Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Prefaces
1. Design Considerations
2. Copper for Busbar Purposes
3. Current-carrying Capacity of Busbars
4. Alternating Current Effects in Busbars
5. Effect of Busbar Arrangements on Rating
6. Short-Circuit Effects
7. Jointing of Copper Busbars
8. Mechanical Strength Requirements
9. Busbar Impedance
10. Appendices
Bibliography
COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCATION
Publication 22, June 1996
Reprinted January 2001 with some amendments
Prefaces
Preface to 1984 Edition
This C.D.A. publication has long been accepted as the standard reference work on busbar design.
This revised and updated edition incorporates recent progress in the technology of busbar design
as reflected in new standards and engineering practices.
All data and formulae have been metricated and the method of presentation facilitates the use of
calculators or computers. The many variables to be considered are clearly explained and special
attention has been given to determining the most economic loadings in order to maximise current
carrying capacity for minimum installation costs and running losses. There is, therefore, a useful
comparison of the electrical and mechanical properties of high conductivity copper and aluminium.
Extra attention has been given to recommended jointing techniques, both by bolting and welding.
Improvements have also been made to the section dealing with skin effects. The information on
impedance has been expanded so that power factor variations can now be further predicted. The
tables of ratings and properties have been expanded as have the examples of typical calculations.
The references have been updated to include recent publications.
CDA wishes to acknowledge the considerable help given in the revision of this text by Mr G M
Boothman, Chief Engineer, Busbar Unit, Balfour Beatty Power Construction Ltd and by Mr W
Jefferies, Chief Metallurgist, Thomas Bolton & Sons Ltd. also for many helpful comments made on
the text by Mr K G Cary (Simplex - G.E. Ltd),
Mr A Jackson (GAMBICA), Mr J C Power
(British Electric Repairs Ltd), Mr E G Wright (Ottermill Switchgear Ltd) and members of the British
Non-Ferrous Metals Federation High Conductivity Copper Group.
Preface to 1996 Edition
1. Design Considerations
Introduction
Types of Busbar
Choice of Busbar Material
Introduction
The word busbar, derived from the Latin word omnibus ('for all'), gives the idea of a universal
system of conveyance. In the electrical sense, the term bus is used to describe a junction of
circuits, usually in the form of a small number of inputs and many outputs. 'Busbar' describes the
form the bus system usually takes, a bar or bars of conducting material.
In any electrical circuit some electrical energy is lost as heat which, if not kept within safe limits,
may impair the performance of the system. This energy loss, which also represents a financial
loss over a period of time, is proportional to the effective resistance of the conductor and the
square of the current flowing through it. A low resistance therefore means a low loss; a factor of
increasing importance as the magnitude of the current increases.
The capacities of modern-day electrical plant and machinery are such that the power handled by
their control systems gives rise to very large forces. Busbars, like all the other equipment in the
system, have to be able to withstand these forces without damage. It is essential that the
materials used in their construction should have the best possible mechanical properties and are
designed to operate within the temperature limits laid down in BS 159, BS EN 60439-1:1994, or
other national or international standards.
A conductor material should therefore have the following properties if it is to be produced
efficiently and have low running costs from the point of view of energy consumption and
maintenance:
a) Low electrical and thermal resistance
b) High mechanical strength in tension, compression and shear
c) High resistance to fatigue failure
d) Low electrical resistance of surface films
e) Ease of fabrication
f) High resistance to corrosion
g) Competitive first cost and high eventual recovery value
This combination of properties is met best by copper. Aluminium is the main alternative material,
but a comparison of the properties of the two metals shows that in nearly all respects copper is
the superior material.
Types of Busbar
Busbars can be sub-divided into the following categories, with individual busbar systems in many
cases being constructed from several different types:
a) Air insulated with open phase conductors
Generation
Industrial Processes
Voltage drop
Important
Temperature rise
Current range
Cross-sectional area
Kelvin's Law
Construction
Enclosures
Fault capacity
10
Phase arrangement
11
Load factor
12
Cost
13
Effects of failure
14
Copper type
High conductivity.
High conductivity.
15 Copper shape Usually rectangular. Tubular used for high current force-cooled. Usually large cross section rectangular. Tubular
used for some low current high voltage applications and high current force-cooled.
Aluminium (1350)
Units
Electrical conductivity
(annealed)
101
61
% IACS
1.72
2.83
cm
Temperature coefficient of
resistance(annealed)
0.0039
0.004
/ C
397
230
W/mK
Coefficient of expansion
17 x 106
23 x 106
/ C
200 250
50 60
N/mm2
260 300
85 100
N/mm2
50 55
20 30
N/mm2
170 200
60 65
N/mm2
Elastic modulus
116 130
70
kN/mm2
Specific heat
385
900
J/kg K
Density
8.91
2.70
g/cm3
Melting point
1083
660
The electromagnetic stresses set up in the bar are usually more severe than the stress introduced
by its weight. In particular, heavy current-carrying equipment necessitates the use of large size
conductors, and space considerations may be important. It should be realised that the use of
copper at higher operating temperatures than would be permissible for aluminium allows smaller
and lighter copper sections to be used than would be required at lower temperatures.
The ability of copper to absorb the heavy electromagnetic and thermal stresses generated by
overload conditions also gives a considerable factor of safety. Other factors, such as the cost of
frequent supports for the relatively limp aluminium, and the greater cost of insulation of the larger
surface area, must be considered when evaluating the materials.
From published creep data, it can be seen that high conductivity aluminium exhibits evidence of
significant creep at ambient temperature if heavily stressed. At the same stress, a similar rate of
creep is only shown by high conductivity copper at a temperature of 150C, which is above the
usual operating temperature of busbars.
Table 3 Comparison of creep and fatigue properties of high conductivity copper and
aluminium
a) Creep properties
Material
Testing Temp. C
Stress N/mm2
Al (1080) annealed
20
0.022
26 *
HC Cu annealed
150
0.022
26 *
130
0.004
138
225
0.029
96.
annealed
20
50
half-hard (H8)
45
50
annealed
62
300
half-hard
115
300
HC Copper
If much higher stresses or temperatures are to be allowed for, copper containing small amounts
(about 0.1%) of silver can be used successfully. The creep resistance and softening resistance of
copper-silver alloys increase with increasing silver content.
In the conditions in which high conductivity aluminium and copper are used, either annealed (or
as-welded) or half-hard, the fatigue strength of copper is approximately double that of aluminium.
This gives a useful reserve of strength against failure initiated by mechanical or thermal cycling.
The greater hardness of copper compared with aluminium gives it better resistance to mechanical
damage both during erection and in service. It is also less likely to develop problems in clamped
joints due to cold metal flow under the prolonged application of a high contact pressure. Its higher
modulus of elasticity gives it greater beam stiffness compared with an aluminium conductor of the
same dimensions. The temperature variations encountered under service conditions require a
certain amount of flexibility to be allowed for in the design. The lower coefficient of linear
expansion of copper reduces the degree of flexibility required.
Because copper is less prone to the formation of high resistance surface oxide films than
aluminium, good quality mechanical joints are easier to produce in copper conductors. Welded
joints are also readily made. Switch contacts and similar parts are nearly always produced from
copper or a copper alloy. The use of copper for the busbars to which these parts are connected
therefore avoids contacts between dissimilar metals and the inherent jointing and corrosion
problems associated with them.
The higher melting point and thermal conductivity of copper reduce the possibility of damage
resulting from hot spots or accidental flashovers in service. If arcing occurs, copper busbars are
less likely to support the arc than aluminium. Table 4 shows that copper can self-extinguish arcs
across smaller separations, and at higher busbar currents. This self-extinguishing behaviour is
related to the much larger heat input required to vaporise copper than aluminium.
Table 4 Self-extinguishing arcs in copper and aluminium busbars
Copper
Aluminium
50
100
4500
3220
Copper liberates considerably less heat during oxidation than aluminium and is therefore much
less likely to sustain combustion in the case of accidental ignition by an arc. The large amounts of
heat liberated by the oxidation of aluminium in this event are sufficient to vaporise more metal
than was originally oxidised. This vaporised aluminium can itself rapidly oxidise, thus sustaining
the reaction. The excess heat generated in this way heats nearby materials, including the busbar
itself, the air and any supporting fixtures. As the busbar and air temperatures rise, the rates of the
vaporisation and oxidation increase, so accelerating the whole process. As the air temperature is
increased, the air expands and propels hot oxide particles. The busbar may reach its melting
point, further increasing the rate of oxidation and providing hot liquid to be propelled, while other
materials such as wood panels may be raised to their ignition temperatures. These dangers are
obviated by the use of copper busbars.
Finally, copper is an economical conductor material. It gives long and reliable service at minimum
maintenance costs, and when an installation is eventually replaced the copper will have a high
recovery value. Because of its many advantages, copper is still used worldwide as an electrical
conductor material despite attempts at substitution.
In most countries, coppers of different types for specific applications have been given separate
identities. In the United Kingdom this takes the form of an alloy designation number which is used
in all British Standards relevant to copper and its alloys. Copper for electrical purposes is covered
by the following British Standards:
BS 1432 : 1987 (strip with drawn or rolled edges)
BS 1433 : 1970 (Rod and bar)
BS 1434 : 1985 (Commutator bars)
BS 1977 : 1976 (High conductivity tubes)
BS 4109 : 1970 (wire for general electrical purposes and for insulated and flexible cords)
BS 4608 : 1970 (Rolled sheet, strip and foil)
(Copies of these are obtainable from the BSI Sales Office. 398 Chiswick High Road, London WS4
4AL.)
To bring the UK in line with current European requirements BS EN standards are being
introduced. The European Standards relevant to electrical applications are expected to
supersede the British Standards in due course.
The current standards most relevant to busbar applications are BS 1432, BS 1433 and BS 1977
which specify that the end products shall be manufactured from copper complying with the
following requirements:
Cu-ETP Electrolytic tough pitch high conductivity copper CW004A (formerly C101)
Cu-FRHC Fire-refined tough pitch high conductivity copper CW005A (formerly C102)
Cu-OF
Oxygen-free high conductivity copper CW008A (formerly C103)
European Standards EN1976 and EN1978 have replaced BS 6017:1981. Table 5 shows the
European material designations along with International Standards Organisation (ISO) and old
British Standard designations.
Table 5 EN, BS and ISO designations for refinery shapes and wrought coppers
Designation
Description
European Designation
Former UK Designations
Cu-ETP
CW004A
C101
Cu-FRHC
CW005A
C102
Oxygen-free high-conductivity
copper
Cu-OF
CW008A
C103
Copper to be used for electrical purposes is of high purity because impurities in copper, together
with the changes in micro-structure produced by working, materially affect the mechanical and
electrical properties. The degree to which the electrical conductivity is affected by an impurity
depends largely on the element present. For example, the presence of only 0.04% phosphorus
reduces the conductivity of high conductivity copper to around 80% IACS. (The approximate effect
on conductivity of various impurity elements is shown in Figure 1). The level of total impurities,
including oxygen, should therefore be less than 0.1% and copper of this type is known as high
conductivity (HC) copper.
Microscopic and analytical controls are applied to ensure a consistent product and in the
annealed condition conductivities over 100% IACS are usual. This figure corresponds to the
standard resistivity of 0.017241 m set some years ago by the International Electrotechnical
Commission.
Figure 1 - Approximate effect of impurity elements on the electrical resistivity of copper
Design Requirements
The current-carrying capacity of a busbar is usually determined by the maximum temperature at
which the bar is permitted to operate, as defined by national and international standards such as
British Standard BS 159, American Standard ANSI C37.20, etc. These standards give maximum
temperature rises as well as maximum ambient temperatures.
BS 159 stipulates a maximum temperature rise of 50C above a 24 hour mean ambient
temperature of up to 35C, and a peak ambient temperature of 40C.
ANSI C37.20 alternatively permits a temperature rise of 65C above a maximum ambient of 40C,
provided that silver-plated (or acceptable alternative) bolted terminations are used. If not, a
temperature rise of 30C is allowed.
These upper temperature limits have been chosen because at higher maximum operating
temperatures the rate of surface oxidation in air of conductor materials increases rapidly and may
give rise in the long term to excessive local heating at joints and contacts. This temperature limit
is much more important for aluminium than copper because it oxidises very much more readily
than copper. In practise these limitations on temperature rise may be relaxed for copper busbars if
suitable insulation materials are used. A nominal rise of 60C or more above an ambient of 40C
is allowed by BS EN 60439-1:1994 provided that suitable precautions are taken. BS EN 604391:1994 (equivalent to IEC 439) states that the temperature rise of busbars and conductors is
limited by the mechanical strength of the busbar material, the effect on adjacent equipment, the
permissible temperature rise of insulating materials in contact with the bars, and the effect on
apparatus connected to the busbars.
The rating of a busbar must also take account of the mechanical stresses set up due to
expansion, short-circuit currents and associated inter-phase forces. In some busbar systems
consideration must also be given to the capitalised cost of the heat generated by the effective
ohmic resistance and current (I2R) which leads to an optimised design using Kelvin's Law of
Maximum Economy. This law states that 'the cost of lost energy plus that of interest and
amortisation on initial cost of the busbars (less allowance for scrap) should not be allowed to
exceed a minimum value'. Where the interest, amortisation and scrap values are not known, an
alternative method is to minimise the total manufacturing costs plus the cost of lost energy.
(b) Radiation
(c) Conduction
In most cases convection and radiation heat losses determine the current-carrying capacity of a
busbar system. Conduction can only be used where a known amount of heat can flow into a heat
sink outside the busbar system or where adjacent parts of the system have differing cooling
capacities. The proportion of heat loss by convection and radiation is dependent on the conductor
size with the portion attributable to convection being increased for a small conductor and
decreased for larger conductors.
Convection
The heat dissipated per unit area by convection depends on the shape and size of the conductor
and its temperature rise. This value is usually calculated for still air conditions but can be
increased greatly if forced air cooling is permissible. Where outdoor busbar systems are
concerned calculations should always be treated as in still air unless specific information is given
to the contrary.
The following formulae can be used to estimate the convection heat loss from a body in W/m2:
It can be seen when diagrams (a) and (b) are compared and assuming a similar cross-sectional
area the heat loss from arrangement (b) is much larger, provided the gap between the laminations
is not less than the thickness of each bar.
Convection heat loss: forced air cooling
If the air velocity over the busbar surface is less than 0.5 m/s the above formulae for Wv, Wh and
Wc apply. For higher air velocities the following may be used:
The following table lists typical absolute emissivities for copper busbars in various conditions.
Changes in emissivity give rise to changes in current ratings, as shown in Table 7.
Bright metal 0.1
Partially oxidised 0.30
Heavily oxidised 0.70
Dull non-metallic paint 0.9
Table 7 Percentage increase in current rating when is increased from 0.1 to 0.9 - threephase arrangement
Phase centres, mm
No. of bars in parallel
150
200
250
23
23
25
15
16
18
10
11
14
12
The figures given in Table 7 are approximate values applicable to 80 to 160 mm wide busbars for
a 105C operating temperature and 40C ambient. The relative emissivity is calculated as follows:
(1
where I = current, A
A = cross-sectional area, mm2
p = perimeter of conductor, mm
= temperature difference between conductor and the ambient air, C
= resistance temperature coefficient of copper at the ambient temperature, per C
= resistivity of copper at the ambient temperature, cm
(b) Hollow round bars:
(2
(c) Solid round bars:
(3
If the temperature rise of the conductor is 50C above an ambient of 40C and the resistivity of
the copper at 20C is 1.724 cm, then the above formulae become:
(i) Flat bars:
(4
(ii) Hollow round bars:
(5
(iii) Solid round bars:
(6
For high conductivity copper tubes where diameter and mass per unit length (see Table 14) are
known,
(7
where m = mass per unit length of tube, kg/m
d = outside diameter of tube, mm
Re-rating for different current or temperature rise conditions
Where a busbar system is to be used under new current or temperature rise conditions, the
following formula can be used to find the corresponding new temperature rise or current:
(8
where
I1 = current 1, A
I2 = current 2, A
1 = temperature rise for current 1, C
2 = temperature rise for current 2, C
T1 = working temperature for current 1, C
T2 = working temperature for current 2, C
20 = temperature coefficient of resistance at 20C ( = 0.00393)
If the working temperature of the busbar system is the same in each case (i.e., T1 = T2), for
example when re-rating for a change in ambient temperature in a hotter climate, this formula
becomes
Laminated bars
When a number of conductors are used in parallel, the total current capacity is less than the rating
for a single bar times the number of bars used. This is due to the obstruction to convection and
radiation losses from the inner conductors. To facilitate the making of interleaved joints, the
spacing between laminated bars is often made equal to the bar thickness. For 6.3 mm thick bars
up to 150 mm wide, mounted on edge with 6.3 mm spacings between laminations, the isolated
bar d.c. rating may be multiplied by the following factors to obtain the total rating.
No. of laminations Multiplying factor
No. of
laminations
Multiplying
factor
1.8
2.5
3.2
3.9
4.4
5.5
10
6.5
Skin Effect
The apparent resistance of a conductor is always higher for a.c. than for d.c. The alternating
magnetic flux created by an alternating current interacts with the conductor, generating a back
e.m.f. which tends to reduce the current in the conductor. The centre portions of the conductor are
affected by the greatest number of lines of force, the number of line linkages decreasing as the
edges are approached. The electromotive force produced in this way by self-inductance varies
both in magnitude and phase through the cross-section of the conductor, being larger in the
centre and smaller towards the outside. The current therefore tends to crowd into those parts of
the conductor in which the opposing e.m.f. is a minimum; that is, into the skin of a circular
conductor or the edges of a flat strip, producing what is known as 'skin' or 'edge' effect. The
resulting non-uniform current density has the effect of increasing the apparent resistance of the
conductor and gives rise to increased losses.
The ratio of the apparent d.c. and a.c. resistances is known as the skin effect ratio:
d = diameter of rod, mm
f = frequency, Hz
= resistivity, cm
= permeability of copper (=1)
For HC copper at 20C, = 1.724 cm, hence
Copper tubes
Skin effect in tubular copper conductors is a function of the thickness of the wall of the tube and
the ratio of that thickness to the tube diameter, and for a given cross sectional area it can be
reduced by increasing the tube diameter and reducing the wall thickness.
Figure 5, Figure 6, and Figure 7, which have been drawn from formulae derived by Dwight (1922)
and Arnold (1936), can be used to find the value of skin effect for various conductor sections. In
the case of tubes (Figure 5), it can be seen that to obtain low skin effect ratio values it is desirable
to ensure, where possible, low values of t/d and (f/r). For a given cross-sectional area the skin
effect ratio for a thin copper tube is appreciably lower than that for any other form of conductor.
Copper tubes, therefore, have a maximum efficiency as conductors of alternating currents,
particularly those of high magnitude or high frequency.
The effect of wall thickness on skin effect for a 100 mm diameter tube carrying a 50Hz alternating
current is clearly shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 Resistance of HC copper tubes, 100 mm outside diameter, d.c. and 50 Hz a.c.
Proximity Effect
n the foregoing consideration of skin effect it has been assumed that the conductor is isolated and
at such a distance from the return conductor that the effect of the current in it can be neglected.
When conductors are close together, particularly in low voltage equipment, a further distortion of
current density results from the interaction of the magnetic fields of other conductors.
In the same way as an e.m.f. may be induced in a conductor by its own magnetic flux, so may the
magnetic flux of one conductor produce an e.m.f. in any other conductor sufficiently near for the
effect to be significant.
If two such conductors carry currents in opposite directions, their electro-magnetic fields are
opposed to one another and tend to force one another apart. This results in a decrease of flux
linkages around the adjacent parts of the conductors and an increase in the more remote parts,
which leads to a concentration of current in the adjacent parts where the opposing e.m.f. is a
minimum. If the currents in the conductors are in the same direction the action is reversed and
they tend to crowd into the more remote parts of the conductors.
This effect, known as the 'proximity effect' (or 'shape effect'), tends usually to increase the
apparent a.c. resistance. In some cases, however, proximity effect may tend to neutralise the skin
effect and produce a better distribution of current as in the case of strip conductors arranged with
their flat sides towards one another.
If the conductors are arranged edgewise to one another the proximity effect increases. In most
cases the proximity effect also tends to increase the stresses set up under short-circuit conditions
and this may therefore have to be taken into account.
The currents in various parts of a conductor subjected to skin and proximity effects may vary
considerably in phase, and the resulting circulating current give rise to additional losses which can
be minimised only by the choice of suitable types of conductor and by their careful arrangement.
The magnitude of the proximity effect depends, amongst other things, on the frequency of the
current and the spacing and arrangement of the conductors. The graphs in Figure 14 (Section 6)
can be used to obtain values of proximity effect for various conductor configurations at 50 or 60
Hz. Methods of calculation for other frequencies are available (Dwight 1946). The unbalancing of
current due to the proximity effect can be reduced by spacing the conductors of different phases
as far apart as possible and sometimes by modifying their shape in accordance with the spacing
adopted. In the case of laminated bars a reduction may be obtained by transposing the
laminations at frequent intervals or by employing current balancers using inductances.
Proximity effect may be completely overcome by adopting a concentric arrangement of
conductors with one inside the other as is used for isolated phase busbar systems.
The magnetic field round busbar conductors may be considerably modified and the current
distortion increased by the presence of magnetic materials and only metals such as copper or
copper alloys should be used for parts likely to come within the magnetic field of the bars.
Penetration Depth
In the case of special conductor arrangements, or where high frequencies are employed, the
alternating current resistance may be calculated using the earlier sections. It is often necessary to
know the depth of penetration of the current into a conductor, that is the depth at which the
current density has been reduced to 1/e, or 0.368 of its value at the conductor surface. This can
be calculated using the following formula when its resistivity and the frequency are known.
depth of penetration
Inter-leaving of conductors
Tubular bars
Concentric conductors
The efficiency of all types of heavy current busbars depends upon careful design, the most
important factors being:
a) The provision of a maximum surface area for the dissipation of heat.
b) An arrangement of bars which cause a minimum of interference with the natural movements of
air currents.
c) An approximately uniform current density in all parts of the conductors. This is normally
obtained by having as much copper as possible equidistant from the magnetic centre of the
busbar.
d) Low skin effect and proximity effect for a.c. busbar systems.
To meet these requirements there are many different arrangements of copper busbars using
laminations, as well as copper extrusions of various cross-sections.
Figure 9 Busbar arrangements
Table 13 (Appendix 2) gives a.c. ratings for various configurations of laminated bars based on test
measurements.
For all normal light and medium current purposes an arrangement such as that in Figure 9a is
entirely satisfactory, but for a.c. currents in excess of 3000 A where large numbers of laminations
would be required it is necessary to rearrange the laminations to give better utilisation of the
copper bars.
The effect of using a large number of laminations mounted side by side is shown in Figure 10 for
a.c. currents. The current distribution is independent of the total current magnitude.
Figure 10 Alternating current distribution in a bar with ten laminations
This curve shows that due to skin effect there is a considerable variation in the current carried by
each lamination, the outer laminations carrying approximately four times the current in those at
the centre. The two centre laminations together carry only about one-tenth of the total current.
The currents in the different laminations may also vary appreciably in phase, with the result that
their numerical sum may be greater than their vectorial sum, which is equal to the line current.
These circulating currents give rise to additional losses and lower efficiency of the system. It
should also be noted that the curve is non-symmetrical due to the proximity effect of an adjacent
phase.
For these reasons it is recommended that alternate arrangements, such as those discussed in the
following sections, are used for heavy current a.c. svstems.
Inter-leaving of conductors
Where long low-voltage a.c. bars are carrying heavy currents, particularly at a low power factor,
inductive volt drop may become a serious problem with laminated bars arranged as in Figure 9a.
The voltage drop for any given size of conductor is proportional to the current and the length of
the bars, and increases as the separation between conductors of different phases increases. In
the case of laminated bars the inductive volt drop can be reduced by splitting up the bars into an
equivalent number of smaller circuits in parallel, with the conductors of different phases
interleaved as shown in Figure 9b. This reduces the average spacing between conductors of
different phases and so reduces the inductive volt drop.
Transposition of conductors
The unbalanced current distribution in a laminated bar carrying a.c. current due to skin and
proximity effects may be counteracted by transposing laminations or groups of laminations at
intervals. Tappings and other connections make transposition difficult, but it can be worthwhile
where long sections of bars are free from tappings. The arrangement is as shown in Figure 9e.
Tubular bars
A tubular copper conductor is the most efficient possible as regards skin effect, as the maximum
amount of material is located at a uniform distance from the magnetic centre of the conductor.
The skin effect reduces as the diameter increases for a constant wall thickness, with values close
to unity possible when the ratio of outside diameter to wall thickness exceeds about 20.
The natural cooling is not as good as that for a laminated copper bar system of the same crosssectional area, but when the proximity effects are taken into account the one-piece tube ensures
that the whole tube attains an even temperature - a condition rarely obtained with laminated bar
systems.
Tubular copper conductors also lend themselves to alternative methods of cooling by, for
example, forced air or liquid cooling where heat can be removed from the internal surface of the
tubes. Current ratings of several times the natural air cooled value are possible using forced
cooling with the largest increases when liquid cooling is employed.
A tubular bar also occupies less space than the more usual copper laminated bar and has a
further advantage that its strength and rigidity are greater and uniform in all deflection planes.
These advantages are, however, somewhat reduced by the difficulty of making joints and
connections which are more difficult than those for laminated bars. These problems have now
been reduced by the introduction of copper welding and exothermic copper forming methods.
Copper tubes are particularly suitable for high current applications, such as arc furnaces, where
forced liquid cooling can be used to great advantage. The tube can also be used in isolated phase
busbar systems due to the ease with which it can be supported by insulators.
Concentric conductors
This arrangement is not widely used due to difficulties of support but has the advantage of the
optimum combination of low reactance and eddy current losses and is well suited to furnace and
weld set applications. It should be noted that the isolated phase busbar systems are of this type
with the current in the external enclosure being almost equal to that in the conductor when the
continuously bonded three-phase enclosure system is used.
For low voltage heavy current single-phase bars with narrow phase centres, single copper
channels with the webs of the 'go' and 'return' conductors towards one another give an efficient
arrangement. The channel sizes can be chosen to reduce the skin and proximity effects to a
minimum, give maximum dissipation of heat and have considerable mechanical strength and
rigidity. Where high voltage busbars are concerned the phase spacing has to be much larger to
give adequate electrical clearances between adjacent phases with best arrangement being with
the channel webs furthest apart. For high-capacity generators which are connected to
transformers and allied equipment by segregated or non-segregated copper busbars, the double
angle arrangement gives the best combination with the copper bar sizes still being readily
manufactured. The current ratings of these arrangements are given in Table 15 (Appendix 2). The
ratings given are the maximum current ratings which do not take the cost of losses into account
and hence are not optimised.
levels, or high temperatures (up to 130C) are encountered, although account must be taken of
the possibility of halogen gassing from P.V.C. insulations at temperatures around 100C. Modified
P.V.C. materials with improved high-temperature performance are available.
6. Short-Circuit Effects
Short-Circuit Heating of Bars
Electromagnetic Stresses
Corona Discharge
The value of t obtained from the above equation should always be greater than the required short
circuit withstand time which is usually 1 to 4 seconds.
The temperature rise per second due to a current I is given by the following approximate formula:
m = mass, kg
c = specific heat, J/kg K
The time constant gives the time taken to reach 0.636 of the maximum temperature rise, max.
Electromagnetic Stresses
When a conductor carries a current it creates a magnetic field which interacts with any other
magnetic field present to produce a force. When the currents flowing in two adjacent conductors
are in the same direction the force is one of attraction, and when the currents are in opposite
directions a repulsive force is produced.
In most busbar systems the current-carrying conductors are usually straight and parallel to one
another. The force produced by the two conductors is proportional to the products of their
currents. Normally in most busbar systems the forces are very small and can be neglected, but
under short-circuit conditions, they become large and must be taken into account together with
the conductor material fibre stresses when designing the conductor insulator and its associated
supports to ensure adequate safety factors.
The factors to be taken into account may be summarised as follows:
a) stresses due to direct lateral attractive and repulsive forces.
b) Vibrational stresses.
c) Longitudinal stresses resulting from lateral deflection.
d) Twisting moments due to lateral deflection.
In most cases the forces due to short-circuits are applied very suddenly. Direct currents give rise
to unidirectional forces while alternating currents produce vibrational forces.
Maximum stresses
When a busbar system is running normally the interphase forces are normally very small with the
static weight of the busbars being the dominant component. Under short-circuit conditions this is
very often not the case as the current rises to a peak of some thirty times its normal value, falling
after a few cycles to ten times its initial value. These high transitory currents create large
mechanical forces not only in the busbars themselves but also in their supporting system. This
means that the support insulators and their associated steelwork must be designed to withstand
these high loads as well as their normal structural requirements such as wind, ice, seismic and
static loads.
The peak or fully asymmetrical short circuit current is dependent on the power factor (cos ) of
the busbar system and its associated connected electrical plant. The value is obtained by
multiplying the r.m.s. symmetrical current by the appropriate factor given in Balanced three-phase
short-circuit stresses.
If the power factor of the system is not known then a factor of 2.55 will normally be close to the
actual system value especially where generation is concerned. Note that the theoretical maximum
for this factor is 22 or 2.828 where cos = 0. These peak values reduce exponentially and after
approximately 10 cycles the factor falls to 1.0, i.e., the symmetrical r.m.s. short circuit current. The
peak forces therefore normally occur in the first two cycles (0.04 s) as shown in Figure 13.
In the case of a completely asymmetrical current wave, the forces will be applied with a frequency
equal to that of the supply frequency and with a double frequency as the wave becomes
symmetrical. Therefore in the case of a 50 Hz supply these forces have frequencies of 50 or 100
Hz.
The maximum stresses to which a bus structure is likely to be subjected would occur during a
short-circuit on a single-phase busbar system in which the line short-circuit currents are displaced
by 180.
In a three-phase system a short-circuit between two phases is almost identical to the single-phase
case and although the phase currents are normally displaced by 120, under short-circuit
conditions the phase currents of the two phases are almost 180 out of phase. The effect of the
third phase can be neglected.
In a balanced three-phase short-circuit, the resultant forces on any one of the three phases is less
than in the single-phase case and is dependent on the relative physical positions of the three
phases.
In the case of a single-phase short-circuit, the forces produced are unidirectional and are
therefore more severe than those due to a three-phase short-circuit, which alternate in direction.
The short-circuit forces have to be absorbed first by the conductor. The conductor therefore must
have an adequate proof strength to carry these forces without permanent distortion. Copper
satisfies this requirement as it has high strength compared with other conductor materials (Table
2). Because of the high strength of copper, the insulators can be more widely spaced than is
possible with lower-strength materials.
Figure 13 Short-circuit current waveform
The electromagnetic force developed between two straight parallel conductors of circular crosssection each carrying the same current is calculated from the following formula:
(9
The condition when the maximum force appears on the outside phases (Red or Blue) is given by
(10
The condition when the maximum force is on the centre phase (Yellow) is given by
(11
where Fmax = maximum force on conductor, N/m
I = peak asymmetrical current, A
s = conductor spacing, mm
The peak current I attained during the short-circuit varies with the power factor of the circuit:
Power factor
I, x Irms (symmetrical)
2.828
0.07
2.55
0.2
2.2
0.25
2.1
0.3
0.5
1.7
0.7
1.5
1.0
1.414
(12
If
is almost equal to
and therefore the modified formula becomes almost identical with the standard formula. In many
cases, the following formula is sufficiently accurate:
(13
where Ftot is again the total force along the conductor in Newtons.
Formulae 9 to 11 may be used where
is greater than 20. For values between 20 and 4, is greater than 20. For values between 20 and 4,
equation 13 above should be used. For values less than 4, equation 12 should be used.
Proximity factor
Figure 14 - Proximity factor for rectangular copper conductor
The formulae in the previous section used for calculating short-circuit forces do not take into
account the effect of conductors which are not round as they strictly only apply to round
conductors. To overcome this when considering rectangular conductors, a proximity factor K is
introduced into the ordinary force formulae, its value being found using the curves in Figure 14.
Except in cases where the conductors are very small or are spaced a considerable distance apart
the corrected general formula for force per unit length becomes:
The value of
is first calculated then K is read from the curve for the appropriate
ratio.
From the curves it can be seen that the effect of conductor shape decreases rapidly with
increasing spacing and is a maximum for strip conductors of small thickness. It is almost unity for
square conductors and is unity for a circular conductor.
Alternatively, the proximity factor can be calculated using the following formula, from which the
curves in Figure 14 were drawn (Dwight 1917). (See Figure 14 for explanation of symbols).
This formula gives the intermediate curves of Figure 14, for s>a, b>0, a>0
Vibrational stresses
Stresses will be induced in a conductor by natural or forced vibrations the amplitude of which
determines the value of the stress, which can be calculated from the formulae given in Section 8.
The conductor should be designed to have a natural frequency which is not within 30% of the
vibrations induced by the magnetic fields resulting from the currents flowing in adjacent
conductors. This type of vibration normally occurs during continuous running and does not occur
when short-circuit currents are flowing.
The stresses resulting from the short-circuit forces are calculated using the beam theory formulae
for simply supported beams for a single cantilever to multispan arrangements, the applied forces
being derived from the previous sections. The resulting deflections enable the conductor stress to
be calculated and so determine if it is likely to permanently damage the conductor because it has
exceeded the proof stress of the conductor material.
Methods of reducing conductor stresses
In cases where there is a likelihood of vibration at normal currents or when subjected to shortcircuit forces causing damage to the conductor, the following can he used to reduce or eliminate
the effect:
a) Reduce the span between insulator supports.
This method can be used to reduce the effects of both continuous vibration and that due to shortcircuit forces.
b) Increase the span between insulator supports.
This method can only be used to reduce the effects of vibration resulting from a continuous
current. It will increase the stresses due to a short-circuit current.
c) Increase or decrease the flexibility of the conductor supports.
This method will reduce the effects of vibration due to continuous current but has very little effect
on that due to short-circuit forces.
d) Increase the conductor flexibility.
This can only be used to reduce the effects of vibration due to a continuous current. The shortcircuit effect is increased.
e) Decrease the conductor flexibility.
This method will reduce the effects of vibration due to either a continuous current or a shortcircuit.
It will be noted that in carrying out the various suggestions above, changes can only be made
within the overall design requirements of the busbar system.
Corona Discharge
With very high voltage air-insulated busbars, particularly of the type usually installed out of doors,
it is necessary to ensure that with the spacing adopted between conductors of different phases, or
between conductors and earth, the electromagnetic stress in the air surrounding the conductors is
low enough not to cause a corona discharge. Corona discharge is to be avoided where possible
as it creates ionised gas which can lead to a large reduction in the air insulation surrounding the
conductor and so can cause flash-over. Should flash-over occur, this will in many cases lead to a
short-circuit between either adjacent phases or poles or the nearest earth point or plane. This will
cause considerable burning of the conductors and associated equipment together with
mechanical damage. Corona discharge can also cause radio interference which may be
unacceptable.
To avoid these conditions the busbar system should be free from sharp edges or small radii on
the conductor system. If this is not possible then additional equipment will have to be incorporated
in the design such as corona rings and stress relieving cones mounted in the areas of high
electric stress. The smallest radii required for prevention of corona can be calculated from the
formula:
In bad weather conditions the discharge may appear at a voltage lower than that indicated by the
formulae and it is therefore advisable to make an allowance of about 20% as a safety factor.
Joint Resistance
The resistance of a joint is affected mainly by two factors:
a) Streamline effect or spreading resistance Rs, the diversion of the current flow through a joint.
b) The contact resistance or interface resistance of the joint Rj.
The total joint resistance Rj = Rs + Ri.
The above is specifically for a d.c. current. Where a.c. currents are flowing, the changes in
resistance due to skin and proximity effects in the joint zone must also be taken into account.
Before considering the effect of the above factors on the efficiency of a joint, it is important to
realise the nature of the two contact surfaces. No matter how well a contact surface is polished,
the surface is really made up of a large number of peaks and troughs which are readily visible
under a microscope. When two surfaces are brought together contact is only made at the peaks,
which are subjected to much higher contact pressures than the average joint contact pressure,
and hence deform during the jointing process. The actual contact area in the completed joint is
much smaller than the total surface area of the joint. It has been shown that in a typical busbar
joint surface the effective contact area is confined to the region in which the pressure is applied,
i.e., near the bolts in the case of a lapped joint.
Streamline effect
The distortion of the lines of current flow at an overlapping joint between two conductors affects
the resistance of the joint. This effect must also occur when the current flows from peak to peak
from surface to surface though the overall effect is that through the joint.
In the case of an overlapping joint between two flat copper bars, the streamline effect is
dependent only on the ratio of the length of the overlap to the thickness of the bars and not on the
width, provided that this dimension is the same for both bars. It has been shown both
mathematically and experimentally that even in a perfectly made overlapping joint between two
relatively thin flat conductors having a uniform contact resistance, the distribution of current over
the contact area is not uniform. Practically all of the current flowing across the contact surfaces is
concentrated towards the extremities of the joint and the current density at the ends of the
overlapping conductors may be many times that at the centre of the joint.
It is evident from the above that the efficiency of an overlapping joint does not increase as the
length of the overlap increases and that from a purely electrical point of view no advantage is to
be gained by employing an unduly long overlap.
The relation between the resistance due to streamline effect of an overlapping joint between two
flat copper conductors and the ratio of the length of the overlap to the thickness is shown in Figure
15. It has also been found that the distortion effect in a T-joint is about the same as a straight
joint.
The resistance ratio e in Figure 15 is the ratio of the resistance of a joint due to streamline effect
RS, to the resistance of an equal length of single conductor Rb, i.e.
Contact resistance
The contact interface between the two faces of a busbar joint consists of a large number of
separate point contacts, the area of which increases as more pressure is applied and the peaks
are crushed.
There are two main factors which therefore affect the actual interface resistance of the surfaces.
a) The condition of the surfaces.
b) The total applied pressure.
The type of coating applied to the contact surfaces to prevent or delay the onset of oxidation when
operating at elevated temperatures or in a hostile environment is also important, particularly in the
long term.
Condition of contact surfaces
The condition of the contact surfaces of a joint has an important bearing on its efficiency. The
surfaces of the copper should be flat and clean but need not be polished. Machining is not usually
required. Perfectly flat joint faces are not necessary since very good results can in most cases be
obtained merely by ensuring that the joint is tight and clean. This is particularly the case where
extruded copper bars are used. Where cast copper bars are used, however, machining may be
necessary if the joints are to obtain a sufficiently flat contact surface.
Oxides, sulphides and other surface contaminants have, of course, a higher resistance than the
base metal. Copper, like all other common metals, readily develops a very thin surface oxide film
even at ordinary temperatures when freely exposed to air, although aluminium oxidises much
more rapidly, and its oxide has a much higher resistivity.
The negative temperature coefficient of resistance of copper oxide means that the joint
conductivity tends to increase with temperature. This does not, of course, mean that a joint can be
made without cleaning just prior to jointing to ensure that the oxide layer is thin enough to be
easily broken as the contact surface peaks deform when the contact pressure is applied.
Preparation of surfaces
Contact surfaces should be flattened by machining if necessary and thoroughly cleaned. A ground
or sand-roughened surface is preferable to a smooth one.
It is important to prevent the re-oxidation of the joint in service and it is therefore recommended
that the contact faces should be covered with a thin layer of petroleum jelly immediately after
cleaning the contact surfaces. The joint surfaces should then be bolted together, the excess
petroleum jelly being pressed out as the contact pressure is applied. The remaining jelly will help
to protect the joint from deterioration.
It should be noted that in cases where joints have to perform reliably in higher than normal
ambient temperature conditions, it may be advisable to use a high melting point jelly to prevent it
from flowing out of the joint, leaving it liable to attack by oxidation and the environment.
The following sections describe the use of coatings on conductor contact surfaces. It should be
noted that recent tests carried out to investigate the performance of bolted joints under cyclic
heating with wide temperature variations indicate that joints without coatings give the most reliable
long-term performance (Jackson 1982). The reason for this is that most coatings are of soft
materials which when subjected to continuous pressures and raised temperatures tend to flow.
This has the effect of reducing the number of high pressure contact points formed when the joint
is newly bolted together.
Tinning. The tinning of the contact surfaces of a bolted or clamped joint with pure tin or a lead-tin
alloy is normally unnecessary, although advantages can be gained in certain circumstances.
If the joint faces are very rough, tinning may result in some improvement in efficiency. In most
cases, however, its chief virtue lies in the fact that it tends to prevent oxidation and hence
subsequent joint deterioration. It may therefore be recommended in cases where the joints
operate at unusually high temperatures or current densities or when subjected to corrosive
atmospheres.
For the best results the surfaces should be tinned or re-tinned immediately prior to the final joint
clamping. It should be noted that both the electrical conductivity and the oxidation protective
action decrease as the lead content of the solder increases. Lead also has the effect of reducing
the surface hardness of the coating and a high lead content in the tinning material should be
avoided as this can cause the plating to creep once the joint is bolted together resulting in
premature failure due to overheating.
Silver or nickel plating. This type of plating is being used increasingly, particularly where
equipment is manufactured to American standards which require plated joints for high
temperature operation. Nickel-plating provides a harder surface than silver and may therefore be
preferable. These platings are expensive to apply and must be protected prior to the final jointing
process as they are always very thin coatings and can therefore be easily damaged. There is also
some doubt as to the stability of these joints under prolonged high temperature cycling. Very high
contact resistances can be developed some time after jointing. It is therefore suggested that
natural metal joints are in most cases preferable.
Effect of pressure on contact resistance
It has been shown above that the contact resistance is dependent more on the total applied
pressure than on the area of contact. If the total applied pressure remains constant and the
contact area is varied, as is the case in a switch blade moving between spring loaded contacts,
the total contact resistance remains practically constant. This can be expressed by an equation of
the form:
Joint resistance falls rapidly with increasing pressure, but above a pressure of about 15 N/mm2
there is little further improvement. Certain precautions must be observed to ensure that the
contact pressure is not unduly high, since it is important that the proof stress of the conductor
material or its bolts and clamps is not exceeded.
As a bar heats up under load the contact pressure in a joint made with steel bolts tends to
increase because of the difference in expansion coefficients between copper and the steel. It is
therefore essential that the initial contact pressure is kept to a such a level that the contact
pressure is not excessive when at operating temperature. If the elastic limit of the bar is exceeded
the joint will have a reduced contact pressure when it returns to its cold state due to the joint
materials having deformed or stretched.
To avoid this, it is helpful to use disc spring washers whose spring rating is chosen to maintain a
substantially constant contact pressure under cold and hot working conditions. This type of joint
deterioration is very much more likely to happen with soft materials, such as E1E aluminium,
where the material elastic limit is low compared with that of high conductivity copper.
Joint efficiency
The efficiency of a joint may be measured in terms of the ratio of the resistance of the portion of
the conductor comprising the joint and that of an equal length of straight conductor.
The resistance of a joint, as already mentioned, is made up of two parts, one due to the distortion
of lines of current flow and the other to contact resistance. The resistance due to the streamline
effect at an overlap joint is given by:
where for a given joint a, b and l are the width, thickness and overlap length, these all being
constant, and contact resistance of the joint is:
Bolting Arrangements
In deciding the number, size and distribution of bolts required to produce the necessary contact
pressure to give high joint efficiency, both electrical and mechanical considerations have to be
taken into account. The methods used to determine these requirements have been given in
previous sections.
A joint normally decreases in resistance with an increase in the size and number of bolts used.
Bolt sizes usually vary from M6 to M20 with between four and six being used in each joint with a
preference for four bolts in narrow conductors and six in large conductors. The torque chosen for
each bolt size is dependent on the bolt material and the maximum operating temperature
expected. Because of the strength of copper, deformation of the conductor under the pressure of
the joint is not normally a consideration.
Table 9 shows typical bolting arrangements for various busbar sizes. The recommended torque
settings are applicable to high-tensile steel (8.8) or aluminium bronze (CW307G, formerly Cy104)
fasteners with unlubricated threads of normal surface finish. In the case of stainless steel bolts,
these torque settings may be used, but the threads must be lubricated prior to use.
In addition to the proof or yield stress of the bolt material and the thread characteristics, the
correct tightening torque depends on the differential expansion between the bolt and conductor
materials. Galvanised steel bolts are normally used but brass or bronze bolts have been used
because their coefficients of expansion closely match the copper conductor and hence the contact
pressure does not vary widely with operating temperature. Copper alloy bolts also have the
advantage that the possibility of dissimilar metal corrosion is avoided. Because these alloys do
not have an easily discernible yield stress, however, care has to be taken not to exceed the
correct tightening torque.
Because of their non-magnetic properties, copper alloys may also be preferred to mild or hightensile steel where high magnetic fields are expected. Alternatively, a non-magnetic stainless
steel may be used. In most cases however, high-tensile steel is used for its very high yield stress.
Table 9 Typical busbar bolting arrangements (single face overlap)
Bar width
mm
Joint
overlap
mm
Joint area
mm2
Number of
bolts *
Metric bolt
size
(coarse
thread)
Bolt
torque Nm
Hole size
mm
Washer
diameter
mm
Washer
thickness
mm
16
32
512
M6
7.2
14
1.8
20
40
800
M6
7.2
14
1.8
25
60
1500
M8
17
10
21
2.0
30
60
1800
M8
17
10
21
2.0
40
70
2800
M10
28
11.5
24
2.2
50
70
3500
M12
45
14
28
2.7
60
60
3600
M10
28
11.5
24
2.2
80
80
6400
M12
45
14
28
2.7
100
100
10000
M12
45
15
28
2.7
120
120
14400
M12
45
15
28
2.7
160
160
25600
M16
91
20
28
2.7
200
200
40000
M16
91
20
28
2.7
Clamps
The choice of clamp material and method of manufacture depends on the a.c. or d.c. current
requirements, and on the number of clamps of a given size required. The manufacturing methods
used include machining from plate, sand or die casting, or stamping from plate. In the case of low
current a.c. (less than 3000 A) and d.c. systems the clamps should be made from a high-strength
material compatible with the required contact pressure. They can therefore be made from steel in
cast, forged or stamped form. Where a.c. currents in excess of 3000 A are concerned, the choice
of material is between the low or non-magnetic steels or a brass or bronze. Steel clamps are
generally unsuitable because of the hysteresis losses induced in them.
Welded Joints
The inert gas shielded arc processes, tungsten inert gas (TIG) and metal inert gas (MIG) are the
preferred welding methods for high conductivity coppers and are capable of producing excellent
busbar joints. The welding data given in Table 10 are provided as a guide to good practice, but
the actual welding conditions that will give the best results for a particular joint must be
determined from experience. Certain physical and metallurgical properties of copper must,
however, be taken account of when welding. The high thermal diffusivity of copper - four or five
times that of mild steel - opposes the formation of an adequate weld pool necessary for good
fusion and deoxidation which can give rise to lack of fusion defects and porosity. The rapid heat
sink effect, which is particularly pronounced in thicker sections, must therefore be overcome.
Preheating of the copper before welding is necessary for thickness above about 3 mm as
indicated in Table 10.
As explained in Section 2, the tough pitch grades of copper, CW004A and CW005A (formerly
C101 and C102), contain particles of cuprous oxide which are normally in a form which has a
minimal effect on electrical and mechanical properties. Prolonged heating of the copper however,
allows the oxide particles to diffuse to grain boundaries where they can seriously affect the
properties. This diffusion effect is both time and temperature dependent and is minimised by
performing the welding operation as quickly as possible and by restricting the overall heating of
the component as far as possible consistent with adequate fusion and a satisfactory weld profile.
This consideration obviously does not apply to oxygen-free coppers which do not contain the
oxide particles.
Table 10 Welding data for HC copper
a) Recommended usage of BS 2901 filler alloys for TIG and MIG welding of high
conductivity copper.
TIG
Designation
MIG
Grade
Argon or Helium
Nitrogen
Argon or Helium
Nitrogen
CW004A
Electrolytic tough
pitch high
conductivity
C7, C21
Not
recommended
Not recommended
CW005A
Fire-refined tough
pitch high
conductivity
C7, C21
Not
recommended
Not recommended
CW008A
Oxygen-free high
conductivity
C7, C21
Not
recommended
C7, C21
Not recommended
b) Typical operating data for TIG butt welds in high conductivity copper.
(Direct current; electrode negative; argon and helium shielding)
Shielding gas
Argon
Helium
Thickness
(mm)
Preheat
temperature*
(C)
Electrode
diameter
(mm)
Filler rod
diameter
(mm)
Gas
nozzle
diameter
(mm)
Weld
current
(A)
Gas flow
(l/min)
Weld
current
(A)
Gas flow
(l/min)
1.5
None
1.6-2.4
1.6
9.5
80-130
4-6
70-90
6-10
None
2.4-3.2
1.6
9.5-12
120-240
4-6
180-220
6-10
up to 400
3.2-4.8
3.2
12-18
220-350
6-8
200-240
10-15
12
400-600
4.8
3.2-4.8
12-18
330-420
8-10
260-280
10-15
>12
500-700
4.8
3.2-4.8
12-18
>400
8-10
280-320
12-20
Preheat
temperature (C)
Welding current
(A)
None
240-320
25-28
6.5-8.0
10-15
12
up to 500
320-380
26-30
5.5-6.5
10-15
18
up to 500
340-400
28-32
5.5-6.5
12-17
24
up to 700
340-420
28-32
5.5-6.5
14-20
>24
up to 700
340-460
28-32
5.5-6.5
14-20
Thermal expansion should be allowed for during welding as this leads to the closing of root gaps
as the temperature of the metal rises. The root gaps indicated in Table 11 should therefore be
allowed.
Oxy-acetylene and oxy-propane welding methods can be used with oxygen-free copper but they
are not recommended for welding tough pitch coppers as the reducing atmosphere produced in
the flame can react with the cuprous oxide particles to produce steam inside the metal. This gives
rise to porosity and is known as 'hydrogen embrittlement'.
Further details of the factors involved in the welding of copper can be found in the CDA
publication No 98.
Table 11 Recommended edge preparations for TIG and MIG butt-welds.
Deflection
The maximum deflection of a beam carrying a uniformly distributed load and freely supported at
each end is given by the formula:
Moments of inertia
In the above formula the moment of inertia I for the section of the beam has to be calculated
about the neutral axis which runs parallel to the beam where the beam has zero tensile forces. In
most cases this is the same axis of the centre of cross-section.
For a rectangular section of depth D and breadth B
It should be noted that the value of I for a given cross-section is dependent on the direction in
which each individual force is applied. Moments of inertia for a range of copper rods, bars,
sections and tubes are given in Tables 12 16 (Appendix 2).
Natural Frequency
The natural frequency of a beam simply supported at its end is
In considering the loading of a conductor for outdoor service not only must the weight of the
conductor itself be taken into account but also the weight of a coating of ice which it may carry,
together with the wind pressure on the ice loaded conductor.
The maximum thickness of the ice and the maximum wind speed are normally specified by the
purchaser of the busbars but where these are not specified they are usually available from
national standards bodies within the country where the equipment is to be installed.
The wind and ice loading can be calculated using the following formulae:
Wind loading:
Ww = p(D+2t) x 105
Ice loading:
and
The maximum skin stress in the conductor can then be calculated using the following formula:
For a single beam of length L (mm) uniformly loaded and freely supported at both ends or freely
supported at one end and fixed at the other,
The maximum permissible stress is dependent on the conductor material, temper, etc., but must
not exceed the material proof stress or permanent deformation will occur. For a conductor
manufactured from hard drawn copper the value is approximately 245 N/mm2.
For a beam which is horizontally fixed at both ends the bending moment at the centre is reduced
to one third and that at its ends to two-thirds of those for a simple supported beam.
Thermal Expansion
If the changes in length that occur in a conductor as it expands and contracts with temperature
variations are not allowed for, undue forces will be set up in the conductor support system or in
the equipment to which the busbar is connected.
The coefficient of linear expansion for copper may be taken as 17 x 106 /C (for temperatures
from ambient up to 200C) compared with 23 x 106 /C for aluminium. The lower value for copper
is of great importance when allowing for thermal expansion under both normal and transitory
conditions, as up to 25% less expansion need be accommodated for a particular length of busbar.
If a length of copper bar were to be kept from expanding or contracting, a force of nearly 2 N per
mm2 of cross-sectional area would be developed for a temperature change of 1C.
In most cases the supports expand far less due to much smaller temperature changes and lower
thermal expansion coefficients. It is therefore normal practice to allow for the full expansion using
flexible conductor connections at suitable points.
Types of expansion joints
In the case of short bars it is usually not necessary to make any special provision to
accommodate expansion. There will normally be one or two reasonably flexible bends capable of
relieving any undue stresses which may be set up.
Figure 17 Types of expansion joints in copper conductors
To relieve intermediate supports of stress, clamps which allow the conductor to move freely in the
longitudinal direction should be provided. These clamps must be designed and arranged with care
to avoid the danger of stresses building up at any point at which the bar may become wedged or
prevented from moving freely.
In the case of long straight runs it is advisable that expansion joints should be introduced. The
joints may use laminated thin copper strips or leaves and have the same total current rating as the
busbar itself.
As an alternative to laminated flexible joints, copper braid may be used. This type of joint is
usually more expensive to manufacture but has the advantage that it can accommodate
expansion in more than one direction (in most cases three directions) and also tends to eliminate
vibration forces being passed from one piece of equipment to another. It is important that the
ferrule into which the copper braid is clamped is of sufficient thickness to ensure consistent high
conductivity after manufacture and during its service life. Where high resistances develop in the
joint after manufacture, overheating and ultimately braid failure due to oxidation of the braid
material may result
9. Busbar Impedance
VoltDrop
Inductance Formulae
Capacitance Formulae
Geometric Mean Distance Formulae
The busbar reactance is not normally sufficiently large to affect the total reactance of a power
system and hence is not included in the calculations when establishing the short-circuit currents
and reactive volt drops within a power system. The exception to this is when considering certain
heavy current industrial applications such as furnaces, welding sets, or roll heating equipment for
steel mills. In these cases the reactance may be required to be known for control purposes, or to
obtain busbar arrangements to give minimum or balanced reactance. This may be important
because of its effect on both volt drop and power factor, and hence on the generating plant kVA
requirement per kW of load, or on the tariffs payable where the power is purchased from outside.
The busbar impedance is made up of three components: resistance, inductance and capacitance.
The values of these components are given an ohmic value which in the case of inductance and
capacitance is dependent on the frequency of the system. They are defined as follows:
Resistance:
f = frequency, Hz
C = capacitance, F
Impedance:
where X = XL - XC
The value of XC is usually very much smaller than XL, and XL is usually much larger than Rf. The
value of X is taken to be positive with the sign of XL - XC to indicate whether the system has a
positive or negative power factor.
Volt Drop
The volt drop in a busbar system is estimated as follows from the usual formula:
VB = I ZB
where VB = volt drop, V
I = current flowing in the conductor, A
ZB = busbar impedance,
However, to find the magnitude of the load voltage VL available, the busbar volt drop VB must be
subtracted vectorially from the supply voltage VS:
= angle of busbar,
The apparent volt drop in the busbar trunking, phase to neutral, is given by:
10. Appendices
Summary of Methods of Busbar Rating
Tables of Properties of HC Copper Conductors
Table 12. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - strips and bars
Table 13. a.c. current ratings of laminated bars
Table 14. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - tubes
Table 15. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - sections
Table 16. Moments of inertia, section moduli and current ratings - rods
Table 17. Comparison of flat bar d.c. current ratings for different ambient and working
temperatures
Apply formula 4 or read direct from Table 12, for standard sizes.
Example:
Copper bar l00 mm x 6.3 mm (A = 630 mm2, p= 212.6 mm)
I = 7.73 (630)0.5 (212.6)0.39 = 1570 A
(or read direct from Table 12).
a) Multiply still air rating by appropriate constant (see Enclosed copper conductors) i.e.. by 0.6 to
0.65 for conductor configurations largely dependent on air circulation (e.g., modified hollow
square arrangement, Figure 9c), or by 0.7 for tubular conductors or closely grouped flat
laminations.
b) Multiply by further 0.85 if enclosure of thick magnetic material.
Example:
4 copper bars 100 mm x 6.3 mm arranged as in Figure 9c, to carry a.c.
d.c. rating, single bar = 1570 A (as in Case I).
a.c. rating, single bar = 1480 A (as in Case IV).
Multiplying factor for 4 laminations (Table 8) = 2.3
Multiplying factor for configuration of Figure 9c, (see Figure 11) = 1.28
Hence still air rating for this configuration = 1480 x 2.3 x 1.28 = 4360 A
Multiplying factor for non-magnetic enclosure (Enclosed copper conductors) = 0.60
Hence enclosed rating = 4360 x 0.6 = 2610 A
Multiplying factor for magnetic enclosure = 0.85
Hence rating in magnetic enclosure =2610 x0.85 = 2220 A
Case VIII Economical use of busbar configurations
Example:
Two channels, each 100 mm high x 45 mm flange width x 8.6 mm thick (A = 1430 mm2 per
channel). a.c. 60 Hz, 30C rise on 40C ambient in still air. From Table 15, rating based on 50C
rise on 40C ambient. = 5550 A
Use re-rating formula (equation 8) to obtain rating for 70C working temperature and 40C
ambient.
Hence rating under conditions specified = 5550 x 0.756 = 4195 A
Equivalent 4-bar laminated configuration for same cross-sectional area = 118 mm x 6.3 mm per
bar (A = 743 mm2, p = 249 mm).
Hence d.c., rating per bar for 50C rise on 40C ambient. = 1300 A (from equation 4, and
application of appropriate conversion constant as above).
a/b = 118/6.3 = 18.7 (see Figure 7)
= 1.08 (from Figure 7 for 60 Hz).
Hence a.c. rating per bar = 1300/1.08 = 1190 A
Multiplying factor for 4 laminations = 2.3 (Table 8)
Hence a.c. rating for 4 laminations = 1190 x 2.3 = 2760 A
Thus the double channel arrangement is able to carry more current than laminated bars, in the
ratio 1.52:1 for this cross-sectional area. This corresponds to the factor given in Figure 11. For
larger cross-sectional areas this factor would be still greater, for smaller sections the increase
would be rather less than this, the exact value depends on the ratio of web to flange lengths of the
channel used, and on the thickness of web and channel; a rather wide spacing between "go" and
"return" conductors is also assumed in Table 15, in order to approximate to the "equi-inductance
line" condition (see Condition for minimum loss).
Busbar
Size
mm
Approx. d.c.
rating (1)
Approx. a.c.
(2) rating
Moment of inertia, I
Flat
mm4
Modulus of
Section, Z
XSectional
area mm2
Weight
kg/m
Approx
d.c.resistanc
e 20C /m
Still
air
(3)A
Free
air
(3)A
Still
air A
Free
air
A
Edgewis
e mm4
Edgewis
e
mm3
Flat
mm3
Busbar
size mm
10 x
1.60
16.0
0.143
1077
105
115
105
115
133.3
3.413
26.66
4.266
10 x
1.60
12.5 x
1.60
20.0
0.179
862
125
135
125
135
260.4
4.266
41.66
5.333
12.5 x
1.60
16 x
1.60
25.6
0.229
673
155
170
155
170
546.1
5.461
68.26
6.826
16 x
1.60
20 x
1.60
32.0
0.286
538
185
205
185
205
1066
6.826
106.6
8.533
20 x
1.60
25 x
1.60
40.0
0.357
431
225
250
225
250
2083
8.533
166.6
10.67
25 x
1.60
30 x
1.60
48.0
0.429
359
265
290
265
290
3600
10.24
240.0
12.80
30 x
1.60
10 x
2.00
20.0
0.179
862
115
130
115
130
166.6
6.666
33.32
6.666
10 x
2.00
12.5 x
2.00
25.0
0.223
689
140
155
140
155
325.5
8.333
52.08
8.333
12.5 x
2.00
16 x
2.00
32.0
0.286
538
175
190
175
190
682.6
10.66
85.33
10.66
16 x
2.00
20 x
2.00
40.0
0.357
431
210
230
210
230
1333
13.33
133.3
13.33
20 x
2.00
25 x
2.00
50.0
0.446
344
255
280
255
280
2604
16.66
208.3
16.66
25 x
2.00
30 x
2.00
60.0
0.536
287
295
330
295
330
4500
20.00
300
20.00
30 x
2.00
40 x
2.00
80.0
0.714
215
380
420
380
420
10660
26.66
533
26.66
40 x
2.00
10 x
2.50
25.0
0.223
689
130
145
130
145
208.3
13.02
41.66
10.42
10 x
2.50
12.5 x
2.50
31.25
0.279
557
160
175
160
175
406.9
16.27
65.60
13.02
12.5 x
2.50
16 x
2.50
40.0
0.357
431
195
215
195
215
853.3
20.83
106.70
16.66
16 x
2.50
20 x
2.50
50.0
0.446
344
235
260
235
260
1666
26.04
166.6
20.83
20 x
2.50
25 x
2.50
62.5
0.558
275
285
315
285
315
3255
32.55
260.4
26.04
25 x
2.50
30 x
75.0
0.670
229
330
370
330
370
5625
39.06
375.0
31.25
30 x
2.50
2.50
40 x
2.50
100
0.893
172
425
475
425
475
13330
52.08
666.5
41.66
40 x
2.50
50 x
2.50
125
1.115
137
520
575
520
575
26040
65.10
1041
52.08
50 x
2.50
60 x
2.50
150
1.339
114
605
675
605
675
45000
78.13
1500
62.50
60 x
2.50
10 x
2.75
31.5
0.281
547
150
170
150
170
262.5
26.05
52.5
16.54
10 x
2.75
12.5 x
2.75
39.4
0.352
437
180
200
180
200
512.7
32.56
82.03
20.67
12.5 x
2.75
16 x
2.75
50.4
0.450
342
220
245
220
245
1075
41.67
134.4
26.46
16 x
2.75
20 x
3.0
60.0
0.536
287
260
290
260
290
2000
45.00
200.0
30.00
20 x 3.0
25 x
3.0
75
0.670
229
315
350
314
350
3906
56.25
312.4
37.5
25 x 3.0
30 x
3.0
90
0.803
191
365
405
365
405
6750
67.50
450.0
45.0
30 x 3.0
40 x
3.0
120
1.071
143
470
520
470
520
16000
90.00
800.0
60.0
40 x 3.0
50 x
3.0
150
1.339
114
570
635
570
635
31250
112.50
1250
75.0
50 x 3.0
60 x
3.0
180
1.607
95.7
665
740
665
740
54000
135.00
1800
90.0
60 x 3.0
80 x
3.0
240
2.142
71.8
860
955
860
955
128 x 103
180.00
3200
120.0
80 x 3.0
10 x
4.0
40
0.357
431
175
195
175
195
333.3
53.33
66.66
26.67
10 x 4.0
12.5 x
4.0
50
0.446
344
210
230
210
230
651.0
66.67
104.2
33.34
12.5 x
4.0
16 x
4.0
64
0.571
269
255
285
255
285
1365
85.33
170.6
42.67
16 x 4.0
20 x
4.0
80
0.714
215
305
340
305
340
2666
106.7
266.6
53.35
20 x 4.0
25 x
4.0
100
0.893
172
365
410
365
410
5208
133.3
416.6
66.65
25 x 4.0
30 x
4.0
120
1.071
143
430
475
430
475
8999
1600
599.6
80.00
30 x 4.0
40 x
4.0
160
1.428
107
545
610
540
605
21330
213.3
1066.5
106.7
40 x 4.0
50 x
4.0
200
1.785
86.2
665
740
660
735
41660
266.7
1666
133.4
50 x 4.0
60 x
4.0
240
2.142
71.8
775
860
770
855
72000
320.0
2400
160.0
60 x 4.0
80 x
4.0
320
2.856
53.8
995
1120
980
1105
170 x
10E3
426.7
4268
213.4
80 x 4.0
100 x
4.0
400
3.571
43.1
1210
1365
1185
1340
333 x
10E3
533.3
6666
266.7
100 x
4.0
10 x
5.0
50
0.446
344
200
225
200
225
416.7
104.2
83.34
41.68
10 x 5.0
12.5 x
5.0
62.5
0.558
275
240
265
240
265
813.4
130.2
130.1
52.08
12.5 x
5.0
16 x
5.0
80
0.714
215
290
325
290
325
1707
166.7
213.4
66.68
16 x 5.0
20 x
5.0
100
0.893
172
345
385
345
385
3333
208
333.3
83.20
20 x 5.0
25 x
5.0
125
1.116
137
415
465
415
465
6560
260.4
520.8
104.2
25 x 5.0
30 x
5.0
150
1.339
114
485
540
480
540
11250
312.5
750.0
125.0
30 x 5.0
40 x
5.0
200
1.785
86.2
615
685
610
680
26670
416.7
1334
166.7
40 x 5.0
50 x
5.0
250
2.232
68.9
745
830
740
820
52080
520.8
2083
208.3
50 x 5.0
60 x
5.0
300
2.678
57.4
870
970
865
960
90000
625.0
3000
250.0
60 x 5.0
80 x
5.0
400
3571
431
1120
1260
1110
1250
213 x
10E3
833.3
5333
333.3
80 x 5.0
100 x
5.0
500
4464
344
1355
1530
1345
1520
417 x
10E3
1042
8334
416.8
100 x
5.0
10 x
6.3
63
0.562
273
235
260
235
260
525
208.4
105.0
66.16
10 x 6.3
12.5 x
6.3
78.75
0.703
218
275
305
275
305
1025
260.5
164.0
82.70
12.5 x
6.3
16 x
6.3
100.8
0.899
171
335
370
335
370
2150
333.4
268.8
105.8
16 x 6.3
20 x
6.0
120
1.071
143
385
430
385
430
4000
360.0
400.0
120.0
20 x 6.0
25 x
6.0
150
1.339
114
460
515
460
515
7813
450.0
625.0
150.0
25 x 6.0
30 x
6.0
180
1.607
95.7
535
600
535
595
13500
540.0
900.0
180.0
30 x 6.0
40 x
6.0
240
2.142
71.8
680
760
675
755
32000
720.0
1600
240.0
40 x 6.0
50 x
6.0
300
2.678
57.4
825
915
815
910
62500
900.0
2500
300.0
50 x 6.0
60 x
6.0
360
3.214
47.8
965
1075
955
1065
108 x
10E3
1080
3600
360.0
60 x 6.0
80 x
480
4.285
35.9
1230
1370
1220
1355
256
1440
6400
480.0
80 x 6.0
6.0
x10E3
100 x
6.0
600
5.356
28.7
1490
1680
1480
1670
500
x10E3
1800
10000
600.0
100 x
6.0
120 x
6.0
720
6.428
23.9
1750
1970
1700
1915
864
x10E3
2160
14400
720.0
120 x
6.0
160 x
6.0
960
8.570
17.9
2250
2535
2130
2400
2.05
x10E6
2880
25600
960.0
160 x
6.0
20 x
8.0
160
1.428
107
460
510
455
510
5333
853.3
533.0
213.3
20 x 8.0
25 x
8.0
200
1.785
86.2
545
610
545
605
10420
1067
833.6
266.7
25 x 8.0
30 x
8.0
240
2.142
71.8
630
705
630
700
18000
1280
1200
320.0
30 x 8.0
40 x
8.0
320
2.856
53.8
800
890
795
885
42670
1707
2134
426.8
40 x 8.0
50 x
8.0
400
3.571
43.1
965
1070
950
1055
83300
2133
3333
533.3
50 x 8.0
60 x
8.0
480
4.285
35.9
1120
1250
1110
1235
144 x
10E3
2560
4800
640.0
60 x 8.0
80 x
8.0
640
5.713
26.9
1435
1595
1420
1580
341 x
10E3
3413
8533
853.3
80 x 8.0
100 x
8.0
800
7.142
21.5
1735
1955
1595
1800
667 x
10E3
4267
13330
1067
100 x
8.0
120 x
8.0
960
8.570
17.9
2032
2290
1760
1985
1.15 x
10E6
5120
19200
1280
120 x
8.0
160 x
8.0
1280
11.43
13.4
2610
2935
2230
2510
2.73 x
10E6
6827
34140
1707
160 x
8.0
200 x
8.0
1600
14.27
10.8
3170
3570
2760
3110
5.33 x
10E6
8533
53330
2133
200 x
8.0
20 x 10
200
1.785
86.2
525
585
480
535
6670
1667
667
333.4
20 x 10
25 x 10
250
2.232
68.9
625
695
580
645
13020
2083
1042
416.6
25 x 10
30 x 10
300
2.678
57.4
720
825
700
795
22500
2500
1500
500.0
30 x 10
40 x 10
400
3.571
43.1
910
1030
880
995
53330
3333
2667
666.6
40 x 10
50 x 10
500
4.464
34.4
1090
1235
1060
1200
104 x
10E3
4167
4168
833.4
50 x l0
60 x 10
600
5.356
28.7
1270
1435
1200
1355
180 x
10E3
5000
6000
1000
60 x 10
80 x 10
800
7.142
21.5
1615
1840
1525
1735
427 x
10E3
6667
10670
1333
80 x 10
100 x
10
1000
8.928
17.2
1950
2225
1800
2065
833 x
10E3
8333
16670
1667
100 x 10
120 x
10
1200
10.71
14.3
2285
2610
2100
2395
144 x
10E3
10000
23980
2000
120 x 10
160 x
10
1600
14.28
10.7
2930
3380
2620
3040
341 x
10E3
13330
42660
2666
160 x 10
200 x
10
2000
17.84
8.62
3550
4150
3140
3630
6.67 x
10E6
16670
66670
3334
200 x 10
250 x
10
2500
22.30
6.89
4320
5030
3710
4310
13.0 x
10E6
20830
104 x 103
4166
250 x 10
25 x 12
300
2.678
57.4
700
710
640
650
15630
3599
1250
599.8
25 x 12
30 x 12
360
3.214
47.8
805
820
750
765
27000
4319
1800
719.8
30 x 12
40 x 12
480
4.285
35.9
1010
1100
950
1030
64000
5759
3200
959.8
40 x 12
50 x 12
600
5.356
28.7
1210
1330
1160
1275
125 x
10E3
7199
5000
1199
50 x 12
60 x 12
720
6.428
23.9
1405
1550
1320
1455
216 x
10E3
8639
7200
1439
60 x 12
80 x 12
960
8.570
17.9
1785
2000
1670
1870
512 x
10E3
11519
12800
1919
80 x 12
100 x
12
1200
10.71
14.3
2155
2420
2010
2255
1.00 x
10E6
14390
20000
2398
100 x 12
120 x
12
1440
12.85
11.9
2520
2880
2310
2640
1.73 x
10E6
17280
28800
2880
120 x 12
160 x
12
1920
17.14
8.97
3225
3650
2860
3235
4.10 x
10E6
23040
51200
3840
160 x 12
200 x
12
2400
21.43
7.18
3910
4480
3380
3870
8.00 x
10E6
28790
80000
4798
200 x 12
250 x
12
3000
26.78
5.74
4750
5440
4060
4650
15.6 x
10E6
35990
125 x 103
5998
250 x 12
25 x 16
400
3.571
43.1
840
960
740
855
20830
8533
16.7 x
103
1067
25 x 16
30 x 16
480
4.285
35.9
960
1095
845
975
35990
10240
24.0 x
103
1280
30 x 16
40 x 16
640
5.713
26.9
1200
1370
1055
1220
85330
13650
42.7 x
103
1706
40 x 16
50 x 16
800
7.142
21.5
1430
1635
1260
1450
167 x
10E3
17070
66.7 x
103
2134
50 x 16
60 x 16
960
8.570
17.9
1660
1895
1460
1685
288 x
10E3
20480
96.0 x
103
2560
60 x 16
80 x 16
1280
11.43
13,4
2100
2400
1850
2130
683 x
10E3
27310
171 x 103
3414
80 x 16
100 x
16
1600
14.28
10.7
2530
2880
2220
2560
1.33 x
10E6
34130
267 x 103
4266
100 x 16
120 x
16
1920
17.14
8.97
2940
3360
2590
2990
2.30 x
10E6
40960
384 x 103
5120
120 x 16
160 x
16
2560
22.85
6.73
3750
4360
3180
3700
5.46 x
10E6
54610
683 x 103
6826
160 x 16
200 x
3200
28.57
5.38
4540
5725
3760
4370
10.7 x
68270
1.07 x
8534
200 x 16
16
10E6
106
250 x
16
4000
35.71
4.31
5520
6425
4500
5250
20.8 x
10E6
85330
1.67 x
106
10670
250 x 16
300 x
16
4800
42.84
3.59
6460
7525
5270
6150
36.0 x
10E6
102 x
103
2.40 x
106
12800
300 x 16
Notes:
1. Ratings apply for single bars on edge operating in a 40C ambient temperature with 50C
temperature rise. For other ambient and working temperatures apply formula 8, section 3.
2. a.c. ratings are for frequencies up to 60 Hz.
3. 'Free air' conditions assume some air movement other than convection currents, and may be
applicable for outside installations. 'Still' and 'free' air conditions both assume no enclosure.
Total Section
mm
mm2
20C
30C
40C
50C
2 - 20 x 5
200
430
540
640
720
2 - 25 x 5
250
500
640
750
855
2 - 30 x 5
300
590
750
880
1000
3 - 30 x 5
450
800
1020
1200
1360
4 - 30 x 5
600
1030
1300
1530
1740
2 - 40 x 5
400
750
950
1120
1270
3 - 40 x 5
600
1030
1300
1530
1740
4 - 40 x 5
800
1260
1600
1890
2140
2 - 50 x 5
500
880
1120
1320
1500
3 - 50 x 5
750
1200
1520
1790
2030
4 - 50 x 5
1000
1500
1900
2240
2540
2 - 60 x 5
600
1030
1300
1530
1740
3 - 60 x 5
900
1380
1750
2060
2340
4 - 60 x 5
1200
1700
2150
2540
2880
2 - 80 x 5
800
1260
1600
1890
2140
3 - 80 x 5
1200
1700
2150
2540
2880
4 - 80 x 5
1600
2080
2630
3100
3520
2 - 100 x 5
1000
1460
1850
2180
2470
3 - 100 x 5
1500
1990
2520
2970
3370
4 - 100 x 5
2000
2420
3060
3610
4090
4 - 50 x 10
2000
2330
2950
3480
3950
4 - 60 x 10
2400
2580
3260
3850
4360
4 - 80 x 10
3200
2970
3760
4440
5030
3 - 100 x 10
3000
2880
3650
4300
4880
4 - 100 x 10
4000
3240
4100
4840
5480
Notes:
All values are bars arranged on edge and spacing equal to the bar thickness. All bars in free air
and painted black.
Values for 30C rise based on test results, values for 20, 40 and 50C rise based on 30C rise
values and assume temperature rise proportional to 1.75 power of I.
Courtesy of Ottermill Switchgear Ltd.
Table 14. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - tubes
a. Metric sizes
Outsidediameter
WallThickness
Crosssectionalarea
Approxweight
Moment
ofinertia
ofsection
Modulusof
section
Approxresistanceper
m 20C
Approx.
d.c.currentrating
(1)A
mm
mm
mm2
kg/m
mm4
mm3
Indoor
Outdoor
12
1.0
34.56
0.307
527.0
87.83
502
185
250
12
1.5
49.48
0.440
695.8
116.0
351
220
300
12
2.0
62.83
0.559
816.8
136.1
276
250
340
15
1.0
43.98
0.391
1083
144.4
394
225
300
15
1.5
63.62
0.566
1467
195.6
273
275
360
15
2.0
81.68
0.726
1766
235.5
212
310
400
18
1.0
53.40
0.475
1936
215.1
325
265
350
18
1.5
77.75
0.691
2668
296.4
223
320
420
18
2.0
100.5
0.894
3267
363.0
172
365
480
18
2.5
121.7
1.08
3751
416.8
143
405
530
22
1.0
65.98
0.587
3645
331.4
263
320
410
22
1.5
96.61
0.859
5102
463.8
179
385
500
22
2.0
125.7
1.12
6346
576.9
138
440
570
22
2.5
154.1
1.37
7399
672.7
112
490
630
22
3.0
179.1
1.59
8282
752.9
97.0
525
680
28
1.5
124.9
1.11
11000
785.5
139
480
620
28
2.0
163.4
1.45
13890
991.8
106.3
550
700
28
2.5
200.3
1.78
16440
1157
86.7
605
780
28
3.0
235.6
2.10
18670
1334
73.7
660
850
35
1.5
157.9
1.40
22190
1268
110
585
750
35
2.0
207.4
1.84
28330
1619
83.7
670
850
35
2.5
255.3
2.27
33900
1937
68.0
740
950
35
3.0
301.6
2.68
38940
2225
57.5
805
1030
54
1.5
247.4
2.20
85300
3160
70.2
855
1090
54
2.0
326.7
2.91
110600
4096
53.1
980
1250
54
2.5
404.5
3.60
134400
4978
42.9
1090
1390
54
3.0
480.7
4.27
156800
5808
36.1
1190
1520
76.1
2.0
465.6
4.14
319800
8404
37.3
1330
1690
76.1
2.5
578.1
5.14
392000
10300
30.0
1480
1880
76.1
3.0
689.0
6.13
461000
12110
25.2
1610
2050
76.1
3.5
798.3
7.10
527200
13850
21.7
1740
2210
108
2.5
828.6
7.37
1.153x106
21360
20.9
2010
2550
108
3.0
989.6
8.80
1.365x106
25280
17.5
2190
2790
108
3.5
1149
10.2
1.570x106
29080
15.1
2360
3010
133
3.0
1225
10.9
2.590x106
38940
14.1
2630
3350
133
3.5
1424
12.7
2.987x106
44920
12.1
2830
3610
159
3.0
1470
13.1
4.474x106
56280
11.8
3070
2910
159
3.5
1710
15.2
5.171x106
65040
10.1
3310
4420
WallThickness
Approx.sectionalarea
Approxweight
Momentof
inertiax
103
Modulusof
sectionx
103
Approx.resistanceper
m 20C
Approx. d.c.
currentrating (1)A
mm
mm
mm2
kg/m
mm4
mm3
Indoor
Outdoor
12.5
1.22
43.9
0.387
0.738
0.115
400.2
205
285
12.5
2.65
83.9
0.744
1.14
0.178
210.0
285
390
19
1.22
68.4
0.610
2.75
0.286
257.0
300
400
19
2.65
136
0.218
4.74
0.494
129.0
420
560
19
5.1
223
1.984
6.20
0.646
78.73
540
715
25
1.22
92.9
0.819
6.84
0.534
189.2
390
505
25
1.63
118
1.063
8.69
0.679
148.7
440
570
25
2.04
149
1.325
10.3
0.808
118.1
490
640
25
2.65
189
1.684
12.5
0.976
92.95
555
720
25
4.07
272
2.431
16.2
1.26
64.52
665
865
25
6.36
380
3.38
19.3
1.51
45.93
785
1020
32
1.63
154
1.378
17.6
1.10
114.8
540
695
32
3.26
291
2.59
30.2
1.89
60.14
745
955
32
6.36
506
4.51
43.8
2.74
35.00
985
1260
38
1.63
186
1.65
31.3
1.63
94.37
635
838
38
3.26
356
3.178
54.9
2.86
49.43
880
1138
38
7.64
730
6.498
90.7
4.73
24.06
1260
1620
44
1.63
219
1.955
50.6
2.26
80.48
730
935
44
3.26
421
3.74
90.6
4.04
41.77
1020
1300
44
7.64
882
7.84
157
7.01
19.90
1470
1880
50
1.63
250
2.227
76.6
2.99
70.42
820
1050
50
2.04
312
2.775
93.4
3.65
56.42
915
1170
50
4.07
597
5.30
165
6.46
29.52
1270
1620
50
4.87
702
6.25
189
7.39
25.04
1380
1760
50
6.41
892
7.93
227
8.85
19.68
1560
1980
50
10.2
1300
11.5
287
11.2
13.56
1870
2390
64
2.04
392
3.48
187
5.85
44.83
1110
1420
64
4.07
759
6.89
339
10.6
23.18
1550
1980
64
10.2
1700
15.1
632
19.8
10.33
2310
2960
75
1.63
380
3.40
267
6.95
46.26
1170
1500
75
2.04
472
4.21
328
8.55
37.29
1300
1670
75
2.65
610
5.43
417
10.9
28.87
1490
1900
75
4.07
912
8.13
606
15.8
19.25
1830
2320
75
4.89
1090
9.69
704
18.3
16.18
2000
2530
75
5.40
1200
10.78
761
19.8
14.65
2080
2660
75
10.2
2110
18.7
1190
30.9
8.311
2760
3530
89
2.65
716
6.37
672
15.0
24.60
1700
2170
89
5.40
1410
12.64
1250
27.8
12.47
2400
3050
89
12.7
3040
27.05
2290
51.0
5.785
3500
4470
100
3.26
1000
8.93
1230
23.9
17.50
2100
2680
100
6.41
1910
17.0
2200
42.9
9.196
2910
3710
100
12.7
3550
31.5
3600
70.4
4.954
3960
5050
115
3.26
1130
10.1
1760
30.6
15.53
2330
2970
115
6.41
2170
19.3
3200
55.5
8.103
3210
4090
115
12.7
4050
36.0
5350
92.9
4.341
4400
5610
127
4.07
1570
14.0
2990
46.8
11.15
2850
3600
127
7.64
2860
25.4
5150
80.5
6.156
3850
4850
127
12.7
4560
40.5
7600
119
3.860
4870
6130
140
4.89
2065
18.4
4740
67.3
8.518
3340
4000
140
8.86
3630
32.3
7870
112
4.844
4430
5600
140
19.1
7220
64.2
13600
193
2.438
6240
7900
150
5.90
2710
24.1
7350
95.6
6.484
4000
4930
150
10.2
4540
40.4
11600
151
3.871
5180
6370
150
19.1
7980
71.0
18200
238
2.209
6850
8450
1. Current ratings are for 50C temperature rise and 40C ambient
hthmm
Table 15. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - sections
SINGLE CHANNEL
Width
offlange
fmm
Thicknesstmm
AreaAmm
Approx.weight
*kg/m
TWO CHANNELS
Moment
of
inertiax
105
mm4
Modulus
of
sectionx
105 mm3
Approx.d.c.resistanceat20C
Approx
a.c.
rating(A)
x-x
y-y
x-x
y-y
/m
Test 1
Calculate
33.3
4.91
542
4.82
5.06
0.543
0.133
0.0226
31.8
2200
3000
33.3
5.49
690
6.15
6.30
0.673
0.165
0.0286
24.9
2500
3400
33.3
7.21
884
7.86
7.78
0.822
0.204
0.0358
19.5
2800
3800
44.5
5.08
890
7.92
14.5
1.60
0.286
0.0497
19.4
3200
4400
44.5
6.10
1050
9.35
16.9
1.86
0.333
0.0583
16.4
3500
4800
44.5
8.59
1430
12.7
22.3
2.42
0.439
0.0780
12.0
4000
5550
55.6
6.60
1450
12.9
36.4
4.05
0.573
0.102
11.9
4500
6150
55.6
8.61
1850
16.4
45.4
5.02
0.796
0.127
9.35
5000
6850
68.3
7.01
1850
16.8
68.9
7.30
0.901
0.147
9.15
5600
7700
68.3
9.75
2550
22.7
90.9
10.7
1.19
0.220
6.76
6300
8600
68.3
12.5
3180
28.3
111
12.9
1.45
0.270
5.41
6700
9200
81.0
8.26
2610
23.2
129
15.9
1.46
0.272
6.59
7000
9650
81.0
13.2
4010
35.7
191
23.7
2.18
0.417
4.29
7900
10850
81.0
11.9
4280
38.0
272
34.3
2.68
0.513
4.04
8900
12300
105
12.7
5140
45.7
413
51.7
3.61
0.688
3.35
10000
13750
63.5 x
63.5
4.76
542
4.81
3.62
0.957
0.0806
0.0533
31.8
2750
3000
76.2 x
76.2
4.76
671
5.95
6.41
1.71
0.119
0.0583
35.7
3300
3600
76.2 x
76.2
6.35
910
8.08
8.08
1.92
0.150
0.0637
18.9
3650
4100
88.9 x
88.9
6.35
1070
9.52
13.3
3.33
0.211
0.0957
16.1
4200
4500
102 x
102
6.35
1230
10.9
17.5
5.00
0.243
0.128
14.1
4800
5200
114 x
114
6.35
1390
12.3
29.1
7.33
0.359
0.167
12.4
5400
5850
114 x
114
7.94
1650
14.7
35.5
9.20
0.439
0.208
10.4
6000
6550
127 x
127
7.94
1850
16.4
49.2
12.4
0.549
0.251
9.32
6750
7400
152 x
152
7.94
2260
20.1
86.5
21.6
0.803
0.370
7.61
8000
8700
Table 16. Moments of inertia, section moduli and current ratings - rods
Sectional
area
Weight
Moment
of
inertia
x 103
Section
modulus x
103
Approx
resistance per m
at 20C
Approx. d.c.
current capacity
(1)
Approx. a.c.
current rating
(1)
mm
mm2
g/m
mm4
mm3
28.27
251.9
0.0636
0.0212
609.7
130
130
50.27
447.9
0.2011
0.0503
343.0
195
195
10
78.54
699.8
0.4909
0.0982
219.5
265
265
12
113.1
1008
1.018
0.1696
152.4
340
340
15
176.7
1575
2.485
0.3313
97.56
460
460
18
254.5
2267
5.153
0.5726
67.75
590
590
22
380.1
3387
11.50
1.045
45.35
770
770
25
490.9
4374
19.17
1.534
35.12
920
910
28
615.8
5486
30.17
2.155
28.00
1070
1020
35
962.1
8572
73.66
4.209
17.92
1455
1275
42
1385
12344
152.7
7.274
12.44
1860
1550
50
1963
17495
306.8
12.27
8.780
2360
1850
56
2463
21945
482.8
17.24
7.000
2755
2040
63
3117
27775
773.3
24.55
5.531
3230
2270
68
3632
32358
1050
30.87
4.747
3585
2410
75
4418
39363
1553
41.42
3.902
4095
2630
Diameter
Table 17. Comparison of flat bar d.c. current ratings for different ambient and working
temperatures
a. Ambient temp = 30C
Calculated from formula 1, section 3
Temp. coeff. of resistance, a, at 30C = 3.781 x 103
Temp. coeff. of resistivity, b, at 30C = 3.794 x 103
Resistivity, , at 30C = 1.772.cm
Size
mm
10
20
30
40
50
60
12.5 x 2.5
65
95
120
145
160
175
16 x 2.5
80
120
150
175
200
215
20 x 2.5
95
145
180
210
240
260
25 x 2.5
115
175
220
255
290
315
31.5 x 2.5
140
210
265
310
350
385
40 x 2.5
175
260
325
385
430
475
50 x 2.5
210
315
395
465
525
575
63 x 2.5
255
385
485
570
640
705
16 x 4
105
155
195
230
260
285
20 x 4
125
185
235
275
310
340
25 x 4
150
225
280
330
370
410
31.5 x 4
180
270
340
400
450
500
40 x 4
220
335
420
490
555
610
50 x 4
270
405
510
595
670
740
63 x 4
330
495
620
725
820
900
80 x 4
405
605
765
895
1010
1110
100 x 4
490
735
925
1085
1225
1350
25 x 6.3
195
290
365
425
480
530
31.5 x 6.3
235
350
440
515
580
640
40 x 6.3
285
425
535
630
710
780
50 x 6.3
345
515
650
760
855
940
63 x 6.3
420
625
790
925
1040
1145
80 x 6.3
515
770
970
1135
1280
1405
100 x 6.3
620
930
1175
1375
1550
1705
125 x 63
755
1130
1425
1670
1885
2070
160 x 6.3
935
1405
1770
2070
2335
2570
50 x 10
445
665
835
980
1105
1215
63 x 10
535
805
1015
1190
1340
1475
80 x 10
655
985
1240
1455
1640
1800
100 x 10
795
1190
1500
1755
1980
2180
125 x 10
960
1440
1815
2125
2400
2640
160 x 10
1190
1785
2245
2635
2970
3265
200 x 10
1445
2165
2725
3195
3605
3965
250 x 10
1755
2635
3315
3885
4380
4820
100 x 16
1025
1535
1935
2270
2555
2815
125 x 16
1235
1855
2335
2735
3085
3395
160 x 16
1525
2290
2880
3375
3805
4185
200 x 16
1850
2770
3490
4090
4610
5070
250 x 16
2240
3360
4230
4955
5590
6150
315 x 16
2740
4105
5170
6060
6830
7515
mm
10
20
30
40
50
60
12.5 x 2.5
65
95
120
140
160
175
16 x 2.5
80
115
145
175
195
215
20 x 2.5
95
140
180
210
235
260
25 x 2.5
115
170
215
250
285
315
31.5 x 2.5
140
210
260
305
345
380
40 x 2.5
170
255
320
380
425
470
50 x 2.5
205
310
390
460
515
570
63 x 2.5
255
380
480
560
635
695
16 x 4
100
155
190
225
255
280
20 x 4
120
185
230
270
305
335
25 x 4
145
220
280
325
365
405
31.5 x 4
180
270
335
395
445
490
40 x 4
220
330
415
485
545
600
50 x 4
265
395
500
585
660
730
63 x 4
325
485
610
715
810
890
80 x 4
400
595
750
880
995
1095
100 x 4
485
725
915
1070
1210
1330
25 x 6.3
190
285
360
420
475
525
31.5 x 6.3
230
345
435
510
575
630
40 x 6.3
280
420
530
620
700
770
50 x 6.3
340
505
640
750
845
930
63 x 6.3
410
615
775
910
1030
1130
80 x 6.3
505
755
955
1122
1260
1390
100 x 6.3
610
920
1155
1355
1530
1685
125 x 6.3
745
1115
1405
1645
1855
2045
160 x 6.3
920
1385
1740
2040
2305
2535
50 x 10
435
655
825
965
1090
1200
63 x 10
530
795
1000
1170
1320
1455
80 x 10
645
970
1220
1430
1615
1780
100 x 10
780
1170
1475
1730
1955
2150
125 x 10
945
1420
1790
2095
2365
2605
160 x 10
1170
1755
2215
2595
2930
3225
200 x 10
1420
2135
2685
3150
3555
3915
250 x 10
1730
2595
3265
3830
4320
4755
100 x 16
1010
1515
1905
2235
2520
2775
125 x 16
1220
1825
2300
2700
3045
3350
160 x 16
1500
2255
2840
3330
3755
4130
200 x 16
1820
2730
3435
4030
4545
5005
250 x 16
2205
3310
4165
4885
5510
6070
315 x 16
2695
4045
5095
5975
6740
7415
mm
10
20
30
40
50
60
12.5 x 2.5
65
95
120
140
155
175
16 x 2.5
75
115
145
170
195
210
20 x 2.5
95
140
175
205
230
255
25 x 2.5
110
170
210
250
280
310
31.5 x 2.5
135
205
260
305
340
375
40 x 2.5
170
250
320
375
420
465
50 x 2.5
205
305
385
455
510
565
63 x 2.5
250
375
470
555
625
690
16 x 4
100
150
190
220
250
275
20 x 4
120
180
230
265
300
330
25 x 4
145
215
275
320
365
400
31.5 x 4
175
265
335
390
440
485
40 x 4
215
325
410
480
540
595
50 x 4
260
390
495
580
655
720
63 x 4
320
480
605
705
800
880
80 x 4
390
590
740
870
980
1080
100 x 4
475
715
900
1060
1185
1315
25 x 6.3
185
280
355
415
470
515
31.5 x 6.3
225
340
430
500
565
625
40 x 6.3
275
415
520
610
690
760
50 x 6.3
335
500
630
740
835
920
63 x 6.3
405
610
765
900
1015
1120
80 x 6.3
500
745
940
1105
1245
1370
100 x 6.3
605
905
1140
1340
1510
1665
125 x 6.3
730
1100
1385
1625
1835
2020
160 x 6.3
910
1365
1720
2015
2275
2505
50 x 10
430
645
815
955
1075
1185
63 x 10
520
780
985
1155
1305
1435
80 x 10
635
955
1205
1415
1595
1755
100 x 10
770
1155
1455
1710
1930
2125
125 x 10
935
1400
1765
2070
2335
2575
160 x 10
1155
1735
2185
2565
2890
3185
200 x 10
1400
2105
2650
3110
3510
3865
250 x 10
1705
2555
3220
3780
4265
4700
100 x 16
995
1495
1880
2210
2490
2745
125 x 16
1200
1800
2270
2665
3005
3310
160 x 16
1480
2220
2800
3285
3710
4085
200 x 16
1795
2690
3390
3980
4490
4945
250 x 16
2175
3265
4110
4825
5445
5995
315 x 16
2660
3990
5025
5900
6655
7330
Bibliography
Note that only CDA Publications are available from Copper Development Association. Other
reference material is available from the appropriate standards organisation or from a technical
library service.
National and International Standards
Section 2
Section 3
Section 4
Section 5
Section 6
Section 7
Section 8
Section 9
IEC Specifications
IEC 28 International standard of resistance for copper.
IEC 137 Bushings for alternating voltages above 1000V.
IEC 273 Dimensions of indoor and outdoor post insulators and post insulator units for systems with nominal voltage greater than
1000V.
IEC 344 Guide to the calculation of resistance of plain and coated copper conductors of low frequency wires and cables.
IEC 349 Factory-built assembler of low-voltage switchgear and controlgear.
American Specifications
C 29.1 Electric power insulators, test methods for.
C 37.20 Switchgear assemblies including metal-enclosed bus.
C 37.30 High voltage air switches insulators and bus supports, definition and requirements for.
C 37.31 Indoor apparatus insulators, electrical and mechanical characteristics.
Section 2
BOWERS, J.E. and MANTLE, E.C.: Copper for Transformer Windings. J. Inst. Met., 91,1961/2, pp
142-146.
BRANDES, E.A.: Smithells Metals Reference Book. 6th Edition, (Butterworths), 1983.
COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION: Copper in Electrical Contacts. C.D.A. Pub. TN23,
1980.
COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION: High Conductivity Coppers-Properties and
Applications. C.D.A. Pub. TN29, 1981.
COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION: High Conductivity Coppers Technical Data. C.D.A.
Pub. TN27, 1981.
COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION: Megabytes on Coppers, CD-ROM, 1994.
RUSKIN, A.M.: On the Safety of Copper and Aluminium Busbars. I.E.E.E. Technical Conference
on Industrial and Commerial Power Systems, Toronto, 6th May, 1975.
Section 3
BURNS, R.L.: Determination of Current-Carrying Capacity of Rectangular Copper Busbars. Pub.
224/77, Copper and Brass Information Centre, Australia, 1977.
BURNS, R.L.: Determination of Current-Carrying Capacity of Rectangular Copper Busbars. Paper
1, Copper Busbar Symposium, Johannesburg, 21st Nov., 1978.
CHIN, T.H. and HIGGINS TJ.: Equations for the Inductances and Current Distribution of MultiConductor Single-Phase and Polyphase Buses. A.I.E.E Paper 57-654, 1957.
DWIGHT, H.B., ANDREW, G.W., and TILESTON, H.W.: Temperature Rise of Busbars Calculated
and Test Results for Single and Built Up Bar Forms, Also Solid and Tubular Round and Square
Tubular Forms. Cen. Elec. Rev., 43, pp 213-218.
FUGILL, A.P.: Carrying Capacity of Enclosed Busbars. Elect. World, 99, 1932, pp 539-540.
HOLME, R.: Electric Contact. (Gebers), Stockholm, 1946.
MCADAMS, W.H.: Heat Transmission. (McGraw-Hill), 1933, p 44.
MELSOM, S.W. and H.C. BOOTH: Current-Carrying Capacity of Solid Bars. Jour. I. E. E., 62,
1924, pp 909 915.
MONTSINGER, V.M., and WETHERILL, L.: Effect of Colour of Tank on Temperature of Self
Cooled Transformers. Trans. A.l.E.E., 49, 1930, pp 41-51.
PABST, H.W.: Current-Carrying Capacity of Busbars. Elect. World, 94, Sept., 1929, pp 569-572.
PABST H.W.: Current-Carrying Capacity of Hollow Conductors. Elect. J., July, 1931, pp 411-414.
PRAGER, M., PEMBERTON, D.L., CRAIG, A.G., and BLESHMAN, N.A.: Thermal Considerations
for Outdoor Bus Design. I.E.E.E. Trans., PAS-95, No. 4, July/Aug., 1976.
RICHARDS, T.L.: The Current Rating of Rectangular Copper Busbars with Metric Dimensions.
Elec. Rev., 186, 6th Mar., 1970. (Also C.D.A. Pub. No. R39).
SCHURIG, O.R. and FRICK, C.W.: Heating and Current-Carrying Capacity of Bare Conductors
for Outdoor Service. Gen. Elec. Rev., 33, No. 3, Mar., 1930, pp 141-157.
Section 4
ARNOLD, A.H.M.: The Alternating Current Resistance of Parallel Conductors of Circular CrossSection. J. I. E. R., 77,1935, pp 49-50.
ARNOLD, A.H.M.: The Altemating Current Resistance of Tubular Conductors. J.l.E.E., 78, 1936,
pp 580-593. Discussion J.I.E.E., 79, 1936, pp 595-596.
ARNOLD, A.H.M.: The Transmission of Altemating Current Power with Small Eddy Current
Losses. J.I.E.E., 80, 1937, pp 395-400.
ARNOLD, A.H.M.: Proximity Effects in Solid and Hollow Round Conductors. J.I.E.E., 88, 1941, pp
349-359
BILLHIMER, F.M.: Current Capacity of Copper Busbars. Elec. J. ,15, 1918, pp 94-96.
Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards (Washington), 8,1912, pp 173-179.
BURNS, R.L.: Current Rating of Open Type Three Phase Rectangular Busbars by Actual Test.
Pub. 219/76, Copper and Brass Infommation Centre, Australia, 1976.
BURNS, R.L.: A.C. Current Rating of Open Rectangular Copper Busbars by Calculation. Pub.
221/77, 1977, Copper and Brass Information Centre, Australia.
COCKCROFT, J.D.: Skin Effects in Rectangular Conductors at High Frequencies. Proc. Roy. Soc.
,122, 1929, pp 533-542.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Skin Effect of a Return circuit of Two Adjacent Strap Conductors. Elec. Jour. ,13,
1916, pp 157-158.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Skin Effect in Tubular and Flat Conductors. Trans. A.l.E.E., 37, Pt. 2,1918, pp
1379-1403.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Skin Effect and Proximity Effect in Tubular Conductors. Trans. A.l.E.E., 41, 1922,
pp 189-198.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Proximity Effect in Wires and Thin Tubes. Trans. A.l.E.E., 42, 1923, pp 850-859.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Reactance and Skin Effect of Concentric Tubular Conductors. Trans. A.l.E.E., 61,
1942, p 513
ESCHBACH, O.E.: Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals. (J. Wiley and Sons).
FORBES, H.C. and GORMAN, L. J.: Skin Effect in Rectangular Conductors. Elec. Engineering,
Sept. 1933, pp 636-639.
FUGILL, A.P.: Carrying Capacity of Enclosed Busbars. Elec. World, 99, 1932, pp 539-540.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Geometric Mean Distance of Rectangular Areas and of Line
Segments. J. App. Phys., 14, No. 4, 1943, p 188.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Theory and Application of Complex Logarithms and Geometric Mean Distances.
Trans. A. I.E.E., 66, 1947, p 12.
MAYE, E.: Industrial High Frequency Electric Power. (Chapman and Hall), p 167.
SIEGEL, C.M. and HIGGINS, T.J.: Equations for Determining Current Distribution Among the
Conductors of Buses Compromised of Double Channel Conductors. A.I.E.E. Paper 54-467, 1954.
WADDICOR, H.: Principles of Electric Power Transmission. 3rd Edition, (Chapman and Hall),
1935.
WAGNER, C.F.: Current Distribution in Multi-Conductor Single-Phase Buses. Elec. World, 79,
1922, pp 526-529.
WILSON, W.: Discussion, J. l. E. E., 71, 1932, pp 341-342.
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Section 5
ARNOLD, A.N.M.: The Transmission of Alternating Current Power with Small Eddy Current
Losses. J.I.E.E . 80, 1937, pp 395 400.
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1938, pp 537-545 .
BOAST, W.B.: Transpositions and the Calculation of Inductance from Geometric Mean Distances.
Trans. A.I.E.E., 69, 1950, pp 1531-1534.
BOHN, D.l. rnd BABST, H.W.: Conductors of Heavy Alternating Currents. Iron and Steel
Engineer, June, 1951.
CONAUGLA, A.: Heat Losses in Isolated Phase Bus Enclosures. I.E.E.E. Paper 63-65, 1963.
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DWIGHT, H.B., ANDREW, G.W., snd TILESTON, H.W.: Temperature Rise of Busbars Calculated
and Test Results for Single and Built Up Bar Forms, Also Solid and Tubular Round and Square
Tubular Forms. Gen. Elec. Rev., 43, pp 213-218.
FISCHER, L.E. and FRANK, R.L.: Paired Phase Busbars for Large Polyphase Currents. A.l.E.E.
Paper 43-17, 1943.
HOUSE, H.H. and WHIDDEN, P.: Self-lnductance of Bus Conductors with Complex CrossSections. A.I.E.E. Paper 57-797, 1957.
KILLLIAN, S.C.: Induced Currents in High-Capacity Busbar Enclosures. Trans. A.I.E.E., 69,1950,
p 1388.
MORMIER, C.: Busbars and Low and Medium Voltage Connections. Rev. Elect. Mec. ,1952, 89, p
17.
RICHARDS, T.L.: Current-Rating Tests on Double Angle Section Copper Conductors.
Engineering, 184, 1957, p 823.
SKEETS, W.F. and SWERDLOW, N.: Minimising the Magnetic Field Surrounding Isolated Phase
Bus by Electrically Continuous Enclosures. I.E.E.E. Paper 62-171, 1962.
WAGNER, C.F.: Current Distribution in Multi-Conductor Single Phase Buses. Elect. World, 79, pp
526-529.
WYMAN, B.W., and SHORES, R.B.: A New Isolated-Phase Metal-Enclosed Bus. Trans. A.l.E.E.,
67, 1948, p 699.
Section 6
Asea Jour., Electromagnetic Forces on Busbars. 25, 1952, p 84.
BATES, A.C.: Basic Concepts in the Design of Electrical Bus for Short-Circuit Conditions. A.l.E.E.
Paper, 57-717. 1957.
CHIN, T.H. and HIGGINS, T.J.: Equations for Evaluating Short-circuit Forces on Multi-Strap
Single-Phase and Polyphase Buses for Supplying Low Frequency Induction Furnaces.
DARLING, A.G.: Short-Circuit Calculating Procedure for Low Voltage A.C. Systems. A.l.E.E.
Trans., 60, 1941, pp 1121-1135.
DUNTON, W.F.: Electromagnetic Forces on Current-Carrying Conductors. J. Sci. Instr., 4, pp 440446.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Repulsion Between Strap Conductors. Elect. World, 70, 1917, pp 522-524.
EVERITT, L.M.R.: The Calculations of Short Time Ratings of Bare Electrical Conductors. J.I.E.E.,
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Tables 12-27, p 1144.
LYTHALL, R.T.: Low-Voltage Breaking Capacity: Fault Current More Important than kVA
Ruptured. Elec. Rev. ,119, No. 3100, 30th Apr. 1937, p 654.
LYTHALL, R.T.: Low-Voltage Short Circuit Calculations: The Effect of Equivalent High-Voltage
Reactance. Elec. Rev., 123, No. 3182, 18th Nov. 1938.
PAPST, H.W.: Stresses in Buses During Short circuit. Elec. J., 31, 1934, pp 322-323.
PILCHER, E.E.I.: Short circuit Forces on Busbars. World Power, 24, 1935, pp 116-123.
SCHURIG, O.E. and SAYRE, M.F.: Mechanical stresses on Busbar Supports During ShortCircuits. A.l.E.E. Trans., 44, 1952, pp 217-237.
SCHURIG, O.E., FRICK, C.W. and SAYRE, M.F.: Practical Calculations of Short-Circuit Stresses
in Supports for Straight Parallel Bus Conductors. Gen. Elec. Rev., 29,1926, pp 534-544.
SIEGEL, C.M. and HIGGINS, T.J.: Equations for the Inductance and Short-Circuit Forces of
Buses Comprised of Double-Channel Conductors. Trans. A.I.E.E., 71, 1952, p 425.
TANBERG, R.: Stresses in Bus Supports. Elect. J., 24, 1927, pp 517-525.
TIMASCHEFF, A.S.: Standard Curves for Calculations of Forces Between Parallel and
Perpendicular Conductors. Eng. J., Oct., 1953.
VAN ASPEREN, C.H.: Mechanical Forces on Busbars Under Short Circuit Conditions. Trans.
A.I.E.E., 42, 1923, pp 1091-1111.
WAGNER, C.F. and EVANS, R.D.: Symmetrical Components. (McGraw-Hill).
WILSON, W.: The Calculation and Design of Electrical Apparatus. (Chapman and Hall), London,
1940.
WILSON, W.R. and MANKOFF, L.L.: Short-Circuit Forces in Isolated Phase Buses. A.l.E.E. Paper
54-138. 1954.
Section 7
CONSTABLE, F.H.: Growth of Oxide Films. Proc. Roy. Soc., 115, 1927-8, p 385.
COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION: Joining of Copper and Copper Alloys. C.D.A. Pub.
TN25, 1980. (now superseded by Publication No 98)
DENAULT, C.L.: Electrical Contact of Busbar Joints. Elect. J., 30, 1933, pp 281-282.
DONATI, E.: Overlapping Joints in Electric Furnace Circuits. L'Energia Elettrica, 12, No. 6,1935.
DWIGHT, H.B. and WANG, T.K.: Reactance of Square Tubular Busbars.A.l.E.E. Trans., 57, 1938,
pp762-765.
FRICK, C.W.: Current-Carrying Capacity of Bare Cylindrical Conductors for Indoor and Outdoor
Service. Gen. Elec. Rev., 34, 1931, pp 464-471.
HALPERIN, H.: Economical Utilisation of Electric Power Equipment. Power App. and Systerns,
Apr., 1953, p 203.
JACKSON, R.A.: Electrical Performance of Aluminium and Copper Bolted Joints. Proc. I.E.E.,
129, Pt. C, No . 4, Jul., 1982 pp 177-184.
KOUWENHOVEN, W.B. and LITTLE, C.: Contact Resistance. Welding J., 31, No. 10, Oct. 1952,
p 457.
LANCTOT, E.K.: Temperature Rise and Joint Resistance of Three-Phase Bus Assemblies of
Aluminium and Copper. A.l.E.E. Paper 57-718, 1957.
LUKE, G.E.: The Resistance of Electrical Connections. Elec. J., 21, 1924, pp 66-69.
MELSOM, S.W. and BOOTH, H.C.: The Efficiency of Overlapping Joints. J.I.E.E., 60,1922, pp
889-899.
SAYERS, D.P., FORREST, J.S. and LANE, F.J.: 275 kV Developments on the British Grid
System. Proc. I.E.E.. 99. Pt. II, No. 72,1953, p 582.
WATSON, C.G.: Sags and Tensions in Overhead Lines. (Pitman), 1931.
WENNER, F., NUSBAUM, G.W. and CRUIKSHANKS, B.C.: Electrical Resistance of Contacts
Between Nuts and Bolts. Bur. Stand. J. Res. Wash., 5, 1930, pp 757-766.
Section 8
ASHDOWN, K.T. and SWERDLOW, N.: Cantilever-Loaded Insulators for Isolated Phase Bus.
A.I.E.E. Paper 54-141, 1954.
KILLIAN, S.C.: Mechanical Forces on Buses due to Fault Currents. Elect. World, Dec. 12th, 1942,
pp 60-62.
SCHURIG, O.R. and SAYRE, M.F.: Mechanical stresses on Busbar Supports During ShortCircuits. A.I.E.E., 44, 1952, pp 217-237.
SCHURIG, O.E., FRICK, C.W. and SAYRE, M.F.: Practical Calculations of Short-Circuit Stresses
in Supports for Straight Parallel Bus Conductors. Gen. Elec. Rev., 29, 1926, pp 534-544.
TRIPP, W.A.: Forces on Conductors During Short-Circuit. Elect. J., Dec., 1937, pp 493-497.
Section 9
ARNOLD, A.H.M.: The Inductance of Linear Conductors of Rectangular Section. J.I.E.E., 70,
1932, pp 579 586.
BOGARDUS, L.R.: Resistance Welder Feed has Low Reactance Drop. Elec. World, 10th Sept.
1938, p 702.
DEANS, W.: What Shape Conductors for Electrical Busbars? Power, Feb., 1943, pp 75-78.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Reactance of Strap Conductors. Elec. Rev., 70, 1917, p 1087.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Reactance Values for Rectangular Conductors. Elec. J., 16, 1919, p 255.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Reactance and Skin Effect of Concentric Tubular Conductors. Trans. A.I.E.E., 61,
1942, p 513
DWIGHT, H.B.: Geometric Mean Distance for Rectangular Conductors. Trans. A.I.E.E., 65, 1946,
p 328.
DWIGHT, H.B. and WANG, T.K.: Reactance of Square Tubular Busbars. Trans. A.l.E.E., 57,
1938, p 762. Discussion, p 765.
Elec. Times: Transformers for Electric Furnaces. 5th Dec. 1940, p 375.
GRAY, A.: Absolute Measurements in Electricity and Magnetism. 2nd Edition, (MacMillan), 1921,
Chapter XIII.
GROVER, F.W.: The Calculation of Inductance and Reactance of Single Layer Coils and Spirals
Wound with Wire of Large Cross Section. Proc. I.R.E. (US), 17, No. 11, Nov. 1929, p 2053.
GROVER, F.W.: Inductance Calculations. (Van Nostrand), 1946.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Inductance of Rectangular Tubular Conductors. Trans. A.I.E.E.,
60, 1941, p 1046.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Inductance of Rectangular Tubular Conductors. J.App. Phys. ,
13, No. 11,1942, p 1046.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Calculation of the Inductance of Linear Conductors of Structural
Shape. Trans. A.l.E.E., 62, Feb., 1943, p 53.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Geometric Mean Distance of Rectangular Areas and of Line
Segments. J. App. Phys.!eu!, 14, No. 4, 1943, p 188.
HIGGINS, T.J.: The Design of Busbars for Industrial Distribution Systems and Epitomisation of
Available Data. Trans. A.l.E.E., 64, 1945, p 385.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Theory and Application of Complex Logarithms and Geometric Mean Distances.
Trans. A.l.E.E., 66, 1947, p 12.
HIGGINS, T.J. and MESSINGER H.P.: Equations for the Inductance of Three-Phase Co-Axial
Buses Comprised of Square Tubular Conductors. J. App. Phys. ,18, 1947, p 1009.
KARAPETOFF, V.: The Inductance of Cables and Transmission Lines. (McGraw-Hill), 1914.
LYTHALL, R.T.: Low Voltage Short-Circuit Calculations: The Effect of Equivalent High-Voltage
Reactance. Elec. Rev., 123, No. 3182, 18th Nov. 1938.
LYTHALL, R.T.: The J and P Switchgear Book. (Johnson and Phillips Ltd.), 1947, p 271.
MAXWELL, J.C.: On the Geometrical Mean Distance of Two Figures in a Plane. Trans. Roy. Soc.
Edin., 26, 1872, p 729.
MESSINGER, H.P. and HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Reactance of Co-Axial Buses
Comprised of Square Tubular Conductors. Trans. A.l.E.E., 65, 1946, p 328.
MILLER, W.H.: Three-Phase Rectangular Conductors-A Simplified Reactance Formula.
Electrician, 20th June 1947, p 1681.
O'RAHILLY, A.: A Note on Self-Inductance. J.l.E.E.,86, No. 518, Feb. 1940, p 179. Discussion,
June 1940, p 567.
ROSA, E.B.: On the Geometrical Mean Distances of Rectangular Areas and the Calculation of
Self-Inductance. N. B. S. Bull., 3, 1907, p 1.
ROSA, E.B. and GROVER, F.W.: Formulas and Tables for the Calculation of Mutual and Self
Inductance (Revised and Extended). N. B. S. Bull., 8, 1912, Paper No. 169.
ROTH, E.D.: Champ Magnetique et Inductance d'un Systeme de Barres Rectangulaires
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