School of Engineering and Applied Science

FOUNDATION DEGREE IN

PRINCIPLES OF GAS TRANSMISSION

ME1F08 Science For Engineers

Dynamic Systems

Basic parameters of Dynamic Systems

Movement or displacement The distance travelled by an object Denoted by either x or s Units are metres, m Velocity The distance moved per second or the rate of change of distance with time It is a movement in a know direction so is can be shown as a vector quantity Denoted by either u or v (u is the initial velocity, v is the final velocity) Can also be shown as the first derivative of distance with respect to time v = dx/dt = Change in Distance/Time = m/s u = ds/dt = Change in Distance/Time = m/s Units are metres per second, m/s Speed The same as Velocity but the direction is not known so it can not be shown as a vector Average Speed or Velocity When the body speeds up or slows down during a journey the average speed or velocity can be calculated Denoted by either v or u Total Distance Travelled/Total Time Taken Units are metres per second, m/s Acceleration When a body slow down or speeds up the velocity changes and acceleration or deceleration occurs Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity Denoted by the letter a Also known as the first derivative of velocity with respect to time a = dv/dt = Change in velocity/Time = (m/s)/s = m/s2 And is also the second derivative of distance with respect to time a = d2x/dt2 = Rate of change of distance/Time = (m/s)/s = m/s2 Units are in metres per second per second, m/s2 When a body is falling under gravity it is subject to an acceleration of 9.81m/s2

Graphs of Linear Motion

Distance Time Graph
200

180

160

140

120 Distance (m)

100

80

60

40

20

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 Time (Sec) 12 14 16 18 20

Velocity Time Graph

20

18

16

14

Velocity (m/s)

12

10

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Time (Sec) 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

The average height of a graph can be calculated by working out the area under the graph and dividing by the base length (x axis). On a VT graph therefore you can calculate the average velocity by working out the area under the graph and dividing by the base length such that; Average velocity = Total Distance Travelled/Time Taken Therefore base length is Time Taken and the area under the graph is the total distance travelled
Area _ Under Total _ Dist m = = Base _ Length Total _ Time s Area _ Under = Total _ Dist vavg =

Example Find the average velocity and distance travelled for the journey shown below
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Velocity (m/s)

0 0 5 10 Time (Sec) 15 20 25

Graphs of Linear Motion

There are three standard equations used to define linear motion

Formula 1 Consider the graph;

(v u )t 2

ut

Distance travelled is given by the area under the graph so

s = Dist _ Travelled = Area _ Under

Giving Eqn (1)

s = ut +
This can be multiplied out to give

(v u )t LL (1) 2

1 s = (u + v)t 2

Formula 2 Now consider the graph;

The acceleration can be calculated

a=
Substituting this into Eqn (1) gives

(v u ) t

1 s = ut + at 2 LL (2 ) 2

Formula 3 Consider the graph

Given that

(v u ) = v = at
Then

v = u + at
Squaring and rearranging gives

v 2 = u 2 + 2uat + a 2 t 2
Simplifying

at 2 v = u + 2a (ut + ) 2
2 2

Then substitute Eqn (2) into the formula gives

v 2 = u 2 + 2as LL (3)

Inertia and Newtons Laws

What happens if, when a force is applied the body is free to move under the influence? This is known as Dynamics and the forces are Dynamic Forces Dynamic forces can cause motion in a straight line or rotation however lets just consider the linear motion If a body is free to move the following is true; A force will make it accelerate in the direction of the force The amount of acceleration depends on the bodys inertia Inertia is another word for mass. It is the property of the body which resists changes in motion. The greater the mass/Inertia the more difficult it is to make the body accelerate or change direction Hence the reason a motorbike can out accelerate a car, it has less mass The way that Force, Mass and Acceleration are linked is governed by Newtons Laws of Motion. Sir Isaac Newton (c. 1687) studied the way that forces make bodies change their motion and came up with three laws 1. A body at rest or with uniform motion will remain at rest or continue with uniform motion until acted upon by an external unbalanced force. (Known as the Law of Inertia) 2. The net force on an object is equal to the mass of the object multiplied by its acceleration 3. Every action has an equal and opposite reaction These Laws state that in order to change the motion of a body you must accelerate or decelerate it by applying a force. The inertia of the body will act to resist any change in motion Examples A body at rest or with uniform motion will remain at rest or continue with uniform motion until acted upon by an external unbalanced force. (Known as the Law of Inertia) Imagine an Ice Skater on a rink with no friction. If she is moving then she will carry on moving in a straight line until another force is applied to her The net force on an object is equal to the mass of the object multiplied by its acceleration In reality the ice has friction which is an external force. This causes the skater to slow down Every action has an equal and opposite reaction If she is stationary and pushes away from another skater then both skaters will move away from each other at the same rate.

We are most interested in Newtons 2nd Law. We can rewrite the law as; The IMPULSE of a body is equal to the change in MOMENTUM

Impulse is when a force is applied for a duration of time therefore

impulse = force time = F t

Momentum is the product of the mass and velocity

momentum = mass velocity = m v

Since Impulse equals change of momentum we can write

impulse = change _ in _ momentum Ft = mv

Therefore

F=

mv t

If the mass is constant and given that the change of velocity with time is acceleration we can rewrite it as

mv v =m = ma t t F = ma F=

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Friction and gravity

Friction is an external force that always acts to oppose motion This means when a body is accelerated the force that is causing the acceleration is the NET force NET force = Applied Force Friction Force This means that if an aeroplane is applying a Force of 5000N with its engines but the wind resistance (drag) is 1000N then the force causing the acceleration is 5000N 1000N = 4000N All bodies exert a force of attraction. Unless one of the bodies is very large and/or both bodies are very close then the effect is very small. The Earth is large and we are close to it therefore the force of attraction is strong. This is known as the force of gravity, g and for Earth it is a constant value of 9.81m/s2. This is known as standard gravity. Galileo showed that large and small bodies fall at the same rate. Since all bodies fall at the same rate then the force acting on them is F=ma but a=g so F=mg When we are standing on the ground we are not rising or falling so the ground must be exerting and equal and opposite force. This gives rise to the idea of Weight Weight = mg If a body is accelerating vertically then this must include the gravity effect F = ma+mg = m(a+g) Accelerations upwards are always shown as positive

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Work and Energy

In static systems there are a number of rules that apply, balance of forces, balance of momentum. In dynamic systems similar rules apply; Conservation of energy Conservation of momentum DAlemberts principle Before these are considered we need to understand energy and work. Any time a force is moved through a distance then work is done.

Work (W ) = force dist = F x

Work has the units of kgm2/s2 or Nm. This is also know as Joules (J) In order to do work, energy is required however energy can not be created or destroyed, just transferred. Any energy used to generate work must be stored in the object. Potential energy is the energy that a body has because of it's height above a datum so if the force required to raise an object has to overcome it's weight;

F = ma = mg
If it is moved through a distance x then the work done is

W = Fx = mgx
Since energy can not be created or destroyed then the work done must be equivalent to the potential energy so that

PE = W = mgx
Kinetic energy is the energy a body has because it is moving. If that is the case then the force required to move the body with a certain acceleration through a distance x will require work to be done. Therefore;

W = Fx = (ma ) x
And as such

v vt v2 1 2 W = m( )( ) = m = mv t 2 2 2
Since energy can not be created or destroyed then the work done must be equivalent to the kinetic energy so that

KE = W =

1 mgv 2 2
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Mechanical Power is the rate of doing mechanical work or the rate of using energy. Power = Work/unit time P=W/t Since Work = Force x distance = F x Power = Force x Distance/time P = Fx/t Since Velocity v = x/t Then P = Fv The units of power are j/s = Watts When bodies are moving some of the energy is always lost as friction. The energy conversion is not perfect and some of the energy is lost through friction which is normally lost as heat Efficiency is a measure of how much of the energy is being used to propel the vehicle. The symbol of efficiency is eta . It is measured as a percentage of the energy in so

Energy _ Out 100 Energy _ In

In a perfect system without friction then the efficiency is 100% In systems like brakes however all of the energy is converted to heat therefore Efficiency does not mean anything. Examples 1. A pulley is used to raise a mass of 85kg a distance of 12m. If the efficiency of the system is 60% and the time taken is 5 Sec calculate Work done in moving the mass Power required to move the mass Velocity of the mass when moving 2. A vehicle is propelled 25000m by a force of 2000N in 12Sec. Calculate Work done Power used Velocity of the vehicle

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Conservation of Energy and Momentum

Conservation of mechanical Energy
In the absence of any dissipation of heat, mechanical energy is conserved. When two moving bodies collide the energy is conserved due to their combined momentums. In this case the loss of potential energy is equal to the gain in kinetic energy.

KE = PE
So

1 2 mv = mgh 2
This can be simplified to

v = 2 gh
Momentum
This is the product of the Mass and the Velocity of a moving body. Momentum = mass x velocity (kg m/s)

Conservation of Momentum
Consider two bodies travelling in the same direction where v1 > v2

m1

v1

m2

v2

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision If the bodies lock together and continue to travel along with common velocity v3. Then:-

m1v1 + m 2 v 2 = m3 v3
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Examples
1. A car of mass 950 kg travelling at 20 m/sec collides with a lorry of mass 5 tonne travelling at 12 m/sec in the same direction. If they lock together after impact and continue to travel, what is the velocity of the combination.

2. The pile driver shown is dropped under the influence of gravity and lands upon the pile to push it into the ground. Assuming that the pile drives into the ground 300mm at each stroke and does not bounce back calculate, using the principles of conservation of momentum, a. The ground resistance b. The work done at each stroke

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Angular Kinetic Energy

The Relationship between Linear and Angular Motion

v r

Linear Velocity v = Angular Velocity x Radius v = r

Angular Kinetic Energy

The energy a rotating body (e.g. a flywheel) has due to its angular velocity () and Moment of Inertia (I).

Moment of Inertia
This is a measure of the resistance of a body about an axis to rotation about that axis. Moment of Inertia I = mk Where m = mass and k = radius of gyration (m). kgm

Radius of Gyration
The distance from the axis of rotation that the mass of a rotating body is assumed to be concentrated. Radius of Gyration k = r/2 = d/8 Where r = radius (m) and d = diameter (m). The angular kinetic energy of the rotating body therefore is; Angular Kinetic Energy = I Where I = Moment of Inertia (kgm) and = angular velocity in rad/sec.

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Examples
1. Calculate the Moment of Inertia of a disc diameter 300 mm having a mass of 25 kg.

2. A flywheel of diameter 450 mm and mass 65 kg rotates at 1450 rpm. Calculate its: (a) (b) (c) moment of inertia angular velocity angular kinetic energy

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Combined Linear and Angular Kinetic Energy

A disc or wheel that rolls along a flat surface has angular motion as it rotates and linear motion due to its straight line velocity.

Linear velocity v = r

Combined KE = Linear KE + Angular KE. = mv + I

Examples
1. A road wheel on an HGV has a diameter of 1.2 m and has a mass of 120 kg. If it is driven along a horizontal surface while rotating at 250 rpm without slipping, calculate its: (d) Kinetic Energy due to linear motion (e) Moment of inertia (f) The combined energy due to linear and angular motion

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