this $ha)ter to first re7ie8 the histor( of DFMA; to )resent r&+es and g&ide+ines s)e$ifi$ to f+e<i#+e ro#oti$ assem#+(; and then to $om)are and $ontrast #et8een the )re7io&s g&ide+ines and the ones )resented here. Ahi+e there are man( &+timate goa+s of design; ranging from ease of assem#+( to ease of disassem#+( and re$($+ing; it is the )&r)ose of this $ha)ter to e<amine three areas of design 8hi$h ha7e a dire$t im)a$t on the s&$$ess of a f+e<i#+e assem#+( s(stem. Name+(; design for assem#+(; feeding; and 7ision registration.

%.1 'ISTOR@

In the +ate 1D-41s and ear+( 1D.41s; $om)anies #egan to rea+iEe that the $&rrent design methodo+ogies and )aradigms 8ere not 7er( a))+i$a#+e to the ne8 st(+e of a&tomated man&fa$t&ring. In )arti$&+ar; ro#oti$ and re)rogramma#+e man&fa$t&ring s(stems had man( different $on$erns and re9&irements than those of )re7io&s (ears. From this rea+iEation; $om)anies #egan )rod&$ing g&ide+ines 8hi$h $o&+d #e &sed to enhan$e the design of their )rod&$ts in re+ation to their man&fa$t&ra#i+it( and assem#+a#i+it(. One of the ear+iest 8or:s dea+ing e<$+&si7e+( 8ith this to)i$ 8as )rod&$ed #( Genera+ E+e$tri$ and 8as $a++ed the anufacturing !roducibility "andbook F3"G. Thro&gho&t the 1D.41s and 1DH41s; a +ot of interna+ resear$h 8as done inde)endent+( #( man( $om)anies that rea+iEed the need to stream+ine their designs and )ro$esses for the e7o+7ing )aradigm in man&fa$t&ring. *( the 1D341s the $on$e)t of design for man&fa$t&ring and assem#+( 8as #eing em#ra$ed #( man( $om)anies. D&ring this time; man( of the )re7io&s+(Cdetermined r&+es 8ere #eing 9&antified and )rogrammed into $om)&ters for a&tomated ana+(sis of designs. D&ring the 1DD41s; more em)hasis has #een )+a$ed on designing not on+( for man&fa$t&re; #&t for the 8ho+e +ife of the )rod&$t in$+&dingI man&fa$t&re; ser7i$e; re)air; and; &+timate+(; disassem#+( and re$($+a#i+it(. Thro&gho&t this entire e7o+&tion; ho8e7er; the #asi$ )remise of designing a )rod&$t for ease of assem#+( has #een $onstant+( &)dated as the methods and te$hni9&es of man&fa$t&ring ha7e $hanged. There are genera++( three different methods of em)+o(ing some t()e of a design for man&fa$t&ra#i+it( )ro$ess to a )rod&$t. The first method des$ri#ed #e+o8 8as the one 8hi$h 8as initia++( &sed. It is the fo++o8ing of a genera+ set of r&+es or g&ide+ines. These r&+es genera++( are not 9&antitati7e in nat&re and re9&ire a h&man to inter)ret and a))+( to ea$h s)e$ifi$ and &ni9&e $ase. Ahi+e this is a m&$h #etter $ase than 0&st
4

#+ind+( starting ea$h design from s$rat$h; it does re9&ire some s:i++ and :no8+edge on the )art of the designer to $orre$t+( inter)ret and a))+( the r&+es. The se$ond method; for8arded #( *oothro(d and De8h&rst F3%G; em)+o(s a 9&antitati7e ana+(sis of the design. Ea$h )art of the design is rated 8ith a n&meri$ 7a+&e de)ending on its man&fa$t&ra#i+it(. The n&m#ers are s&mmed for the entire design and the res&+ting 7a+&e is &sed as a g&ide to the o7era++ 9&a+it( of the design. The )rod&$t is then redesigned; &sing the n&meri$a+ 7a+&es as a goa+ to #e minimiEed. *( $on$entrating on areas of the design that $ontri#&te hea7i+( to the o7era++ s$ore; the effe$ts of the redesign $an #e ma<imiEed. This again; ho8e7er; re9&ires m&$h insight and :no8+edge on the )art of the designer. The third; and most re$ent de7e+o)ment in this area; is in the a&tomation of the entire )ro$ess. *( &sing a $om)&ter; 9&antitati7e ana+(sis $an #e a))+ied to the design. Then #( #&i+ding an e<)ert s(stem in the $om)&ter em)+o(ing the genera+ design r&+es; a s(stem $an #e de7e+o)ed 8hi$h $an ana+(Ee a design and then o)timiEe it #( re)eated+( a))+(ing the r&+es and e7a+&ating the 9&a+it( at ea$h iteration. This +ast a))roa$h is sti++ in its infan$(; ho8e7er; as the a))+i$ation of genera+ r&+es to indi7id&a+ designs is a diffi$&+t and inherent+( 9&a+itati7e )ro$ess. It is this t()e of s(stem that 8i++ &+timate+( a++o8 the designer to $on$ei7e of a design; enter it into the $om)&ter; and then o7ersee the e7o+&tion of the design as the $om)&ter tries man( 7ariations in sear$h of the BB#est11 design. No8 that a genera+ histor( of design for man&fa$t&re and an e<amination of the genera+ )ro$ess has #een )resented; the rest of this se$tion 8i++ e<amine a fe8 s)e$ifi$ $ases of the $reation and a))+i$ation of DFMAJ. It is; ho8e7er; diffi$&+t to e<amine a++ the r&+es and g&ide+ines )re7io&s+( determined; sin$e the( are so n&mero&s. Genera++( 8hat 8i++ #e e<amined is the o7era++ )i$t&re of the t()es of g&ide+ines rather than s)e$ifi$ r&+es themse+7es. *oothro(d De8h&rst; In$. 2*DI6 8as the first $om)an( fo&nded 8hose )rimar( ser7i$e 8as design for man&fa$t&re. In fa$t; the no8 $ommon +etters BBDFMA11 are a$t&a++( a trademar: of the $om)an(. *eginning in the ear+( 1DH41s; Geoffre( *oothro(d #egan 8or: on an ana+(ti$a+ too+ for re7ie8ing a design. The $om)an( 8as formed in 1D3" as a res&+t of the de7e+o)ment of the soft8are 8hi$h 8o&+d )erform the ana+(ti$a+ ana+(sis. Sin$e that time; the $om)an( has e<)anded their )rod&$ts to in$+&de a++ sorts of BBdesign for11 )rod&$ts. C&rrent+( the( offer )rograms to he+) 8ith the design of $ir$&it #oards F3,G; 8ith man&a+ assem#+(; 8ith ro#oti$ assem#+(; and 8ith ma$hining. The( a+so do a +ot of 8or: e<amining the e$onomi$ 0&stifi$ation of ea$h design re7ision. There are man( #oo:s and arti$+es des$ri#ing the design g&ide+ines and goa+s )resented F3-G F3.GF3HG. *DI a+so tea$hes man( $+asses on design for man&fa$t&re at $om)anies a++ o7er the 8or+d. S$arr; Ka$:son; and M$Master F33G; in 1D3.; $om)i+ed a +ist of o7er .4 r&+es and g&ide+ines to #e &sed in the design of )rod&$ts for a&tomated assem#+(. Man( of these r&+es 8ere g+eaned from the e7er #&rgeoning s&))+( of )a)ers and $onferen$e
5

)ro$eedings on the s&#0e$t. The )&r)ose of the )a)er 8as to e<amine the ne$essar( information to )resent to a designer and to determine an effe$ti7e method of )resenting that information. The )a)er $on$entrated on the de7e+o)ment of design r&+es 8hi$h are a))ro)riate to ro#oti$ and a&tomated assem#+(. S)rag&e F3DG; des$ri#es the design for man&fa$t&ra#i+it( st&dies and endea7ors &nderta:en at NCR d&ring the 1D341s. In 1D3"; NCR #egan a forma+ )rogram on im)+ementing design for man&fa$t&ra#i+it( thro&gho&t its o)eration. *( 1D3D; the )rogram had #een offi$ia++( named as Design for E<$e++en$e 2DF 6. The $om)an( des$ri#ed DF as ##$ontinuous improvement in concurrent product and manufacturing process development to focus developers% attention from the beginning on all key product lifecycle considerations such as customer requirements, quality, time to market, cost of ownership, and operational complexity.%% As an e<am)+e of the res&+ts of the initiati7e; the "H.4 retai+ termina+ 8as redesigned and $om)ared 8ith )re7io&s 7ersions. The res&+ts 8ere an 345 red&$tion in )arts and assem#+( time; a $om)+ete e+imination of s$re8s and assem#+( too+s; and a .D5 red&$tion in )arts s&))+iers. ATLT FD4G has an e<tensi7e $om)&ter ana+(sis )rogram 8hi$h ana+(Ees $ir$&it #oard designs for man&fa$t&ra#i+it( 8hi$h #egan in 1D3-. Sin$e that time; an e<tensi7e arra( of r&+es 2$om)rising o7er %4 $ategories6 has #een $om)i+ed. A $om)&ter )rogram has #een designed to a++o8 the design engineer to immediate+( see the a))+i$ation of the r&+es to his )arti$&+ar design. *eginning 8ith the se+e$tion of the a$t&a+ $om)onents the s(stem is &sed to a&tomati$a++( )o)&+ate the #oard a$$ording to the design r&+es. S)e$ia+iEed $om)onents ma( #e )+a$ed #( hand as needed. Thro&gho&t the entire )ro$ess 2$om)onent se+e$tion and )+a$ement; inter$onne$tion ro&ting; testa#i+it(; and man&fa$t&ra#i+it(6; the soft8are $ontin&a++( monitors the design; f+agging an( areas that are in 7io+ation of design r&+es. Sin$e the #eginning of the DFM )rogram; time for the design and ana+(sis of a $ir$&it #oard dro))ed from se7era+ 8ee:s to %4C,- min&tes. In an attem)t to #egin to 9&antif( man( of the 9&a+itati7e design r&+es; Mim et a+. FD1G defined a 9&antitati7e metri$ for the feeda#i+it( of a )arti$&+ar )o+(gona+ )art #eing gras)ed #( a sim)+e; )ara++e+ 0a8 gri))er. A generi$ )arts feeder 8as designed in 8hi$h a f+at )ara++e+ 0a8 gri))er is &sed to reorient )arts on a horiEonta+ s&rfa$e. After reorientation; the )arts are in :no8n +o$ations on the $on7e(or #e+t. A metri$; BBFeeda#i+it(11; 8as de7e+o)ed to re+ate the design of the )art 8ith the amo&nt of 8or: re9&ired #( the feeder to get the )art into a :no8n orientation. Using this metri$; r&+es are form&+ated for )art a+teration 8hi$h $an in$rease the feeda#i+it(; there#( ma:ing the )art more s&ita#+e for &se in the feeder.

Another attem)t at a&tomating the a))+i$ation of man&fa$t&ra#i+it( design r&+es 8as dis$&ssed #( Mim FD"G. In this a))roa$h; rather than e<amining the design from the $om)onent to finished )rod&$t; the )ro)osed design 8as e<amined in re7erse. First; a $om)+eted design 8as s)e$ified and then ta:en a)art in the $om)&ter. Candidate assem#+( s$hemes 8ere then $reated #( re7ersing the ta:ing a)art )ro$ess. A $om)&ter )rogram; $a++ed BBRE>CENGE11 8as $reated 8hi$h $o&+d $om)&te )ossi#+e disassem#+( se9&en$es. After determining )ro#+em +o$ation in the design; a )ossi#+e redesign is s&ggested. One of the short$omings of this a))roa$h; ho8e7er; is the ina#i+it( to ana+(Ee a design as it is #eing $onstr&$ted. A $om)+ete design is re9&ired as the starting )oint of the )ro$ess. There ha7e #een se7era+ )&#+i$ations FD%GFD,GFD-G )rod&$ed #( the agi+e man&fa$t&ring team at Case Aestern Reser7e Uni7ersit( 8hi$h a+so des$ri#e design g&ide+ines. These g&ide+ines ha7e #een determined o7er se7era+ (ears of 8or:ing 8ith a$t&a+ )arts on a f+e<i#+e man&fa$t&ring s(stem. The( ha7e #een $entered on three main areas; design for feeding; 7ision; and assem#+(. It is from these initia+ ideas that this $ha)ter 8as 8ritten. In s&#se9&ent (ears; the idea of DFM and DFA 8ere e<tended to in$+&de other as)e$ts of #etter designs N in$+&ding design for maintenan$e; design for en7ironment; design for $ost; et$. Often; this a))+i$ation of CE is referred to as DF ; 8here is a 7aria#+e se+e$ted from the set Oman&fa$t&re; assem#+(; PQ. Ae sha++ restri$t o&r st&d( of man&fa$t&ring de$isions to those re+ated to fa#ri$ation and assem#+(. Man&fa$t&ring Fa#ri$ation O)erations Assem#+( O)erations

Materia+

Geometr(

To+eran$e

Fig&re 1. Effe$ts of design 2materia+s; geometr(; to+eran$es6 on man&fa$t&ring

%." SCO=E OF DFM

In a man&fa$t&ring organiEation; the $on$e)t of DFM $an #e &sedR a))+ied to fo++o8ing stages.

Ahen a ne8 )rod&$t is in the $on$e)t stage of )rod&$t de7e+o)ment N To o)timiEe man&fa$t&ra#i+it(.

D&ring the design stage; 8hen )rotot()es are #&i+t and 8hen fina+ dra8ings are #eing )re)ared N To ens&re that the dimensiona+ to+eran$es are rea+isti$.

D&ring the re7ie8 stage N To assist man&fa$t&ring engineers.

At the )rod&$tionC)+anning stage; 8hen se9&en$e of o)eration is #eing de$ided.

For g&idan$e of 7a+&e ana+(sis a$ti7ities )ro7iding )otentia+ for $ost im)ro7ements.

Ahen redesigning a )rod&$t N as a )art of )rod&$t im)ro7ement or &)grading.

Ahen re)+a$ing e<isting too+ing.

%.% *ASIC =RINCI=?ES OF DFM

SIM=?@CIT@I
Minim&m )arts; +east intri$ate sha)e; fe8er )re$ision ad0&stments; shortest man&fa$t&ring se9&en$e.

STANDARD MATERIA?S AND COM=ONENTSI

'e+)s in a7oiding too+ing and e9&i)ment in7estments N s)eeds the man&fa$t&ring $($+e.

STANDARDISED DESIGN OF =RODUCT ITSE?FI

It sim)+ifies )ro$ess $ontro+ and o)erator training N in7estment in too+ing and e9&i)ment red&$e

?I*ERA? TO?ERANCESI
A7oids e<tra $ost of )rod&$ing too tight to+eran$es N demanding s:i++ed 8or:er; )re$ision e9&i)ment.

USE OF MOST =ROCESSI*?E MATERIA?SI

TEAMAORM AIT' MANUFACTURING =ERSONNE?I

A>OIDANCE OF SECONDAR@ O=ERATIONS A'ERE>ER =OSSI*?EI

S&$h as de#&rring; ins)e$tion; heat treating; hand+ing; et$.

A>OID =ROCESS RESTRICTI>ENESSI

A++o8 man&fa$t&ring engineers as m&$h +atit&de as )ossi#+e in $hoosing a )ro$ess.

DESIGN TO A>OID RE=OSITIONING A'ERE>ER =OSSI*?EI

Design a )art so that as man( man&fa$t&ring o)erations $an #e )erformed 8itho&t re)ositioning it.

DESIGN TO USE GENERA? =UR=OSE RAT'ER T'AN S=ECIA? TOO?INGI

%., DFM GUIDE?INES

Design for Man&fa$t&ring 2DFM6 and design for assem#+( 2DFA6 are the integration of )rod&$t design and )ro$ess )+anning into one $ommon a$ti7it(. The goa+ is to design a )rod&$t that is easi+( and e$onomi$a++( man&fa$t&red. The im)ortan$e of designing for man&fa$t&ring is &nder+ined #( the fa$t that a#o&t H45 of man&fa$t&ring $osts of a )rod&$t 2$ost of materia+s; )ro$essing; and assem#+(6 are determined #( design de$isions; 8ith )rod&$tion de$isions 2s&$h as )ro$ess )+anning or ma$hine too+ se+e$tion6 res)onsi#+e for on+( "45. The heart of an( design for man&fa$t&ring s(stem is a gro&) of design )rin$i)+es or g&ide+ines that are str&$t&red to he+) the designer red&$e the $ost and diffi$&+t( of man&fa$t&ring an item. The fo++o8ing is a +isting of these r&+es. +' )e,uce the total number of -arts' The red&$tion of the n&m#er of )arts in a )rod&$t is )ro#a#+( the #est o))ort&nit( for red&$ing man&fa$t&ring $osts. ?ess )arts im)+ies +ess )&r$hases; in7entor(; hand+ing; )ro$essing time; de7e+o)ment time; e9&i)ment; engineering time; assem#+( diffi$&+t(; ser7i$e ins)e$tion; testing; et$. In genera+; it red&$es the +e7e+ of intensit( of a++ a$ti7ities re+ated to the )rod&$t d&ring its entire +ife. A )art that does not need to ha7e re+ati7e motion 8ith res)e$t to other )arts; does not ha7e to #e made of a different materia+; or that 8o&+d ma:e the assem#+( or ser7i$e of other )arts e<treme+( diffi$&+t or im)ossi#+e; is an e<$e++ent target for e+imination. Some a))roa$hes to )artC$o&nt red&$tion are #ased on the &se of oneC)ie$e str&$t&res and se+e$tion of man&fa$t&ring )ro$esses s&$h as in0e$tion mo+ding; e<tr&sion; )re$ision $astings; and )o8der meta++&rg(; among others. .' De$elo- a mo,ular ,esign' The &se of mod&+es in )rod&$t design sim)+ifies man&fa$t&ring a$ti7ities s&$h as ins)e$tion; testing; assem#+(; )&r$hasing; redesign; maintenan$e; ser7i$e; and so on. One reason is that mod&+es add 7ersati+it( to )rod&$t &)date in the redesign )ro$ess; he+) r&n tests #efore the fina+ assem#+( is )&t together; and a++o8 the &se of standard $om)onents to minimiEe )rod&$t 7ariations. 'o8e7er; the $onne$tion $an #e a +imiting fa$tor 8hen a))+(ing this r&+e. &' *se of stan,ar, com-onents'
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Standard $om)onents are +ess e<)ensi7e than $&stomCmade items. The high a7ai+a#i+it( of these $om)onents red&$es )rod&$t +ead times. A+so; their re+ia#i+it( fa$tors are 8e++ as$ertained. F&rthermore; the &se of standard $om)onents refers to the )rod&$tion )ress&re to the s&))+ier; re+ie7ing in )art the man&fa$t&re1s $on$ern of meeting )rod&$tion s$hed&+es. ,. Design -arts to be multi/functional' M&+tiCf&n$tiona+ )arts red&$e the tota+ n&m#er of )arts in a design; th&s; o#taining the #enefits gi7en in r&+e 1. Some e<am)+es are a )art to a$t as #oth an e+e$tri$ $ond&$tor and as a str&$t&ra+ mem#er; or as a heat dissi)ating e+ement and as a str&$t&ra+ mem#er. A+so; there $an #e e+ements that #esides their )rin$i)a+ f&n$tion ha7e g&iding; a+igning; or se+fCfi<t&ring feat&res to fa$i+itate assem#+(; andRor ref+e$ti7e s&rfa$es to fa$i+itate ins)e$tion; et$. 0' Design -arts for multi/use' In a man&fa$t&ring firm; different )rod&$ts $an share )arts that ha7e #een designed for m&+tiC&se. These )arts $an ha7e the same or different f&n$tions 8hen &sed in different )rod&$ts. In order to do this; it is ne$essar( to identif( the )arts that are s&ita#+e for m&+tiC&se. For e<am)+e; a++ the )arts &sed in the firm 2)&r$hased or made6 $an #e sorted into t8o gro&)sI the first $ontaining a++ the )arts that are &sed $ommon+( in a++ )rod&$ts. Then; )art fami+ies are $reated #( defining $ategories of simi+ar )arts in ea$h gro&). The goa+ is to minimiEe the n&m#er of $ategories; the 7ariations 8ithin the $ategories; and the n&m#er of design feat&res 8ithin ea$h 7ariation. The res&+t is a set of standard )art fami+ies from 8hi$h m&+tiC&se )arts are $reated. After organiEing a++ the )arts into )art fami+ies; the man&fa$t&ring )ro$esses are standardiEed for ea$h )art fami+(. The )rod&$tion of a s)e$ifi$ )art #e+onging to a gi7en )art fami+( 8o&+d fo++o8 the man&fa$t&ring ro&ting that has #een set&) for its fami+(; s:i))ing the o)erations that are not re9&ired for it. F&rthermore; in design $hanges to e<isting )rod&$ts and es)e$ia++( in ne8 )rod&$t designs; the standard m&+tiC&se $om)onents sho&+d #e &sed. 1' Design for ease of fabrication' Se+e$t the o)tim&m $om#ination #et8een the materia+ and fa#ri$ation )ro$ess to minimiEe the o7era++ man&fa$t&ring $ost. In genera+; fina+ o)erations s&$h as )ainting; )o+ishing; finish ma$hining; et$. sho&+d #e a7oided. E<$essi7e to+eran$e; s&rfa$eCfinish re9&irement; and so on are $ommon+( fo&nd )ro#+ems that res&+t in higher than ne$essar( )rod&$tion $ost. 2' A$oi, se-arate fasteners' The &se of fasteners in$reases the $ost of man&fa$t&ring a )art d&e to the hand+ing and feeding o)erations that ha7e to #e )erformed. *esides the high $ost of the e9&i)ment re9&ired for them; these o)erations are not 1445 s&$$essf&+; so the( $ontri#&te to red&$ing the o7era++ man&fa$t&ring effi$ien$(. In genera+; fasteners sho&+d #e a7oided and re)+a$ed; for e<am)+e; #( &sing ta#s or sna) fits. If fasteners ha7e to #e
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&sed; then some g&ides sho&+d #e fo++o8ed for se+e$ting them. MinimiEe the n&m#er; siEe; and 7ariation &sedT a+so; &ti+iEe standard $om)onents 8hene7er )ossi#+e. A7oid s$re8s that are too +ong; or too short; se)arate 8ashers; ta))ed ho+es; and ro&nd heads and f+atheads 2not good for 7a$&&m )i$:&)6. Se+fCta))ing and $hamfered s$re8s are )referred #e$a&se the( im)ro7e )+a$ement s&$$ess. S$re8s 8ith 7erti$a+ side heads sho&+d #e se+e$ted 7a$&&m )i$:&).

3' Minimi!e assembl ,irections' A++ )arts sho&+d #e assem#+ed from one dire$tion. If )ossi#+e; the #est 8a( to add )arts is from a#o7e; in a 7erti$a+ dire$tion; )ara++e+ to the gra7itationa+ dire$tion 2do8n8ard6. In this 8a(; the effe$ts of gra7it( he+) the assem#+( )ro$ess; $ontrar( to ha7ing to $om)ensate for its effe$t 8hen other dire$tions are $hosen.

4' Ma5imi!e com-liance' Errors $an o$$&r d&ring insertion o)erations d&e to 7ariations in )art dimensions or on he a$$&ra$( of the )ositioning de7i$e &sed. This fa&+t( #eha7ior $an $a&se damage to the )art andRor to the e9&i)ment. For this reason; it is ne$essar( to in$+&de $om)+ian$e in the )art design and in the assem#+( )ro$ess. E<am)+es of )art #&i+tCin $om)+ian$e feat&res in$+&de ta)ers or $hamfers and moderate radi&s siEes to fa$i+itate insertion; and nonf&n$tiona+ e<terna+ e+ements to he+) dete$t hidden feat&res. For the assem#+( )ro$ess; se+e$tion of a rigidC#ase )art; ta$ti+e sensing $a)a#i+ities; and 7ision s(stems are e<am)+e of $om)+ian$e. A sim)+e so+&tion is to &se highC9&a+it( )arts 8ith designedCinC$om)+ian$e; a rigidC#ase )art; and se+e$ti7e $om)+ian$e in the assem#+( too+.

14. Minimi!e han,ling. 'and+ing $onsists of )ositioning; orienting; and fi<ing a )art or $om)onent. To fa$i+itate orientation; s(mmetri$a+ )arts sho&+d #e &sed 8hen e7er )ossi#+e. If it is not )ossi#+e; then the as(mmetr( m&st #e e<aggerated to a7oid fai+&res. Use e<terna+ g&iding feat&res to he+) the orientation of a )art. The s&#se9&ent o)erations sho&+d #e designed so that the orientation of the )art is maintained. A+so; magaEines; t&#e feeders; )art stri)s; and so on; sho&+d #e &sed to :ee) this orientation #et8een o)erations. A7oid &sing f+e<i#+e )arts C &se s+a7e $ir$&it #oards instead. If $a#+es ha7e to #e &sed; then in$+&de a d&mm( $onne$tor to )+&g the $a#+e 2ro#oti$ assem#+(6 so that it $an #e +o$ated easi+(. Ahen designing the )rod&$t; tr( to minimiEe the f+o8 of materia+ 8aste; )arts; and so on; in the man&fa$t&ring o)erationT a+so; ta:e )a$:aging into a$$o&nt; se+e$t a))ro)riate and safe )a$:aging for the )rod&$t.

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%.. *ENIFITS OF DFM

It red&$es )art $o&nt there#( red&$ing $ost. If a design is easier to )rod&$e and assem#+e; it $an #e done in +ess time; so it is +ess e<)ensi7e. Design for man&fa$t&ring and assem#+( sho&+d #e &sed for that reason if no other.

It in$reases re+ia#i+it(; #e$a&se if the )rod&$tion )ro$ess is sim)+ified; then there is +ess o))ort&nit( for errors. It genera++( in$reases the 9&a+it( of the )rod&$t for the same reason as 8h( it in$reases the re+ia#i+it(.

% 6' CONC7*T(ON
Ae ha7e attem)ted; in this )a)er; to high+ight o&r initia+ findings in a))+(ing DFA methods to $om)+e< s(stems in their entiret(. A $ase st&d( )resented herein sho8ed that DFA ana+(ses $an )ro7ide man( insights on assem#+( $ost dri7ers; $an fo$&s re7ision efforts; and that these re7isions $an rea) signifi$ant #enefit; e7en 8hen #eginning 8ith a high+( effi$ient design. Ae ha7e a+so sho8n an a))roa$h; &sing $on$e)ts from design de$om)osition; ear+( design de$ision ma:ing; and ana+(sis of 7arian$e for ena#+ing a more $on$&rrent a))+i$ation of the s(stemati$ DFA re7ie8 )ro$ess in the ear+iest stages of s(stem
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design.

% 0' )EFE)ENCE#
+' AIAA"444C%,4, A))+i$ation of Design for Man&fa$t&re and Assem#+( Methodo+ogies to Com)+e< Aeros)a$e =rod&$ts *enoit Ga&thier 2De)artment of Ind&stria+ and Man&fa$t&ring Engineering Uni7ersit( of Rhode Is+and; Mingston RI6 Dr. =eter De8h&rst 2*oothro(d De8h&rst; In$. Aa:efie+d; RI6 Dr. Da7id Ka)i:se 2Con$e)ts ETI Ahite Ri7er K&n$tion >T6 .' *oothro(d; G. De8h&rst; =. and Mnight; A.; =rod&$t Design for Man&fa$t&re and Assem#+(;! Mar$e+CDe$:er; 1DD, &. Otto and Aood has a good $ha)ter on DFMA !roduct &esign for anufacture and 'ssembly ; Geoffre( *oothro(d; =eter De8h&rst; Ainston Mnight; "nd Edition; Mar$e+ De::er; Ne8 @or: ,. Information ta:en from $omputer-'ided anufacturing; Se$ond Edition; TienCChien $hang; Ri$hard A A(s:; and 's&C=in Aang. =ages -D. to -D3. =renti$e 'a++ 1DD3

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