Kina22082ens 002

European Commission
IarhnIraI sIaaI rasaarrh

Steel products and applications for building, construction and industry
Sta|n|ess stee|s for wet cond|t|ons |n
mun|c|pa| |nc|nerat|on and combust|on p|ants
M. Linder, R. Gubner
Swed|sh Corros|on Inst|tute
Krftriket 23A, S-104 05 Stockholm
U. Kiviskk
Sandv|k Mater|a|s Techno|ogy
Storgatan 2, S-811 81 Sandviken
J. Peultier
Industee|
56, rue Clmenceau, BP 19, F-71200 Le Creusot
A. Bergquist, B. Beckers
Outokumpu Sta|n|ess
R & D Centre, S-774 80 Avesta
R. Pettersson, J. Flyg
SIMR (Swed|sh Inst|tute for Meta|s Research|
Drottning Kristinas vg 48, S-114 28 Stockholm
Contract No 7210-PR/305
1 July 2001 to 31 December 2004
F|na| report
Directorate-General for Research
2006 EUR 22082 EN
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Table of Contents

Summary. 5
1. Objectives of the Project
2. Comparison of initially planned activities and discussion 5
2.1 Task 1. Coverage of new experience and development in wet cleaning systems, in particular
in waste incineration plants, that may arise during the project time 5
2.2 Task 2. Dew point studies 5
2.3 Task 3. Laboratory corrosion testing 5
2.4 Task 4. Field-tests in condensates 6
2.5 Task 5. Field testing in wash-liquors 7
2.6 Task 6. Evaluation 7
3. Description of activities and Discussion7
3.1.1 A) Corrosion problems experienced and measures taken 7
3.1.2 B) Constructional development and variants including spray towers, quenchers, scrubbers, gas
coolers, condensers, re-heaters, stacks, spray water systems etc. 7
3.1.3 C) Materials used 8
3.1.4D) Composition of flue gases including oxygen content 8
3.4 Task 4. Field-tests in condensates and Task 5. Field testing in wash-liquors 19
4. Conclusions..24
4.4 Task 4. Field-tests in condensates 24
4.5 Task 5. Field testing in wash-liquors 24
5. Exploitation and impact of research results.. 25
5.1 Actual Applications 25
5.2 Technical and Economic Potential for the Use of Results 25
5.3 Any Possible Patent Filing 25
5.4 Publications / Conference Presentations Resulting from the Project 25
6. List of figures and tables......25
7. List of References ....26

Annex 1: Technical Annex to research contract No: 7210-PR-305...27

Annex 2: to the Technical report No7: Round Robin Test 35

Annex 3: to the Technical report No7: Final Summary Partner Report.39
3

Summary
1 Objectives of the Project
Deposited municipal waste constitutes a considerable threat to the immediate environment. On the other
hand the waste can be regarded as a renewable energy source if it is incinerated in special power plants.
Incineration has thus the advantages of both reducing the problem with leaching from deposits and
producing power. The flue gas must be cleaned before emission, but in addition, the flue gas may, after
being scrubbed, be cooled to temperatures below the dew point of its water content. By utilising the
heat of condensation, the thermal efficiency of the plant can then be improved by as much as 20-30%.
The main objectives of the project are:
To characterise the corrosion environment in different parts of the wet cleaning systems in waste
incineration plants and by corrosion testing to define application ranges of stainless steels in these
environments. Through quantification of the influence of factors determining the corrosivity, e.g. by
chemical analyses of condensates, knowledge will be added to the field of dew point corrosion
To enable the use of stainless steels in different parts of the cleaning systems in question by
application of the knowledge generated.
2 Comparison of initially planned activities and discussion
In this section the actual performed activities have been compared to Annex I to the contract. A copy of
the Annex I is provided under the same name to this report.

2.1 Task 1. Coverage of new experience and development in wet cleaning
systems, in particular in waste incineration plants, that may arise
during the project time
The coverage was performed by the partners and through consultation with plant managers and
manufacturers of equipment and materials. The coverage comprised:
a) Corrosion problems experienced and measures taken
b) Constructional development and variants including spray towers, quenchers, scrubbers, gas
coolers, condensers, re-heaters, stacks, spray water systems etc.
c) Materials used
d) Composition of flue gases including oxygen content
In summary, Task 1 was performed successfully and fulfilled as initially planned.

2.2 Task 2. Dew point studies
a) Coverage of new information that may be available during the project time
A constant close contact with plant owners throughout the project period ensured that the information
on dew point conditions and related problems was kept up-to-date.
b) Condensation conditions
Several experiments where performed to analyse dew point conditions in several plants.
c) Condensate composition
Condensate samples where collected from all plants involved in the project and analysed.

2.3 Task 3. Laboratory corrosion testing
The materials to be used for specimens in all tests in the project were subjected to a screening test as to
their relative corrosion resistance. Extensive corrosion testing was performed in synthetic condensates
of the same compositions as those analysed in Task 2c.

a) Screening test
All materials in plates and tubes that were to be used for specimens in the project (Table 1, Annex I)
were subjected to a Critical Pitting Temperature test (CPT) according to ASTM G-150.

5

b) Electrochemical testing in condensates-non creviced specimens
Anodic polarisation curves were determined in order to evaluate the extent of passivity and the risk for
pitting corrosion. The test temperature was the one at which the original condensate was precipitated.

Testing in thin aerated films was performed by determination of corrosion potentials of some alloys in a
limited number of condensates. The measurements were carried out at the same temperatures as those
of the corresponding polarisation curves. The potentials were compared with the polarisation curves for
the same materials and condensates. In addition to evaluation of electrochemical data the specimens
were evaluated by microscopy examination.

c) Testing in condensates-creviced specimens
These tests were performed as described in Annex I with spool-racks in the same simulated condensates
and at the same temperatures as the electrochemical tests according to 3b. Anodic polarisation curves
were obtained for a set of the creviced specimens to give a direct comparison with the polarisation
results in task 3b. In addition to evaluation of electrochemical data the specimens were subject to
microscopy examination.

The above tests according to b) and c) were carried out at a specific temperature for each condensate.
Since the temperature is a parameter that strongly influences the corrosion resistance of stainless steels
the temperature effect was taken into account in the evaluation of the tests.

d) Laboratory condensation
Laboratory testing was performed under condensation conditions as described in Annex I. This testing
formed a direct link between the field exposures and the laboratory testing by immersion in synthetic
condensates. It permitted examination of effects, which are particularly associated with condensation
e.g. thin film effects and concentration gradients.

A condensation environment was created in a furnace system. Previous experience from the completed
ECSC project "Improvement of stainless steels for use at elevated temperatures in aggressive
environments" on the simulation of the environment in high temperature zones in waste incineration
plants (super heater tubes) was utilised. The same type of specimen racks were used as in the field tests
and places on a sealed cooling coil so that condensation occurred on the specimens, thus giving a direct
correlation with service environments.

A glass loop was also used to produce condensation conditions. Fumed HCl and H
2
SO
4

were fed into
the heat exchanger. Five specimens, which were constantly cooled, were placed in the heat exchanger
so that the acid vapour condensed on the samples, leading to an acid concentration gradient and the
influence of this gradient was studied. The specimens were evaluated by weight loss and microscopy
examination as above.


2.4 Task 4. Field-tests in condensates
These tests were performed in five plants, three in Sweden, one in France and one in Germany. The
exact test positions for exposures were decided together with the plant staff. There were two types of
field tests:

a) Exposure of racks
A number of racks, each containing twelve steel specimens (table 1, Annex I) were exposed in plants.
The racks were placed in various parts of the system. The composition of the gas and the washing liquor
was regularly checked. The specimens had dimensions 60 x 60 mm and were produced with welds
along one side and a multi-crevice washer fastened with a fixed torque. The specimens were evaluated
after exposure by means of weight loss measurement in combination with visual- and microscopy
examination. A Round-Robin Test for the evaluation procedure was performed to ensure the
comparability of results obtained between the partners.

6

b) Exposure of cooled tubes.
This exposure which constitutes a comparatively small part of the project was implemented in the
Swedish plant A, which was also used for field exposure of test-racks in condensate environment. The
exposure of cooled tubes was shown to be a useful tool for a controlled testing of tube-materials in
condensates.


2.5 Task 5. Field testing in wash-liquors
Spool racks containing twelve creviced specimens were exposed in three plants at locations, which were
chosen with guidance of information on the liquor composition. The specimens were evaluated after
exposure by means of weight loss measurement in combination with visual- and microscopy
examination.


2.6 Task 6. Evaluation
The evaluation of the project results where carried out with two main aims:
a) Characterisation of the corrosion environments in flue gas wet cleaning systems.
b) Classification of the corrosion resistance of various stainless steels in environments according
to a) and establishing their application limits.

3 Description of activities and Discussion
The details of the experimental design and set-up are given in the Annexes 1-3. The description of
activities and discussion in this section of the report summarises the results obtained in the different
tasks.

3.1 Task 1. Coverage of new experience and development in wet cleaning
systems, in particular in waste incineration plants, that may arise

3.1.1 A) Corrosion problems experienced and measures taken
All partners have contributed to this task during the project time. It was found that in the wet cleaning
systems of plants mainly using wood or biomass as fuel, very low corrosion rates were observed for all
stainless steels, indicating that standard austenitic materials can be used
1
. The reported test locations
were in the inlet of the condenser and inside the flue gas duct before the condenser. When serious
corrosion damages have occurred in waste incineration plants, it has usually been due to unforeseen
changes of the fuel composition or of other service conditions. A typical scenario that might lead to
damages is, according to suppliers of cleaning systems, that a batch of PVC plastic has been dumped in
the waste by accident. This will lead to a very high concentration of HCl in the flue gas and its
condensate.

3.1.2 B) Constructional development and variants including spray towers, quenchers,
scrubbers, gas coolers, condensers, re-heaters, stacks, spray water systems etc.
The flue gas is normally mechanically cleaned before it enters the wet cleaning system. The mechanical
cleaning may also include lime addition to the gas. The wet cleaning normally starts with water
spraying in a quencher. The gas temperature is reduced rapidly in the quencher and the heat is
transferred to the resulting steam. The quencher may be designed in different ways but it normally
constitutes the entrance to a scrubber. The quencher has wet/dry zones with strongly acidic condensate

1
M. Norling et al, Materialval vid rkgaskondensering, Vrmeforsk Service AB, Stockholm, 2004

7

that makes the corrosion environment very severe. Wet gas-cleaning systems may be constructed in
very different ways, which means that the demand on corrosion resistance of the materials is different
among the plants. Principle outlines of three plants with different construction are shown in the figures
1a c, Annex 3. In all cases

the corrosion conditions are very severe in the quench-zone. Concerning the condensers, the inlet of gas
cooler 1 in figure 1b of Annex 3 is supposed to provide the worst conditions.

3.1.3 C) Materials used in flue gas condensation plants

Information from plant owners
In a Swedish study, which is at present in the process of publishing by Vrmeforsk
2
, an inventory was
made concerning suggested and used materials in some 20 flue-gas condensation plants. The plants
used biomass and biomass combined with waste to varying degree.

In plants with only biomass combustion stainless steel of the AISI 316 type is common in condenser
inlet, condenser, flue gas ducts after the condenser and in stacks. Higher alloyed steels, like 254 SMO
and 2205 occur however also in biomass combustion in e.g. condenser inlet and upper tube plate of tube
condensers. Even Hastelloy 276 is found at the condenser inlet. Polymeric materials i.e. glass fibre
reinforced polyester (GRP) is sometimes used in the colder parts after the condenser, where both the
flue gas duct and stack may be lined with GRP. GRP is also found in scrubber condensers. The packing
pieces as well as other details in these condensers are frequently made of polypropylene (PP).

In plants with a mixture of biomass and assorted waste there is a trend that the use of higher alloyed
steels increases with an increasing part of waste in the fuel. The condenser inlets may be made of 254
SMO, GRP (in scrubber condensers) or by lining with PTFE. The upper tube plate in tube condensers
may be made of 254 SMO. The separate plate heat exchanger in scrubber condensers has been made of
Ti in some cases in plants for waste incineration. The latter is presumably valid for fuels, which do not
contain substantial amounts of fluorine. Otherwise the corrosion resistance of Ti should be questioned.
GRP is common in the gas duct after the condenser and in the stack. Drop separators and packing pieces
in scrubber condensers are often made of PP.

Information from suppliers
In the report
1
, four suppliers of flue gas condensation plants have suggested materials for different
components in the plants. A common reaction from the suppliers is that the choice of material can not
be made only based on the type of fuel to be used. They want, if possible, to have more detailed
information on the fuel and flue gas composition and on parameters like moisture, temperature etc. For
plants using biomass mixed with assorted waste the choice of material will be more complicated if the
waste contains used wood. Some of the suppliers then suggested 2205 for heat exchangers, the flue gas
duct after the condenser and in the stack. For the gas inlet to the condenser 2205 or 254 SMO were
suggested. For plants in which domestic waste is the only fuel the suppliers recommended 2205 or 254
SMO for the condensers. For separate heat exchangers in scrubber condensers Ti has been
recommended in some cases, but only if no fluorine compounds are likely to be present. GRP was
recommended for most of the other parts of the plant were the temperature permits this choice.

3.1.4 D) Composition of flue gases including oxygen content

Logged environmental parameters were obtained from Plant A, which is shown schematically in Figure
1. All the gas analyses were taken after the fabric filter but before the wet cleaning. The analyses
showed appreciable variation in the levels of corrosive species: for example the minimum recorded HCl
level was 7.1 mg/Nm
3
and the maximum level 85.4 mg/Nm
3
.

2
B. Goldschmidt, M. Norling, Materials selection for flue gas condensation, Vrmeforsk Service AB, Stockholm,
2003
8

Figure 1: Schematic construction of flue gas cleaning system in Plant A

Sometimes there was, from one day to the other, a significant shift in the level of all measured gas
species. This most probably correlates to variations in the combustion load.

In Table 1 the analyses are compared with a published data compilation from waste incineration plants
in several countries. This compilation actually includes information from Hgdalen, which is the
location of Plant A in the current investigation. The levels of oxygen and water vapour measured in
Plant A are very similar to the other plants. However, the amounts of corrodent species such as HCl,
SO
2
and NO
x
are appreciably lower in the Plant A analyses, possibly reflecting the improvements in
technology which have been implemented since the early 1990s when the literature data was collected.

Table 1: Compilation of gas analyses from waste incineration plants from
3
. Also included is data
from Plant A (one of several located in Hgdalen) in the current investigation.
Ober-
hausen
Japan Autriche Akron Harris-
burg
Miami Hgdalen Plant A
Ref
4

5

6

7

8
This work
N
2
% - - - - - - - - - - -
O
2
% - 10.4-
10.7
7.8-8 7.9-9 10.1-
11.6
13 9 9.9 9.0 9.5 5.7-9.9 8-9.2
CO
2
% - 8.6-10.4 11-12.2 10.9-12.3 8.9-9.5 - 13 9.0 7.5 8.4 9.5-13.9 -
H
2
O % - 17.4-18 17.9-21 19.5-21 16.6-
17.7
- - 14.2 8.8 10.5 - 14.6-17.5
HCl ppm 399 798-
1300
600-
690
1060-
1250
422-641 260 690 284 485 374 455-680 6-66
SO
2
ppm 87 26-65 13 19 <0.01 150 500 116 135 107 38-71 8-42
NO
x
ppm - - - - - - - - - - 189-225 8-52
CO ppm - 15-56 1-2 - 100-123 25 20 <20 30 10 22-68 3-42
HF - - - - - - - - - - 3-9.3 -

3
P. Steinmetz, C. Rapin: Corrosion of metallic materials in waste incinerators. Materials Science Form 251-254
(1997) 505-518
4
R. Plur: Incinerating municipal and industrial waste. Ed Richard W. Bruyers. Hemisphere Publ Corp 1991 pp
47-70
5
Y. Kawahara, H. . Nakamura, E. Shibuya, K. Yukawa. Paper 564, NACE Corrosion 95
6
J. Mayrhuber, H. Lerjak: VGB Conference Research in power plant technology 1993 24/25 feb 1993
7
H. H. Krause, P. L. Daniel. J. D: Corrosion of boiler tube alloys in refuse firing : shredded vs bulk refuse.
Materials Performance 33:8 (1994) pp 57-62
8
E. Hggblom, L. Nylf: Materials advanced power engineering, Ed. P. Coutsoudaris et al. Kluwer Academie
Publishers Part II (1994) 1597-1606

9


3.2.1 2a) Coverage of new information that may be available during the project time
In this task new information about the system HCl and H
2
O was brought into the project from
publication of other work. This information was used in the laboratory condensation part of the project.

3.2.2 2b) Condensate conditions
Gas condensation studies have been performed in three waste incineration plants (A, B and C
respectively). The fuel in plant A is entirely domestic waste. Plant B uses a mixture of domestic waste
and assorted other waste e.g. from the building industry. The composition of the mixture may vary to
some extent in this plant. In plant C a mixture of domestic waste and assorted other waste is used. The
composition of the mixture is reported to be constant in plant C but some variation might be expected.

The gas condensation investigations in the plants have been performed by determination of the flue gas
temperature and the dew point temperature using an electrochemical condensation probe and by
precipitation of condensate in a gas cooler. All measurements were made in untreated flue gas i.e.
before the entrance to the cleaning systems.

The indicated dew point temperatures measured are, particularly in plant A and at some measurements
in plant C, much higher than expected (table 2 Annex 3). The first 4 tests in plant C were carried out
with gas from a duct, which was located before the gas entrance to the economiser. The temperature of
the gas was therefore considerably higher than in the other cases. The tests in plant C were continued
with gas from a duct after the economiser where the temperature is on the same level as in the gas
extracted in the other plants i.e. approximately 140
o
C. It is apparent that the indicated dew point
temperatures in plant C were considerably higher in gas with 250
o
C than in gas with 140
o
C. In gas
with the lower temperature in plant C, the indicated dew points were at a level, which may be expected
for hydrochloric acid condensation. According to experience at manufacturers of cleaning systems it is
not known that hydrochloric acid would condensate at such high temperatures as in the interval 79 91
o
C in incineration plants. Despite that condensation in this interval was indicated in 13 cases in the
plants A and C. Sulphuric acid would be able to condensate at the temperatures in question but H
2
SO
4

condensation is according to suppliers, not know to take place with the fuel used in these plants.
Consequently the finding of the high dew point temperatures has been surprising. One possible
explanation is that NH
4
Cl might be condensed on the dew point detector probe and thus indicating a
false acid dew point. The NH
4
Cl would in that case originate from ammonia, which is introduced for
NO
x
reduction in the flue gas in the incineration plants. The condensation of NH
4
Cl has however not yet
been verified and the likelihood of it is weakened by the condition that the ammonia content in the flue
gas is supposed to be very low. Another possibility, discussed further below, is that the first dew point
may correspond to condensation of small amounts of H
2
SO
4
. The assumption that a liquid, and not any
electrically conductive solid matter, is responsible of the registered high temperatures is supported by
the fact that the dew point indication disappears when the temperature of the probe is increased above
the indicated dew point.

3.2.3 Task 2c) Condensate composition
It appeared that it was not possible to produce a condensate at temperatures just below the dew point,
which was indicated by the condensation probe. Obviously the very sensitive probe registered a dew
point where the amount of liquid was negligible. In plant A, the highest temperature where a condensate
could be precipitated and collected was 68
o
C. In the plants B and C the corresponding temperature was
55
o
C. As the fuel composition may vary to some extent in the plants, it is likely that the dew point
temperature and condensate composition also may vary. At the time of the investigation in plant B the
water content in the fuel was, according to the plant staff, expected to be comparatively low. In
accordance with that the time needed to obtain a sufficient volume of condensate was comparatively
long at 55
o
C.

The condensate precipitation work has resulted in 23 samples from the plants A, B and C. The
condensate was analysed in terms of pH, metal ion content and anion content by SIMR.The metal ion
contents were analysed using ICP-TOFMS (Inductively Coupled Plasma Time Of Flight Mass
10

Spectrometry), commonly denoted plasma mass spectroscopy. Quantification was made for metal ions
which showed a significant signal in the first qualitative inspection, and included Al, Ba, Bi, Co, Cr, Cu
(analyses 13-23 only), Fe, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Sn, Sr, Ti, Zn, Hg, La, Mo, Tl, U, V, W, Zr. Ion
chromatography was employed for the anion analyses for Br
-
, Cl
-
, F
-
, NO
3
-
NO
2
-
, SO
4
2-
and SO
3
-
) and
atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) for Si (analyses 16, 22 and 23 only).

The main trends observed from the condensate analyses were the following:
- The dominant anion was chloride and the concentration increased at higher condensate
temperatures. The maximum measured level (from Plant C) was 64g/l (1.8M). The condensate is
thus primarily hydrochloric acid.
- The condensate became increasingly acidic (lower pH) at increased condensation temperature,
Figure 10, Annex 3. The lowest pH values measured in the three plants were 0.10, 0.08 and 0.23
respectively, which corresponds to hydrogen ion concentrations of between 0.8 and 1.7M.
- The dominant metallic ions (Fig 8, Annex 3) in the condensate from Plant A were sodium (max.
1.8g/l) and aluminium (max. 0.8g/l). The corresponding figures for Plant B were 3.2 and 1.4 g/l
respectively. Plant C condensate was characterised by higher levels of iron (max. 3.6g/l) and zinc
(2.4g/l) in addition to Al (2.3g/l) and Na (1.3g/l).
- Using assumed oxidation states of 1 for Na, 2 for Fe, Zn, Cu and Pb and 3 for Al, the majority of
the condensates yield approximate electro-neutrality, indicating that no major species have been
omitted.
- The maximum measured sulphate ion concentration was 17g/l (from Plant A). The
sulphate/chloride ratio was generally higher for Plant A, which was fuelled only with domestic
waste, than for the other two plants, which used combination of fuels
- Other anions were often close to or below the detection limits. The following maximum levels were
measured:
Nitrate (NO
3
-
): Max. values of 60, <50 or 210mg/l for plants A, B and C respectively.
Bromide (Br
-
): Max.values of 800, <500 and 850mg/l for plants A, B and C respectively
Fluoride (F
-
): below detection limits i.e. <1, <5, <10 or <50mg/l depending on the dilution
employed except in one case, where 19mg/l was recorded.
Sulphite (SO
3
2-
): below detection limits i.e. <0.02, <0.1, <0.2 or <1 g/l depending on the dilution
employed

For each plant there is a clear trend that the aggressivity of the condensate increases with increasing
temperature. The conditions are consistently milder in Plant A, which uses only domestic waste.
Assuming that the first condensed phase is also hydrochloric acid, these represent the limits to which it
is relevant to extrapolate the analysis data i.e. they give an indication of the worst case which is likely
to arise in the plant. The maximum levels of other species measured in the various plants are listed in
Table 2 and these were used a basis for selection of the complex synthetic condensate environments.
Table 2 Maximum levels of other analysed species in condensate from waste incineration plants
Plant A Plant B Plant C
Max temp. 68C 55C 55C
mg/l M mg/l M mg/l M
Sulphate, SO
4
2-
17 000 0.18 1 900 0.02 4 500 0.05
Nitrate, NO
3
-
60 0.001 <50 <0.001 210 0.003
Bromide, Br
-
800 0.01 <500 <0.006 850 0.01
Fluoride, F
-
19*, <50 0.001 <50 <0.003 <50 <0.003
Al 814 0.03 1365 0.05 2 300 0.09
Na 1 810 0.08 3 200 0.14 1 292 0.06
Fe 269 0.005 164 0.003 3 600 0.06
Zn 358 0.005 359 0.005 2 402 0.04
Only value above detection limit for individual sample

3.2.3.1 Correlation between gas and condensate analyses
Comparison with measured condensate compositions, Figure 2, shows good correlation in that the
highest chloride levels were measured for Day 1, when the average HCl level in the gas was also the
highest of the three occasions, averaging 74 mg/nm
3
over the 24 hour period, compared to 65 and 28
11

mg/nm
3
for Day 2 and Day 3 respectively. However, caution must be exercised in performing such a
correlation since the levels can vary dramatically over a short period of time. However, a comparison
between the S/Cl measured in the gas and condensate phase does not show clear correspondence, rather
the inverse. This suggests that other factors such as absolute levels, gas flow effects or interactions may
be of overriding importance.

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0 20 40 60 80
Condensation temperature (C)
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
M
)
H+ (Day1)
Cl- (Day1)
SO4= (Day1)
H+ (Day 2)
Cl- (Day2)
SO4= (Day2)
H+ (Day 3)
Cl- (Day3)
SO4= (Day3)

Figure 2. Condensate analysis on the different days from Plant A

3.2.3.2 Predicted dewpoints

A widely-used tool to predict the dewpoints of flue gases are empirical relationships. A number of these
have been published; one fairly comprehensive collection by Kiang
9
, recently cited by Huijbegts and
Leferink
10
contains the following:
1000/ Td (SO
2
) = 3.9526 0.1863 ln(pH
2
O) + 0.000867 ln(pSO
2
) 0.00091 ln(pH
2
O)ln(pSO
2
)
1000/ Td (HNO
3
) = 3.6614 0.1446 ln(pH
2
O) 0.0827 ln(pHNO
3
) + 0.00756 ln (pH
2
O)ln(pHNO
3
)
1000/ Td (H
2
SO
4
) = 2.276 0.0294 ln(pH
2
O) 0.0858 ln(pH
2
SO
4
) + 0.0062 ln(pH
2
O)ln(pH
2
SO
4
)
1000/Td (HBr) = 3.5639 0.1350 ln (pH
2
O) 0.0396 ln (pHBr) + 0.00235 ln(pH
2
O)ln(pHBr)
1000/ Td (HCl) = 3.7368 0.1591 ln(pH
2
O) 0.0326 ln(pHCl) + 0.00269 ln(pH
2
O)ln(pHCl)
with Td in K and pressures in mmHg.

Using the above equations with typical gas compositions from Plant A of 30-60vppm HCl and 30-
60vppm SO
2
yields the dew points in Table 3. The first measured dew point indication with the
condensation probe was in the range 79-91C in this plant. This is clearly much higher than the
expected condensation point of HCl or SO
2
/H
2
SO
3
, but could conceivably correspond to condensation
of H
2
SO
4
from very low gaseous levels of SO
3
, or to NH
4
Cl as discussed above.

Results of thermodynamic calculations (Table 3, Figure 3) indicate the same type of trends, and
illustrate how the presence of SO
2
in the gas can give a much higher dewpoint than that predicted for
HCl alone. Figure 3 shows the predicted condensate composition for a simple Ar/O
2
/H
2
O/HCl-
containing flue gas and a comparison with the analyses from Plant A. From this it is apparent that HCl
condensation in the plant has occurred at higher temperatures than predicted for the simulated flue gas.
It must thus be concluded that the complex chemistry in the plant flue gas, possibly in conjunction with

9
Yen-Hsiung Kiang: Predicting dew points of acid gases, Chemical Engineering Feb 9
th
(1981) p127
10
W. M. M. Huijbregts, R. G. I. Leferink: Latest advances in the understanding of acid dew point corrosion:
corrosion and stress corrosion cracking in cobustion gas condensates. Anti Corrosion Methods and Materials 51: 3
(2004) 173-188
12

practical aspects such as inhomogeneity, gas flow and fly ash condensation have contributed to cause
earlier condensation than predicted.

Table 3. Predicted dew points (in C) of a gas containing 60vppm HCl and 30vppm SO
2
(or
H
2
SO
4
) as a function of water content.
% H
2
O HCl
30vppm
HCl
60vppm
SO
2
30vppm
SO
2
60vppm
H
2
SO
4
30vppm
H
2
SO
4
60vppm
12 50 51 46 47 150 157
16 55 57 52 52 153 160
20 59 61 56 57 155 162

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
30 40 50 60 70
Temperature (C)
H
C
l

(
M
)
12%HO
16%H2O
20%H2O
Measured
60ppm HCl
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
30 40 50 60 70
Temperature (C)
H
C
l

(
M
)
6ppm HCl
60ppm HCl
600ppm HCl
Measured
16%H2O
Figure 3. Predicted dependence of condensate composition on H
2
O and HCl levels in a flue gas with
12-20%H
2
O, 9%O
2
, 6-600ppm HCl, balance Ar. The asymptotic increase in the concentration
indicates the dew point. Also included are measured points from Plant A.


3.3.1 Materials for laboratory tests in task 3 and field tests in tasks 4 and 5

Samples of a variety of stainless steels and one nickel-base alloy have been obtained for corrosion
testing in the different tasks of the project. The designation, heat number and chemical composition of
the materials have been compiled in Table 4. Filler materials and shielding gases used for welded tube
specimens and plate coupons of the different materials are compiled in table 9, Annex 3.

3.3.2 3a). Screening test

In order to rank the materials exposed in the corrosion tests in this project, with respect to their
resistance to pitting corrosion, the critical pitting corrosion temperature, CPT, was determined for the
different alloys. CPT was defined as the lowest temperature at which pitting corrosion occurred.
Material of the nickel base alloy EN 2.4819 (Hastelloy C-276) was not available for the screening tests.
The critical pitting corrosion temperature was determined according to ASTM G150
11
, using the
Avesta Cell. Two different electrolytes were used, 1M NaCl and 3M NaBr. Since the CPT-value for
several alloys, obtained in 1 M NaCl, exceeded the maximum testing temperature, the more corrosive
3M NaBr solution was used to make it possible to include also these alloys in the ranking.

11
Annual book of ASTM standards, 2004, Volume 03.02. ASTM G150-99.
13

The CPT values obtained in 3M NaBr are presented in Table 10 and Figure 16 in Annex 3. CPT values
obtained in 1M NaCl are presented in Table 11 and Figure 17 in Annex 3.

Table 4: The tested materials and their composition
EN UNS Type Heat Form C Si Mn Fe P S Cr Ni Mo Nb Co W Cu N
1.4439 S31726 Austenitic A1065 plate 0.018 0.41 1.67 Bal. 0.025 <0.001 17.15 12.89 4.06 - 0.04 0.04 0.31 0.140
1.4563 N08028 Superaust. 454347 plate <0.020 0.46 1.58 Bal. <0,025 <0.015 26.69 30.61 3.28 - - - 0.93 0.06
1.4547 S31254 " 820707 plate 0.014 0.31 0.40 Bal. 0.020 0.001 20.10 17.96 6.06 0.09 0.09 - 0.63 0.219
1.4547 S31254 " 791533 tube 0.018 0.31 0.44 Bal. 0.022 0.001 19.80 17.87 6.03 - 0.13 - 0.71 0.204
1.4529 N08926 " A2560 plate 0.011 0.22 0.80 Bal. 0.018 <0.001 20.70 24.49 6.07 - 0.06 0.03 0.87 0.218
1.4652 S32654 " H4616 plate 0.014 0.24 3.37 Bal. 0.019 0.001 24.25 21.84 7.27 0.00 0.04 - 0.49 0.520
- S31266 " R0637 plate 0.016 0.18 2.97 Bal. 0.021 <0.001 24.12 22.61 5.59 - 0.06 1.99 1.61 0.463
1.4565 S34565 " C2469 plate 0.014 0.25 5.29 Bal. 0.025 <0.001 24.09 17.97 4.35 - 0.06 0.03 0.15 0.440
1.4462 S31803 Duplex C2101 plate 0.015 0.45 1.63 Bal. 0.027 <0.001 22.43 5.72 3.11 - 0,04 0.02 0.18 0.185
1.4462* S31803 Duplex 455403* plate <0.030 0.50 0.84 Bal. <0.030 <0.015 22.32 5.20 3.20 - - - 0.14 0.17
1.4410 S32750 Superduplex 453453 plate <0.03 0.28 0.50 Bal. <0,035 <0,015 25.31 7.06 3.92 - - - 0.20 0.26
1.4507 S32520 " A0305 plate 0.011 0.33 0.91 Bal. 0.017 <0.001 24.66 6.42 3.67 - 0.03 0.12 1.64 0.251
2.4819 N10276 Ni-base 35810
plate
0.004 0.04 0.5 5.7 0.006 0.004 16.0 57.6 16.2 - 0.2 3.3 - -
* Heat of 1.4462 used by Avesta for screening test, by SIMR for initial electrochemical investigations and by
Sandvik for laboratory condensation tests.
Materials Chemical composition, mass %
Standards

Table 5. Ranking of alloys in terms of critical pitting temperature in 1M NaCl and 3M NaBr
Critical Pitting corrosion Temperature in 1M NaCl
1.4439<1.4462<1.4563<1.4507< all other materials

L
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Critical Pitting corrosion Temperature in 3M NaBr
1.4439<1.4563<1.4462<1.4547<1.4529<1.4507<1.4410<1.4565<1.4659<1.4652
M
o
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t

r
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t

Results obtained in 3M NaBr showed lower values than those obtained in 1M NaCl. As NaBr is a more
aggressive solution it is used for testing high alloyed grades with high resistance to pitting corrosion.

There were differences in the ranking of the grades in the different electrolytes. One reason for this
might have been the influence of different alloying elements and microstructure of the alloys. One
should also keep in mind that only specimens from one heat of each grade was tested and that two of
the heats (1.4410 and 1.4563) were test heats specially produced for this project.

3.3.3 Task 3b Electrochemical testing in condensates
The simulated condensate environments for laboratory testing were selected on the basis of the analysis
results in Task 2. The materials used for this part of the investigation are listed in Table 6, Annex 6.
Specimens were in the form of coupons 25 x 25mm which were wet surface ground to 600 mesh SiC
paper less than an hour before electrochemical testing. The conditions selected initially were
hydrochloric acid at various concentrations and temperatures. These environments are listed in table 6,
together with environments containing other species for additional tests.

The polarisation curves in HCl environments showed two types of behaviour. The more corrosive
systems had a low corrosion potential, typically around 300mV SCE and an active corrosion peak at
around 200mV SCE. For more resistant materials the corrosion potential was typically in the range
100 to +200 mV SCE and there was no active corrosion. Pitting corrosion occurred in some cases, and
14

could be seen as a rapid increase in current density at higher potentials, typically 300-900mVSCE. All
steels showed a current increase at around +1000mVSCE, corresponding to trans-passive dissolution of
the passive film.

In 0.2M HCl at 50C all the materials were passive and the corrosion potentials lay in the range of
approximately 200 to -20mV SCE. Increasing the HCl concentration to 0.8M resulted in active
corrosion only for 1.4439. In 0.8M HCl at the higher temperature of 70C active corrosion was also
seen for 1.4565, 1.4529 and 1.4462.

Table 6 Environments used for electrochemical tests
Environment HCl conc. Temp. Other
1 1.6 70C
2 0.8 70C
3 1.6 50C
4 0.8M 50C
5 0.2M 50C
6 sulphate replacement 0.4M 70C 0.2M H
2
SO
4

7 sulphate addition 0.8M 70C 0.2M H
2
SO
4

8 nitrate 0.79M 70C 0.01M HNO
3

9 bromide 0.79M 70C 0.01M HBr
10 fluoride 0.79M 70C 0.01M HF
11 complex anion 0.79M 70C 0.01M HNO
3
+0.01M HBr+0.01M HF
12 metal 0.55M 70C 0.05M AlCl
3
+ 0.05M FeCl
3

+ 0.05M NaCl + 0.05M ZnCl
2

13 metal addition 0.79M 70C 0.025M AlCl
3
+ 0.025M FeCl
3

+ 0.025M NaCl + 0.025M ZnCl
2

In 1.6M HCl the majority of the steels showed active behaviour and the trends were similar at both
50C and 70C. The superaustentic steels S31266 and 1.4652, and the nickel-base reference material
2.4819 remained passive, while the superduplex steel 1.4410 was borderline, with one specimen
showing active corrosion at 50C but passivity at 70C.

Pitting corrosion was only observed in four alloys. 1.4439 suffered pitting in all five HCl environments,
while 1.4563 showed pitting in four environments, although only one of three specimens of pitted in
0.2M HCl at 50C. The duplex steels 1.4462 and 1.4507 exhibited pitting in both 0.8M HCl and 1.6M
HCl 70C, and also showed some re-passivating pitting at 50C. This is in partial agreement with the
alloy performance predicted from the empirical PRE relationship between pitting resistance and alloy
composition. This relation predicts that 1.4439 should be least resistant to pitting, as is observed.
However it also predicts that 1.4563 should have a superior pitting resistance to 1.4462, although the
reverse is seen in the polarisation curves.

As is apparent from the above discussion, that there is no single descriptor which can be used to give
the corrosion resistance of candidate materials for wet flue gas cleaning systems. Instead, several
factors must be taken into account. In Table 7, the alloys investigated have been evaluated in terms of
three criteria the maximum measured corrosion rate, the tendency to maintain passivity without
becoming active and the propensity to pitting corrosion.

15

Table 7. Ranking of alloys in terms of three corrosion criteria in HCl environments

3.3.3.1 Effect of other ions

Duplicate measurements were made in environments 6-12 (Table 6 ) for 1.4439 and 1.4547. Partial
replacement of HCl by H
2
SO
4
had a beneficial effect, causing 1.4547 to passivate (higher corrosion
potential), reducing the maximum current density for 1.4439 and also raising the pitting potential.
Addition of sulphuric acid to the 0.8M HCl base solution induced passivation for one of the two
specimens of 1.4547 and increased the pitting potential for 1.4439, again indicating an inhibitive effect
of sulphate. However, it also slightly increased the uniform corrosion rate of 1.4439.

Partial substitution of chloride by bromide, nitrate or fluoride had only a marginal influence on uniform
corrosion. However, nitrate increased the pitting potential for 1.4439. Cation substitution or addition
had a beneficial effect, causing both materials to shift to from active to passive behaviour because of the
increase in redox potential. However, the pitting potential was reduced for 1.4439.

3.3.3.2 Effect of aeration/deaeration
In the above sections, aerated electrolytes were employed because this most closely reflects the
application in wet flue gas cleaning systems, where an oxygen excess is maintained. To illustrate the
effect of aeration, some polarisation curves were also evaluated in argon-deaerated electrolytes. In
borderline cases, deaeration can be sufficient to push the corrosion potential from a high, passive value
to a low, active value, as is seen for 1.4410.

3.3.3.3 Determination of corrosion potentials in thin aerated condensate films
In the cleaning systems in question the materials surfaces are supposed to be often exposed to
condensates in thin aerated films. In connection to the determination of polarisation curves, corrosion
potentials were measured in thin condensate films on some of the alloys inherent in the project in a
limited number of condensates. The potentials were determined at the same temperature as those of the
corresponding polarisation curves. The corrosion potentials in thin electrolyte films and the
corresponding potentials of samples submerged in aerated solutions at the registration of polarisation
curves show that there is no general tendency that potentials in thin films are more positive than in bulk
solutions. There is generally a good agreement between the two sets of potentials, but some exceptions
have been found. One reason for the discrepancies may be that the samples in thin films were exposed
for a longer time before the measurement than at the registration of polarisation curves.
Active corrosion rate in 1.6 M HCl
1.4439 ~ 1.4462 < 1.4507 < 1.4563 < 1.4656 < 1.4529 ~ 1.4547 < S31266 ~ 1.4652 ~ 2.4819
1.4410 is borderline active / passive, therefore difficult to place in the above series

Tendency to maintain passivation
1.4439 < 1.4462 ~1.4565 ~ 1.4529 ~ 1.4547 < 1.4563~1.4507 < 1.4410 < all other materials
L
e
a
s
t

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s
t
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n
t

Pitting corrosion
1.4439 < 1.4563 < 1.4462 ~ 1.4507 < All other materials
M
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t

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t

16

3.3.4 Task 3c) Testing in condensates-creviced specimens

Crevices are inevitably present in complex structures such as wet gas cleaning systems. For passivating
materials such as stainless steels this increases the risk of localised corrosion, since oxygen depletion in
the crevice can cause localised depassivation and the onset of crevice corrosion, even though the freely
exposed surface may remain passive.

The principal tool to evaluate this effect was monitoring of the corrosion potentials of specimen racks
with crevice formers. In this test, spool racks with creviced and welded coupons were immersed and
exposed in simulated condensates. The type of rack used is shown in figure 26, Annex 3. Three solution
compositions were chosen with guidance of chemical analyses of condensates, which were derived
from incineration plants in task 2. The testing started with the condensate A below and continued with
the condensates B and C respectively.

A). 0.8 M HCl +0.2 M H
2
SO
4
(1.2 M HCl). Temperature 50
o
C.

B). 0.2 M HCl, Temperature 50
o
C.

C). 0.8 M HCl, Temperature 50
o
C

Table 4 were exposed with duplicate specimens at each test. For the welding, the filler materials and
shielding gases used were according to table 9, Annex 3. The steel coupons where prepared and tested
as described in Annex 3.

Condensate A
The spool racks were exposed in solution A for 216 Hours. The condensate A which is very corrosive
caused uniform corrosion of all materials. The corrosion rate was however very different among the
steel grades. The potential of all samples were stable and on a level close to 300 mV (SCE ) which
indicated that all steels were active. After the exposure, the coupons were cleaned using water and a soft
brush and after that they were rinsed with water, ethanol and finally dried.

The visual inspection revealed that all steels, including the filler materials had suffered from uniform
corrosion. On the Ni-base material 2.4819, the attack was however very small. None of the materials
exhibited pitting or crevice corrosion. The corrosion rates calculated from determination of weight loss
are shown in figure 4 where the materials are arranged from high to low corrosion rate. The coupons of
1.4410 were delivered with much coarser surface than of the other grades. Consequently a larger
surface was exposed of 1.4410 which explains a part of the high weight loss of this grade.

All materials involved in the different tests are to a varying degree alloyed with Ni Mo and Cu. These
elements are known to decrease the rate of the uniform corrosion of stainless steels in non oxidising
acids (14). This is supported in Figure 4, were the rates of uniform corrosion are plotted as functions of
the Ni and Mo contents respectively in the tested materials. It is important to note however that the
figures give no reliable information on the relative influence of Ni and Mo in this aspect since both are
present in all steels.

The duplex steels 1.4462, 1.4410, 1.4507 and the austenitic 1.4565 exhibited knife-line attack along the
welds. The extent of this attack was smaller in 1.4565 than in the duplex steels.

17

Condensate B
The corrosion potentials were monitored with a multi-channel data logger. The spool racks were
exposed in solution B for 648 hours. Sudden potential drops down to low corrosion potentials of some
less resistant steels indicated initiation of crevice corrosion. The potentials of the more resistant steels
remained however on a high level throughout the test. The observed corrosion potentials corresponded
very well to the corrosion attacks which were discovered at the evaluation of the samples.

Crevice corrosion occurred in 4 samples of 3 alloys while pitting corrosion occurred in 3 samples of 2
alloys. Any preferential corrosion attack at the waterline, on the welds or along the fusion line of welds
did not occur in condensate B. All results from the testing in condensate B are given in (Table 15,
Annex 3).
0,00
1,00
2,00
3,00
4,00
5,00
6,00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Ni content %
C
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

m
m
/
Y
e
a
r
0,00
1,00
2,00
3,00
4,00
5,00
6,00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Mo content %
C
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

m
m
/
y
e
a
r

Figure 4: Corrosion rate of the samples exposed to condensate A as function of their Ni and Mo
content

Condensate C
Samples in condensate C were exposed for 456 hours. The corrosion potentials were monitored in the
same way as in the condensates A and B. Again the registered potentials corresponded well to the
observed corrosion phenomena (Table 16, Annex 3). In this case it was possible to classify the materials
into four groups according to their corrosion properties. These classes are given in table 16 Annex 3
under the headline general state of corrosion of the materials:
Passive material, no corrosion damage.
Localised attack
Uniform and localised attack
Table 8: Ranking of alloys in terms of three corrosion criteria in Condensate C environment
Active corrosion rate in Condensate C
1.4410 < 1.4462 < 1.4439< 1.4563 ~1.4565 < 1.4529 < all other materials
All other materials < 1.4565 < S31266< 1.4547 < 1.4652 < 2.4607
L
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t

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t

Pitting corrosion
1.4529 ~ 1.4565 < All other materials
Crevice Corrosion
1.4529 < 1.4507 < S31266 < 1.4565 < all other materials
M
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As a complement to immersion tests, polarisation curves were also obtained for creviced specimens of
all of the materials in 0.8M HCl at 80C. The crevice was attained by cutting off the flow of distilled
water in the flushed port cell and instead inserting a washer of EPDM70 rubber
12
between the specimen

12
R. Pettersson, J. Flyg: Electrochemical evaluation of pitting and crevice corrosion of stainless steels in NaCl and
NaBr. Proc. 13
th
Scandinavian Corrosion Congress, 2004
18

and the holder. These polarisation curves show two major trends. Firstly, a negative loop was often seen
on the polarisation curve because the cathodic reaction was enhanced on the open portion of the surface.
Secondly, and more importantly, the presence of the crevice was in some cases sufficient to induce
active corrosion behaviour in materials which were passive in the un-creviced condition. This was seen
for 1.4563, S31266 and 1.4410.

3.3.5 3d) Laboratory condensation

Glass Loop
Testing in a glass loop was performed using the same type of coupons and test procedures as applied in
Tasks 4 and 5. The aim of the testing was to modify a test set-up that can be used for dew point
corrosion studies in HCl and H
2
SO
4
condensates
13
. This was made in order to simulate condensates
from municipal incineration plants and hence a way to study the corrosion rates in a laboratory. In the
original set-up a glass loop was used, the set-up was first used by Slaiman et al for studying dew point
corrosion of HCl and petrol mixtures found in refineries
14
. The set-up was modified to be used for
studying HCl and water in reference
13
. Details of the experimental setup are given in Annex 3.

A dew point set-up was modified to simulating the worst case of condensation corrosion in wet
cleaning systems in waste incineration. The results indicate that the test method may be used for an
initial screening for very severe environments. The results are presented in Annex 3

Chamber Furnace experiments
Four series of laboratory condensation tests were performed on the same type of test racks as used in
the plant exposures. These experiments were carried out in a laboratory chamber furnace of volume 85
litres which was held at 90C. The base-plate with affixed specimens was mounted horizontally in a
teflon holder on top of a cooling coil. The specimen temperature was controlled by circulating cooled
water/glycol through the coil with an external pump. This meant that the specimen temperature was
below the furnace gas temperature so that condensation occurred on the specimens. Details of the
experimental setup are given in Annex 3.

The results of all tests were evaluated using the template agreed by the partners. This takes into
consideration the corrosion rate, uniformity of corrosion, occurrence of crevice corrosion and extent and
location of pitting. In all three tests the corrosive attack was dominated by uniform corrosion. The areas
covered by the crevice formers had generally been protected from corrosion, and there was no
significant pitting. Selective fusion line attack was observed in three cases: 1.4507 in Tests 2 and 3, and
1.4462 in Test 3.

The results from Test 1 must be interpreted with caution, in view of the indication from the duplicate
1.4547 specimens that cooling of the base-plate had been uneven. A comparison of the results from
Tests 2 and 3 show some similarities and some differences. The highest corrosion rate was shown by
the duplex steel 1.4462 in both cases. The austenitic 1.4563, 1.4529 and S31266 and the duplex 1.4507
all showed intermediate corrosion rates in both environments. The austenitic 1.4565, 1.4547, 1.4652
and the nickel-base reference materials 2.4819 likewise all showed low corrosion rates in both
environments. Shifts in relative ranking were seen for two materials: the lowest-alloyed austenitic steel
1.4439 and the duplex 1.4410. Both of these steels had relatively high corrosion rates in the aggressive
HCl environment in Test 3, but both also showed surprisingly low corrosion rates in the HCl/SO
2

environment in Test 2.

3.4 Task 4. Field-tests in condensates and Task 5. Field testing in wash-
liquors
In order to ensure comparability of results obtained by the partners, a round robin test was performed.
The results are given in Annex 2: Round Robin Test.

13
U. Kiviskk, Corrosion Science, Vol 45, page 485-495, 2003
14
Q.J.M Slaiman, Journal of Petrochemical Research, Vol 4 (2), page 139-151, 1985
19

3.4.1 Task 4a). Exposure of racks
The work within this task is reported by the partners AVESTA, SANDVIK and USINOR.
Exposures have been performed in plants in Sweden, Germany and France.
Plant A.
One set of exposures was performed in the Swedish plant Hgdalen, which uses domestic waste as fuel.
The test racks were installed in September 2003 and were taken out in May 2004. Analysis of the
condensates was performed by SIMR
Neutral stage
No uniform corrosion was seen. Moderate crevice corrosion and pitting occurred in many specimens.
Inlet to condenser
Less local corrosion was found than in the neutral stage.
Plant B.
The Swedish plant in Avesta, Plant B, started the district heating production 2003-10-16 and the plant
was shut down 2004-04-29. This gave an exposure time of 202 days, which is almost 7 months.
Inlet to pre-cooler
Edge attack (pitting or severe uniform attack) was seen on all alloys. The rate of uniform corrosion was
below 0.1 mm/year for the alloys 2.4819 < 1.4659 < 1.4652 < 1.4547. 2.4819 had the lowest corrosion
rate and 1.4547 the highest.
Top of pre-cooler
The gas was vapour saturated and the temperature 50-70
o
C. Edge attack (pitting), attack at fusion line,
and at HAZ were seen on all alloys except 2.4819 and 1.4652. All materials had uniform corrosion rate
< 0.1 mm/year and 1.4652 (654 SMO) had the lowest corrosion rate.

Top of condenser
The flue gas temperature was 50-70
o
C. Edge attack occurred in base and weld, HAZ, or fusion line on:
1.4563, 1.4507, 1.4410, 1.4462, and 1.4439. Uniform corrosion rate was < 0.01 mm/y. Localised
attacks: All duplex steels had attack along fusion line at welds. Without attack: 2.4819, 1.4652 (654
SMO), and 1.4547 (254 SMO).

Wash liquor buffer tank
The spray water had pH of 0.7-1.5. Samples on one rack had no edge attacks. A second rack had crevice
corrosion, pitting on edges in base-material and weld or HAZ or fusion line on: 1.4563, 1.4462 1.4529,
1.4507, and 1.4439. Only un-attacked alloys were: 2.4819, 1.4652 (654 SMO), 1.4547 (254 SMO).

Plant C.
The test racks in Uppsala were installed in the inlet of the condenser during July 2004 and taken out in
November 2004. In this plant no gas cleaning is performed before the condenser compared to e.g.
Hgdalen and, hence, the environment is more severe in this condenser.

Inlet of condenser
Very high uniform corrosion rates occurred. Only 2.4819 and 1.4652 showed low or no corrosion. All
other materials showed severe attack. Almost no local corrosion was observed; only 1 sample of 1.4462
had crevice corrosion and some pitting. Minor pitting was also observed on some of the super-austenite
materials.

Plant D.
The waste incineration plant in Krefeld, Germany, is authorised to burn 340.000 tons of waste and
sludge annually. The waste consists of approximately 53% household waste, 35% industrial waste, 4%
sludge, 5% bulky waste and 3% hospital waste. The exposure started 2003-10-06 and ended 2004-09-10
with a 3-day shutdown in-between. This gave a total exposure time of 337 days.

Lower part of washer 1.
20

High rates of uniform corrosion were measured for all grades. Thus edge attack was not observed. The
Ni-base alloy 2.4819 showed the best resistance. In one of the racks this result was shared with 1.4659.

Upper part of washer 1.
All alloys but 1.4563 had low uniform corrosion rate (< 0.01 mm/y). In two out of two racks, only
2.4819 and 1.4652 had no attack at all. In one out of two racks, 1.4565 had crevice corrosion and
1.4547 suffered from pitting in the weld. The remaining specimens were all attacked by local corrosion.
Upper part of washer 2.
Neither edge attack nor uniform corrosion was seen. The alloys 1.4652 1.4659 1.4529 and 2.4819
exhibited no attack. One out of two samples of 1.4547 and 1.4565 respectively had slight crevice
corrosion. All other alloys showed slight crevice and 1.4507 also pitting in base metal.
Wash liquor bottom sump in washer 1.
Uniform corrosion was the major problem. All alloys were attacked. All duplex steels had corroded
away completely. The best performing alloy was the nickel-base alloy 2.4819.
Plant E.
The municipal incinerator erected in Saint-Ouen treats per year 650kt of municipal wastes in 3 furnaces.
The elimination of SO
x
and HCl in the raw gas is obtained in a scrubber by washing with lime.
Above inlet of lime.
Most samples were covered with ash. No sign of local corrosion after washing. Uniform corrosion rates
were < 0.1 m/y.
Washing area
Rust, probably from a carbon steel duct was deposited on several samples. The austenitic grades 1.4439
and 1.4462 as well as all duplex alloys were attacked by pitting corrosion. Slight crevice attacks were
seen on 1.4439, 1.4563, and S31266. For alloys that did not suffer from localised attack, the uniform
corrosion rate was <1m/y. For other alloys the rates were up to 3.5 m/y.
Wash liquor
The alloys can be divided into three groups based on uniform corrosion rate. A) includes 1.4439 and
1.4410 with rates up to 0.1 mm/y. B) includes the duplex steel 1.4462 and the super-duplex 1.4507 with
rates in the range 0.020-0.060 mm/y. C) includes all the other alloys with rates < 0.01 mm/y. Pitting
corrosion was found in the austenitic steels 1.4439 and 1.4563 as well as in all duplex steels. Numerous
and deep crevice attacks were seen under washers on all alloys with exception for the steel 1.4652 and
the Ni-base material 2.4819.
Outlet of the scrubber
The highest rates of uniform corrosion (0.020 0.090 mm/y) were observed for the duplex steels and
the austenitic steels 1.4439, 1.4563, and 1.4529. Pitting corrosion occurred in the same alloys as in the
wash liquor exposure above. As in the latter exposure, only the steel 1.4652 and the Ni-base alloy
2.4819 were free of crevice corrosion. For some of the other alloys, the number and depth of crevice
attack were smaller than in the wash liquor.
Between the droplet filters
The results were very similar to those at the outlet of the scrubber. Exceptions were:
1.4547 had no crevice corrosion but pitting in the weld.
1.4565 and 1.4563 exhibited pitting corrosion.
Outlet of the second droplet filter
The rate of uniform corrosion was higher than 0.1mm/y for the alloys: 1.4439 (0.33mm/y), 1.4410 (0, 2
mm/y) and S 31266 (0.13 mm/y). Observed corrosion on the underside of the latter alloy has with
certainty contributed to the weight loss. The alloys 1.4652, S31266 and 2.4819 withstood pitting
corrosion but only 1.4652 withstood crevice corrosion (2.4819 exhibited a slight attack of crevice
corrosion.)
Pipe before the chimney
Ash covered parts of the base plate and the samples. This promoted crevice corrosion on the upper side
of some samples. The Ni-base alloy 2.4819 had the lowest uniform corrosion rate (0.03 mm/y). The
21

austenitic steel 1.4439 and the duplex steels had the highest rate (> 0.13 mm/y). The rest of the
materials formed an intermediate group with the rate (0.09-0.13 mm/y). Only the steel 1.4652 and the
Ni-base alloy 2.4819 withstood pitting corrosion. Crevice corrosion had occurred under the crevice
washers on all materials. Knife line attack was observed along the weld fusion line on the super duplex
steel 1.4410.

3.5.1 Characterisation of the corrosion environments in flue gas wet cleaning systems.
Based on the results obtained the corrosion environments can be grouped into 6 classes: Untreated flue
gas, Quencher/pre-cooler, Scrubber/Washer1, Condenser/Washer2, Chimney and Wash Liquor.
However, the different designs in the plant layout introduce a large degree of variation. Some flue gas is
treated with lime before it is quenched; other plants quench the raw flue gas with water, others with
lime solution. It was shown in section 3.4.1 for the plant D that the corrosion environment even
changed very much within one component on the plant, in that case washer 1. Extremly high corrosion
was observed at the lover part of the washer, where fresh flue gas meets old wash liquor, while
with increasing distance from the gas inlet the corrosivity is decreasing.

Table 9: Characterisation of the corrosion environments in flue gas wet cleaning systems
Environmental description
Flue Gas Condensate (c)/ Wash Liquor (w)
CO2 O2 SO2 HCl
Corrosion
Environ-
ment
Corrosivity
T/C % rel
H2O % mg/Nm
3

T/C pH Cl
-
/ ppm
Racks
Untreated
Flue gas
Low if
T>dew
Point
140 to
185
10 to
15
10 9
to
12
20 to 150
Typ 50
(125)*
5-100

(550)*
C 70 -0.8
to 1.7
280 to
80000
1, 18
Quencher/
pre-cooler
Extremel
y high
135 to
170
15 to
100
10 9
to
12
20 to 150
Typ 50
<5

C 70 -0.2
to 1.7
130 to
64000
2, 6, 7,
Scrubber
/Washer
Very
high
100 to
135
100 10 9
to
12
<5 W 50t
o
70 0.7 to
2
80000 to
100000
4, 5 SMT in
rack **
10, 11,
12, 13, 17,
19, 21
Condenser /
Washer 2
High Ca 50 100 10 9
to
12
<5 W 40 to
60
1..5
to
6..5
3000 to
50000
3, 14, 15, 16
Outlet/
chimney
Moderate
/ low
Ca 60 20 10 9
to
12

(73.1)*
<5
(5.5)*
C 65 7.07 118 20
Wash
liquor
High - - - - - - W 30 to
70
0.7 to
2
2500 to
100000
Wl1, wl2,
wl 1(a),
Wl2(a)
SO im rack
* Plant in France (Saint-Ouen). ** exposed above condenser inlet, thus describes corrosion environment in
scrubber

22

3.5.2 Classification of the corrosion resistance of various stainless steels in environments
according to a) and establishing their application limits.

Using the somewhat rough differentiation of different corrosion environments in flue gas wet cleaning
systems, as shown in Table 9.

Table 10 summarises the results from the field tests. It should be noted that in several plants
investigated a much wider range of steel grades could be applied without a large risk of localised
corrosion. The plants where no tested stainless steel could withstand the severe corrosivity, the pH of
the condensate was below 1 and the corresponding wash liquor had a pH of below 1 and the chloride
concentration was well above 10000 ppm, even reaching 100000 ppm.

Stainless steels are today used in the wet cleaning of waste incineration plants. For example, the inlet to
the condenser in plant A is made from cladded EN 1.4462 with good service experiences and this is in
contrast to the result from this project. It is also worth to remember that, e.g., most of the surfaces inside
a condenser are sprayed and hence the corrosion risk in the condenser below the spray nozzles is much
lower than above the spray nozzles. In this work most specimens were located above the spray nozzles.

Table 10: Steel grades that can be recommended for use in corrosion environments in flue gas wet
cleaning systems
Steel Grade recommendations for details: Environment
With risk of crevice
corrosion
Without risk for crevice
corrosion
Comments:
Untreated Flue gas All grades tested All grades tested T>dew point
Quencher/ pre-cooler 1.4652, 2.4819 1.4652, 2.4819, 1.4547,
Scrubber /Washer 1.4652, 1.4547*, 2.4819 1.4652, 1.4547, 1.4565,
2.4819
In one plant no tested
stainless steel can be
recommended for use in
the scrubber/washer.
Condenser / Washer 2 1.4652, 2.4819, 1.4547* 1.4652, 2.4819, 1.4547,
1.4659, 1.4629, 1.4565

Outlet/ chimney 1.4652, 2.4819 1.4652, 2.4819
Wash liquor 1.4652, 2.4819 1.4652, 2.4819 In one plant no tested
stainless steel can be
recommended for the use
with wash liquor.
*in a few cases slight localised corrosion

23

4 Conclusions
4.1 Task 1. Coverage of new experience and development in wet cleaning systems, in
particular in waste incineration plants, that may arise during the project time
S When serious corrosion damage has occurred, this is usually due to unforeseen fuel composition
changes.
S Quenching of the flue gas is resulting into a highly corrosive wet/dry environment in the quencher
and towards the scrubber / washer 1.
S In plants with biomass and assorted waste is a trend that the use of higher alloyed steels increases
with an increasing part of waste in the fuel.
S It could be shown in section 3.2 that with increasing temperature at which a condensate was
collected, the concentration of dissolved compounds increased, in other words, the higher the
temperature at which a condensate is formed the more corrosive it becomes.
S The results obtained in section 3.3 lead to the conclusion that there is no single descriptor that can
be used to provide the corrosion resistance of candidate materials wet flue gas systems. Not only
the type of fuel, but also the flue gas cleaning system and operating conditions influence the
corrosivity of condensates and wash liquors.
S Laboratory test facilities have been developed in the project that can be applied to evaluate
candidate materials.
4.4 Task 4. Field-tests in condensates
S The fuel and changes in its composition influence the corrosivity of the flue gas.
S One of the most corrosive areas of the flue gas wet cleaning system is between the quencher and
halfway into the first washer/scrubber.
S The composition of the wash liquor plays an important role in the corrosivity of the environment
inside a washer/scrubber. In one case, the wash liquor was so corrosive that no tested stainless steel
was sufficiently resistant.
S Quenching with lime containing water seems to reduce the corrosivity of the first wash liquor.
4.5 Task 5. Field testing in wash-liquors
S The composition of the wash liquor varied widely between the plants investigated. It could be
noticed that the composition of the wash liquor reflects also on the corrosivity in the
washers/scrubbers/condensers. Reducing the corrosivity of the wash liquor could reduce the
corrosivity inside rest of the flue gas treatment system.
S The results obtained from the 5 plants investigated indicate that a wide range of stainless steels
could be successfully used in the flue gas wet cleaning system. Care will have to be taken in the
design of the equipment to avoid crevices formation, very low pH values of the wash liquors
(pH<2), high chloride concentrations (c(Cl
-
)<2500 ppm).
S The corrosion environment is changed rapidly even within one piece of equipment as demonstrated
in plant D, where severe differences in the corrosivity was observed between the gas inlet and the
gas outlet of the equipment.
S In conclusion, stainless steels can be a good alternative to Fibre Reinforced Polymeric materials, if
the plant is designed to take the corrosion environment into account and is using the corrosivity of
the system as process controlling factor, e.g., sufficient dilution of the wash liquor, addition of lime
to the system, keeping the gas temperature above the dew point, etc.
24

5 Exploitation and impact of research results
All partners in the project gained valuable insight the flue gas wet cleaning system of incineration
plants. The results of the project will aid all partners in providing accurate answers to questions that
plant owners have now and will have in the future. New incineration plants are being built over Europe,
since more and more domestic waste has to be burned instead of being buried in land-fill sites. It is
foreseen that after the publishable synthesis report has been accepted the results of the project will be
made available to network of incineration plant owners. This network consist to-date of 13 plants,
equipment producers and steel producers and is, so far, limited to the Nordic region. It is, however,
planned, to widen the network in order to form a network on European scale. The knowledge produced
in the current project is the basis of such a network.
5.1 Actual Applications
S The developed laboratory condensate test facilities will be used to screen for suitable materials
under controlled environments to provide plant owners with fast answers to existing problems.
S The data obtained in the field and laboratory test can be used to develop on-line corrosivity
measurements that can be used to control operating condition of the plant in order to avoid
corrosion problems, e.g., due to changes in the fuel composition. The plant owner will be able to
react in-situ to changes in the fuel composition and, therefore, be able to avoid unforeseen corrosion
events.
5.2 Technical and Economic Potential for the Use of Results
The aim of a plant owner is to run a plant that is reliable, environmental friendly and has low
maintenance costs. The latter directly influences the European citizen, since the costs for garbage
collection and disposal represents a significant percentage of the household running costs today. In one
city in Sweden, for example, the cost for garbage disposal has increased with 30% over the last 3 years
due to that fact that the local land fill site was closed and all waste is now been transported to a waste
incineration plant in a neighbouring district.
5.3 Any Possible Patent Filing
Not applicable to this project.
5.4 Publications / Conference Presentations Resulting from the Project
No results from the project have been published on conferences or scientific journals to date. However,
it is planned to present the results from the project on EUROCOR (Annual conference of the European
Federation of Corrosion). Furthermore, the results will be presented on seminars held by the partners of
the project and via that route made available to the related industry communities.
6 List of Figures and Tables
Figure 1: Schematic construction of flue gas cleaning system in Plant A............................................... 9
Figure 2. Condensate analysis on the different days from Plant A........................................................ 12
2
12-20%H
2
O, 9%O
2
indicates the dew point. Also included are measured points from Plant A. ........................... 13
Figure 4: Corrosion rate of the samples exposed to condensate A as function of Ni and Mo content .. 18

Table 1: Compilation of gas analyses from waste incineration plants from . Also included is data from
Plant A (one of several located in Hgdalen) in the current investigation. 9
Table 2 Maximum levels of other analysed species in condensate from waste incineration plants.11
Table 3. Predicted dewpoints (in C) of a gas containing 60vppm HCl and 30vppm SO
2
(or H
2
SO
4
) as
a function of water content.. 13
Table 4: The tested materials and their composition. 14
Table 5 Ranking of alloys in terms of critical pitting temperature in 1M NaCl and 3M NaBr... 14
Table 6 Environments used for electrochemical tests . 15
Table 7 Ranking of alloys in terms of three corrosion criteria in HCl environments.. 16
Table 8: Ranking of alloys in terms of three corrosion criteria in Condensate C environment 18
25

Table 9: Characterisation of the corrosion environments in flue gas wet cleaning systems. 22
Table 10: Steel grades that can be recommended for use in corrosion environments in flue gas wet
cleaning systems. 23
7 List of References
1) M. Norling et al, Materialval vid rkgaskondensering, Vrmeforsk Service AB, Stockholm,
2004
2) B. Goldschmidt, M. Norling, Material selection for flue gas condensation, Vrmeforsk Service
AB, Stockholm, 2003
3) P. Steinmetz, C. Rapin: Corrosion of metallic materials in waste incinerators. Materials Science
Form 251-254 (1997) 505-518
4) R. Plur: Incinerating municipal and industrial waste. Ed Richard W. Bruyers. Hemisphere Publ
Corp 1991 pp 47-70
5) Y. Kawahara, H. . Nakamura, E. Shibuya, K. Yukawa. Paper 564, NACE Corrosion 95
6) J. Mayrhuber, H. Lerjak: VGB Conference Research in power plant technology 1993 24/25
feb 1993
7) H. H. Krause, P. L. Daniel. J. D: Corrosion of boiler tube alloys in refuse firing : shredded vs
bulk refuse. Materials Performance 33:8 (1994) pp 57-62
8) E. Hggblom, L. Nylf: Materials advanced power engineering, Ed. P. Coutsoudaris et al.
Kluwer Academie Publishers Part II (1994) 1597-1606
9) Yen-Hsiung Kiang: Predicting dewpoits of acid gases, Chemical Engineering Feb 9th (1981)
p127
10) W. M. M. Huijbregts, R. G. I. Leferink: Latest advances in the understanding of acid dewpoint
corrosion: corrosion and stress corrosion cracking in cobustion gas condensates. Anti Corrosion
Methods and Materials 51: 3 (2004) 173-188
11) Annual book of ASTM standards, 2004, Volume 03.02. ASTM G150-99.
12) R. Pettersson, J. Flyg: Electrochemical evaluation of pitting and crevice corrosion of stainless
steels in NaCl and NaBr. Proc. 13th Scandinavian Corrosion Congress, 2004
13) U. Kiviskk, Corrosion Science, Vol 45, page 485-495, 2003
14) Q.J.M Slaiman, Journal of Petrochemical Research, Vol 4 (2), page 139-151, 1985
15) L. Troselius, Polarisation performance of stainless steels in H
2
SO
4
and HCl. Corrosion Science,
Vol 11, pp 473 to 484, Pergamon Press 1971

26

ANNEX I

Technical Annex to the research Contract N
o
: 7210-PR-305

Stainless Steels for Aggressive Wet Conditions in Municipal Incineration
and Combustion Plants

1. Objectives
Deposited municipal waste constitutes a considerable threat to the immediate environment. On the other
hand the waste can be regarded as a renewable energy source if it is incinerated in special power plants.
Incineration has thus the advantages of both reducing the problem with leeching from deposits and
power production. In order to increase the efficiency of the wet cleaning the flue gas may, after being
scrubbed, be cooled to temperatures below the dew point of its water content. By utilising the heat of
condensation the thermal efficiency of the plant can then be improved by as much as 20-30%.

The main objectives of the project are:

To characterise the corrosion environment in different parts of the wet cleaning systems in mainly
waste incineration plants but to some extent in fossil fuel plants and by corrosion testing to define
application ranges of stainless steels in these environments. Through quantification of the influence
of factors determining the corrosivity, e.g. by chemical analyses of condensates, inherent in the
project, knowledge will be added to the field of dew point corrosion

To enable the use of stainless steels in different parts of the cleaning systems in question by use of
the application ranges obtained as a result of the previous objective

2. Work programme and distribution of tasks

2.1 Research approach

The project will briefly comprise the following main items:

Coverage of experiences and development trends in flue gas wet cleaning systems that may arise
Dew point studies
Condensation conditions
Determination of chemical composition of condensates from flue gases in cleaning systems at
different temperatures
Preparation of synthetic condensates for laboratory testing
Laboratory corrosion testing of a variety of stainless steels (table1) in condensates
Field testing in condensates
Field testing in wash-liquor
Evaluation

2.2 Description of the Work

The work associated with the above items according to the research approach is divided into 6 tasks:

Task 1. Coverage of new experience and development in wet cleaning systems, in particular in waste
incineration plants, that may arise during the project time

The coverage will be performed by the partners and through consultation with plant managers and
manufacturers of equipment and materials. The coverage will comprise:

27

c) Corrosion problems experienced and measures taken

d) Constructional development and variants including spray towers, quenchers, scrubbers, gas
coolers, condensers, re-heaters, stacks, spray water systems etc.

e) Materials used

d) Composition of flue gases including oxygen content

Task 2. Dew point studies

a) Coverage of new information that may be available during the project time
The coverage will be carried out regarding possible new published data and ongoing investigations
concerning dew-point chemistry with particular concentration on the HCl-H
2
O and HF-H
2
O systems
and mixtures of these.

b) Condensation conditions
The highest dew-point temperature t
dp
of the flue gas will be determined with gas from the inlet i.e.
before wet cleaning. Determination of t
dp
will be carried out using an electrochemical condensation
probe. The probe is cooled with compressed air and is provided with device for measurement of its skin
temperature. The probe reacts on extremely small amounts of moisture on its surface and thus it is
possible to register the material temperature at which condensate starts to appear on the probe. In
addition to determination of t
dp
in gas at the inlet, the condensation probe will be used at other places in
the cleaning systems. In this connection attempts are made to distinguish between conditions where
condensation takes place on surfaces which are colder than the surrounding gas and conditions where
liquid droplets are present in over-saturated gas and may precipitate on adjacent surfaces. In the latter
case the probe should react without cooling to a lower temperature than that of the surrounding gas.

c) Condensate composition
Flue gas is extracted at the inlet of the cleaning system where the temperature is approximately 140
o
C
and led through a cooler with inert material in all parts in contact with condensate. With guidance of the
measured highest dew point temperature t
dp
condensation will be carried out at series of temperatures at
systematic steps below t
dp
i.e. t
dp
-x
o
C, t
dp
-2x
o
C etc.

The condensate will be collected for each temperature and analysed by pH measurement and
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The latter is a fast and simultaneous
analytical method for multielement determinations of trace and ultra-trace elements in a solution. The
solution is introduced to a plasma and ionised to singly positively charged ions which are extracted into
a negatively charged electrode system (lens stack) and then entered a mass analyser. The mass
analyser separates the ions according to their mass units and thus permits separation of element from
element. The sensitivity of the ICP-MS method is high, and determination limits vary between a few
ppb to sub-ppb.

In addition to the chemical analyses the plants staff is consulted concerning the gas phase analyses
including the partial pressure of oxygen in the flue gas in the cleaning systems.

Task 3. Laboratory corrosion testing

The materials to be used for specimens in all tests in the project will primarily be subject to a screening
test as to their relative corrosion resistance.

Extensive corrosion testing will be performed in synthetic condensates of the same compositions as
those analysed in Task 2c. Additional condensate compositions might also be used by extension of the
analysed contents within limits that are assessed as reasonable for the gas-type in question.
A number of stainless steels and one nickel-base alloy (table 1) will be tested with and without welds as
follows:

28

a) Screening test
All materials in plates and tubes that are to be used for specimens in the project (Table 1) will be
subject to a Critical Pitting Temperature test (CPT) according to ASTM G-150.

b) Electrochemical testing in condensates-non creviced specimens
Anodic polarisation curves will be determined in order to evaluate the extent of passivity and the risk
for pitting corrosion. The polarisation curves will be determined with a standardised technique using
duplicate specimens. The test temperature will be the one at which the original condensate was
precipitated. If condensates with extended composition will be used an assessment has to be made as to
the test temperature. The polarisation testing will be carried out with specimens immersed in a large
amount of condensate.

Testing in thin aerated films will be performed by determination of corrosion potentials of some alloys
in a limited number of condensates. The measurements will be carried out at the same temperatures as
those of the corresponding polarisation curves. The potentials will be compared with the polarisation
curves for the same materials and condensates.

In addition to evaluation of electrochemical data the specimens will be evaluated by microscopy
examination.

c) Testing in condensates-creviced specimens
These tests will be performed with spool-racks in the same simulated condensates and at the same
temperatures as the electrochemical tests according to 3b. Duplicate welded specimens equipped with
crevice formers made of PTFE will be used. The specimens measure 60 x 60 mm and the crevice
formers are placed outside the weld area. The test solution will be purged by air in order to increase its
oxidative power, thus creating the severest conditions for crevice and pitting corrosion. The free
corrosion potential will be monitored to enable comparison with the anodic polarisation curves
determined in the same solutions. The test duration is expected to be 200h.

Anodic polarisation curves will also be obtained for a set of the creviced specimens to give a direct
comparison with the polarisation results in task 3b.

In addition to evaluation of electrochemical data the specimens will be subject to microscopy
examination.

The above tests according to b) and c) will be carried out at a specific temperature for each condensate.
Since the temperature is a parameter that strongly influences the corrosion resistance of stainless steels
the temperature effect will be taken into account at the evaluation of the tests. It will be considered
during the testing whether it is suitable to study this effect more in detail for a limited set of steels and
condensates with a systematic series of temperatures for each condensate.

d) Laboratory condensation
Laboratory testing will also be performed under condensation conditions. This testing will form a direct
link between the field exposures and the laboratory testing by immersion in synthetic condensates. It
will also permit examination of effects, which are particularly associated with condensation e.g. thin
film effects and concentration gradients.
A condensation environment will be created in a furnace system. Previous experience from the
completed ECSC project "Improvement of stainless steels for use at elevated temperatures in aggressive
environments" on the simulation of the environment in high temperature zones in waste incineration
plants (super heater tubes) will be utilised. HCl and SO
2
will be controlled by mass flow meters and
water vapour and low levels of HF will be added using a bearer gas flow through thermostatted baths.
Specimens will be placed on a water-cooled base plate, either singly or in pairs, to permit evaluation of
the performance of a metal-metal crevice. Evaluation will be carried out by means of weight loss
measurement in combination with microscopy examination. The possibility of exposing the same type
of specimen racks as are used in the field tests will be explored in order to give a direct correlation with
service environments.

29

A glass or PTFE loop, in which water is heated and then cooled in a heat exchanger and recirculated,
will also be used to produce condensation conditions. Fumed HCl and possibly also HF and H
2
SO
4
are
lead into the heat exchanger. Five specimens, which are constantly cooled, are placed in the heat
exchanger so that the acid vapour condenses on the samples. The equipment is regulated in order to
obtain constant condensation at the end of the loop. This leads to an acid concentration gradient and the
influence of this gradient can be studied on the five samples in the cell. The specimens will be evaluated
by weight loss and microscopy examination as above. This set-up is intended as a simple and cheap
method to simulate dew point corrosion, which can be used in industry.

Task 4. Field-tests in condensates

These tests will be performed in five plants, two in Sweden, two in France and one in Germany. The
exact test positions for exposures will be decided together with the plant staff. There will be two types
of field tests:

a) Exposure of racks
A number of racks, each containing several steel specimens (table 1) will be exposed in plants. The
racks will be placed in various parts of the system, from the place where the hot gas makes the first
contact with the washing liquor to the exit in the stack. The composition of the gas and the washing
liquor will be regularly checked.
It has appeared at similar exposures in e.g. scrubbers, that local differences in corrosivity may occur
even over comparatively small distances. This fact must be taken into account at production of
specimens and racks as well as at positioning of racks in plants. An important matter to be dealt with in
exposure testing of this kind is to avoid the specimens developing higher temperature than adjacent
constructional elements of interest. In that case condensation may be limited on the specimens and thus
the test results will not be representative of the local corrosivity at material surfaces of the system.
Consequently it must be assured that there is sufficient heat transfer between the specimens and the
material of the cleaning system.

The specimens will be provided with welds and crevice formers of the same kind and with a similar
arrangement as in task 3c.

The specimens will be evaluated after exposure by means of weight loss measurement in combination
with visual- and microscopy examination.

b) Exposure of cooled tubes.
This exposure will be implemented in one of the five plants used for field-testing. Specimens with 200-
mm length are made from tubes of the steel to be tested. The probes are provided with devices for
cooling by compressed air and measurement of skin temperature in the same way as for the
condensation probe.

The material temperature of the tube specimens will be adjusted to values, which are chosen with
guidance of the results of the Tasks 2b and 2c. The tubes will be placed in the hot, untreated gas making
it possible to compare the results with those of tasks 3b and 3c. The exposure time is anticipated to be
30 days but it may be adjusted with guidance of initially obtained results.


Task 5. Field testing in wash-liquors

Spool racks of the same kind as used in Task 3c and 4a will be exposed in three plants at locations,
which are chosen with guidance of information on the liquor composition.

30

Task 6. Evaluation

The evaluation of the project results will be carried out with two main aims:

a) Characterisation of the corrosion environments in flue gas wet cleaning systems.

b) Classification of the corrosion resistance of various stainless steels in environments according to a)
and establishing their application limits.

2.3 Materials for laboratory and field testing

A variety of stainless steels and, for comparison, a nickel base alloy which is commonly used for flue
gas wet cleaning systems will be subject to testing in the different tasks as shown in table 1.

Table 1. Alloys to be studied in different tasks

Screening Polarisation Crevice Laboratory Wash-
test curves test condensation liquors
EN UNS Type 3a 3b 3c 3d 4a 4b 5
1.4439 S31726 Austenitic
(1)
x x x x x x
1.4563 N08028 Superaust. x x x x x x
1.4547 S31254 " x x x x
(3)
x x
1.4529 N08926 " x x x x
(4)
x
1.4652 S32654 " x x x x x
(3)
x
S31266 " x x x x
(4)
x
1.4465 S34565 " x x x x
(5)
x
1.4462 S31803 Duplex x x x x x
1.4410 S32750 Superdupl. x x x x x
(3)
x x
1.4507 S32520 " x x x x
(4)
x
2.4819 N10276
Ni-base
(1)
x x x x x
Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Tube Plate
welded
(2)
Tube
welded
(2)
welded
(2)
Type of specimen
Alloys
Field tests
Condensates
Laboratory tests
Tasks

(1) Materials used as references. Some additional reference material might be used.
(2) The welds will be butt-welded (TIG) using filler materials.
(3) Materials primarily tested in Swedish plants
(4) Materials primarily tested in French plants
(5) Materials primarily tested in German plant

2.4 Partnership and management structure

The partners involved in the project and their roles are:

Swedish Corrosion Institute AB (SCI) Coordinator, contractor
Avesta Polarit Stainless AB (ASAB) Associate contractor to SCI
Gtaverken Milj AB (GMAB) Subcontractor
Sandvik Steel AB (ABSS) Contractor
Swedish Institute for Metals Research (SIMR) Associate contractor to ABSS
Usinor Industeel (INDUST) Contractor
Krupp Thyssen Nirosta GmbH (KTN) Contractor

31

SCI will be responsible for the overall management and coordination of the project. Every three months
each partner will report to the project coordinator information about technical progress, the results
obtained and difficulties encountered in each task. Technical meetings will be organized every 6
months. The preparation of reports to ECSC (mid-year, annual and final report) will be performed after
these meetings and coordinated by the project leader. The financial control of the project will be carried
out using existing administrative and accounting systems used by each partner.

Responsibilities of the partners in different tasks are shown in table 2.

Table 2, Responsibilities of the partners in different tasks
Task 5 Task 6
Partner Field tests Evaluation
wash liquors
a b c d a b c a b c d a b
ASAB x x x
(2)
x x x
(1)(2)
x
(1)
x
(1)
x
(1)(3)
x
(1)
x
(1)(3)
x
INDUST x x x x
(2)
x
(2)
x
(1)
x
(1)
x
(1)
x
(1)(4)
x
(1)(4)
x
ABSS x
(2)
x x x x x
(1)
x
(1)
x
(1)
x
(2)
x
(1)(3)
x
(1)
x
(1)
x
SCI x x x x x
(2)
x
(2)
x x x x
(2)
x x
(2)
SIMR x x x x x x
(2)
x
(2)
x x
KTN x x x x x x
(1)
x
(1)
x
(1)
x
(1)(5)
x
(1)(5)
x
GMAB x
x
(2)
x x x x x
(1) Delivery of material and racks
(2) Responsible for task, or subtask a, b, etc,
(3) Responsible for field test in Sweden
(4) Responsible for field test in France
(5) Responsible for field test in Germany
condensates
Task 4
Field tests
condensates studies
Dew point
Task 3
Screening test
and Lab-tests in
Task 1
Coverage
Task 2

3 Ways and means

All materials to be used for specimens in the project (Table 1) will be subject to a Critical Pitting
Temperature test (CPT) according to ASTM G-150 for a general screening of their relative corrosion
resistance (Task 3). The screening results will be valuable at the evaluation of results from other tests in
the project (Task 6).

There will be links between different tasks of the project. Results from dew-point studies(Task 2) and
chemical analyses of condensates inherent in the field-testing will be utilised for preparation of series of
synthetic condensates to be used at the laboratory immersion testing with electrochemical- and exposure
methods (Task 3).

Laboratory condensation experiments (Task 3) will form a link between field exposures at dew point
conditions (Task 4) and laboratory immersion testing in synthetic condensates (Task 3). The possibility
of exposing the same type of specimen racks as are used in the field tests will be explored in order to
examine correlation between laboratory condensation environments and service conditions.

Corrosion environments where the specimens are exposed to thin aerated films of condensates as well
as voluminous condensates and wash liquors (Task 5) will be covered in the project. The results from
different tasks will be used to define application ranges for stainless steels and thus enable the use of
these steels in different parts of the flue gas wet cleaning systems in question.

4. Programme bar chart

The timetables of the different tasks and reports, as well as corresponding responsibilities of the
partners are given in table 3.
32

Table 3. Time table, tasks breakdown and responsibilities of each partner
Activity Partner
Task 1 ASAB
INDUST
ABSS
SCI
SIMR
KTN
GMAB
Task 2 AVS
INDUST
ABSS
SCI
SIMR
KTN
GMAB
Task 3 AVS
INDUST
ABSS
SCI
SIMR
KTN
Task 4 AVS
INDUST
ABSS
SCI
KTN
GMAB
Task 5 AVS
INDUST
ABSS
SCI
KTN
GMAB
Task 6 AVS
INDUST
ABSS
SCI
SIMR
KTN
x x x
Annual reports x x
Interim reports
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
Reports Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4

5. Results

The result of the project will be the subject of a publication in the "Technical Steel Research" series.

The research described above will be placed in the area covered by the Executive Committee (or the
expert group).

33

Annex 2

Technical annex to the Research Contract N
o
: 7210-PR-305

Round Robin Test

Stainless Steels for Aggressive Wet Conditions in Municipal Incineration
and Combustion Plants

35

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38

Annex 3

Technical Annex to research contract N
o
7210-PR-305report N
o
7

Final Summary Partner report

Stainless Steels for Wet Conditions in Municipal Incineration and
Combustion Plants

39

Annex 3, Table of Contents,

Abstract...42
Summary Partner report......................................................................................42
1. Distribution among the partners.42
1.1 Performed tasks
2. Objectives of the work carried out .........................43
3. Description of activities and discussion..................44
3.1 Task 1. Coverage of new experience and development in wet cleaning systems........44

3.1.1 Task 1a) Corrosion problems experienced and measures taken 44

3.1.2 Task 1b) Constructional development and variants including spray towers, Quenchers, scrubbers,
gas coolers, condensers, re-heaters, stack, etc ..........................................................................44

3.1.3 Task 1c) Material used in flue gas condensation plants..............48

3.1.4 Task 1 d) Composition of flue gases including oxygen content. ...48
3.2 Task 2. De w point studies ....51
3.2.1 2a) Coverage of new information that may be available during the project time.......................... 51
3.2.2 2b) Condensate conditions ......................................................................................................... 51
3.2.3 2c) Condensate composition in waste incineration plants ........................................................... 52
3.2.4 Wash liquor composition in waste incineration plants ................................................................ 61
3.2.5 Correlation between gas and condensate analyses ...................................................................... 61
3.2.6 Predicted dewpoints................................................................................................................... 62
3.3 Task 3. Laboratory corrosion testing... .........64
3.3.1 3a). Screening test .................................................................................................................... 64
3.3.2 Test procedure.......................................................................................................................... 66
3.3.3 3b). Electrochemical testing in condensates .............................................................................. 69
3.3.4 3c) Testing in condensates-creviced specimens ......................................................................... 77
3.3.5 3d) Laboratory condensation..................................................................................................... 86
3.4 Task 4 and 5.Field-tests in condensates and field-tests in wash liquors........ ........93
3.4.1 Task 4a) and 5. Installation of racks for exposure...................................................................... 93
4. Evaluation - conclusion Task 6)..... .101
4.1 Exposed coupons from field tests ( Tasks 4a and 5).... 101
4.1.1 Waste Incineration plant in Sweden, Plant A: ........................................................................ ..101
4.1.2 Waste incineration plant in Sweden, Plant B............................................................................ 107
4.1.3 Waste Incineration plant in Sweden Plant C............................................................................. 117
4.1.4 Waste incineration plant in Germany, Plant D.......................................................................... 118
4.1.5 Waste incineration plant in France Plant E............................................................................... 132
4.1.6 Results of field tests................................................................................................................. 154
4.2 Task 4b). Exposure of cooled tubes. ... .156
5. List of figures and tables......... ....158
6. List of references........163
41

Abstract

The main objectives of the project were to characterize the corrosion environment in wet cleaning
systems in waste incineration plants and to define application ranges of stainless steels in these
environments. This was performed by coverage of service experiences of the systems, by corrosion
testing in plants and by laboratory testing using synthetic environments.

Plant-exposures of test rigs in condensate or wash liquor were performed on 5 locations; 3 in Sweden, 1
in Germany and 1 in France. Creviced specimens of 11 alloys were used in each rig. In a number of
experiments the dew point conditions were examined in 3 plants using different waste-fuel. A large
number of condensate samples were extracted from flue gas at various temperatures in these plants.
Analyses showed that the main corrosive constituent was HCl. The results were used for comparison
with available flue gas data and for production of synthetic condensates to be used at laboratory testing.
Cooled tubes were tested for condensation and appeared to be useful.
In the laboratory testing, all materials were subject to screening by Critical Pitting Temperature (CPT)
test according to ASTM G-150. Electrochemical tests in synthetic condensates were performed by
means of anodic polarisation curves for mainly non creviced specimens. The condensates were based on
analyses of condensates from plants. In addition, exposures of creviced specimens in racks were exposed
in three synthetic condensates. Laboratory condensation was performed in two different devices.

At the evaluation of the corrosion environments in the incineration plants, the corrosivity could be
grouped into 6 classes. The materials were ranked after their performance at exposure in the wet
cleaning systems and in the laboratory tests.

Summary partner report

1. Distribution of work among the partners

The main contribution of SANDVIK STEEL to the project was to produce test material, to perform field
tests in two plants and to develop a test set-up used for laboratory condensation. The test materials EN
1.4410 and EN 1.4563 were produced by SANDVIK STEEL and delivered to the other partners.

The extent of corrosion was very different in the two plants where the field exposures were made by
SANDVIK STEEL. In the inlet to the condenser in Uppsala, high uniform corrosion rates were observed
for all materials except EN 1.4562 and EN 2.4819. It should be noted that the test position in Uppsala,
untreated gas condensated on the test rack. Before the condenser of stainless steel the gas is sprayed with
water but the specimens were located above the spray nozzles. In the other plant Hgdalen, the uniform
corrosion rate was very low, but several materials experienced localised corrosion. However, for both
locations some grades did not experience corrosion in Hgdalen. The test location was further down in
the plant than in Uppsala and hence the condensates were not as aggressive.

In the laboratory a dew point set-up was modified to simulating the worst case of condensation
corrosion in wet cleaning systems in waste incineration. The results indicate that the test method may be
used for an initial screening for very severe environments.

The main contribution of INDUSTEEL to the project consists in:

-the production of welded samples in 6 different stainless steel grades for both field and laboratory tests.
-the assembly of the racks for condensation exposure for field tests managed by all partners,

42

-the management of a field test in one French incinerator plant.

The tested materials produced by INDUSTEEL and delivered to the other partners were the austenitic
stainless steel grades EN 1.4439, EN 1.4529, EN 1.4565 and UNS S31266, the duplex stainless steel
grade EN 1. 1.4462 and the super duplex grade EN 1.4507.

The main contribution to the project by Avesta has been delivery of two materials, performance of field
testing in 2 incineration plants, one in Germany and one in Sweden and .
The following ranking of the alloys included as test material in the project was obtained in 3M NaBr,
when CPT tested according to ASTM G150. The least resistant grade is mentioned first.

1.4439<1.4563<1.4462<1.4547<1.4529<1.4507<1.4410<1.4565<1.4659<1.4652.

When tested in 1M NaCl, many of the alloys reached the maximum temperature without getting
attacked, why the ranking only includes the following alloys, with the least resistant grade mentioned
first.

1.4439<1.4462<1.4563<1.4507.

The field corrosion tests performed at three locations in the wet cleaning stage at the incineration plant
in Sweden, Plant B, showed three levels of corrosivity. At the most corrosive, and the mid-corrosive,
site none of the alloys tested were resistant. At the least corrosive site alloys 1.4652 (654 SMO), 1.4547
(254 SMO) and 2.4819 (Alloy C-276) were resistant. At this site a 254 SMO flue gas condenser is used
and works well.

Also in the wash liquor buffer tank, the only alloys resistant were 1.4652 (654 SMO), 1.4547 (254
SMO) and 2.4819 (Alloy C-276).

Also the field corrosion tests performed at three locations in the wet cleaning stage at the incineration
plant in Germany, Plant D, showed three levels of corrosivity. At the most corrosive site, the corrosivity
was much higher compared to the most corrosive site at Plant B in Sweden, and none of the alloys tested
were resistant. Many of the specimens exposed here, including all the duplex alloys, were missing due to
severe uniform corrosion. At the mid-corrosive site, were local corrosion was the main problem, only
the alloys 1.4652 (654 SMO) and 2.4819 (Hastelloy C-276) were resistant. At the lest corrosive site
alloys 1.4652 (654 SMO), 1.4529 (Uranus B26), 1.4659 ((Uranus B66) and 2.4819 (Alloy C-276) were
resistant. At this site only 1 out of 4 specimens of alloy 1.4547 (254 SMO), and 2 out of 4 specimens of
alloy 1.4565, suffered slight crevice corrosion.

The test in wash liquor at the plant in Germany was performed at the most corrosive site and none of the
alloys tested were resistant. At this site all duplex alloys were missing due to severe uniform corrosion.
1.1. Performed tasks

The work has been performed by the partners according to the definition of the tasks made in the Annex
1 to the research agreement.

2. Objectives of the work carried out
The Swedish Corrosion Institute took the role of coordinator in the project. As such, KORRINST has
performed the managerial work and thereby participated in all tasks KORRINST has in particular
however carried out laboratory testing and the work in the three Swedish plants with collection of
condensate samples by precipitation from flue gases and determination of the gas dew points.
The main objective of the work carried out by SANDVIK STEEL in the project was to contribute to the
characterisation of the corrosion environment in different parts of the wet cleaning system in waste
incineration plants. SANDVIK STEELs main contribution to reach this objective was both to produce
test material and to perform field tests. The supply of test material increased the matrix of test material
43

and hence the knowledge of the behaviour of stainless steels in the wet cleaning of waste incineration
environment. The field exposures added knowledge about the performance of the stainless steels in the
plants and together with information about the environment obtained by the work of KORRINST and
SIMR, knowledge about the links between the environment and corrosion performance was obtained.

A further objective was to develop a laboratory test method for testing material for wet conditions in
municipal incineration plants. With laboratory testing, an evaluation of the corrosivity in wet cleaning of
municipal waste incineration can be made easier, and hence enable the use of stainless steels in these
applications.

The main objectives for Outokumpu Stainless AB were to supply CPT data for the different alloys used
for corrosion tests in the project (Task 1a, Screening Test), and to supply test results from field corrosion
tests in waste incineration plants in Sweden and Germany (Task 4 and 5).

The main objective of the work carried out by INDUSTEEL in the project was to contribute:
- to define the application ranges of stainless steels in different parts of the wet cleaning systems in a
waste incineration plant,
- to identify the relation between measured process parameters (temperature, gas composition, slurry
composition,) and the aggressiveness of the environment.

This was done by :
- an increase of the matrix of tested materials with the supply of 6 different stainless grades,
- the realization of field exposures and the acquisition of associated process data (gas, washing liquor
and condensate compositions).
3. Description of activities and discussion
3.1 Task 1. Coverage of new experience and development in wet cleaning systems
All partners have contributed to this task during the project time. Sandvik Materials Technology AB has
however participated in a working group within the Swedish organisation Vrmeforsk that works with
materials selection and constructional matter concerning combustion and incineration plants.

3.1.1. Task 1a) Corrosion problems experienced and measures taken

Service experiences
When serious corrosion damages have occurred, it is usually due to unforeseen changes of the
fuel composition or of other service conditions. Such damage occurred for example in a
Swedish waste incineration plant. It had been in service for 12 years without any corrosion
problem of importance when the condenser suddenly broke down due to pitting corrosion in the
tubes of high alloy stainless steel. The likely reason for the damage was an occasional change
of the fuel. A typical scenario at dramatic damages is, according to suppliers of cleaning
systems, that a truckload of PVC plastic has been dumped in the waste by accident. This may
lead to a very high concentration of HCl in the flue gas and its condensate.

3.1.2 Task 1b) Constructional development and variants including spray towers,
quenchers, scrubbers, gas coolers, condensers, re-heaters, stacks, etc.

The flue gas is normally mechanically cleaned before it enters the wet cleaning system. The
mechanical cleaning may also include lime addition to the gas. The wet cleaning normally starts
with water spraying in a quencher. The gas temperature is reduced rapidly in the quencher and
the heat is transferred to the resulting steam. The quencher may be designed in different ways
but it normally constitutes the entrance to a scrubber. The quencher has wet/dry zones with
strongly acidic condensate that makes the corrosion environment very severe.

44

Wet gas-cleaning systems may be constructed in very different ways, which means that the demand on
corrosion resistance of the materials is different among the plants. Principle outlines of three plants with
different construction are shown in the figures 1a c.

Figure 1a

Figure 1b.

Heat pump
Ca(OH)
2

Reheater
Stack
Condenser
Spray tower
Gas inlet 140
o
C
CaCO
3

Gas inlet 140
o
C Gas cooler 1
Gas cooler 2
Stack
Re-heater
Heat pump
Gas cooler 2
Heat pump
45

Figure 1c
Figure 1 a c. The figures show schematically three different designs of wet cleaning systems for waste
incineration plants.

Both tube- and plate heat exchangers are used for flue-gas condensation. One common location of the
heat exchanger seems to be in a condenser house where the water inside the heat exchanger cools the
moisture in the gas (figure 2). The gas is sprayed with water above the condenser inlet, for a rapid
approach of the condensation temperature of the gas. The water spraying has also a washing effect on
the condenser surfaces, which decreases the corrosion risk
The most corrosive part of this type of condenser is in the inlet region and at the upper part of the heat
exchanger where the condensate is more concentrated than in lower parts. For that reason the inlet
region often has material with higher corrosion resistance than in the rest of the condenser. The upper
tube plate of tube condensers is consequently often made of more resistant material than the tubes and
the lower tube plate. This type of condenser is used in the systems shown in the figures 1a and 1b.

Another type of condenser is the scrubber condenser (figure 3). In these condensers water is sprayed to
saturation into the flue gas. The water and flue gas passes each other in opposite direction through
packing in the scrubber. The condensate is collected in a tank at the bottom of the condenser from where
it is led to a separate plate heat exchanger to be cooled by water. This type of condenser is used in the
system shown in figure 1c.

Stack
Heat pump
Heat exchanger
Gas inlet
Quencher
Scrubber
Condenser
Fresh
Water
Reheater
46

Flue gas inlet

Water outlet Spray water

Water inlet Flue gas outlet

Condensate outlet

Figure 2. Principle outline of a tube- or plate condenser

Flue gas outlet

Spray water

Flue gas inlet Heat exchanger

Condensate outlet
Figure 3. Principle outline of a scrubber condenser

Plants for waste incineration have often scrubbers in a series to clean the gas before the entrance of the
condensation step.

One of the things that differ in the wet cleaning systems in figure 1a to 1c is the location of the
quencher. The system in 1c has a separate quencher while in 1a the quenching takes place in the inlet of
a spray tower. In figure 1b the raw-gas is led directly into and quenched in the top of a cooler. In all
cases the corrosion conditions are very severe in quench-zone. Concerning the condensers, the inlet of
gas cooler 1 in figure 1b is exposed to the by far worst conditions.

47

3.1.3.Task 1c) Material used in flue gas condensation plants

Information from plant owners
In a Swedish study, which is at present subject to publishing by Vrmeforsk (1), an inventory was made
concerning suggested and used materials in some 20 flue-gas condensation plants. The plants used bio-
fuel and bio-fuel combined with waste to varying degree.

In plants with only bio-fuel combustion stainless steel of the AISI 316 type is common in condenser
inlet, condenser, flue gas ducts after the condenser and in stacks. Higher alloyed steels, like 254 SMO
and 2205 occur however also at bio-fuel combustion in e.g. condenser inlet and upper tube plate of tube
condensers. Even Hastelloy 276 is found at the condenser inlet. Polymeric materials i.e. glass fibre
reinforced polyester (GRP) is sometimes used in the colder parts after the condenser, where both the flue
gas duct and stack may be lined with GRP. GRP is also found in scrubber condensers. The packing
pieces as well as other details in these condensers are frequently made of polypropylene (PP).

In plants with a mixture of bio-fuel and assorted waste there is a trend that the use of higher alloyed
steels increases with an increasing part of waste in the fuel. The condenser inlets may be made of 254
SMO, GRP (in scrubber condensers) or by lining with PTFE. The upper tube plate in tube condensers
may be made of 254 SMO. The separate plate heat exchanger in scrubber condensers has been made of
Ti in some cases in plants for waste incineration. The latter is presumably valid for fuels, which do not
contain substantial amounts of fluorine. Otherwise the corrosion resistance of Ti should be questioned.
GRP is common in the gas duct after the condenser and in the stack. Drop separators and packing pieces
in scrubber condensers are often made of PP.

Information from suppliers

In the report (1), four suppliers of flue gas condensation plants have suggested materials for different
components in the plants. A common reaction from the suppliers is that the choice of material can not be
made only based on the type of fuel to be used. They want, if possible, to have more detailed
information on the fuel and flue gas composition and on parameters like moisture, temperature etc.

For plants using bio-fuel mixed with assorted waste the choice of material will be more complicated if
the waste contains used wood. Some of the suppliers then suggested 2205 for heat exchangers, the flue
gas duct after the condenser and in the stack. For the gas inlet to the condenser 2205 or 254 SMO were
suggested.

For plants in which domestic waste is the only fuel the suppliers recommended 2205 or 254 SMO for
the condensers. For separate heat exchangers in scrubber condensers Ti has been recommended in some
cases. GRP was recommended for most of the other parts of the plant were the temperature permits this
choice.

3.1.4. Task 1d) Composition of flue gases including oxygen content

SIMR has compared data from analyses of condensates taken in task 2 c with published data
from waste incineration plants in several countries.
Measurements in Plant A

Logged environmental parameters were obtained from Plant A, which is shown schematically in Figure
1. All the gas analyses were taken after the fabric filter but before the wet cleaning.

48

Figure 4. Schematic construction of flue gas cleaning system in Plant A

The gas analyses are shown in Figure , and each diagrams corresponds to a 24-hour period in which
condensate collection was performed, as described in the next section. The analyses showed appreciable
variation in the levels of corrosive species: for example the minimum recorded HCl level was 7.1
mg/nm
3
and the maximum level 85.4 mg/nm
3
. Particularly during Day 3 there was a significant shift in
the level of all measured gas species which most probably correlates to variations in the combustion
load.

In table 1 the analyses are compared with a published data compilation from waste incineration plants in
several countries. This compilation actually includes information from Hgdalen, which is the location
of Plant A in the current investigation. The levels of oxygen and water vapour measured in Plant A are
very similar to the other plants. However, the amounts of corrodent species such as HCl, SO
2
and NO
x

are appreciably lower in the Plant A analyses, possibly reflecting the improvements in technology which
have been implemented since the early 1990s when the literature data was collected.
49

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (h) 28/5/2002
L
e
v
e
l
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (h) 4/6/2002
L
e
v
e
l

Pre-trials 28/05/2002

Day 1: 04/06/2002 (Analyses 1-5)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (h) 24/6/2002
L
e
v
e
l
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (h) 25/4/2003
L
e
v
e
l

Day 2: 24/6/2002 (Analyses 6-8) Day 3 25/4/2003 (Analyses 22-23)

Figure 5. Analysed gas compositions from Plant A
after the particle filter, for the days on which
condensation collection was performed.

HCl (mg/nm3)
SO2 (mg/nm3)
NO (mg/nm3)
NO2 (mg/nm3)
NH3 (mg/nm3)
O2 (%)
H2O (%)
CO (ppm)

50

Table 11. Compilation of gas analyses from waste incineration plants from ref.
1
. Also included is data
from Plant A (one of several located in Hgdalen) in the current investigation.

Ober-
hausen
Japan Autriche Akron Harris-
burg
Miami Hgdalen Plant A
Ref
2

3

4

5

6

This
work
N
2

%
- - - - - - - - - - -
O
2

%
- 10.4-10.7 7.8-8 7.9-9 10.1-11.6 13 9 9.9 9.0 9.5 5.7-9.9 8-9.2
CO
2

%
- 8.6-10.4 11-
12.2
10.9-12.3 8.9-9.5 - 13 9.0 7.5 8.4 9.5-13.9 -
H
2
O
%
- 17.4-18 17.9-
21
19.5-21 16.6-17.7 - - 14.2 8.8 10.5 - 14.6-
17.5
HCl
ppm
399 798-1300 600-
690
1060-
1250
422-641 260 690 284 485 374 455-680 6-66
SO
2

ppm
87 26-65 13 19 <0.01 150 500 116 135 107 38-71 8-42
NO
x
ppm
- - - - - - - - - - 189-225 8-52
CO
ppm
- 15-56 1-2 - 100-123 25 20 <20 30 10 22-68 3-42
HF - - - - - - - - - - 3-9.3 -


3.2.1 2a) Coverage of new information that may be available during the project time

In this task new information from work about the system HCl and H
2
O was brought into the project
from work performed in a separate project and publication. This information was used in the laboratory
condensation part of the project.

3.2. 2b) Condensate conditions
Gas condensation studies have been performed in three waste incineration plants (A, B and C
respectively). The fuel in plant A is entirely domestic waste. Plant B uses a mixture of domestic waste
and assorted other waste e.g. from the building industry. The composition of the mixture may vary to
some extent in this plant. In plant C a mixture of domestic waste and assorted other waste is used. The
composition of the mixture is reported to be constant in plant C but some variation might be expected.

The gas condensation investigations in the plants have been performed by determination of the flue gas
temperature and the dew point temperature using an electrochemical condensation probe and by
precipitation of condensate in a gas cooler. All measurements were made in untreated flue gas i.e. before
the entrance to the cleaning systems.

The condensation probe is cooled with compressed air and is provided with a device for measurement of
its skin temperature. The probe is very sensitive and reacts on an extremely small amount of moisture on
its surface. It is thus possible to register the material temperature at which condensation starts on the
probe. The measurements were made with the probe located in the flue gas duct. Since the three plants
are not equal, special fittings were produced for each plant for connection of the probe. A schematic
sketch of the condensation probe is shown in figure 4.

For determination of the dew point temperature the probe may be inserted in the flue gas duct either cold
or preheated to a temperature well above the highest condensation temperature. In the first case
condensation is indicated instantly but when the increasing temperature passes the dew point this
indication disappears. With the preheated probe, the skin temperature is decreased slowly by the air-
cooling and the dew point temperature is registered when condensation is indicated. Both methods
appeared to be useful but the use of preheated probe was preferred since the time when the probe is
exposed to the corrosive condensate may be kept shorter. The flue gas temperature was determined by
51

letting the probe temperature increase to it. The gas- and dew point temperatures were measured
repeatedly and appeared to be almost constant at each occasion. Results from measurements in the plants
A, B and C are shown in table 1. The plant A was run with partial load at one occasion. This is reflected
by the results in table 1, which show that the gas temperature and the indicated dew point were lower at
partial load than at full load in plant A.

Dew point
detector
Electrochemical
probe
Cooling air inlet
Skin temperature
meter

Figure 6. Schematic sketch of equipment for electrochemical determination of flue gas dew point

The indicated dew point temperatures in table 1 are, particularly in plant A and at some measurements in
plant C, much higher than expected. The first 3 tests in plant C were carried out with gas from a duct,
which was located before the gas entrance to the economiser. The temperature of the gas was therefore
considerably higher than in the other cases. The tests in plant C were continued with gas from a duct
after the economiser where the temperature is on the same level as in the gas extracted in the other
plants i.e. approximately 140
o
C. It is apparent in table 1 that the indicated dew point temperatures in
plant C were considerably higher in gas with 250
o
C than in gas with 140
o
C. In gas with the lower
temperature in plant C, the indicated dew points were at a level, which may be expected for hydrochloric
acid condensation. According to experience at manufacturers of cleaning systems it is not known that
hydrochloric acid would condensate at such high temperatures as in the interval 79 91
o
C in
incineration plants. Despite that, condensation in this interval was indicated in 13 cases in the plants A
and C. Sulphuric acid would be able to condensate at the temperatures in question but H
2
SO
4

condensation is according to suppliers, not know to take place with the fuel used in these plants.
Consequently the finding of the high dew point temperatures has been surprising. One attempt to
explanation is so far, that NH
4
Cl might be condensed on the dew point detector probe and thus
indicating a false acid dew point. The NH
4
Cl would in that case originate from ammonia, which is
introduced for NO
x
reduction in the flue gas in the incineration plants. The condensation of NH
4
Cl has
however not yet been verified and the likelihood of it is weakened by the condition that the ammonia
content in the flue gas is supposed to be very low. The assumption that a liquid, and not any electrically
conductive solid matter, is responsible of the registered high temperatures is supported by the fact that
the dew point indication disappears when the temperature of the probe is increased above the indicated
dew point.

3.2.3 2c) Condensate composition in waste incineration plants

For the condensation the flue gas was extracted from the gas duct and led through a cooler. A schematic
sketch of the cooling device is shown in figure 5. All parts of the cooler, which may have contact with
condensate, are constructed of PTFE. The cooling is made with hot air with continuously adjustable
temperature. The temperature inside the cooler is measured on four locations of which the last one is in
the container where the condensate is collected. The condensate collector inside the cooler is provided
with platinum electrodes for detection of the presence of condensate.

52

Figure 7. Schematic sketch of the flue gas cooler

The gas leaving the cooler is led through a separate container outside the cooler where additional
condensation takes place at comparatively low temperature. The temperature of the container wall is
registered but it can not be controlled. The condensate, which is collected in this container, is here called
exit tube condensate.

Before the gas pump is connected to the flue gas duct the cooler and connecting pipes are preheated to a
temperature above the dew point to avoid uncontrolled condensation. After that the extraction of gas
starts and the cooler temperature is decreased to the desired value.

It appeared that it was not possible to produce a condensate at temperatures just below the dew point,
which was indicated by the condensation probe. Obviously the very sensitive probe registered a dew
point where the amount of liquid was negligible. In plant A, the highest temperature where a condensate
could be precipitated and collected was 68
o
C. In the plants B and C the corresponding temperature was
55
o
C. As the fuel composition may vary to some extent in the plants, it is likely that the dew point
temperature and condensate composition also may vary. At the time of the investigation in plant B the
water content in the fuel was, according to the plant staff, expected to be comparatively low. In
accordance with that the time needed to obtain a sufficient volume of condensate was comparatively
long at 55
o
C. The condensate precipitation work has resulted in 25 samples from the plants A, B and C
(table 1). Chemical analyses of these samples have been performed by SIMR.

The condensate precipitation in plant C was carried out with gas having the start temperatures 250
o
C
and 142
o
C respectively. No correlation was found however between the original gas temperature and
the highest possible temperature for a condensate precipitation.

For the first analyses of anions in the extracted condensates, the samples required in some cases
a considerable dilution to obtain the necessary volume for analysis. This dilution increased the
lower detection limit of the anionic species. It was therefore concluded that the chemical
Condensate
detector
t
o
C
t
o
C
t
o
C
t
o
C
Cooling air inlet

Flue gas duct
Exit condensate
Pump
Cooler
Condensate

53

analyses of anions should be completed with additional samples from plant A to improve the
basis for the choice of condensate compositions to be used in the laboratory testing.
Table 12. Measurements and gas condensation in the three Swedish plants

Measurement
Date Plant
Flue gas
temperature
o
C
Dew point
indication
o
C
Condensation
temp.
o
C
Condensation
location
1
28/05/-02
A
140
3)
79
-

-
2
04/06/-02
A
145
4)
90
68 C
2)

Condenser
3
04/06/-02
A
145
4)
90
63 C
2)

Condenser
4
04/06/-02
A
145
4)
90
40
o
C
Exit tube
1

5
04/06/-02
A
145
4)
90
40 C
Exit tube
1

6
04/06/-02
A
145
4)
90
40 C
Exit tube
1

7
24/06/-02
A
145
4)
91
40 C
Exit tube
1
24
7)

25/04/03
A
145
4)

54
o
C
Condenser
8
24/06/-02
A
145
4)
91
58 C
Condenser
9
24/06/-02
A
145
4)
91
58 C
Condenser
25
7)

28/4/-03
A
145
4)

37
o
C
Exit tube
1

10
27/06/-02
B
- 67
35 C
Exit tube
1
11
26/06/-02
B
133 67
35 C
Exit tube
1
12
26/06/-02
B
133 67
35 C
Exit tube
1
13
26/06/-02
B
133 67
55 C
Condenser
14
05/07/-02
C
~250
5)
87
-
-
15
19/09/-02
C
~250
5)
80
45
o
C
Condenser
16
19/09/-02
C
~250
5)
80
30 C
Exit tube
1

17
19/09/-02
C
~250
5)
80
30 C
Exit tube
1

18
03/10/-02
C
142
6)
66
55
o
C
Condenser
19
03/10/-02
C
142
6)
66
30 C
Exit tube
1

20
08/10/-02
C
-
6)
61
55 C
Condenser
21
08/10/-02
C
-
6)
61
45 C
Condenser
22
08/10/-02
C
-
6)
61
27 C
Exit tube
1

23
08/10/-02
C
-
6)
61
27 C
Exit tube
1

1)
Condensation obtained from a vessel at the exit of the condenser, giving a less well-defined condensation
temperature.
2)
Correction of +18C applied to obtain gas temperature from measured cooling air temperature
3)
Partial load
4)
Full load
5)
Measurement before economiser
6)
Measurement after economiser
7)
Measurement after reconstruction of cooler

For this purpose, the cooler for flue gas condensation was reconstructed to enable the production of
larger condensate volumes. The new condensates were extracted at the same location as used before in
plant A. The condensation temperatures were 37
o
C and 54
o
C respectively.

Condensate was obtained from three waste incineration plants using a cooled probe, described in detail
in the technical annex from Korrosionsinstitutet. Details of the condensation conditions are given in
Table 1. The condensate was analysed in terms of pH, metal ion content and anion content by SIMR.

The metal ion contents were analysed using ICP-TOFMS (Inductively Coupled Plasma Time Of Flight
Mass Spectrometry), commonly denoted plasma mass spectroscopy. Quantification was made for metal
ions which showed a significant signal in the first qualitative inspection, and included Al, Ba, Bi, Co,
Cr, Cu (analyses 13-23 only), Fe, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Sn, Sr, Ti, Zn, Hg, La, Mo, Tl, U, V, W, Zr.
Ion chromatography was employed for the anion analyses for Br
-
, Cl
-
, F
-
, NO
3
-
NO
2
-
, SO
4
2-
and SO
3
-
)
and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) for Si (analyses 16, 22 and 23 only).

54

Because of the small amount of condensate available, these were diluted up to 500 times prior to anion
analysis. This resulted in different lower detection limits for the different samples.

Table 13 Location and condensation temperature of analysed samples
Sample Plant Date Position Temperature
23 A 25/04/2003 Exit tube
1
37C
3 A 04/06/2002 Exit tube
1
40C
4 A 04/06/2002 Exit tube
1
40C
5 A 04/06/2002 Exit tube
1
40C
6 A 24/06/2002 Exit tube
1
40C
22 A 25/04/2003 Condensor 54C
7 A 24/06/2002 Condensor 58C
8 A 24/06/2002 Condensor 58C
2 A 04/06/2002 Condensor 63C
2

1 A 04/06/2002 Condensor 68C
2

9 B 27/06/2002 Exit tube
1
35C
10 B 26/06/2002 Exit tube
1
35C
11 B 26/06/2002 Exit tube
1
35C
12 B 26/06/2002 Condensor 55C

20 C 08/10/2002 Exit tube
1
27C
21 C 08/10/2002 Exit tube
1
27C
14 C 19/09/2002 Exit tube
1
30C
15 C 19/09/2002 Exit tube
1
30C
17 C 03/10/2002 Exit tube
1
30C
19 C 08/10/2002 Condensor 45C
13 C 19/09/2002 Condensor 45C
16 C 03/10/2002 Condensor 55C
18 C 08/10/2002 Condensor 55C
1
Condensation obtained from the exit tube of the condensor, giving a less well-defined
condensation temperature.
2
Correction of +18C applied to obtain gas temperature from measured air temperature

The most significant species present are listed in Table 4 and of these, the most dominant are plotted in
Figure 8.

55

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
A
-
3
7
C
A
-
4
0
C
A
-
4
0
C
A
-
4
0
C
A
-
4
0
C
A
-
5
4
C
A
-
5
8
C
A
-
5
8
C
A
-
6
3
C
A
-
6
8
C
B
-
3
5
C
B
-
3
5
C
B
-
3
5
C
B
-
5
5
C
C
-
2
7
C
C
-
2
7
C
C
-
3
0
C
C
-
3
0
C
C
-
3
0
C
C
-
4
5
C
C
-
4
5
C
C
-
5
5
C
C
-
5
5
C
Specimen
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

[
g
/
l
]
Cl-
SO4--
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
A
-
3
7
C
A
-
4
0
C
A
-
4
0
C
A
-
4
0
C
A
-
4
0
C
A
-
5
4
C
A
-
5
8
C
A
-
5
8
C
A
-
6
3
C
A
-
6
8
C
B
-
3
5
C
B
-
3
5
C
B
-
3
5
C
B
-
5
5
C
C
-
2
7
C
C
-
2
7
C
C
-
3
0
C
C
-
3
0
C
C
-
3
0
C
C
-
4
5
C
C
-
4
5
C
C
-
5
5
C
C
-
5
5
C
Specimen
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

[
m
g
/
l
]
Al
Na
Fe
Zn
Cu

Figure 8. Dominant anionic and cationic species present in the condensate analyses from plants
A, B and C.

56

T
a
b
l
e

1
4
.

R
e
s
u
l
t
s

o
f

c
o
n
d
e
n
s
a
t
e

a
n
a
l
y
s
e
s
,

s
h
o
w
i
n
g

t
h
e

m
o
s
t

s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t

s
p
e
c
i
e
s

p
r
e
s
e
n
t

S
a
m
p
l
e
:

2
3

5

4

6

3

2
2

7

8

2

1

9

1
0

1
1

1
2

2
0

2
1

1
4

1
5

1
7

1
3

1
9

1
6

1
8

P
l
a
n
t
-
T

A
-
3
7
C

A
-
4
0
C

A
-
4
0
C

A
-
4
0
C

A
-
4
0
C
A
-
5
4
C
A
-
5
8
C
A
-
5
8
C
A
-
6
3
C
A
-
6
8
C

B
-
3
5
C
B
-
3
5
C

B
-
3
5
C
B
-
5
5
C
C
-
2
7
C
C
-
2
7
C
C
-
3
0
C

C
-
3
0
C
C
-
3
0
C
C
-
4
5
C
C
-
4
5
C
C
-
5
5
C

C
-
5
5
C

p
H

2
.
0
4

1
.
5
1

1
.
6
9

1
.
5
9

1
.
3
1

0
.
4
2

0
.
5
9

0
.
8
9

0
.
4
4

0
.
1

1
.
6

1
.
5
4

1
.
3
5

0
.
0
8

1
.
6
9

1
.
5

1
.
6
4

1
.
0
3

1
.
7
5

0
.
4
7

0
.
5
5

0
.
6
4

-
0
.
2
3

A
l

m
g
/
l

1
0

1
2
8

7
3

7
6
.
8

1
9
6

1
0
8

7
1
8

4
4
4

2
8
2

8
1
4

8
.
5

9
.
4

6
0
.
6

1
3
6
5

6
0

1
0
4

7
2

8
3

8
9

2
1
8

9
6
1

1
1
0
0

2
3
0
0

B
a

m
g
/
l

0
.
0
4
5

0
.
1
5

0
.
1
7

0
.
1
5
6

0
.
4
4

0
.
7
8
6

2
.
1
2
8

1
.
2
0
8

1
.
2
2

1
.
6
6

0
.
0
6
2

0
.
0
8
6

0
.
2
3
4

3
.
2
3
4

0
.
0
1
3

0
.
0
1
3

0
.
1
3
6

0
.
0
1

0
.
0
6
1

0
.
5
6

0
.
0
7
7

0
.
6
5
7

0
.
4
4

B
i

m
g
/
l

0
.
0
5

0
.
0
0
3

0
.
0
0
4

0
.
0
4
9

0
.
0
0
2

0
.
3
5
1

1
.
7
1

1
.
2
4
9

0
.
8
9
5

3
.
0
4
1

0
.
0
1
9

0
.
0
2

0
.
1
4
3

3
.
2
3
9

0
.
0
0
3

0
.
0
0
2

0
.
0
1
4

<
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
2
2

0
.
3
2
1

0
.
0
7
4

0
.
3
9
5

2
.
1

C
d

m
g
/
l

0
.
0
8
6

0
.
0
0
2

0
.
0
0
1

0
.
0
0
6

0
.
0
0
2

1
.
7
7

3
.
9
4
3

3
.
4
4
3

0
.
0
4
1

5
.
7
2
5

0
.
0
0
1

0
.
0
0
1

0
.
0
0
8

7
.
0
1
5

0
.
0
4

0
.
1
5
3

1
.
2
1

0
.
2
0
1

0
.
4
3
4

1
.
2
6

1
.
1
3

5
.
6
2

1
0
.
3

C
o

m
g
/
l

0
.
0
1
1

0
.
0
3

0
.
0
1

0
.
0
3
4

0
.
0
2
9

1
.
0
6
3

0
.
2
5
9

0
.
1
8
3

0
.
1
2
5

0
.
4
3

0
.
0
0
3

0
.
0
0
1

0
.
0
1
8

0
.
5
2
3

0
.
0
1
6

0
.
0
8
8

0
.
0
8
4

0
.
0
4
1

0
.
2
6
7

1
.
0
1
5

1
.
0
4
6

2
.
4
9

7
.
0
8

C
r

m
g
/
l

0
.
1
3

0
.
0
0
3

0
.
0
0
1

0
.
4
0
6

0
.
0
0
2

7
7
.
9

3
.
3
4
8

1
.
7
8
2

2
.
0
3
6

9
.
6
3
4

0
.
0
0
1

0
.
0
0
1

0
.
0
0
6

6
.
0
6
9

0
.
3
4
7

0
.
8
2
7

2
.
7
6

3

0
.
6
3
5

3
9
.
4

6
.
1
3

2
4
.
2

8
6
.
6

C
u

m
g
/
l

1

-

-

-

-

1
4
.
5

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

4
.
7
2

1
4

6
.
6

2
.
6
6

5
4
.
3

3
5

1
1
9

1
3
7

5
7
9

F
e

m
g
/
l

2
.
6

<

0
.
1

0
.
5

4
.
8

6
.
6

2
6
9

7
4
.
1

4
9
.
8

2
4
.
9

1
2
2
.
5

<

0
.
1

<

0
.
1

1
.
9

1
6
4

8
.
8

1
6
.
7

1
3
.
3

5
.
9

4
6
.
8

6
6
2

5
5
5

5
8
1

3
6
0
0

L
i

m
g
/
l

0
.
0
9
8

0
.
0
2
1

0
.
0
1
6

0
.
0
5
1

0
.
0
3
7

0
.
3
4
6

0
.
4
7
5

0
.
4
0
3

0
.
4
1
1

0
.
8
6
4

0
.
0
1
5

0
.
0
1
1

0
.
0
6
6

0
.
8
6
2

0
.
0
0
2

0
.
0
0
9

0
.
3
9

0
.
0
1
9

0
.
0
1
8

0
.
1
1
3

0
.
0
6
6

0
.
3
9
8

0
.
7
3
6

M
g

m
g
/
l

1

4
.
1

5
.
6

3
.
2

1
4
.
2

1
3
.
3

2
0
.
5

1
4
.
6

1
2

1
9
.
6

0
.
7

0
.
7

2
.
2

4
0
.
5

0
.
3
3

0
.
9
6

6
.
3

1
.
4

1
.
1

6
.
2

5
.
9

1
9
.
2

4
5
.
5

M
n

m
g
/
l

0
.
0
6
8

2
.
1

0
.
6

0
.
5

0
.
8

1
0
.
2

4
.
1

2
.
9

1
.
7

5
.
1

0
.
0
0
5

0
.
0
0
2

0
.
3

7
.
5

0
.
3
1

1
.
3

5
.
1

0
.
8
1

1
.
8

8
.
1

1
2
.
6

3
6
.
2

8
9
.
6

N
a

m
g
/
l

3
9

1
5
0

1
1
2

3
6
7

2
0
5

7
6
4

1
4
7
7

1
4
6
6

1
6
3
5

1
8
1
0

5
5

6
1

4
0
7

3
2
0
5

2
.
7

1
2

2
7
8

5
3

2
5

1
8
2

1
2
2

8
6
2

1
2
9
2

N
i

m
g
/
l

0
.
1
8
1

5
.
5
4
3

0
.
0
0
6

0
.
8
6
8

0
.
7
3
1

5
6
.
6

4
.
8
3
9

2
.
8
9

1
.
5
6
5

1
1
.
4

0
.
0
0
2

0
.
0
0
2

0
.
0
1

6
.
2
5
3

1
.
1

4
.
9

6
.
7

3
.
9

1
6
.
7

5
4
.
1

5
1

1
3
9

3
4
7

P
b

m
g
/
l

3
.
2

0
.
2
5
8

0
.
3
9
1

3
.
1

0
.
1
8
2

2
0
.
9

5
6
.
6

5
0
.
8

4
0
.
9

7
7
.
3

1
.
1

1
.
1

7
.
4

1
1
7

0
.
3
3

0
.
2
8
2

1
.
3

0
.
1
0
7

2

1
3
.
6

8

2
7

7
9
.
5

S
i

m
g
/
l

5

-

-

-

-

3
3

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1
5
5

-

S
n

m
g
/
l

0
.
0
2
6

<
0
.
0
0
1

<
0
.
0
0
1

0
.
0
0
2

<
0
.
0
0
1
6
.
2

2
.
3

1
.
8

5
.
7

1
0
.
7

<
0
.
0
0
1
<
0
.
0
0
1

<
0
.
0
0
1
2
2
.
8

0
.
0
5
3

0
.
0
0
2

0
.
6

0
.
0
0
3

0
.
2
1
5

1
.
3
8
9

0
.
0
3
2

6
.
2
5

2
0
.
4

S
r

m
g
/
l

0
.
0
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57

T
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1
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2

58

The main trends observed from the condensate analyses were the following:

- The dominant anion was chloride and the concentration increased at higher condensate
temperatures. The maximum measured level (from Plant C) was 64g/l (1.8M). The condensate is
thus primarily hydrochloric acid. This is also illustrated in Figure , where the analysis results have
been recalculated as molar concentrations.
- The condensate became increasingly acidic (lower pH) at higher condensation temperatures, Figure
0(a). The lowest pH values measured in the three plants were 0.10, 0.08 and 0.23 respectively,
which corresponds to hydrogen ion concentrations of between 0.8 and 1.7M..
- The dominant metallic ions (Fig 5-6) in the condensate from Plant A were sodium (max. 1.8g/l) and
aluminium (max. 0.8g/l). The corresponding figures for Plant B were 3.2 and 1.4g/l respectively.
Plant C condensate was characterised by higher levels of iron (max. 3.6g/l) and zinc (2.4g/l) in
addition to Al (2.3g/l) and Na (1.3g/l).
- Using assumed oxidation states of 1 for Na, 2 for Fe, Zn, Cu and Pb and 3 for Al, the majority of
the condensates yield approximate electroneutrality, indicating that no major species have been
omitted.
- The maximum measured sulphate ion concentration was 17g/l (from Plant A). The
sulphate/chloride ratio was generally higher for Plant A, which was fuelled only with domestic
waste, than for the other two plants, which used combination of fuels
- Other anions were often close to or below the detection limits. The following maximum levels were
measured:
- Nitrate (NO
3
-
): Max. values of 60, <50 or 210mg/l for plants A, B and C respectively.
- Bromide (Br
-
): Max.values of 800, <500 and 850mg/l for plants A, B and C respectively
- Fluoride (F
-
): below detection limits i.e. <1, <5, <10 or <50mg/l depending on the dilution
employed except in one case, where 19mg/l was recorded.
- Sulphite (SO
3
2-
): below detection limits i.e. <0.02, <0.1, <0.2 or <1 g/l depending on the dilution
employed

Figure shows a summary of the analysis data for all three plants, expressed in terms of the molar
concentrations of hydrogen and chloride ions. For each plant there is a clear trend that the aggressivity
of the condensate increases with increasing temperature. The conditions are consistently milder in Plant
A, which uses only domestic waste. The thick lines show the temperatures of first condensation which
were measured by Korrosionsinstitutet using a dewpoint probe. Assuming that the first condensed phase
is also hydrochloric acid, these represent the limits to which it is relevant to extrapolate the analysis
data i.e. they give an indication of the worst case which is likely to arise in the plant.

Also included in figure 10(b) are the compositions of the synthetic condensates selected for laboratory
testing. The maximum levels of other species measured in the various plants are listed in Table 26 and
these were used a basis for selection of the complex synthetic condensate environments.

Table 16. Maximum levels of other analysed species in condensate from waste incineration plants
Plant A Plant B Plant C
Max temp. 68C 55C 55C
mg/l M mg/l M mg/l M
Sulphate, SO
4
2-
17 000 0.18 1 900 0.02 4 500 0.05
Nitrate, NO
3
-
60 0.001 <50 <0.001 210 0.003
Bromide, Br
-
800 0.01 <500 <0.006 850 0.01
Fluoride, F
-
19*, <50 0.001 <50 <0.003 <50 <0.003
Al 814 0.03 1365 0.05 2 300 0.09
Na 1 810 0.08 3 200 0.14 1 292 0.06
Fe 269 0.005 164 0.003 3 600 0.06
Zn 358 0.005 359 0.005 2 402 0.04
* Only value above detection limit for individual sample

59

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
A-37C A-40C A-40C A-40C A-40C A-54C A-58C A-58C A-63C A-68C
Specimen
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

[
M
]
H
Al
Na
Fe
Zn
Cl-
SO4=
Plant A

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
B-35C B-35C B-35C B-55C
Specimen
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

[
M
]
Plant B

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
C-27C C-27C C-30C C-30C C-30C C-45C C-45C C-55C C-55C
Specimen
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

[
M
]
Plant C

Figure 9. Summary of analyses for all three plants, expressed in terms of the molar concentrations of
the dominant species.

-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
20 30 40 50 60 70
Condensate temperature (C)
p
H
Plant A
Plant B
Plant C
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
20 40 60 80 100
Condensate temperature (C)
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
M
)
A (Cl-)
A (H+)
B (Cl-)
B (H+)
C (Cl-)
C (H+)
A
C
B
Figure 10. pH and molar concentrations of H+ and Cl- as a function of condensation temperature.
Thick lines show the range of maximum condensation temperatures for each plant. These represent
the limits to which it is relevant to extrapolate the analysis data. Circled crosses show the conditions
selected for laboratory tests in simulated condensate.

60

3.2.4 Wash liquor composition in waste incineration plants

Analyses of the wash liquor from three of the plants are given in table 5. Analyses 24-26 were
performed at SIMR using the same methods as for the condensate analyses. The larger amount of
solution available meant that less dilution was necessary for analysis and the detection limits were
correspondingly lower. Also included in the Table are data obtained directly from plants D and E. The
analyses are made as part of their routine follow-up.

For Plant B the wash liquor was somewhat less aggressive than the low temperature condensates from
the same plant and had a pH of 2 and a chloride concentration of 2.5g/l. For Plant E the wash liquor
from the tank at the base of the stack was already neutralised to a pH of 6-7 and the chloride level was
below 0.3g/l i.e. only very mildly corrosive solution.

However, for plant D the solution from the first HCl washer was more aggressive than any of the
condensates obtained from other plants. The pH of 0.8 corresponds to a hydrogen ion concentration in
excess of 6M and the chloride level of 80g/l corresponds to a 2.2M solution.

3.2.5 Correlation between gas and condensate analyses
Comparison with measured condensate compositions, (Figure 2), shows good correlation in that the
highest chloride levels were measured for Day 1, when the average HCl level in the gas was also the
highest of the three occasions, averaging 74 mg/nm
3
over the 24 hour period, compared to 65 and 28
mg/nm
3
for Day 2 and Day 3 respectively. However, caution must be exercised in performing such a
correlation since the levels can vary dramatically over a short period of time.
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0 20 40 60 80
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
M
)
H+ (Day1)
Cl- (Day1)
SO4= (Day1)
H+ (Day 2)
Cl- (Day2)
SO4= (Day2)
H+ (Day 3)
Cl- (Day3)
SO4= (Day3)


However, a comparison between the S/Cl measured in the gas and condensate phase, Figure 2, does not
show clear correspondence, rather the inverse. This suggests that other factors such as absolute levels,
gas flow effects or interactions may be of overriding importance.

61

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time /h)
S
O
2
/
H
C
l

(
u
n
i
t
s

m
g
/
n
m
3
)
Pretest
Day1
Day2
Day3
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0 20 40 60 80
S
O
4
=
/
C
l
-

(
u
n
i
t
s

m
g
/
l
)
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3

Figure 12. S/Cl ratios in the gas phase (left) and in the condensate (right) from Plant A. The sulphite
(SO
3
2-
) levels in the condensate were below measurable limits so only sulphate is included.
3.2.6 Predicted dewpoints

A widely-used tool to predict the dewpoints of flue gases are empirical relationships. A number of these
have been published, one fairly comprehensive collection by Kiang
vii
, recently cited by Huijbegts and
Leferink
viii
contains the following:

1000/ Td (SO
2
) = 3.9526 0.1863 ln(pH
2
O) + 0.000867 ln(pSO
2
) 0.00091 ln(pH
2
O)ln(pSO
2
)
1000/ Td (HNO
3
) = 3.6614 0.1446 ln(pH
2
O) 0.0827 ln(pHNO
3
) + 0.00756 ln (pH
2
O)ln(pHNO
3
)
1000/ Td (H
2
SO
4
) = 2.276 0.0294 ln(pH
2
O) 0.0858 ln(pH
2
SO
4
) + 0.0062 ln(pH
2
O)ln(pH2SO
4
)
1000/Td (HBr) = 3.5639 0.1350 ln (pH
2
O) 0.0396 ln (pHBr) + 0.00235 ln(pH
2
O)ln(pHBr)
1000/ Td (HCl) = 3.7368 0.1591 ln(pH
2
O) 0.0326 ln(pHCl) + 0.00269 ln(pH2O)ln(pHCl)
with Td in
o
K and pressures in mm Hg.

Using the above equations with typical gas compositions from Plant A of 30-60vppm HCl and 30-
60vppm SO2 yields the dewpoints in Table 3. The first measured dewpoint indication with the
condensation probe was in the range 79-91C in this plant. This is clearly much higher than the
expected condensation point of HCl or SO2/H2SO3, but could conceivably correspond to condensation
of H2SO4 from very low gaseous levels of SO
3
.

2
(or
H
2
SO
4
) as a function of water content.
% H
2
O HCl
30vppm
HCl
60vppm
SO
2
30vppm
SO
2
60vppm
H
2
SO
4
30vppm
H
2
SO
4
60vppm
12 50 51 46 47 150 157
16 55 57 52 52 153 160
20 59 61 56 57 155 162

Results of thermodynamic calculations in Figure indicate the same type of trends, and illustrate how
the presence of SO2 in the gas can give a much higher dewpoint than that predicted for HCl alone.

Figure 3 shows the predicted condensate composition for a simple Ar/O2/H2O/HCl-containing flue gas
and a comparison with the analyses from Plant A. From this it is apparent that HCl condensation in the
plant has occurred at higher temperatures than predicted for the simulated flue gas. It must thus be
concluded that the complex chemistry in the plant flue gas, possibly in conjunction with practical
aspects such as inhomogeneity, gas flow and fly ash condensation have contributed to cause earlier
condensation than predicted.
62

Initial composition 16%H
2
O, 9%O
2
, 60ppm HCl, balance Ar. Predicted dewpoint 55C.

Initial composition 16%H
2
O, 9%O
2
, 30ppm SO
2
, balance Ar.

Initial composition 16%H2O, 9%O2, 10%CO2, 60ppm HCl, 30ppm SO2, 30ppm NO, balance Ar.

Figure 13. Thermodynamic calculations of gas-condensate equilibria for different gases

63

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
30 40 50 60 70
Temperature (C)
H
C
l

(
M
)
12%HO
16%H2O
20%H2O
Measured
60ppm HCl
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
30 40 50 60 70
Temperature (C)
H
C
l

(
M
)
6ppm HCl
60ppm HCl
600ppm HCl
Measured
16%H2O

2
O and HCl levels in a flue gas
with 12-20%H
2
O, 9%O
2
indicates the dew point. Also included are measured points from Plant A.

3.3.1 3a). Screening test

Samples of variety of stainless steels and one nickel-base alloy have been obtained for corrosion testing
in the different tasks of the project. The designation, heat number and chemical composition of the
materials have been compiled in table 8. Filler materials and shielding gases used for welded tube
specimens and plate coupons of the different materials are compiled in table 9.

Table 18. The tested materials and their chemical composition
EN UNS Type Heat Form C Si Mn Fe P S Cr Ni Mo Nb Co W Cu N
1.4439 S31726 Austenitic A1065 plate 0.018 0.41 1.67 Bal. 0.025 <0.001 17.15 12.89 4.06 - 0.04 0.04 0.31 0.140
1.4563 N08028 Superaust. 454347 plate <0.020 0.46 1.58 Bal. <0,025 <0.015 26.69 30.61 3.28 - - - 0.93 0.06
1.4547 S31254 " 820707 plate 0.014 0.31 0.40 Bal. 0.020 0.001 20.10 17.96 6.06 0.09 0.09 - 0.63 0.219
1.4547 S31254 " 791533 tube 0.018 0.31 0.44 Bal. 0.022 0.001 19.80 17.87 6.03 - 0.13 - 0.71 0.204
1.4529 N08926 " A2560 plate 0.011 0.22 0.80 Bal. 0.018 <0.001 20.70 24.49 6.07 - 0.06 0.03 0.87 0.218
1.4652 S32654 " H4616 plate 0.014 0.24 3.37 Bal. 0.019 0.001 24.25 21.84 7.27 0.00 0.04 - 0.49 0.520
- S31266 " R0637 plate 0.016 0.18 2.97 Bal. 0.021 <0.001 24.12 22.61 5.59 - 0.06 1.99 1.61 0.463
1.4565 S34565 " C2469 plate 0.014 0.25 5.29 Bal. 0.025 <0.001 24.09 17.97 4.35 - 0.06 0.03 0.15 0.440
1.4462 S31803 Duplex C2101 plate 0.015 0.45 1.63 Bal. 0.027 <0.001 22.43 5.72 3.11 - 0,04 0.02 0.18 0.185
1.4462* S31803 Duplex 455403* plate <0.030 0.50 0.84 Bal. <0.030 <0.015 22.32 5.20 3.20 - - - 0.14 0.17
1.4410 S32750 Superduplex 453453 plate <0.03 0.28 0.50 Bal. <0,035 <0,015 25.31 7.06 3.92 - - - 0.20 0.26
1.4507 S32520 " A0305 plate 0.011 0.33 0.91 Bal. 0.017 <0.001 24.66 6.42 3.67 - 0.03 0.12 1.64 0.251
2.4819 N10276 Ni-base 35810
plate
0.004 0.04 0.5 5.7 0.006 0.004 16.0 57.6 16.2 - 0.2 3.3 - -
* Heat of 1.4462 used by Avesta for screening test, by SIMR for initial electrochemical investigations and by
Sandvik for laboratory condensation tests.
Materials Chemical composition, mass %
Standards

In order to rank the materials exposed in the corrosion tests in this project, with respect to their
resistance to pitting corrosion, the critical pitting corrosion temperature, CPT, was determined for the
different alloys. CPT was defined as the lowest temperature at which pitting corrosion occurred.
Material of the nickel base alloy Hastelloy C-276 was not available for the screening test why this alloy
was excluded in the test.

64

T
a
b
l
e

1
9
.

F
i
l
l
e
r

m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l

a
n
d

s
h
i
e
l
d
i
n
g

g
a
s

u
s
e
d

f
o
r

w
e
l
d
e
d

p
l
a
t
e

c
o
u
p
o
n
s

a
n
d

t
u
b
e

s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
s

T
a
b
l
e

2
.

F
i
l
l
e
r

m
a
t
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r
i
a
l
s

a
n
d

s
h
i
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l
d
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n
g

g
a
s

u
s
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d

f
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d
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p
l
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t
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c
o
u
p
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s

a
n
d

t
u
b
e

s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
s
.
F
i
l
l
e
r

H
e
a
t
S
h
i
e
l
d
i
n
g
E
N
U
N
S
m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
g
a
s
C
S
i
M
n
F
e
P
S
C
r
N
i
M
o
N
b
C
o
V
C
u
W
N
A
l
1
.
4
4
3
9
S
3
1
7
2
6
T
h
e
r
m
a
n
i
t

1
8
/
1
7

E
2
7
8
5
1
1
0
0
%

A
r
0
.
0
1
0
0
.
3
5
2
.
8
0
B
a
l
0
.
0
1
5
0
.
0
0
2
1
8
.
2
1
1
6
.
8
0

4
.
1
9
-
0
.
0
4
6
-

0
.
0
5
6
0
.
0
1
9
0
.
0
7
8
1
.
4
5
6
3
N
0
8
0
2
8
2
7
.
3
1
.
4
.
L
.
C
u
7
5
2
4
6
5
1
0
0
%

A
r
0
.
1
3

0
.
2
1
.
7
7
B
a
l
<
0
.
0
3
5
<
0
.
0
1
5
2
6
.
8
2
3
1
.
5

3
.
4
-
-
-

1
.
0
-

0
.
0
5
-
1
.
4
5
4
7

S
3
1
2
5
4
A
v
e
s
t
a

P

5
4
1
5
1
3
6
9
0
%
N
2
+
1
0
%

H
2

0
.
0
1
9
0
.
1
5
5
.
1
6
B
a
l

0
.
0
1
6

0
.
0
0
5
2
5
.
5
2

2
1
.
5
9

5
.
2
5
-
-
-

0
.
9
0
-

0
.
3
6
7
-
1
.
4
5
4
7

S
3
1
2
5
4
*
A
v
e
s
t
a

P
1
2
*
*
1
0
0
%

A
r
0
.
0
1

0
.
1
0
.
1
<
1
.
0
-
-
2
2
.
0
6
5
.
0

9
.
0

3
.
6
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
.
4
5
2
9
N
0
8
9
2
6
P
h
y
w
e
l
d

N
C
W
X
Y

0
1
9
1
0
0
%

A
r

0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
5
0
.
0
5
0
.
3
2

0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
2
2
1
.
9
3
B
a
l

9
.
9
3
-
0
.
0
1
1
-
-
2
.
9
8
0
.
0
4
4
-
1
.
4
6
5
2
S
3
2
6
5
4
A
v
e
s
t
a

P

1
6
1
3
2
3
0
9
0
%
N
2
+
1
0
%

H
2

0
.
0
1
7
0
.
0
8
0
.
0
6
-

0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
4
2
4
.
7
8
5
9
.
7
0

1
4
.
8
0

0
.
0
0
-
-
0
.
0
1
-
-
0
.
0
9
0
-
S
3
1
2
6
6
U
T
P

A

7
5
9
3
1
4
9
2
,

5
1
8
2
9
1
0
0
%

A
r

0
.
0
0
6
0
.
0
3
0
.
1
4
0
.
6
8

0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
2
2
2
.
5
0
6
0
.
7
0

1
5
.
3
0
-

0
.
0
3
-
0
.
0
5
-
-
-
1
.
4
5
6
5
S
3
4
5
6
5
P
h
y
w
e
l
d

N
C
W
X
Y

0
1
9
1
0
0
%

A
r

0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
5
0
.
0
5
0
.
3
2

0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
2
2
1
.
9
3
B
a
l

9
.
9
3
-
0
.
0
1
1
-
-
2
.
9
8
0
.
0
4
4
-
1
.
4
4
6
2
S
3
1
8
0
3
P
h
y
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l
d

N
C
W
X
Y

0
1
9
1
0
0
%

A
r

0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
5
0
.
0
5
0
.
3
2

0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
2
2
1
.
9
3
B
a
l

9
.
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3
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2
.
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8
0
.
0
4
4
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1
.
4
4
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0
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3
2
7
5
0
2
5
.
1
0
.
4
.
L
4
4
6
0
8
5
9
8
%

A
r
+
2
%
N
2
0
.
1
3
0
.
2
7
0
.
4
9
B
a
l
<
0
.
0
2
5
<

0
.
0
1
5
2
5
.
2
9

6
.
4
8

3
.
9
4
-
-
-
0
.
0
1
-

0
.
2
8
4
-
1
.
4
5
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7
S
3
2
5
2
0
P
h
y
w
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l
d

N
C
W
X
Y

0
1
9
1
0
0
%

A
r

0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
5
0
.
0
5
0
.
3
2

0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
2
2
1
.
9
3
B
a
l

9
.
9
3
-
0
.
0
1
1
-
-
2
.
9
8
0
.
0
4
4
-
2
.
4
6
0
7
N
1
0
2
7
6
N
i
c
r
o
f
e
r

S

5
9
2
3
3
5
3
3
4
9
8
%

A
r
+
2
%
H
2
<
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
5
0
.
4
5
<
1
0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
2
0
2
2
.
8
5
B
a
l

1
5
.
4
5
0
.
0
1
0
0
.
0
3
0
.
1
6
0
.
0
1
-
-
0
.
1
6
0

*

T
u
b
e
.

*
*

T
y
p
i
c
a
l

v
a
l
u
e
s
W
e
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d
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d

m
a
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s
C
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c
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p
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n

o
f

f
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r

m
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t
e
r
i
a
l
s
,

m
a
s
s

%
65

3.3.2 Test procedure

The critical pitting corrosion temperature was determined according to ASTM G150 [1], using the
Avesta Cell. See Figure . Two different electrolytes were used, 1M NaCl and 3M NaBr. As the CPT-
value for several alloys, obtained in 1 M NaCl, exceeded the maximum testing temperature, the more
corrosive 3M NaBr solution was used to make it possible to include also these alloys in the ranking.

The test started at a solution temperature of 0C and
with the test specimen polarised to a potential of
+700 mV
SCE
. The current density of the specimen
was measured while the solution temperature was
increased with 1C/minute.
The CPT value was defined as the temperature
where the current density exceeded 100 mA/cm
2
.

Duplicate samples of each grade were wet ground to
320-grit. One side of the specimen was tested.

If the CPT values for the duplicate specimens varied
with more than 5C, additional measurements were
performed.

For alloys showing CPT values lower than 70C
when using the 3M NaBr electrolyte, further
measurements were performed in 1M NaCl.

Fig 1
Figure 15: The Avesta Cell.

Results

The CPT values obtained in 3M NaBr are presented in table 10. Average values were calculated
(outliers in italics excluded) and are presented in figure16. Corresponding CPT values obtained in 1M
NaCl are shown in table 11 and in figure 17.

The following ranking was obtained in 3M NaBr with the least resistant grade presented first:
1.4439<1.4563<1.4462<1.4547<1.4529<1.4507<1.4410<1.4565<1.4659<1.4652

In 1M NaCl the following ranking was obtained:
1.4439<1.4462<1.4563<1.4507.

The alloys 1.4565, 1.4529, 1.4410 and 1.4547 all exceeded the maximum measurable temperature in
1M NaCl. The alloys 1.4652 and 1.4659 were excluded due to their high resistance to pitting corrosion.

Results obtained in 3M NaBr showed lower values than those obtained in 1M NaCl. As NaBr is a more
aggressive solution it is used for testing high alloyed grades with high resistance to pitting corrosion.

There were differences in the ranking of the grades in the different electrolytes. One reason to this
might have been the influence of different alloying elements and microstructure of the alloys. One
should also keep in mind that only specimens from one heat of each grade was tested and that two of
the heats (1.4410 and 1.4563) were test heats specially produced for this project.

66

Table 20: CPT values according to ASTM G150 obtained in 3M NaBr.
Test surfaces wet ground to 320 grit.
EN Commercial Heat No. Producer CPT (C)
1.4439 317LMN A1065 Usinor Industeel 3.3
1.4563 Sanicro 28 454347 AB Sandvik Steel 7.6
1.4547 254 SMO 820707 Outokumpu Stainless AB 32.2
1.4547 254 SMO 820707 Outokumpu Stainless AB 32.7
1.4529 Uranus B26 A2560 Usinor Industeel 35.6
1.4529 Uranus B26 A2560 Usinor Industeel 33.0
1.4565 1.4565 453500 TKN 51.2
1.4565 1.4565 453500 TKN 46.0
1.4565 1.4565 453500 TKN 33.3
1.4565 1.4565 453500 TKN 45.6
1.4565 Uranus B46 C2469 Usinor Industeel 47.8
1.4565 Uranus B46 C2469 Usinor Industeel 48.7
1.4659 Uranus B66 R0637 Usinor Industeel 72.7
1.4659 Uranus B66 R0637 Usinor Industeel 69.2
1.4652 654 SMO H4616 Outokumpu Stainless AB >90
1.4652 654 SMO H4616 Outokumpu Stainless AB >90
1.4462 Uranus 45NMo C2101 Usinor Industeel 7.0
1.4462 2205 TKN 6.7
1.4462 2205 TKN 13.1
1.4462 2205 TKN 8.4
1.4462 2205 TKN 13.4
1.4462 2205 455403 AB Sandvik Steel 12.6
1.4462 2205 455403 AB Sandvik Steel 14.9
1.4507 Uranus B52N+ A0305 Usinor Industeel 35.3
1.4410 SAF 2507 453453 AB Sandvik Steel 61.5

CPT according to ASTM G150, 3M NaBr
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
3
1
7
L
M
N
S
a
n
i
c
r
o
2
8 2
5
4
S
M
O
U
r
a
n
u
s
B
2
6
1
.
4
5
6
5
U
r
a
n
u
s
B
4
6
U
r
a
n
u
s
B
6
6
6
5
4
S
M
O
U
r
a
n
u
s
4
5
N
M
o
2
2
0
5
2
2
0
5
U
r
a
n
u
s
B
5
2
N
+
S
A
F
2
5
0
7
1.4439 1.4563 1.4547 1.4529 1.4565 1.4565 1.4659 1.4652 1.4462 1.4462 1.4462 1.4507 1.4410
Austenitic Duplex
C
P
T
,

C

Figure 16. Average CPT values according to ASTM G150 obtained in 3M NaBr. Test surfaces wet
ground to 320 grit.

67

Table 11: CPT values according to ASTM G150 obtained in 1M NaCl.
Test surfaces wet ground to 320 grit.
EN Commercial Heat No. Producer CPT (C)
1.4547 254 SMO 820707 Outokumpu Stainless AB >90
1.4547 254 SMO 820707 Outokumpu Stainless AB >90
1.4529 Uranus B26 A2560 Usinor Industeel >90
1.4529 Uranus B26 A2560 Usinor Industeel >90
1.4565 1.4565 453500 TKN >90
1.4565 1.4565 453500 TKN >90
1.4565 Uranus B46 C2469 Usinor Industeel >90
1.4565 Uranus B46 C2469 Usinor Industeel >90
1.4462 2205 TKN 51.6
1.4462 2205 TKN 51.2
1.4462 2205 455403 AB Sandvik Steel 54.5
1.4462 2205 455403 AB Sandvik Steel 57.3
1.4462 2205 455403 AB Sandvik Steel 55.1
1.4462 2205 455403 AB Sandvik Steel 73.1
1.4410 SAF 2507 453453 AB Sandvik Steel >90
1.4410 SAF 2507 453453 AB Sandvik Steel >90

CPT according to ASTM G150, 1M NaCl
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
3
1
7
L
M
N
S
a
n
i
c
r
o
2
8 2
5
4
S
M
O
U
r
a
n
u
s
B
2
6
1
.
4
5
6
5
U
r
a
n
u
s
B
4
6
U
r
a
n
u
s
B
6
6
6
5
4
S
M
O
2
2
0
5
U
r
a
n
u
s
4
5
N
M
o
2
2
0
5
U
r
a
n
u
s
B
5
2
N
+
S
A
F
2
5
0
7
1.4439 1.4563 1.4547 1.4529 1.4565 1.4565 1.4659 1.4652 1.4462 1.4462 1.4462 1.4507 1.4410
Austenitic Duplex
C
P
T
,

C

Figure 176. Average CPT values according to ASTM G150 obtained in 1M NaCl. Test surfaces
wet ground to 320 grit.
68

3.3.3 3b). Electrochemical testing in condensates

The simulated condensate environments for laboratory testing were selected on the basis of the analysis
results in Task 2. The materials used for this part of the investigation are listed in Table below and in
tables 8 and 9. Specimens were in the form of coupons 25 x 25 mm which were wet surface ground to
600 mesh SiC paper less than an hour before electrochemical testing.

Table 12. Steel grades used for electrochemical investigations
Cr Ni Mo N W PRE* Grade Commercial
designation
Type Producer Heat Thick-
ness
1.4439 317L Aust. Industeel A1065/47757 7mm 17.15 12.89 4.06 0.14 0.04 32.9
1.4563 Sanicro28 Aust. Sandvik 454347 5mm 26.69 30.61 3.28 0.06 0 38.5
1.4565 UR B46 Aust. Industeel C2469 7mm 24.09 17.97 4.35 0.44 0.03 45.5
1.4529 UR B26 Aust. Industeel A2560/48414 6mm 20.7 24.49 6.07 0.218 0.03 44.3
1.4547 254SMO Aust. Outokumpu 820707 5mm 19.8 17.87 6.03 0.204 0 43.0
S31266 UR B66 Aust. Industeel R0637/39949 7mm 24.12 22.61 5.59 0.463 1.99 53.3
1.4652 654SMO Aust. Outokumpu H4616 4mm 24.25 21.84 7.27 0.52 0 56.6
1.4462 2205 Duplex Industeel C2101 7.5mm 22.32 5.2 3.2 0.17 0 35.6
1.4507 UR52N+ Superdup. Industeel A0305/45254 6mm 24.66 6.42 3.67 0.251 0.12 41.0
1.4410 SAF2507 Superdup. Sandvik 453453 5mm 25.31 7.06 3.92 0.26 0 42.4
2.4819 C276 Ni-base Industeel 35810 3.7mm 16 57.6 16.2 0 3.3 74.9
*PRE = %Cr+3.3(%Mo+*%W)+16(%N)

The conditions selected initially were hydrochloric acid at various concentrations and temperatures.
These are marked as circled crosses in Figure and also listed in, together with environments containing
other species for additional tests.

Table 13. Environments used for electrochemical tests
Environment HCl conc. Temp. Other
1 1.6 70C
2 0.8 70C
3 1.6 50C
4 0.8M 50C
5 0.2M 50C
6 sulphate replacement 0.4M 70C 0.2M H
2
SO
4

7 sulphate addition 0.8M 70C 0.2M H
2
SO
4

8 nitrate 0.79M 70C 0.01M HNO
3

9 bromide 0.79M 70C 0.01M HBr
10 fluoride 0.79M 70C 0.01M HF
11 complex anion 0.79M 70C 0.01M HNO
3
+0.01M HBr+0.01M HF
12 metal 0.55M 70C 0.05M AlCl
3
+ 0.05M FeCl
3

+ 0.05M NaCl + 0.05M ZnCl
2

13 metal addition 0.79M 70C 0.025M AlCl
3
+ 0.025M FeCl
3

+ 0.025M NaCl + 0.025M ZnCl
2

Specimens were mounted in flushed-port cell to avoid crevice effects and a controlled Luggin to
specimen distance. Solutions were aerated since this was considered more representative of the
application, in which there is normally an oxygen excess. The corrosion potential was first measured for
5 minutes then the potential was scanned in the anodic direction at 20mV/min starting at a potential
100mV below the corrosion potential. Examples of the polarisation curves for all materials in the HCl
environments are shown in Figure 18.
69

-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
50C, 0.2M HCl
50C, 0.8M HCl
50C, 1.6M HCl
1.4439
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
70C, 1.6M HCl
1.4439
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.4 0.1 0.6 1.1 1.6
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
50C, 0.2M HCl
50C, 0.8M HCl
50C, 1.6M HCl
1.4563
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
70C, 1.6M HCl
1.4563
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
50C, 0.2M HCl
50C, 0.8M HCl
50C, 1.6M HCl
1.4565
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
70C, 1.6M HCl
1.4565

Figure 18(a).Polarisation curves for the three austenitic grades in HCl environments

70

-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
50C, 0.2M HCl
50C, 0.8M HCl
50C, 1.6M HCl
1.4529
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
70C, 1.6M HCl
1.4529
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
50C, 0.2M HCl
50C, 0.8M HCl
50C, 1.6M HCl
1.4547
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
70C, 1.6M HCl
1.4547
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
50C, 0.2M HCl
50C, 0.8M HCl
50C, 1.6M HCl
S31266
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
70C, 1.6M HCl
S31266
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
50C, 0.2M HCl
50C, 0.8M HCl
50C, 1.6M HCl
1.4652
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
70C, 1.6M HCl
1.4652

Figure 18(b). Polarisation curves for the four super austentic steels in HCl environments

71

-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
50C, 0.2M HCl
50C, 0.8M HCl
50C, 1.6M HCl
1.4462
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
70C, 1.6M HCl
1.4462
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
50C, 0.2M HCl
50C, 0.8M HCl
50C, 1.6M HCl
1.4507
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
70C, 1.6M HCl
1.4507
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
50C 0.2M HCl
50C 0.8M HCl
50C 1.6M HCl
1.4410
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C 0.8M HCl
70C 1.6M HCl
1.4410
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
50C, 0.2M HCl
50C, 0.8M HCl
50C, 1.6M HCl
2.4819
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
70C, 1.6M HCl
2.4819

Figure 18(c) Polarisation curves for the duplex steels and nickel-base reference materials in HCl
environments.
72

The polarisation curves in HCl environments showed two types of behaviour. The more corrosive
systems had a low corrosion potential, typically around 300mV SCE and an active corrosion peak at
around 200mV SCE. For more resistant materials the corrosion potential was typically in the range
100 to +200 mV SCE and there was no active corrosion. Pitting corrosion occurred in some cases, and
could be seen as a rapid increase in current density at higher potentials, typically 300-900mVSCE. All
steels showed a current increase at around +1000mVSCE, corresponding to trans-passive dissolution of
the passive film.

Results are evaluated in Figure in terms of the corrosion potential, shown by the lower bars and the
right hand scale, and the current maximum on anodic polarisation, on the left hand scale.

In 0.2M HCl at 50C all the materials were passive and the corrosion potentials lay in the range of
approximately 200 to -20mV SCE. Increasing the HCl concentration to 0.8M resulted in active
corrosion only for 1.4439. In 0.8M HCl at the higher temperature of 70C active corrosion was also
seen for 1.4565, 1.4529 and 1.4462.

In 1.6M HCl the majority of the steels showed active behaviour and the trends were similar at both
50C and 70C. The superaustentic steels S31266 and 1.4652, and the nickel-base reference material
2.4819 remained passive, while the superduplex steel 1.4410 was borderline, with one specimen
showing active corrosion at 50C but passivity at 70C. The amount of data is relatively small, but
nevertheless a simple regression analysis can be done to get an idea of the dependence of the active
corrosion rate on alloy composition. Using the data in 1.6M HCl, gives:

Corrosion rate (i
max
) = %Cr 0.7(%Ni) + 0.9(%Mo) 32(%N)

This should naturally only be taken as indicative because of the narrow range of alloying levels studied,
but is a type of approach which may merit extension to a broader alloy range.

Pitting corrosion was only observed in four alloys. 1.4439 suffered pitting in all five HCl environments,
while 1.4563 showed pitting in four environments, although only one of three specimens of pitted in
0.2M HCl at 50C. The duplex steels 1.4462 and 1.4507 exhibited pitting in both 0.8M HCl and 1.6M
HCl 70C, and also showed some re-passivating pitting at 50C. This is in partial agreement with the
alloy performance predicted from the empirical PRE relationship between pitting resistance and alloy
composition, included in Table . This relation predicts that 1.4439 should be least resistant to pitting, as
is observed. However it also predicts that 1.4563 should have a superior pitting resistance to 1.4462,
although the reverse is seen in the polarisation curves.

It is apparent from the above discussion, that there is no single descriptor which can be used to give the
corrosion resistance of candidate materials for wet flue gas cleaning systems. Instead, several factors
must be taken into account. In Table the alloys investigated have been evaluated in terms of three
criteria the maximum measured corrosion rate, the tendency to maintain passivity without becoming
active and the propensity to pitting corrosion.


Active corrosion rate in 1.6M HCl
1.4439 ~ 1.4462 < 1.4507 < 1.4563 < 1.4656 < 1.4529 ~ 1.4547 < S31266 ~ 1.4652 ~ 2.4819
1.4410 is borderline active / passive, therefore difficult to place in the above series

1.4439 < 1.4462 ~1.4565 ~ 1.4529 ~ 1.4547 < 1.4563~1.4507 < 1.4410 < all other materials
L
e
a
s
t

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
t

Pitting corrosion
1.4439 < 1.4563 < 1.4462 ~ 1.4507 < All other materials
M
o
s
t

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
t

73

-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
1
.
4
4
3
9
1
.
4
5
6
3
1
.
4
5
6
5
1
.
4
5
2
9
1
.
4
5
4
7
S
3
1
2
6
6
1
.
4
6
5
2
1
.
4
4
6
2
1
.
4
5
0
7
1
.
4
4
1
0
2
.
4
8
1
9
I

m
a
x

(
m
A
/
c
m
)
-450
-350
-250
-150
-50
50
150
250
350
450
E
c
o
r
r

(
m
V

S
C
E
)
0.2M HCl 50C
Austentic Duplex
Ni-
base
** * *
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
1
.
4
4
3
9
1
.
4
5
6
3
1
.
4
5
6
5
1
.
4
5
2
9
1
.
4
5
4
7
S
3
1
2
6
6
1
.
4
6
5
2
1
.
4
4
6
2
1
.
4
5
0
7
1
.
4
4
1
0
2
.
4
8
1
9
I

m
a
x

(
m
A
/
c
m
)
-450
-350
-250
-150
-50
50
150
250
350
450
E
c
o
r
r

(
m
V

S
C
E
)
0.4M HCl + 0.2M H2SO4 50C
Austentic Duplex
Ni-
base
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
1
.
4
4
3
9
1
.
4
5
6
3
1
.
4
5
6
5
1
.
4
5
2
9
1
.
4
5
4
7
S
3
1
2
6
6
1
.
4
6
5
2
1
.
4
4
6
2
1
.
4
5
0
7
1
.
4
4
1
0
2
.
4
8
1
9
I

m
a
x

(
m
A
/
c
m
)
-450
-350
-250
-150
-50
50
150
250
350
450
E
c
o
r
r

(
m
V

S
C
E
)
0.8M HCl 50C
Austentic Duplex
Ni-
base
* *
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
1
.
4
4
3
9
1
.
4
5
6
3
1
.
4
5
6
5
1
.
4
5
2
9
1
.
4
5
4
7
S
3
1
2
6
6
1
.
4
6
5
2
1
.
4
4
6
2
1
.
4
5
0
7
1
.
4
4
1
0
2
.
4
8
1
9
I

m
a
x

(
m
A
/
c
m
)
-450
-350
-250
-150
-50
50
150
250
350
450
E
c
o
r
r

(
m
V

S
C
E
)
0.8M HCl 70C
Austentic Duplex
Ni-
base
** *** * *
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
1
.
4
4
3
9
1
.
4
5
6
3
1
.
4
5
6
5
1
.
4
5
2
9
1
.
4
5
4
7
S
3
1
2
6
6
1
.
4
6
5
2
1
.
4
4
6
2
1
.
4
5
0
7
1
.
4
4
1
0
2
.
4
8
1
9
I

m
a
x

(
m
A
/
c
m
)
-450
-350
-250
-150
-50
50
150
250
350
450
E
c
o
r
r

(
m
V

S
C
E
)
1.6M HCl 50C
Austentic Duplex
Ni-
base
*
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
1
.
4
4
3
9
1
.
4
5
6
3
1
.
4
5
6
5
1
.
4
5
2
9
1
.
4
5
4
7
S
3
1
2
6
6
1
.
4
6
5
2
1
.
4
4
6
2
1
.
4
5
0
7
1
.
4
4
1
0
2
.
4
8
1
9
I

m
a
x

(
m
A
/
c
m
)
-450
-350
-250
-150
-50
50
150
250
350
450
E
c
o
r
r

(
m
V

S
C
E
)
1.6M HCl 70C
Austentic Duplex
Ni-
base
* *

Figure 19. Corrosion potentials (lighter bars and right scale) and current maxima for steels polarised
in simulated condensation environments containing HCl at 50C and 70C. * denotes specimen for
which pitting occurred at high potentials.
74

Effect of other ions

Duplicate measurements were made in environments 6-12 (Table 13) for 1.4439 and 1.4547. The
current maxima under these conditions are shown in Figure , together with the pitting potentials for
1.4439. Partial replacement of HCl by H
2
SO
4
had a beneficial effect, causing 1.4547 to passivate
(higher corrosion potential), reducing the maximum current density for 1.4439 and also raising the
pitting potential. Addition of sulphuric acid to the 0.8M HCl base solution induced passivation for one
of the two specimens of 1.4547 and increased the pitting potential for 1.4439, again indicating an
inhibitive effect of sulphate. However, it also slightly increased the uniform corrosion rate of 1.4439.

Partial substitution of chloride by bromide, nitrate or fluoride had only a marginal influence on uniform
corrosion. However, nitrate increased the pitting potential for 1.4439. Cation substitution or addition
had a beneficial effect, causing both materials to shift to from active to passive behaviour because of the
increase in redox potential. This is also seen in the polarisation curves in Figure . However, the pitting
potential was reduced for 1.4439.

-1
1
3
5
7
9
11
0
.
8
M

H
C
l
H
C
l/
H
2
S
O
4
H
C
l+
H
2
S
O
4
H
C
l/
H
B
r
H
C
l/
H
F
H
C
l/
H
N
O
3
C
o
m
p
le
x
C
a
t
io
n
s
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

m
a
x
i
m
u
m

(
m
A
/
c
m
)
1.4547
1.4439
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
0
.
8
M

H
C
l
H
C
l/
H
2
S
O
4
H
C
l+
H
2
S
O
4
H
C
l
/
H
B
r
H
C
l/
H
F
H
C
l/
H
N
O
3
C
o
m
p
le
x
C
a
t
io
n
s
E
c
o
r
r

(
m
V

S
C
E
)
1.4547
1.4439

Figure 20. Current maxima and corrosion potentials for 1.4439 and 1.4547 in the various
environments. HCl/H
2
SO
4
denotes sulphate replacement (environment 6) and HCl+H
2
SO
4
is
sulphate addition (environment 7).

0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0
.
8
M

H
C
l
H
C
l/
H
2
S
O
4
H
C
l+
H
2
S
O
4
H
C
l
/
H
B
r
H
C
l/
H
F
H
C
l/
H
N
O
3
C
o
m
p
le
x
C
a
t
io
n
s
P
i
t
t
i
n
g

p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l
,

E
b

(
m
V

S
C
E
)
1.4439

Figure 21. Pitting potentials for 1.4439 in the various environments

75

-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
0.8M HCl
0.8M HCl+0.2M H2SO4
HCl/cations
HCl+cations
1.4439, 70C
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.4 0.1 0.6 1.1 1.6
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
0.8M HCl
0.8M HCl + 0.2M H2SO4
HCl/cations
HCl+cations
1.4547, 70C
Figure 22. Polarisation curves for 1.4439 and 1.4547 in simulated condensate environments based
on HCl containing various anions and cations.

Effect of aeration/deaeration

In the above sections, aerated electrolytes were employed because this most closely reflects the
application in wet flue gas cleaning systems, where an oxygen excess is maintained. To illustrate the
effect of aeration, some polarisation curves were also evaluated in argon-deaerated electrolytes. Two
examples of these, for 1.4439 in 0.2M HCl at 50C and 1.4410 in 1.6M HCl at 50C, are shown in
Figure . In borderline cases, deaeration can be sufficient to push the corrosion potential from a high,
passive value to a low, active value, as is seen for 1.4410.

-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
50C, 0.2M HCl
50C, 0.2M HCl deareated
1.4439
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
50C 1.6M HCl
Deaerated 1
Deaerated 2
1.4410
Figure 23. Polarisation curves for 1.4439 and 1.4410 showing the effect of aeration / deaeration.

A second issue regarding aeration was whether the extreme aeration to be expected in thin, condensing
liquid films is likely to affect the corrosion potential compared with that measured in bulk electrolytes
for the polarisation curves. Corrosion potentials measured on as-delivered (pickled) and on newly wet
ground surfaces of 1.4439 and 1.4547 are shown in Figure , and also compared with the corrosion
potential measurements in thin electrolyte films reported by Korrosionsinstitutet. There is generally
very good agreement between the two, indicating a negligible effect of the greater aeration in the thin
films. There is only a difference between the two surface conditions in the mildest case investigated
(1.4547 in 0.2M HCl at 50C), with the as-delivered specimen showing the highest corrosion potential
i.e. the most passive behaviour.

76

-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
a
s
-
d
e
l
.
g
r
o
u
n
d
a
s
-
d
e
l
.
g
r
o
u
n
d
a
s
-
d
e
l
.
a
s
-
d
e
l
.
g
r
o
u
n
d
a
s
-
d
e
l
.
g
r
o
u
n
d
a
s
-
d
e
l
.
g
r
o
u
n
d
I

m
a
x

(
m
A
/
c
m
)
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
E
c
o
r
r

m
V

S
C
E
1.4439
0.2M HCl
50C
1.6M HCl
70C
Complex
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
a
s
-
d
e
l
.
g
r
o
u
n
d
a
s
-
d
e
l
.
g
r
o
u
n
d
a
s
-
d
e
l
.
a
s
-
d
e
l
.
g
r
o
u
n
d
a
s
-
d
e
l
.
g
r
o
u
n
d
a
s
-
d
e
l
.
g
r
o
u
n
d
I

m
a
x

(
m
A
/
c
m
)
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
E
c
o
r
r

m
V

S
C
E
1.4547
0.2M HCl
50C
1.6M HCl
70C Complex

Figure 24. Corrosion potentials and current maxima for 1.4439 and 1.4547 in three environments.
Also comparison (dark bars) with corrosion potentials measured in thin electrolyte films by
Korrosionsinstitutet.

3.3.4 Task 3c) Testing in condensates-creviced specimens

Crevices are inevitably present in complex structures such as wet gas cleaning systems. For passivating
materials such as stainless steels this increases the risk of localised corrosion, since the corrosion
environment that may occur in crevices can cause localised de-passivation and the onset of crevice
corrosion, even though the freely exposed surface may remain passive.

The principal tool to evaluate this effect was monitoring of the corrosion potentials of coupons with
crevice formers, weight loss determination and examination for crevice attacks and corrosion pits as
reported by Korrosionsinstitutet. The coupons used are shown in figure 25. They had the same design as
those which were used for field testing in wash liquor and condensates in plants.

Figure 25. Schematic drawing of test coupon for laboratory testing in simulated condensates and for
field testing. The dimensions are given in mm.
All materials according to table 8 were exposed with duplicate specimens at each test. For the welding,
the filler materials and shielding gases used were according to table 9. The steel coupons had the
dimensions 60 x 60 mm. They had a one-sided one-bead weld performed by TIG-welding and a hole
with 10 mm diameter for the assembly.

77

Figure 26. The type of spool rack used for immersed coupons with crevice formers

In this test, spool racks with creviced and welded coupons of the type shown in figure 26 were used.
Three solution compositions were chosen with guidance of chemical analyses of condensates, which
were derived from incineration plants in task 2. The testing started with the condensate A below and
continued with the condensates B and C respectively.

A). 0.8 M HCl +0.2 M H
2
SO
4
(1.2 M HCl). Temperature 50
o
C.

B). 0.2 M HCl, Temperature 50
o
C.
C). 0.8 M HCl, Temperature 50
o
C

The steel producers pickled all materials after welding and wet-ground the cutting edges of the coupons
to 360 mesh. The crevice washers were of the MTI type having the internal diameter 10 mm and the
outer diameter 19 mm. These washers have 12 equally spaced slots on each side. A 2 mm hole was
drilled at one corner of the coupons for fastening of a titanium wire for the measurement of the
corrosion potential. Threaded 8-mm titanium rods and corresponding nuts were used for the racks.
The rods were covered with PTFE shrink hoses for electrical insulation. A torque of 1.6 Nm was
applied on the nuts at the assembly. The coupons were orientated in such a way that the corners having
the connecting wires were kept above the solution at the exposure. The corrosion potentials were
monitored with a multi-channel data logger.

The test devise used is based on a double walled box made of acrylic plastic material. The inside of the
box is heated with a flow of hot air between the double walls and the temperature is kept constant by a
thermostat device. The test equipment is shown schematically in figure 27.

The test solution was circulated through two equal communicating vessels, both containing solution but
only one had racks. The two communicating vessels in figure 27 contained together 10 litres solution.
During the exposure the 5 litres of electrolyte in the solution store was exchanged three times to keep
the solution fresh.

Figure 27. Schematic picture of the test device for lab-testing of creviced coupons

Racks Solution pump Reference electrode
Air pump
Cables
Solution store
78

The test solution was circulated through two equal communicating vessels, both containing solution but
only one had racks. The two vessels in figure 2 contained together 10 litres solution. During the
exposure the 5 litres of electrolyte in the solution store was exchanged three times to keep the solution
fresh.

Condensate A

The spool racks were exposed in solution A for 216 Hours. The condensate A which is very corrosive
caused uniform corrosion of all materials. The corrosion rate was however very different among the
steel grades.

Due to malfunction of the logger, the potentials could not be registered during the first half of the
exposure in solution A. During the second half of the exposure, the potential of all samples were stable
and on a level close to 300 mV (SCE ) which indicated that all steels were active. After the exposure,
the coupons were cleaned using water and a soft brush and after that they were rinsed with water,
ethanol and finally dried.

The visual inspection revealed that all steels, including the filler materials had suffered from uniform
corrosion. On the Ni-base material 2.4819, the attack was however very small. None of the materials
exhibited pitting or crevice corrosion. The corrosion rates calculated from determination of weight loss
are shown in figure 28 where the materials are arranged from high to low corrosion rate. The coupons
of 1.4410 were delivered with much coarser surface than of the other grades. Consequently a larger
surface was exposed of 1.4410 which explains a part of the high weight loss of this grade.

All materials involved in the different tests are to a varying degree alloyed with Ni Mo and Cu (Table
8). These elements are known to decrease the rate of the uniform corrosion of stainless steels in non
oxidising acids (11). This is supported in the figures 29 and 30, were the rates of uniform corrosion are
plotted as functions of the Ni and Mo contents respectively in the tested materials. It is important to
note however that the figures give no reliable information on the relative influence of Ni and Mo in this
aspect since both are present in all steels.
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
6,0
2
.
4
8
1
9
2
.
4
8
1
9
1
.
4
5
6
3
1
.
4
5
6
3
1
.
4
6
5
2
1
.
4
6
5
2
1
.
4
5
4
7
1
.
4
5
4
7
1
.
4
5
2
9
S
.
3
1
2
6
6
S
.
3
1
2
6
6
1
.
4
5
2
9
1
.
4
4
3
9
1
.
4
4
3
9
1
.
4
5
6
5
1
.
4
5
6
5
1
.
4
5
0
7
1
.
4
5
0
7
1
.
4
4
6
2
1
.
4
4
6
2
1
.
4
4
1
0
1
.
4
4
1
0

C
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n

r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y
e
a
r

Figure 28. Corrosion rate of parallel samples in spool racks immersed in 0.8 M HCl +0.2 M H
2
SO
4
at
50
o
C for 216 hours.

Duplex Austenite
79

0,00
1,00
2,00
3,00
4,00
5,00
6,00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Ni content %
C
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

m
m
/
Y
e
a
r

Figure 29. Corrosion rate of the samples in figure 28 as function of their Ni content.

Figure 30. Corrosion rate of the samples in figure 28 as function of their Mo content.

0,00
1,00
2,00
3,00
4,00
5,00
6,00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Mo content %
C
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

m
m
/
y
e
a
r
80

The duplex steels 1.4462, 1.4410, 1.4507 and the austenitic 1.4565 exhibited knife-line attack along the
welds. The extent of this attack was smaller in 1.4565 than in the duplex steels. Knife line attack in the
super duplex steel 1.4410 is shown in figure 31.

Figure 31. Knife-line attack along weld in 1.4410

Condensate B

The corrosion potentials were monitored with a multi-channel data logger. The spool racks were
exposed in solution B ( 0.2 M HCl at 50
o
C)for 648 hours. Sudden potential drops down to low
corrosion potentials of some less resistant steels indicated initiation of crevice corrosion. The potentials
of the more resistant steels remained however on a high level throughout the test. The observed
corrosion potentials corresponded very well to the corrosion attacks which were discovered at the
evaluation of the samples.

Crevice corrosion occurred in 4 samples of 3 alloys while pitting corrosion occurred in 3 samples of 2
alloys. Any preferential corrosion attack at the waterline, on the welds or along the fusion line of welds
did not occur in condensate B.

All results from the testing in condensate B are given in (Table 16 ).

Condensate C

Samples in condensate C were exposed during 456 hours. The corrosion potentials were monitored in
the same way as in the condensates A and B. Again the registered potentials corresponded well to the
observed corrosion phenomena (Table 17). In this case it was possible to classify the materials into four
groups according to their corrosion properties. These classes are given in table 17 as the following
general state of corrosion of the materials:
Passive material, no corrosion damage.
Localised attack
Uniform and localised attack
Active, uniform corrosion
81
T
a
b
l
e

1
5
:

R
e
s
u
l
t
s

o
f

e
x
p
o
s
u
r
e

o
f

c
r
e
v
i
c
e
d

s
t
e
e
l

p
a
n
e
l
s

i
m
m
e
r
s
e
d

i
n

0
.
2
M

H
C
l

a
t

5
0

o
C

d
u
r
i
n
g

6
4
8

h
o
u
r
s

x
/
2
4

m
e
a
n
s

t
h
e

n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

a
t
t
a
c
k
s

u
n
d
e
r

c
r
e
v
i
c
e

f
o
r
m
e
r
s

o
u
t

o
f

2
4

p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e

1
=

n
o

v
i
s
i
b
l
e

a
t
t
a
c
k
.

2
=

d
i
s
c
o
l
o
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
n
l
y
.

3
=

v
i
s
i
b
l
e

b
u
t

i
n
s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t

a
t
t
a
c
k
.

4
=

s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t

a
t
t
a
c
k
.

5
=

s
e
v
e
r
e

a
t
t
a
c
k
M
a
s
s

l
o
s
s
C
o
m
m
e
r
c
i
a
l
E
N
U
N
S
m
a
x
m
i
n
t
y
p
i
c
a
l
g
U
n
i
f
o
r
m
W
a
t
e
r
l
i
n
e
W
e
l
d
k
n
i
f
e
-
l
i
n
e
X
/
2
4
m
a
x

d
e
p
t
h

m
m

m
a
x

d
e
p
t
h

m
m
a
t
t
a
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83

As a complement to the exposure of racks with creviced coupons, polarisation curves were obtained by
SIMR for creviced specimens of all of the materials in 0.8M HCl at 80C. The crevices were in this
case attained by cutting off the flow of distilled water in the flushed port cell and instead inserting a
washer of EPDM70 rubber between the specimen and the holder. These polarisation curves are repro-
duced in Figure 32 (a).

-6
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Potential (V-SCE)
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70C, 0.8M HCl
70C, 0.8M HCl crevice
1.4439
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-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
1.4563
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
1.4565

-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
1.4529
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
1.4547
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
S31266
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
1.4652

Figure 32(a). Polarisation curves for creviced and uncreviced specimens of austenitic steels in
0.8 M HCl at 70
o
C

84

-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
1.4462
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
1.4507

-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

s
t
r
m

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C 0.8M HCl
70C 0.8M HCl crevice
1.4410

-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.6 -0.1 0.4 0.9 1.4
Potential (V-SCE)
l
o
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
/
c
m
)
70C, 0.8M HCl
2.4819

Figure 32( b). Polarisation curves for creviced and uncreviced specimens of duplex steels and the
reference Ni-base alloy in 0.8 M HCl at 70
o
C

85

3.3.5 Task 3d) Laboratory condensation

Four series of laboratory condensation tests were performed at SIMR on the same type of test racks as
used in the plant exposures. These experiments were carried out in a laboratory chamber furnace of
volume 85 litres which was held at 90C. The base-plate with affixed specimens was mounted
horizontally in a teflon holder on top of a cooling coil. The specimen temperature was controlled by
circulating cooled water/glycol through the coil with an external pump. This meant that the specimen
temperature was below the furnace gas temperature so that condensation occurred on the specimens.

Figure 33. Furnace setup for laboratory condensation testing with external temperature monitor

A preliminary run was carried out for a total of 460 hours in an H
2
O/HCl/SO
2
atmosphere in order
to determine appropriate condensation conditions. 1M HCl was fed into the furnace with a
peristaltic pump and the gas supply was air 1%SO
2.
The cooling coil was copper and the furnace
temperature was initially 90C and that of the base-plate approximately 80C. The cooling of the
base-plate became less efficient during the course of the test so the specimen temperature rose. The
gas flow rate and furnace temperature were successively increased during the test in order to
maintain condensation conditions. When the test was interrupted it was concluded that some
corrosion of the test coupons had occurred. However, cooling had been very uneven due to
corrosion of the cooling coil and there was also corrosion of the base plate, caused by dripping
condensate. For the subsequent three test exposures the cooling coil was therefore replaced with a
PVC tube and which did not suffer attack and a dish above the specimens was used to collect
dripping condensate.

In Test 1 a solution of 1M HCl was supplied to the furnace at the rate of 46ml/hour using a
controlled flow from a reservoir tank. There was no gas flow into the furnace, so the furnace
atmosphere was predicted to be 98.2%H
2
O + 1.8%HCl. However, some inward air leakage was
expected to occur. The majority of the HCl evaporated, but by the end of the test approximately 2
litres of solution had accumulated in the collection dish. The pH of this had dropped from
approximately 0 to 0.87, indicating selective evaporation of water. The furnace atmosphere during
the test had therefore a somewhat lower HCl level than predicted. The specimens are shown in Test
3
Interrupted after c. 550 hours (furnace failure) 90C gas temperature~ 40 ml/hour 2M HCl

Figure This was identified by powder X-ray diffraction as FeCl
2
.4H
2
O, as shown in Figure
34(d)734(d). There may also be some substitution of other metal ions. The corrosion rate of the two
specimens of 1.4547, differed quite appreciably in Test 1, indicating that the specimen cooling and
thus the degree of condensation may have been uneven. For Test 2 the cooling was modified by
increasing the insulation under the cooling coil from 1cm to 2 cm. This was found to give a more
even specimen temperature. The flow of 1M HCl into the furnace was reduced slightly to
86

approximately 40ml/hour so that all the solution evaporated. In addition a gas flow of air +1%SO
2

was supplied to the furnace at the rate of 80 ml/min. The gas atmosphere was thus air + 90% H
2
O +
1.6%HCl + 0.09%SO
2
. The amount of green deposits on the specimens was smaller than in Test 1,
and the corrosion rates were lower, Figure 34(a)( b) and (c).
Test 1
500 hours 90C gas temperature, 46 ml/hour 1M HCl

Test 2
500 hours, 90C gas temperature~40 ml/hour 1M HCl + 80ml/min air+1%SO
2

Test 3
Interrupted after c. 550 hours (furnace failure) 90C gas temperature~ 40 ml/hour 2M HCl

Figure 34(a). Appearance of specimens after laboratory condensation tests. The position of

87

the different specimens is the same in all three cases.

In the final Test 3, 2M HCl was supplied to the furnace at the same rate as in Test 2, i.e. so that all the
solution evaporated, with no gas flow. This gave a predicted HCl level of 3.6%. The furnace failed after
550 hours, with the result that the temperature dropped and the specimens were briefly exposed to a 2M
HCl solution at ambient temperature. This caused dissolution of some of the deposits on the specimens,
but was not considered likely to have an appreciable effect on the total weight loss.

The results of all three tests were evaluated using the template agreed by the partners. This takes into
consideration the corrosion rate, uniformity of corrosion, occurrence of crevice corrosion and extent and
location of pitting. In all three tests the corrosive attack was dominated by uniform corrosion. The areas
covered by the crevice formers had generally been protected from corrosion, and there was no
significant pitting. Selective fusion line attack was observed in three cases: 1.4507 in Tests 2 and 3, and
1.4462 in Test 3.

The results from Test 1 must be interpreted with caution, in view of the indication from the duplicate
1.4547 specimens that cooling of the base-plate had been uneven. A comparison of the results from
Tests 2 and 3 show some similarities and some differences. The highest corrosion rate was shown by the
duplex steel 1.4462 in both cases. The austenitic 1.4563, 1.4529 and S31266 and the duplex 1.4507 all
showed intermediate corrosion rates in both environments. The austenitic 1.4565, 1.4547, 1.4652 and
the nickel-base reference materials 2.4819 likewise all showed low corrosion rates in both environments.
Shifts in relative ranking were seen for two materials: the lowest-alloyed austenitic steel 1.4439 and the
duplex 1.4410. Both of these steels had relatively high corrosion rates in the aggressive HCl
environment in Test 3, but both also showed surprisingly low corrosion rates in the HCl/SO
2
environment in Test 2. This is discussed further in the correlation to the field exposure results in the
main body of this report.

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
1
.
4
4
3
9
1
.
4
5
6
3
1
.
4
5
6
5
1
.
4
5
2
9
1
.
4
5
4
7
S
3
1
2
6
6
1
.
4
6
5
2
1
.
4
4
6
2
1
.
4
5
0
7
1
.
4
4
1
0
2
.
4
8
1
9
C
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
m
m
/
y
e
a
r
)
Austenitic
Duplex
Ni-
base
Test 1

Figure 34 (b)
Corrosion rates in laboratory condensation test 1..
88

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
1
.
4
4
3
9
1
.
4
5
6
3
1
.
4
5
6
5
1
.
4
5
2
9
1
.
4
5
4
7
S
3
1
2
6
6
1
.
4
6
5
2
1
.
4
4
6
2
1
.
4
5
0
7
1
.
4
4
1
0
2
.
4
8
1
9
C
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
m
m
/
y
e
a
r
)
Austenitic
Duplex
Ni-
base
Test 2

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
1
.
4
4
3
9
1
.
4
5
6
3
1
.
4
5
6
5
1
.
4
5
2
9
1
.
4
5
4
7
S
3
1
2
6
6
1
.
4
6
5
2
1
.
4
4
6
2
1
.
4
5
0
7
1
.
4
4
1
0
2
.
4
8
1
9
C
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
m
m
/
y
e
a
r
)
Austenitic
Duplex
Ni-
base
Test 3

Figure 34(b-c). Corrosion rates in laboratory condensation tests 2-3.
There were two specimens of 1.4547 on each rack, the lighter bar is for
specimen 2. Note the difference between these duplicates in Test 1,
probably caused by uneven cooling of the base-plate.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1 2 3 4 5 6
d spacing ()
I
n
e
n
s
i
t
y
1.4547
1.4462
Test 1
x
x
x
x
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Figure 34(d)7. Powder XRD with CuKg radiation of green deposits on 1.4547
and 1.4462 in Test 1. Intensity peaks marked (x) are from Si internal
standard. Those marked (o) are identified as FeCl
2
.4H
2
O (JCPDS 16-
123. Zero point offset for 1.4462 for clarity.

89

At laboratory condensation testing performed by Sandvik, a glass loop was deployed for
laboratory condensation testing. The same type of coupons and procedure was used for test
material delivered to SIMR as used in Task 3c).

In the laboratory condensation testing experiments, specimen according to figure 35 were
machined. The same materials as in 4.3.1 were used in addition plate samples of EN 1.4539 and
UNS S31266 were included.

Figure 35. Schematic drawing of the specimens used in the glass loop laboratory
condensation, in mm.
The aim of the testing was to modify a test set-up [13] that can be used for dew point corrosion
studies in HCl and H
2
SO
4
condensates. This was made in order to simulate condensates from
municipal incineration plants and hence obtain a way to study the corrosion rates in a laboratory.
In the original set-up a glass loop was used, the set-up was first used by Slaiman et al for studying
dew point corrosion of HCl and petrol mixtures found in refineries [12]. The set-up was modified
to be used for studying HCl and water in reference.

In the modified set-up, water is heated and made to evaporate. The vapour is brought to a
condenser where the specimens are placed, se figure 39. The condenser is cooled with water and
hence the vapour condensates. Hydrochloric acid is introduced just before the condenser, see
figure 38. The condensate is brought back to the water container. It is important that the
concentration of hydrochloric acid is so low that no hydrochloric acid evaporates from the flask.

Figure 36: The set-up used in [3] and also used
for the condensate with only hydrochloric acid.
Figure 37: The modified set-up with both
hydrochloric and sulphuric acid.
The analysis of the condensates formed in the plants shows that the condensates contain both chlorides
and sulphates. Therefore the cell was redesigned to be able to simulate this environment. From the first
results of the analysis made by SIMR of the condensates obtained by KORRINST, the following test
Flask with HCl.
T
Flask with H
2
SO
4
Flask with 38% HCl
Heating devices
T
Flask
with
water
Tap for sample of condensate
Reflux condenser
Heat exchanger
1 2
3 4 5
Specimens
90

conditions of the simulated condensate were chosen to be simulated in the beginning of the test
program:
Hydrochloric Acid: 1%
Sulphuric Acid: 0.05%
Condensate temperature: 40C
Two different approaches were used to simulate the waste incineration. In the first one both sulphuric
and hydrochloric acid were mixed with the water in the large flask without any separate inlet of the
acids. In the second approach sulphuric acid was introduced separately in the same way as the
hydrochloric acid, see figure 39. However, none of these approaches was successful in introducing
sulphuric acid. In the first approach no acid was found in the condensate during a 96 hours test, test no
3 in table 17 below and hence no corrosion was detected on EN 1.4563. For the second approach with
two separate inlets of the acids, no sulphuric acid was found in the formed condensate, see table 18. On
the other hand, it should be noted that the concentration of hydrochloric acid was much higher than one
weight-%. Experimental work was carried out with a mass flow meter in order to be able to use a valve
to regulate the flow of the vapour, however it turned out that the mass flow meter corroded and hence
was useless.

Table 17:The concentration of acid in the condensates formed during the experiments in the Dew
point cell, four-day exposure. Test no 5 was performed without test specimens in the cell.
Concentration (weight-%) for sample no Test no Acid
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
HCl 5.1 6.7 3.5 8.7 6.1 8.7 8.9 1
H
2
SO
4
0.00034 0.00054 0.00024 0.00030 0.00024 0.00021 0.00026
HCl 5.3 6.5 4.1 3.3 5.3 5.3 6.7 2
H
2
SO
4
<0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03
HCl 7.0 3.4 4.4 5.1 5.6 3.1 9.8 4
H
2
SO
4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
HCl 5.3 6.5 4.1 3.3 5.3 5.3 6.7 5
H2SO4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

In table 18 the corrosion rates of the tested specimens in tests 1, 2 and 4 are shown. It should be noted
that the corrosion rates for the reference specimen are similar for all the three tests. It should further be
noted that a higher corrosion rate is observed in the inlet of the condenser, the corrosion decreases with
the distance from the inlet. This observation is expected. In the inlet the most concentrated condensate
is formed and according to the tie-rule, the concentration decreases further into the heat exchanger. That
EN 1.4410 has lower corrosion rates than EN 1.4462 is understandable since EN 1.4410 is higher
alloyed. However, it is strange that the low alloyed 1.4439 shows lower corrosion rates than the two
higher alloyed steels, the duplex steels EN 1.4410 and EN 1.4462. The reason for this is unclear. Table
18 shows the corrosion rate for position 3 with very low acid concentrations in the condensate. As
expected, very low corrosion rates were determined.

Table 18. The weight losses during the experiments 1, 2 and 4. Position number 3 is always a
reference specimen of type AISI 304L material. Position no 1 is in the inlet of the condenser and
position 5 in the outlet.

Material Test Weight loss (g/96 h)
Position 1 Position 2 Position 3
(Ref, 304L)
Position 4 Position 5
1.4410 1 0,93 0,46 0,22 0,10 0,08
1.4462 2 1,54 0,25 0,18 0,30 0,19
1.4439 4 0,21 0,15 0,15 0,11 0,09

Another investigation in the project, at SIMR, on condensates taken out from plants by SCI, indicates
that up to 1.6 M HCl may be present in the condensate. Electrochemical investigations that are reported
91

by other partners indicate substitution of parts of the hydrochloric acid with sulphuric acid might have
an inhibiting effect on the corrosion. In table 19 the hydrochloric acid concentration is in the same
range as the most concentrated condensates obtained from the plants. In order to simulate a
conservative situation, it was decided the work with laboratory condensation was continued with the
same set-up for hydrochloric acid, as the current one, and no sulphuric acid was introduced. The highest
temperature observed by SCI when the condensate was taken, was 80C and this temperature was
chosen as test temperature.

Table 19.The concentration of acid in the condensate formed during the experiments in the Dew
point cell, four-day exposure, two measurements per day in the morning and the afternoon.

Concentration (weight-%) for sample no Test no Acid
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6 HCl 10.1 16.6 5.8 5.3 7.2 5.0 8.0
7 HCl 9 4.3 3.9 10.3 10.0 16.3 10.5
8 HCl 11.6 0.8 6.7 5.0 9.4 8.8 11.2
9 HCl 18.4 7.5 6.9 8.7 10.1 8.7 13.1
10 HCl 15.3 5.4 7.4 11.2 10.8 12.2 8.2

In table 20 the corrosion rates of the tested specimens are shown. The corrosion rates for the reference
specimens are high in tests 6 to 8, but very low in test 9. In test 9, material 1.4563 showed a much
higher corrosion rate in the positions near the reference specimen. This is in contrast to the expected
result, since 1.4563 is considered to have a better corrosion resistance than AISI 304L. The reason is
unclear. Normally a higher corrosion rate is observed in the inlet of the condenser, the corrosion
decreases with the distance from the inlet. In contradiction to earlier experiments, this is not the case in
these experiments.

Table 20. The weight losses during the experiments. Position number 3 has always a reference
specimen of type AISI 304L material. Position no 1 is in the inlet of the condenser and position 5
in the outlet, the other positions are in-between.

Material Test
no.
Corrosion rate (mm/year)
Position 1 Position 2 Position 3
(Ref, 304L)
Position
4
Position
5
EN 1.4410 6 3.12 8.83 4.04 6.94 7.02
EN 1.4462 7 9.93 5.45 2.63 4.46 4.62
EN 1.4439 8 1.72 1.74 1.41 1.74 1.75
EN 1.4563 9 1.34 1.65 0.03 1.77 2.75
UNS
S31266
10 1.52 2.06 7.06 2.71 2.72
92

3.4 Task 4 and 5. Field-tests in condensates and field-tests in wash liquors

3.4.1 Task 4a) and 5) Installation of racks for exposure

The materials used in the condensate and wash liquor tests, together with weld data, are shown in table
21. The chemical compositions of all materials are shown in Table 8. Data on shielding gas and
chemical compositions of all filler materials are shown in table 9.

Table 21. Materials used in the condensate and wash liquor field tests.
Heat Thickness
EN UNS Commercial Type Product No. (mm) Producer Method Filler Joint
1.4439 S31726 317LMN Austenitic Hot rolled A1065 7.5 Industeel TIG
1
Thermanit 18/17E Bead on plate
1.4563 N08028 Sanicro 28
A
Hot rolled 454347 5 Sandvik TIG
1
Sandvik 27.31.4L.Cu
1.4547 S31254 254 SMO Cold rolled 820707 5 Outokumpu TIG
3
Avesta P54
1.4529 N08926 Uranus B26 Hot rolled A2560 7.1 Industeel TIG
1
Phyweld NCW
1.4652 S32654 654 SMO Cold rolled H4616 4.2 Outokumpu TIG
3
P16
1.4659 S31266 Uranus B66 Hot rolled R0637 7.5 Industeel TIG
1
UTP A 759
1.4565 S34565 Uranus B46 Hot rolled C2469 6.5 Industeel TIG
1
Phyweld NCW
1.4565 S34565 1.4565 Hot rolled 453500 5 TKN TIG Nimo C
1.4462 S31803 Uranus 45NMo Duplex Hot rolled C2101 7.8 Industeel TIG
1
Phyweld NCW
1.4410 S32750 SAF 2507
A
Hot rolled 453453 5 Sandvik TIG
2
Sandvik 25.10.4L
1.4507 S32520 Uranus 52N+ Hot rolled A0305 6.5 Industeel TIG
1
Phyweld NCW
2.4819 N10276 Alloy C-276 Ni base Cold rolled 35810 5 VDM TIG
4
Nicrofer S 5923 Bulk weld
The weld on the backside of the Alloy C-276 specimens were machined down to the base metal to get a flat backside.
A
= Hot rolled sheet material produced from commercial forged 120 mm diameter bars
1
= Shielding gas 100% Ar
2
= Shielding gas 98% Ar + 2% N2
3
= Shielding gas 90% Ar + 10% H2
4
= Shielding gas 98% Ar + 2% H2
Weld
Grade
Base Metal

Welded and pickled test specimens according to
figure 38 were used for the field corrosion tests.
The specimen dimension was 60x60 mm. A
hole 10 mm was drilled in the centre, 20 mm
from the upper edge and the weld was located
approximately 10 mm from the lower edge.

Figure 41 shows the appearance of the
condensation racks used for exposure in the wet
cleaning stages.

Figure 38: Test specimen used for the field
corrosion tests.
93

Figure 39: Example of condensation rack.
Base plate, C-276
Bolt, C-276
PTFE insulation
PTFE insulation shee
Test specimen
Weld
Nut, C-276
Washer, C-276 MTI crevice
former, PTFE
Figure 40: Specimen assembly.

The test specimens were mounted flat on plates of the nickel-base alloy Alloy C-276, insulated from the
plates by a thin PTFE sheet, see figures 39 and 40. On top of each specimen, MTI crevice formers made
of PTFE were mounted. The crevice former was of the multiple crevice type, having 12 plateaus, each
forming a crevice area towards the specimen surface. The nuts were tightened with a torque of 1.6 Nm.

The location of the different test specimens on the base plates is shown in figure 41.
S
31
2
54
S
3
12
6
6
S
3
25
2
0
S
3
4
5
65
S
3
2
65
4
N
0
6
0
59
S
3
1
7
26
S
3
27
5
0
N
0
8
9
26
N
0
80
2
8
S
31
2
54
S
3
1
80
3

Figure 41. The location of the different test specimens on the Alloy C-276 base plate.

The test racks used for exposure in the wash liquors had a different appearance. Figure 42 shows the
principle for these racks. These racks had the same type of specimens but the specimens were
mounted on threaded rods of Alloy C-276. Between each specimen, MTI crevice formers made of
PTFE were mounted. The crevice former was of the multiple crevice type, having 12 plateaus, each
forming a crevice area towards the specimen surface. All specimens were electrically insulated from
the rods. The nuts at both ends were tightened with a torque of 1.6 Nm.

94

Figure 42. Principle of test rack used for tests in wash liquors.

3.4.1.1. The Swedish incineration plant Hgdalen, Plant A:

SANDVIK performed field tests in the Swedish plant Hgdalen. The test racks installed in September
2003 were taken out in May 2004. Exposures were made in the neutral zone, marked with B in figure
45, and in the inlet of the condenser, marked with C in figure 43. It should be noted that exposure was
not possible in position A for safety reasons. Hgdalen uses only domestic waste. Analysis of the
condensates is reported by SIMR.

Stack Reheater
Heat pump Heat exchanger
Gas inlet 140
o
C
Qencher
Scrubber
Condenser
Fresh Water
A
B
C

Figure 43: Schematic drawing of the Hgdalen plant. Test racks were installed at
positions B and C.
95

3.4.1.2 The Swedish incineration plant B
A schematic sketch of the waste incineration plant, Plant B, in Sweden is shown in Figure 44.
The plant is a district heating plant
3
4
2
5
1
5
6
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1. Furnace 1, old
2. Furnace 2, old, not in use
3. Furnace 3, new
4. Electrostatic filter
5. Boiler
6. Economiser
7. Reactor
8. Textile dust filter
9. Pre-cooler
10. Condenser
11. Reheater
12. Chimney
13. Spray water cleaning
Lime, active
carbon, NaSO
2
4
148C
148C
220-270C
160-170C
850-1000C
= flue gas
50.000 m
3
air/h.
8.5 t/h waste in Furnace 3, from
mid Sept. to mid May.
2.3 t/h waste in Furnace 1,
during summer.
100 GWh in Furnace 1+2 (old
production).
Production, not known today.
70C
30C
55-60C
700-800C
700-800C
160-170C
220-270C
Condensate analysis

Figure 44: The waste incineration plant, Plant B, in Sweden.
The plant has two furnaces (1 and 3 in figure 44 with an effect of 6 MW and 25 MW respectively. The
plant has licence to burn 65.000 tons of waste per year. Both furnaces are equipped with a SNCR
system for nitrogen reduction where a 35% urea solution is injected in the fireplace. The flue gas
cleaning system is joint between the two furnaces. The flue gas passes an electrostatic filter (4 in fig.
44) for dust separation After this, the flue gas temperature is decreased to 150C in an economiser (6 in
fig 44). At one spot between the electrostatic filter and the economiser, a sample of flue gas condensate
was collected for analysis. The gas then passes a reactor (7 in fig 44) where sodium sulphide, active
carbon and burnt lime are injected to separate hydrochloric acid, sulphur oxides, heavy metals, dioxins
etc. in the subsequent textile filter (8 in fig 44).

After this dry cleaning the flue gas enters the wet cleaning stage with heat recovery. The gas is
washed and cooled at the entrance to the scrubber (pre-cooler) (9 in fig 44) by injecting wash liquor in
the flue gas. The wash liquor used in the wet cleaning stage is re-circulated and pH adjusted condensate.
The gas becomes water saturated. In the scrubber (pre-cooler) additional hydrochloric acid, heavy
metals and dust are separated and the flue gas temperature is decreased to approximately 70C.

In the condenser (10 in figure 44 ) and the subsequent heat pump, the gas temperature is decreased to
approximately 30C.

In the re-heater (11 in figure 44) the flue gas temperature is increased with 25-30C before it enters the
chimney (12 in fig 44). The separated pollutants follow the wash liquor to the water treatment system
(13 in fig 44). The pH is adjusted and the wash water is cleaned in a sand filter and an active carbon
filter before it enters the community sewerage. The dust and the sludge are filled in sacks, which are
dumped at the community dump.

The condensation test racks exposed at Plant B in Sweden were numbered 1, 2 and 3 and the wash
liquor test rack was named WL1 and WL2. Field corrosion tests were performed at three different sites
in the wet cleaning stage, and one test was performed in the wash liquor buffer tank. Figure 45 shows
the different test sites. Test racks 1 to 3 were mounted on the manhole covers shown in the pictures in
figure 45. Wash liquor test racks (WL) were exposed hanging down into the buffer tank.

96

Re-heater
70C
To chimney
Spraying
Spraying
Spraying
Demister
Flue
gas
in Textile
dust
filter
135C
50-60C
50-60C
30C
Cooling water
in, 30-35C
Cooling water
out, 33-41C
Baffles
254 SMO
lamella
condenser
8
9
10
11
12
148C
Condensate/wash
liquor return
Buffer tank
Test rack 3
Test rack 2
Test rack 1
Test rack WL
Fresh water addition
To water treatment

Figure 45. Field corrosion test sites in the wet cleaning stage at the waste incineration plant, Plant B,
in Sweden.. 8=textile filter, 9=scrubber (pre-cooler) made of glass-fibre reinforced plastic, 10=254
SMO flue gas condenser (the parts above and below the condenser are made of glass-fibre reinforced
plastic), 11=re-heater, 12=gas outlet to chimney.

Figure 46 shows test rack No. 3
for exposure at the top of the
condenser at the waste
incineration plant. The ring seen
in the figure, made of the stainless
steel grade 654 SMO, was used
for fastening the plate at the
manhole.

Exposure time
The waste incineration plant at
Plant B started the district heating
production 2003-10-16 and the
plant was shut down 2004-04-29.
This gave an exposure time of 202
days, which is almost 7 months.

Figure 46. Test rack No. 3 for exposure at
the top of the condenser.

3.4.1.3 The Swedish incineration plant Uppsala, Plant C

The test racks in Uppsala were installed in the inlet of the condenser in July 2004. The racks were
mounted inside the inspection hole in figure 47. In this plant no cleaning is made before the condenser.
and hence the environment is much more severe in this condenser than in e.g. the condenser in
Hgdalen. The racks were taken out in November 2004. Even though the exposure time was
comparatively short, it was sufficient to obtain significant results. For instance, one of the EN 1.4439
specimens corroded so much that nothing was left when the exposure was terminated. Uppsala uses a
mixture of domestic waste and assorted other waste as fuel. Analysis of the condensates is reported by
SIMR.
97

Figure 47. Close picture of site for installing of rack for service in Uppsala
3.4.1.4. The waste incineration plant in Germany, Plant D
The waste incineration plant in Germany is authorised to burn 340.000 tons of waste and sludge
annually. The plant has three 3m wide roller gate furnaces and one 6 m wide. The plant produces
electricity and hot water for district heating.

The waste consists of approximately 53% household waste, 35% industrial waste, 4% sludge, 5% bulky
waste and 3% hospital waste. A schematic sketch of the plant in Germany is shown in figure 48.

Figure 48. Schematic sketch of the German plant, Plant D.

The plant has a 6-stage scrubbing system, shown in figure 49, consisting of evaporation cooler, bag
house, washer 1 (water spraying), washer 2 (lime-milk spraying), catalyser and a final bag house mop-
up filter.
98

Evaporation
cooler
Bag house
Washer 1 Washer 2
Catalyser
End-stage filter
170C
65C 63C

Figure 49. Sketch of the flue gas cleaning system in the German plant. Condensation test racks were
exposed in both the lower and the upper stage in washer 1 and in the upper stage in washer 2. Wash
liquor racks were exposed at the bottom sump of washer 1.

In washer 1, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride are rinsed out in a two-stage hydrochloric acid
wash. In the lower stage a condensate with about 10% HCl is formed, the pH is <1 and the total amount
of chloride + fluoride ions are about 100.000ppm. In the upper stage condensate with about 2% HCl is
formed, the pH is around 1 and the total amount of chloride + fluoride ions are around 10.000ppm.

In washer 2, sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide are removed in a second wash using lime-milk. The
pH in this stage is 6-6.5 and the total amount of chloride + fluoride ions are around 1.000ppm.

The residues from the plant are: grate ash used in road construction, boiler ash and filter dust used as
filling material in the mining industry, gypsum used as substitute for natural plaster in the construction
industry and only 3% of the grate ash has to be disposed.

The condensation test racks exposed in Germany were numbered 10-15 and the wash water test racks
were named WL1 and WL2.

Racks No. 10 and 11 were exposed horizontally at the lower stage in washer 1, number 10 was facing
down and was exposed to the up-streaming flue gas, and number 11 was facing up and was exposed to

Racks No. 12 and 13 were exposed horizontally at the upper stage in washer 1, number 12 was facing
down and was exposed to the up-streaming flue gas, and number 13 was facing up and was exposed to

Racks No. 14 and 15 were exposed vertically at the second stage of three spraying systems hanging in
the streaming flue gas with wash liquor exposure from the upper spraying systems. See figure 50.

The wash liquor test racks were exposed at the bottom sump of washer 1. Figure 51 shows one of these
racks.

99

Figure 50: Condensate test racks No. 14
and 15 for exposure in washer 2.

Figure 51: Wash liquor test rack No. WL1 for
exposure at the bottom sump of washer 1.

Exposure time
The exposure started 2003-10-06 and ended 2004-09-10 with a 3-day shutdown in-between. This gave a
total exposure time of 337 days, which is approximately 11 months.

3.4.1.5. The French incinerating plant in Saint-Ouen, Plant E
The municipal incinerator erected in Saint-Ouen (suburbs of Paris) belongs to the SYCTOM (Syndicat
Mixte Central de Traitement des Ordures Mnagres, union of treatment of municipal wastes) and is
exploited by TIRU (Traitement Industriel des Rsidus Urbains, treatment of municipal wastes). 650kt of
municipal wastes are treated by year in 3 furnaces with a capacity of 28t/h each. Only air is used for
incineration, except in start period for which fuel oil is used. The elimination of SO
x
and HCl in the raw
gas is obtained in a scrubber by washing with lime.

3.4.1.5.1 Material used in cleaning system

The materials actually used in the wet cleaning system are:
- nickel - base alloys (UNS N06455 and EN 2.4856/ UNS N06625) for the highest temperatures
(inlet of the scrubber and washing area),
- coated butyl carbon steel for the lowest temperatures locations (from sump of the scrubber to the
bottom of the chimney),
- fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) for the chimney.

3.4.1.5.2 Locations of exposure

Six condensate racks and 2 immersion racks were exposed from the 4 of November 2003 to the 20 of
March 2005 in different locations situated between the inlet of the scrubber and the bottom of the
chimney.

- Location 1 : above the inlet of lime (welded on the door of a hole man - see Photo 3a).
- Location 2 : in the washing area (welded on the wall of the scrubber - see Photo 4a).
- Location 3 : in the wash liquor (immersion racks) welded on the liquid filter (see Photo 5a and b).
- Location 4 : at the outlet of the scrubber and before the first droplets filter (put on the floor see
Photo 6a).
100

- Location 5 : between the two droplets filters (put on the floor, see Photo 6b)
- Location 6 : at the outlet of the second droplets filter (put on the floor, see Photo 6c)
- Location 7 : in the pipe before the chimney (put on the floor, see Photo 5c).
-
3.4.1.5.3 Operating conditions

The concentrations of different species in the raw and clean gas collected in the period 2002 2004 are
given in Table 35 and Table 36. The concentration of chloride in the washing liquor during the
exposure was in the range 30000 40000 ppm for a pH of about 1,5. In addition, chemical analyses of
the condensate formed on the wall of the chimney and continuously collected in a tank at the bottom of
the chimney were performed every two months (see Table 37).

4. Evaluation - conclusions (Task 6)
4.1 Exposed coupons from field tests (Task 4a and 5).
After the exposure the specimens were cleaned under running water using a soft brush. If not clean after
this operation the specimens were exposed in a 20% nitric acid solution at room temperature for a
couple of hours, followed by water cleaning.

4.1.1. The Swedish incineration plant in Hgdalen, Plant A:
In the pictures in figure 52 A-D the front side of the specimen after testing is shown. No severe
corrosion can be observed and this is verified by the very low corrosion rates. It can be noticed that
more localised corrosion is found in the neutral zone than in the inlet of condenser. In the neutral stage
many specimens experienced crevice corrosion and pitting, it was less localised corrosion in the
condenser.

Figure 52A: Specimen after exposure at the inlet
of the condenser in Hgdalen, rack no 4.
52B: Specimen after exposure in the inlet of the
condenser in Hgdalen, rack no 5.

101

53: Specimen after exposure in the neutral zone
in Hgdalen, rack no 6.
54: Specimen after exposure in the neutral
zone in Hgdalen, rack no 7.
Figure 52(A)-54. Specimens exposed in Plant A

Corrosion rates and observations of localised attacks on the specimens in locations used in the Hgdalen
plant are shown in the figures 55 58.
102

Corrosion rates, test site 3, Hgdalen
0,000
0,100
0,200
0,300
0,400
0,500
U
N
S
S
3
1
2
6
6
E
N
1
.
4
6
5
2
E
N
1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N
1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N
1
.
4
4
3
9
E
N
1
.
4
5
6
3
E
N
1
.
4
5
6
5
E
N
1
.
4
5
2
9
E
N
1
.
4
5
0
7
E
N
1
.
4
4
1
0
E
N
1
.
4
4
6
2
E
N
2
.
4
8
1
9
Austenitic Duplex Ni-
base
C
o
r
r
.
r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y

A. Corrosion rates in mm/year for one of the two racks installed in the neutral zone in Hgdalen,
position B.
Number of crevice attacks, X/12
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
U
N
S
S
3
1
2
6
6
E
N
1
.
4
6
5
2
E
N
1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N
1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N
1
.
4
4
3
9
E
N
1
.
4
5
6
3
E
N
1
.
4
5
6
5
E
N
1
.
4
5
2
9
E
N
1
.
4
5
0
7
E
N
1
.
4
4
1
0
E
N
1
.
4
4
6
2
E
N
2
.
4
8
1
9
Austenitic Duplex Ni-base
C
r
e
v
i
c
e

a
t
t
a
c
k
s
,

X
/
1
2
120m
210m
315m
675m
200m
235m
130m
120m
H
w
W
B= pitting attacks in base metal
H = pittiing attacks in HAZ
W = pitting attacks in weld
F= pitting attacks in fusion line
300m
W
BH
WF
BH
WF
B
F

B. The observed local corrosion for the second of the two racks installed in the neutral zone in
Hgdalen, position B.
Figure 55: General corrosion rates and localised corrosion for samples exposed in Hgdalen in the
neutral zone

103

0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
U
N
S
S
3
1
2
6
6
E
N

1
.
4
6
5
2
E
N

1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N

1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N

1
.
4
4
3
9
E
N

1
.
4
5
6
3
E
N

1
.
4
5
6
5
E
N

1
.
4
5
2
9
E
N

1
.
4
5
0
7
E
N

1
.
4
4
1
0
E
N

1
.
4
4
6
2
E
N

2
.
4
8
1
9
C
o
r
r
.
r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y

A. Corrosion rates in mm/year for the second of the two racks installed in the neutral zone in Hgdalen,
position B.
Number of crevice attacked sites, X/12
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
U
N
S
S
3
1
2
6
6
E
N
1
.
4
6
5
2
E
N
1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N
1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N
1
.
4
4
3
9
E
N
1
.
4
5
6
3
E
N
1
.
4
5
6
5
E
N
1
.
4
5
2
9
E
N
1
.
4
5
0
7
E
N
1
.
4
4
1
0
E
N
1
.
4
4
6
2
E
N
2
.
4
8
1
9
A
t
t
a
c
k
e
d

s
i
t
e
s
,

X
/
1
2
150m
210m
NA= not applicable
450m
367m
300m 290m
232m
204m
879m
F
BH
WF
WF
BH
W
W
W

B. The observed local corrosion for the second of the two racks installed in the neutral zone in
Hgdalen, position B.

Figure 56: General corrosion rates and localised corrosion for the second set of samples exposed in
Hgdalen in the neutral zone
104

0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
U
N
S
S
3
1
2
6
6
E
N

1
.
4
6
5
2
E
N

1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N

1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N

1
.
4
4
3
9
E
N

1
.
4
5
6
3
E
N

1
.
4
5
6
5
E
N

1
.
4
5
2
9
E
N

1
.
4
5
0
7
E
N

1
.
4
4
1
0
E
N

1
.
4
4
6
2
E
N

2
.
4
8
1
9
C
o
r
r
.
r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y

A. Corrosion rates in mm/year for one of the two racks installed in the inlet of the condenser in
Hgdalen, position C.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
U
N
S
S
3
1
2
6
6
E
N
1
.
4
6
5
2
E
N
1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N
1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N
1
.
4
4
3
9
E
N
1
.
4
5
6
3
E
N
1
.
4
5
6
5
E
N
1
.
4
5
2
9
E
N
1
.
4
5
0
7
E
N
1
.
4
4
1
0
E
N
1
.
4
4
6
2
E
N
2
.
4
8
1
9
C
r
e
v
i
c
e

a
t
t
a
c
k
s
,

X
/
1
2
103m
58m
73m 100m
B F
B

B. The observed local corrosion for one of the two racks installed in the inlet of the condenser in
Hgdalen, position C.

Figure 57: General corrosion rates and localised corrosion for one of the two racks installed in the
inlet of the condenser in Hgdalen, position C
105

Corrosion rates, test site 1, Hgdalen
0,000
0,100
0,200
0,300
0,400
0,500
U
N
S
S
3
1
2
6
6
E
N
1
.
4
6
5
2
E
N
1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N
1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N
1
.
4
4
3
9
E
N
1
.
4
5
6
3
E
N
1
.
4
5
6
5
E
N
1
.
4
5
2
9
E
N
1
.
4
5
0
7
E
N
1
.
4
4
1
0
E
N
1
.
4
4
6
2
E
N
2
.
4
8
1
9
base
C
o
r
r
.
r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y

Figure A. Corrosion rates in mm/year for the second of the two racks installed in the inlet of the
condenser in Hgdalen, position C.
Number of crevice attacked sites
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
U
N
S
S
3
1
2
6
6
E
N
1
.
4
6
5
2
E
N
1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N
1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N
1
.
4
4
3
9
E
N
1
.
4
5
6
3
E
N
1
.
4
5
6
5
E
N
1
.
4
5
2
9
E
N
1
.
4
5
0
7
E
N
1
.
4
4
1
0
E
N
1
.
4
4
6
2
E
N
2
.
4
8
1
9
A
t
t
a
c
k
e
d

s
i
t
e
s
,

X
/
1
2
30m
220m
NA= not applicable
H
F
B
H
FW
78m
H
FW

F

Figure B. The observed local corrosion for the second of the two racks installed in the inlet of the
condenser in Hgdalen, position C.
Figure 58: General corrosion rates and localised corrosion for the second of the two racks installed
in the inlet of the condenser in Hgdalen, position C.

106

4.1.2 Swedish waste incineration plant B.

Flue gas inlet to pre-cooler
Figures 59 and 60 show test site No.1, the flue gas inlet to the pre-cooler, and the appearance of the test
rack after almost 7 months exposure. The flue gas temperature in this area was around 135C and
contained SO
2
, 20-150 (typical 50) mg/Nm
3
dry gas, HCl, <200 (typical 5-100) mg/Nm
3
dry gas and
HF, approximately 1 mg/Nm
3
dry gas. The wash liquor had a pH of 0.7-1.5 and the temperature was 60-
70C.

Figure 59: The flue gas inlet to the pre-
cooler. Test rack No. 1 was exposed
mounted onto the manhole cover seen in the
picture. The flue gas (135C) enters from
the left. To the right, the three spray lances
are seen. The wash liquor is injected and
sprays to the right. The tube in the centre of
the manhole cover is used for diluting the
wash liquor with water. The wash liquor has
a pH of 0.7-1.5 and the temperature is 60-
70C.

Figure 60: Test rack No. 1 after almost 7
months exposure. The arrow to the right
points to the base plate edge facing down
during the exposure.

In table 22, the detailed test results for the individual specimens are found. Under the crevice corrosion
headline in the table the No. column shows the number of attacked crevice sites out of twelve
possible, and the m column shows the maximum depth of crevice corrosion attack. The figures
given in the Pitting corrosion column indicate where the deepest pitting corrosion attack was found, and
the figure is the maximum observed pitting attack depth.

107

Table 22: Test results, flue gas inlet to pre-cooler, Plant B.
Alloy Corr.
rate
Crev.corr Pitting corrosion Remark
EN Commercial mm/y No. m B W H F
1.4547 254 SMO 0.070 12/12 220 X X
330
X x
2.4819 Alloy C-276 0.010 12/12 100 - X
90
- -
1.4659 Uranus B66 0.038 12/12 137 X X X
240
x
1.4652 654 SMO 0.058 12/12 118 X X
276
X X Protection under crevice former but attacks
close to it.
1.4563 Sanicro 28 0.180 NA NA X
560
X X x Protection under crevice former.
1.4565 Uranus B46 0.215 NA NA NA NA NA N
A
Severe uniform corrosion in base metal,
lower in weld.
1.4529 Uranus B26 0.316 NA NA NA NA NA N
A
Severe uniform corrosion in base metal,
lower in weld.
1.4507 Uranus
52N+
0.165 12/12 380 NA NA NA N
A
Severe uniform corrosion in base metal and
weld and especially in fusion line.
1.4410 SAF 2507 0.503 NA NA NA NA NA N
A
weld and especially in fusion line.
1.4462 Uranus
45NMo
0.569 NA NA NA NA NA N
A
especially in fusion line, lower in weld.
1.4439 317 LMN 0.146 NA NA X X
790
x X Severe uniform corrosion in base metal and
weld.
1.4547 254 SMO 0.094 12/12 210 X X
640
X X
B= in base metal NA= not applicable due to severe uniform
W= in weld metal corrosion
H= in HAZ - = no pitting attack
F= in fusion line x = 0-5 pitting attacks
X = >5 pitting attacks

Edge attacks (pitting or severe uniform corrosion) was found in base or weld metal, HAZ or
fusion line, on all grades.

All specimens exposed at this location were attacked by uniform and local corrosion and none of the
alloys performed well at this location.

Figure 61 shows the corrosion rates measures at this site. Only the alloys 2.4819 (Alloy C-276), 1.4659
(Uranus B66), 1.4652 (654 SMO) and 1.4547 (254 SMO) showed corrosion rates below
0.1 mm/y. Of these alloys, 2.4819 had the lowest corrosion rate and 1.4547 the highest.

108

Corrosion rates, inlet to pre-cooler, test rack 1, Plant B
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
1.4659 1.4652 1.4547 1.4547 1.4439 1.4563 1.4565 1.4529 1.4507 1.4410 1.4462 2.4819
C
o
r
r
.
r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y

Figure 61: Corrosion rates measured on specimens exposed at the inlet to the pre-cooler in the wet
cleaning stage at the incineration plant in Sweden, Plant B.

All the duplex grades tested showed severe corrosion in the fusion line as shown in figure 62 A-C.

A. Attack in fusion line, grade
Uranus 52N+.

B. Attack in fusion line, grade
SAF 2507.

C. Attack in fusion line, grade
Uranus 45NMo.
Figure 62: Attack in fusion line

Figure 63 shows the number of crevice attacks, X out of 12, observed after testing at this site. On the
specimens attacked by severe uniform corrosion the crevice formers protected the specimens from
getting attacked under the crevice former. These specimens are so corroded that it is impossible to
distinguish between local attack (pitting and crevice attacks) and uniform corrosion attacks.
109

Number of crevice attacked sites, X/12, inlet to pre-cooler, test rack 1, Plant B
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1.4652 1.4659 1.4547 1.4547 1.4439 1.4563 1.4565 1.4529 1.4507 1.4410 1.4462 2.4819
A
t
t
a
c
k
e
d

s
i
t
e
s
,

X
/
1
2
Not applicable
Uniform corrosion
Not applicable
Uniform corrosion
118m 137m 210m 220m
0.135mm/y
0.167mm/y
0.202mm/y
0.296mm/y
380m 100m
0.454mm/y
0.514mm/y
NA= not applicable
W
BH
WF
BH
WF
BH
WF
BH
WF
NA
BH
WF
BH
WF
NA NA NA NA

Figure 63: Local corrosion attacks observed on specimens exposed at the inlet to the pre-cooler in
the wet cleaning stage at the incineration plant in Sweden, Plant B.

Top of pre-cooler
The Figures 64 and 65 show test site No.2, at the top of the pre-cooler, and the appearance of the test
rack after almost 7 months exposure. The flue gas in this area was vapour saturated and the temperature
was around 50-70C. The flue gas contained SO
2
3
dry gas, HCl, <5
mg/Nm
3
dry gas and HF, approximately 1 mg/Nm
3
dry gas. The gas entered from below. Wash liquor
spraying was not performed here so the specimens were only exposed to the moisturised flue gas.

Figure 64: The top of the pre-cooler. Test
rack No. 2 was exposed mounted onto the
manhole cover seen in the picture. At this
site the moisturised flue gas enters from
below and has a temperature of around 50-
70C.

110

In table 23, the detailed test results for the individual specimens are found. In the crevice corrosion
column the No. column shows the number of attacked crevice sites out of twelve possible, and the
m column shows the maximum crevice corrosion attack depth. The figures given in the Pitting
corrosion column indicate where the deepest pitting corrosion attack was found, and the figure is the
maximum observed pitting attack depth.

Table 23: Test results, top of pre-cooler, Plant B.
Alloy Corr.rate Crev.corr Pitting corrosion
1.4547 254 SMO 0.015 12/12 241 X X
425
X -
2.4819 Alloy C-276 0.003 12/12 44 - - - -
1.4659 Uranus B66 0.007 12/12 176 x - X
91
-
1.4652 654 SMO 0.000 1/12 7 - - - -
1.4563 Sanicro 28 0.046 12/12 331 X X
520
X X
1.4565 Uranus B46 0.033 12/12 232 X X
198
X x
1.4529 Uranus B26 0.022 12/12 225 X X
295
X X
1.4507 Uranus 52N+ 0.045 12/12 375 X x x X
1220
1.4410 SAF 2507 0.064 12/12 290 X X X X
430
1.4462 Uranus 45NMo 0.052 12/12 340 X - X X
475
1.4439 317 LMN 0.079 12/12 306 X X
1545
X X
1.4547 254 SMO 0.018 12/12 235 X X
335
x x
F= in fusion line x = 0-5 pitting attacks
X= >5 pitting attacks

Edge attacks (pitting) were found in base or weld metal, or HAZ or fusion line, on all grades except
2.4819 and 1.4652.

Figure 66 shows the corrosion rates measured at this site. All alloys showed uniform corrosion rates
below 0.1 mm/y, and the austenitic grade 1.4652 (654 SMO) showed the lowest corrosion rate.
111

Corrosion rates, top of the pre-cooler, test rack 2, Plant B
0
0,01
0,02
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,1
1.4652 1.4659 1.4547 1.4547 1.4529 1.4565 1.4563 1.4439 1.4507 1.4462 1.4410 2.4819
C
o
r
r
.
r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y

Figure 66: Corrosion rates of samples exposed at the top of the pre-cooler in the wet cleaning stage
at the incineration plant in Sweden, Plant B.

All specimens were attacked by crevice corrosion at this site, see figure 67. The risk of pitting corrosion
was also high at this location and the only alloys not attacked by pitting corrosion, were 1.4652 (654
SMO) and 2.4819 (Alloy C-276). All the duplex grades showed attacks in the fusion line.

Number of crevice attacks, X/12, top of the pre-cooler, test rack 2, Plant B
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1.4652 1.4659 1.4529 1.4565 1.4547 1.4547 1.4439 1.4563 1.4410 1.4462 1.4507 2.4819
C
r
e
v
i
c
e

a
t
t
a
c
k
s
,

X
/
1
2
7m
176m 225m 232m 235m 241m 306m 331m 290m 340m 375m 44m
BH
BH
WF
BH
WF
BH
W
BH
WF
BH
WF
BH
WF
BH
WF
BH
F
BH
WF

Figure 67: Local corrosion attacks observed at the top of the pre-cooler in the wet cleaning stage at
the incineration plant in Sweden, Plant B.

112

Top of flue gas condenser
Figures 68 and 69 show test site No. 3, at the top of the condenser, and the appearance of the test rack
after almost 7 months exposure. The flue gas temperature in this area was around 50-70C and
contained SO
2
3
dry gas, HCl, <5mg/Nm
3
dry gas and HF, approximately 1
mg/Nm
3
dry gas. The wash liquor had a pH of 0.7-1.5 and the temperature was 30-50C. At this site the
test specimens were sprayed with the wash liquor.

Figure 68: The top of the condenser. Test
rack No. 3 was exposed mounted onto the
manhole cove shown in the picture. The flue
gas enters from above. Above the manhole,
the spray lance for the wash liquor is
visible. The wash liquor sprays downwards
to keep the top of the condenser wet. The
flue gas temperature at the top of the
condenser is around 50-70C and the
temperature is around 30C when the gas
leaves the condenser.


column the No. column show the number of attacked crevice sites out of twelve possible, and the
m column show the maximum crevice corrosion attack depth. The figures given in the Pitting
corrosion column indicate where the deepest pitting corrosion attack was found, and the figure is the
maximum pitting attack depth.

113

Table 24: Test results, top of condenser, Plant B.
1.4547 254 SMO 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
2.4819 Alloy C-276 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
1.4659 Uranus B66 0.000 10/12 26 - - - -
1.4652 654 SMO 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
1.4563 Sanicro 28 0.004 12/12 120 X
88
X X X
1.4565 Uranus B46 0.002 12/12 55 - - - -
1.4529 Uranus B26 0.004 10/12 102 - - - -
1.4507 Uranus 52N+ 0.003 12/12 68 - - - X
185
1.4410 SAF 2507 0.006 10/12 68 - X x X
250
1.4462 Uranus 45NMo 0.003 8/12 92 X
135
- X X
1.4439 317 LMN 0.006 12/12 115 X X X X
105
1.4547 254 SMO 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
B= in base metal NA=not applicable due to severe uniform
F= in fusion line x =0-5 pitting attacks
X = >5 pitting attacks

Edge attacks (pitting) were found in base or weld metal, or HAZ or fusion line, on grades 1.4563,
1.4507, 1.4410, 1.4462 and 1.4439.

At this site uniform corrosion was no problem as all alloys showed corrosion rates well below 0.1
mm/y, see figure 70.
Corrosion rates, top of condenser, test rack 3, Plant B
0
0,01
0,02
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,1
1.4659 1.4652 1.4547 1.4547 1.4565 1.4563 1.4529 1.4439 1.4507 1.4462 1.4410 2.4819
C
o
r
r
.
r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y

Figure 70: Corrosion rates measured at the top of the condenser in the wet cleaning stage
at the incineration plant in Sweden, Plant B.

114

At this location, local corrosion was the main problem as illustrated in figure 71. The alloys 2.4819
(Alloy C-276), 1.4652 (654 SMO) and 1.4547 (254 SMO) were the only alloys not attacked at this site.
All the duplex grades showed attacks in the fusion line.
Number of crevice attacks, X/12, top of condenser, test rack 3, Plant B
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1.4652 1.4547 1.4547 1.4659 1.4529 1.4565 1.4439 1.4563 1.4462 1.4410 1.4507 2.4819
C
r
e
v
i
c
e

a
t
t
a
c
k
s
,

X
/
1
2
92m
26m 102m
55m 115m 120m
68m
68m
BH
F
HW
F
F
BH
WF
BH
WF

Figure 71: Local corrosion attacks observed at the top of the condenser in the wet cleaning stage at
the incineration plant in Sweden, Plant B.

Wash liquor buffer tank

Figures 72 and 73 show test site No. 4, the wash liquor buffer tank, and the appearance of the test rack
after almost 7 months exposure. The spray water in the tank had a pH of 0.7-1.5 and the temperature
was 30-50C. At this site two racks, WL1 and WL2, as seen in figure 32, were exposed.

In tables 25 and 26, the detailed test results for the individual specimens are found. In the crevice
corrosion column the No. column show the number of attacked crevice sites out of twelve possible,
and the m column show the maximum crevice corrosion attack depth. The figures given in the
Pitting corrosion column indicate where the deepest pitting corrosion attack was found, and the figure is
the maximum pitting attack depth.

Edge attacks (pitting) were found in base or weld metal, or HAZ or fusion line, on grades 1.4563,
1.4462, 1.4529, 1.4507, 1.4439.

Figure 72: The wash liquor buffer tank.
Test racks No. WL1 and WL2 were
exposed hanging down into the spray
water. The material in the buffer tank is
glass fibre reinforced plastic.
115

Figure 73: Test racks No. WL1 and
WL2 after almost 7 months exposure.

Table 25: Test results, wash liquor buffer tank, rack WL1, Plant B.
1.4547 254 SMO 0.000 0/24 - - - - -
2.4819 Alloy C-276 0.000 0/24 - - - - -
1.4659 Uranus B66 0.000 8/24 75 - - - -
1.4652 654 SMO 0.000 0/24 - - - - -
1.4563 Sanicro 28 0.001 23/24 212 x
208
- - -
1.4565 Uranus B46 0.000 23/24 94 - - - -
1.4529 Uranus B26 0.000 21/24 24 - - - -
1.4507 Uranus 52N+ 0.000 18/24 112 - - - -
1.4410 SAF 2507 - 10/24 144 - - - -
1.4462 Uranus 45NMo 0.001 16/24 235 - - - -
1.4439 317 LMN 0.001 22/24 238 - - - -
No edge attacks were found on the specimens on this rack.
Table 26: Test results, wash liquor buffer tank, rack WL2, Plant B.
1.4547 254 SMO 0.000 0/24 - - - - -
2.4819 Alloy C-276 0.000 0/24 - - - - -
1.4659 Uranus B66 0.000 9/24 66 - - - -
1.4652 654 SMO 0.000 0/24 - - - - -
1.4563 Sanicro 28 0.001 20/24 206 x
157
- x -
cC1.4565 Uranus B46 0.000 24/24 42 - - - -
1.4529 Uranus B26 0.000 15/24 96 - - - -
1.4507 Uranus 52N+ 0.001 18/24 136 - - - -
1.4410 SAF 2507 0.001 8/24 422 - x
89
- -
1.4462 Uranus 45NMo 0.001 18/24 105 - - - -
1.4439 317 LMN 0.001 23/24 275 x x
153
x -
B=in base metal NA= not applicable due to severe uniform
W=in weld metal corrosion
H=in HAZ - = no pitting attack
F=in fusion line x = 0-5 pitting attacks
X=>5 pitting attacks
116

Also in the wash liquor buffer tank uniform corrosion was no problem. Most alloys were however
attacked by local corrosion like crevice and pitting corrosion, see figure 74. Also at this site, the only
alloys not attacked were 2.4819 (Alloy C-276), 1.4652 (654 SMO) and 1.4547 (254 SMO).

Number of crevice attacks, X/24, wash liquor buffer tank, test rack WL1+2, Plant B
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
1
.
4
6
5
2
1
.
4
6
5
2
1
.
4
5
4
7
1
.
4
5
4
7
1
.
4
6
5
9
1
.
4
6
5
9
1
.
4
5
2
9
1
.
4
5
6
3
1
.
4
5
2
9
1
.
4
4
3
9
1
.
4
5
6
5
1
.
4
5
6
3
1
.
4
4
3
9
1
.
4
5
6
5
1
.
4
4
1
0
1
.
4
4
1
0
1
.
4
4
6
2
1
.
4
4
6
2
1
.
4
5
0
7
1
.
4
5
0
7
2
.
4
8
1
9
2
.
4
8
1
9
C
r
e
v
i
c
e

a
t
t
a
c
k
s
,

X
/
2
4
B= pitting attacks in weld
75m
66m
96m
206m
24m
238m
94 212 275
42m
422m
144m
235m
105 112 136
W
B
H
B
B
H
W

Figure 74: Local corrosion attacks observed in the wash liquor buffer tank in the wet cleaning stage
at the incineration plant B in Sweden.

4.1.3 The Swedish waste incineration plant Uppsala, plant C.
The corrosion rates are shown in figure 75A and the localized corrosion behavior in figure 75B. If the
results in figure 75 are compared with the results obtained in Hgdalen, much higher uniform corrosion
rates were registered. In Uppsala only the super austenitic EN 1.4652 and the nickel-base EN 2.2419
showed low or no corrosion, all other materials experienced severe corrosion. Almost no local corrosion
was observed, only one specimen of 1.4462 experienced crevice corrosion. On EN 1.4462 pitting was
also found as well as for some of the super austenitic materials. However, all specimens that
experienced pitting showed uniform corrosion attack on parts of the specimens.
117

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
U
N
S

S
3
1
2
6
6
U
N
S

S
3
1
2
6
6
E
N

1
.
4
6
5
2
E
N

1
.
4
6
5
2
E
N

1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N

1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N

1
.
4
4
3
9
E
N

1
.
4
4
3
9
E
N

1
.
4
5
6
3
E
N

1
.
4
5
6
3
E
N

1
.
4
5
6
5
E
N

1
.
4
5
6
5
E
N

1
.
4
5
2
9
E
N

1
.
4
5
2
9
E
N

1
.
4
4
1
0
E
N

1
.
4
4
1
0
E
N

1
.
4
4
6
2
E
N

1
.
4
4
6
2
E
N

1
.
4
5
0
7
E
N

1
.
4
5
0
7
E
N

2
.
4
8
1
9
E
N

2
.
4
8
1
9
C
r
e
v
i
c
e

a
t
t
a
c
k
s
,

X
/
2
4
70 m
B B
W
NA BH
FW
B B
F
NA NA BH NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
NA= not applicable

A. The corrosion rates in mm/year from the field exposure in Uppsala.
0
2
4
6
8
10
U
N
S

S
3
1
2
6
6
U
N
S

S
3
1
2
6
6
E
N

1
.
4
6
5
2
E
N

1
.
4
6
5
2
E
N

1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N

1
.
4
5
4
7
E
N

1
.
4
4
3
9
E
N

1
.
4
4
3
9
E
N

1
.
4
5
6
3
E
N

1
.
4
5
6
3
E
N

1
.
4
5
6
5
E
N

1
.
4
5
6
5
E
N

1
.
4
5
2
9
E
N

1
.
4
5
2
9
E
N

1
.
4
4
1
0
E
N

1
.
4
4
1
0
E
N

1
.
4
4
6
2
E
N

1
.
4
4
6
2
E
N

1
.
4
5
0
7
E
N

1
.
4
5
0
7
E
N

2
.
4
8
1
9
E
N

2
.
4
8
1
9
C
r
e
v
i
c
e

a
t
t
a
c
k
s
,

X
/
2
4
Missing specimen

B. The observed localised corrosion in the field exposure in Uppsala.
Figure 75. General and localised corrosion rates in the field exposure in Uppsala

4.1.4 German waste incineration plant D.

Lower part of washer 1

Figure 76 shows the appearance of test rack No. 10 after 11 months exposure. The condensate at this
stage was around 10% HCl (pH <1, 100.000ppm Cl
-
+ F
-
) and the temperature was 63-65C.

118

Figure 76: Test rack No. 10 after 11 months
exposure in the lower stage of washer 1. The
specimens have faced the up streaming flue
gas. The specimens of grades 1.4547,
1.4507, 1.4410, 1.4462 and 1.4439 are
missing. The specimen fragment at the
lower left is either grade 1.4547 or 1.4439 as
it is not magnetic.

m column show the maximum crevice corrosion attack depth.

Table 27: Test results, test rack No. 10, lower stage of washer 1, Plant D.
Alloy Corr.rate Crev.corr Pitting corrosion Remark
1.4547 254 SMO >2.30 NA NA NA NA NA NA Specimen missing
2.4819 Alloy C-276 0.345 NA - NA NA NA NA Weld corroded with a higher rate
1.4659 Uranus B66 1.29 NA - NA NA NA NA Weld more resistant=lower corrosion rate
1.4652 654 SMO 1.30 NA - NA NA NA NA Weld more resistant=lower corrosion rate
1.4563 Sanicro 28 1,23 NA - NA NA NA NA
1.4565 Uranus B46 2.79 NA - NA NA NA NA Specimen missing
1.4529 Uranus B26 0.735 NA - NA NA NA NA Weld more resistant=lower corrosion rate
1.4507 Uranus 52N+ >2.88 NA NA NA NA NA NA Specimen missing
1.4410 SAF 2507 >2.31 NA NA NA NA NA NA Specimen missing
1.4462 Uranus 45NMo >3.25 NA NA NA NA NA NA Specimen missing
1.4439 317 LMN >3.10 NA NA NA NA NA NA Specimen missing
1.4547 254 SMO >2.30 NA NA NA NA NA NA Specimen missing
1.4565 4565 2.23 NA - NA NA NA NA
B= in base metal NA= not applicable due to severe uniform corrosion
W= in weld metal
H= in HAZ -=no pitting attack
F= in fusion line x= 0-5 pitting attacks

Edge attacks: not applicable.

Figure 77 shows the test results in a graph. High corrosion rates were measured for all grades. The
specimen of the nickel base alloy 2.4819 (Alloy C-276) showed the best resistance.
119

Corrosion rates, lower part of Washer 1, test rack 10, Plant D
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
1.4529 1.4563 1.4659 1.4652 1.4565 1.4547 1.4547 1.4565 1.4439 1.4410 1.4507 1.4462 2.4819
base
C
o
r
r
.
r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y
M M
M
M
M
M
M = specimen missing
M

Figure 77: Corrosion rates measured at the lower part of Washer 1 in Germany, Plant D. The
specimen faced the up streaming flow gas.

-
+ F
-

exposure in the lower stage of washer 1. The
specimens faced dripping condensate. The
specimens of grades 1.4507, 1.4410, 1.4462
and 1.4565 are missing.

column the No. column shows the number of attacked crevice sites out of twelve possible, and the

120

Table 28: Test results, test rack No. 11, lower stage in washer 1, Plant D.
Alloy Corr.rate Crev.corr Pitting corrosion Remark
1.4547 254 SMO 1.42 NA NA NA NA NA NA
2.4819 Alloy C-276 0.488 NA - NA NA NA NA
1.4659 Uranus B66 0.394 NA - NA NA NA NA Weld more resistant=lower
corrosion rate
1.4652 654 SMO 0.728 NA - NA NA NA NA Weld more resistant=lower
corrosion rate
1.4563 Sanicro 28 1.66 NA - NA NA NA NA
corrosion rate
corrosion rate
1.4507 Uranus
52N+
>2.85 NA NA NA NA NA NA Specimen missing
1.4410 SAF 2507 >2.33 NA NA NA NA NA NA Specimen missing
1.4462 Uranus
45NMo
>3.27 NA NA NA NA NA NA Specimen missing
1.4439 317 LMN 1.93 NA NA NA NA NA NA
1.4547 254 SMO 1.42 NA NA NA NA NA NA
1.4565 4565 >2.33 NA - NA NA NA NA Specimen missing


Figure 79 shows the test results in a graph. High corrosion rates were measured for all grades. The
specimen of the grade 1.4659 (Uranus B66) and the nickel base alloy 2.4819 (Alloy C-276)
showed the best resistance.
Corrosion rates, lower part of Washer 1, test rack 11, Plant D
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
1.4659 1.4652 1.4529 1.4565 1.4547 1.4547 1.4563 1.4439 1.4565 1.4410 1.4507 1.4462 2.4819
base
C
o
r
r
.
r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y
M
M
M
M

Figure 79: Corrosion rates measured at the lower part of Washer 1 in Plant D, Germany. The
specimen faced dripping condensate.
121

5.1.4.2 Upper part of washer 1
Figure 80 shows the condensation racks mounted in the washer and figure 81 shows the appearance of
test rack No. 12 after 11 months exposure. The condensate at this stage was around 2% HCl (pH 1,
10.000ppm Cl
-
+ F
-

Figure 80: Test racks exposed at the upper
level of washer 1. Test rack No. 12 facing
down and test rack No. 13 facing up.

exposure in the upper stage of washer 1.
The specimens have faced the up streaming
flue gas.

Table 29: Test results, test rack No. 12, upper stage of washer 1, Plant D.
1.4547 254 SMO 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
2.4819 Alloy C-276 0.001 0/12 - - - - -
1.4659 Uranus B66 0.000 9/12 76 - - - -
1.4652 654 SMO 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
1.4563 Sanicro 28 0.091 NA - - - - -
1.4565 Uranus B46 0.000 6/12 31 - - - -
1.4529 Uranus B26 0.001 7/12 25 - - - -
1.4507 Uranus 52N+ 0.001 12/12 116 X - X
<25
-
1.4410 SAF 2507 0.001 11/12 153 - X
53
- -
1.4462 Uranus 45NMo 0.001 9/12 92 - - X x
1.4439 317 LMN 0.001 12/12 608 - X X -
1.4547 254 SMO 0.000 0/12 - - x
26
- -
1.4565 4565 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
X=>5 pitting attacks. Edge attacks: not applicable.

122

Uniform corrosion was not a problem at this site and all alloys but 1.4563 (Sanicro 28) showed a
corrosion rate well below 0.1 mm/y, see figure 82.
Corrosion rates, upper part of Washer 1, test rack 12, Plant D
0
0,01
0,02
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,1
1.4652 1.4547 1.4547 1.4565 1.4565 1.4659 1.4529 1.4439 1.4563 1.4462 1.4410 1.4507 2.4819
base
C
o
r
r
.
r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y
Figure 82. Corrosion rates at the upper part of Washer 1 at Plant D, Germany. The specimen
faced the up streaming flue gas.

At this site local corrosion was the main problem, see figure 82. The alloys 1.4652 (654 SMO) and
2.4819 (Alloy C-276) were the only alloys not attacked at this site. One out of two specimens of alloy
1.4565 suffered crevice corrosion and one out of two specimens of 1.4547 (254 SMO) suffered pitting
corrosion in the weld. The other alloys were all attacked.

Number of crevice attacks, X/12, upper part of Washer 1, test rack 12, Plant D
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1.4652 1.4547 1.4547 1.4565 1.4565 1.4529 1.4659 1.4439 1.4563 1.4462 1.4410 1.4507 2.4819
base
C
r
e
v
i
c
e

a
t
t
a
c
k
s
,

X
/
1
2
Not appl i cabl e
Uni f or m cor r osi on
B= pit t ing at t acks in base met al
H = pit t iing at t acks in HAZ
W = pit t ing at t acks in weld
F= pit t ing at t acks in f usion line
3 1 m
2 5m
76 m
6 0 8 m
9 2 m
153 m
116 m
BH W HF
H
W
W
Figure 83. Local corrosion attacks observed at the upper part of Washer 1 at Plant D,
Germany. The specimens faced the up streaming flue gas.

123

stage was around 2% HCl (pH 1, 10.000ppm Cl
-
+ F
-

Figure 84. Test rack No. 13 after 11
months exposure in the upper stage of
washer 1. The specimens faced dripping
condensate.


Table 30: Test results, test rack No. 13, upper stage in washer 1, Plant D.
1.4547 254 SMO 0.000 0/12 - - X
21
- -
2.4819 Alloy C-276 0.002 0/12 - - - - -
1.4659 Uranus B66 0.000 5/12 34 - - - -
1.4652 654 SMO 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
1.4563 Sanicro 28 0.026 NA - X
<25
x
Z25
X
<25
-
1.4565 Uranus B46 0.000 0/12 - x
38
x x -
1.4529 Uranus B26 0.001 1/12 168 - - X
37
x
1.4507 Uranus 52N+ 0.001 12/12 38 - - X
<25
-
1.4410 SAF 2507 0.002 12/12 351 X - X X
160
1.4462 Uranus 45NMo 0.001 12/12 120 X
<25
- X
<25
X
<25
1.4439 317 LMN 0.001 2/12 21 X X
23
X x
1.4547 254 SMO 0.000 0/12 - - X
19
- -
1.4565 4565 - 4/12 13 - - - -
H= in HAZ -= no pitting attack
F= in fusion line x= 0-5 pitting attacks

Figure 85 shows the corrosion rates measured for the specimens on this test rack. All alloys showed
corrosion rates well below 0.1 mm/y.
124

Corrosion rates, upper part of Washer 1, test rack 13, Plant D
0
0,01
0,02
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,1
1.4652 1.4547 1.4547 1.4565 1.4565 1.4659 1.4529 1.4439 1.4563 1.4507 1.4462 1.4410 2.4819
base
C
o
r
r
.
r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y

Figure 85. Uniform corrosion rates measured at the upper part of Washer 1 in Plant D, Germany.
The specimens faced dripping condensate.

Also for the specimens on this rack, local corrosion was the main problem. Only the alloys 1.4652 (654
SMO) and 2.4819 (Alloy C-276) were not attacked.

Number of crevice attacks, X/12, upper part of Washer 1, test rack 13, Plant D
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1.4652 1.4547 1.4547 1.4565 1.4565 1.4529 1.4659 1.4439 1.4563 1.4462 1.4507 1.4410 2.4819
base
C
r
e
v
i
c
e

a
t
t
a
c
k
s
,

X
/
1
2
13m
168m
34m
21m
Not applicable
Uniform corrosion
120m 351m 38m
W W
BH
W
FH
BF
HW
BH
W
BF
H
H
BF
H

Figure 86. Local corrosion attacks observed at the upper part of Washer 1 in Plant D, Germany. The
specimens faced dripping condensate.
125

Upper part of washer 2

Figure 87 shows the appearance of test rack No. 14 after 11 months exposure. The environment had a
pH of 6-6.5 and the total amount of Cl
-
+ F
-
was 1.000ppm. The temperature was 63-65C.

Figure 87. Test rack No. 14 after 11 months

Table 31: Test results, test rack No. 14, upper stage of washer 2, Plant D.
1.4547 254 SMO 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
2.4819 Alloy C-276 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
1.4659 Uranus B66 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
1.4652 654 SMO 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
1.4563 Sanicro 28 0.000 3/12 156 - - - -
1.4565 Uranus B46 0.000 1/12 25 - - - -
1.4529 Uranus B26 0.001 0/12 - - - - -
1.4507 Uranus 52N+ 0.001 2/12 34 - - - -
1.4410 SAF 2507 0.001 3/12 63 - - - -
1.4462 Uranus 45NMo 0.001 2/12 64 - - - -
1.4439 317 LMN 0.001 1/12 97 - - - -
1.4547 254 SMO 0.000 2/12 18 - - - -
1.4565 4565 0.001 0/12 - - - - -
X= >5 pitting attacks No edge attacks present.

None of the specimens were attacked by uniform or pitting corrosion, but some of the specimens were
attacked by crevice corrosion, see figure 87. The alloys 1.4652 (654 SMO), 1.4529 (Uranus B26),
1.4659 (Uranus B66) and 2.4819 (Alloy C-276) were the only alloys not attacked, while one out of two
126

specimens of the alloys 1.4547 (254 SMO) and 1.4565 suffered slight crevice corrosion. All other
alloys were attacked by slight crevice corrosion.
Number of crevice corrosion attacks, X/12, upper part of Washer 2, test rack 14, Plant D
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1.4652 1.4547 1.4565 1.4529 1.4659 1.4565 1.4439 1.4547 1.4563 1.4507 1.4462 1.4410 2.4819
base
C
r
e
v
i
c
e

a
t
t
a
c
k
s
,

X
/
1
2
25m 97m
18m
126m
34m 64m
63m

Figure 88: Local corrosion attacks observed at the upper part of Washer 2 in Plant D, Germany.

Figure 89 shows the appearance of test rack No. 15 after 11 months exposure. The environment had a
pH of 6-6.5 and the total amount of Cl
-
+ F
-
was 1.000ppm. The temperature was 63-65C.

Figure 89. Test rack No. 15 after 11 months


127

Table 32: Test results, test rack No. 15, upper stage in washer 2, Plant D.
1.4547 254 SMO 0.001 0/12 - - - - -
2.4819 Alloy C-276 0.001 0/12 - - - - -
1.4659 Uranus B66 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
1.4652 654 SMO 0.001 0/12 - - - - -
1.4563 Sanicro 28 0.001 9/12 108 - - - -
1.4565 Uranus B46 0.001 0/12 - - - - -
1.4529 Uranus B26 0.001 0/12 - - - - -
1.4507 Uranus 52N+ 0.001 6/12 86 X
43
- - -
1.4410 SAF 2507 0.001 6/12 123 - - - -
1.4462 Uranus 45NMo 0.002 6/12 65 - - - -
1.4439 317 LMN 0.001 3/12 47 - - - -
1.4547 254 SMO 0.000 0/12 - - - - -
1.4565 4565 0.000 2/12 15 - - - -
No edge attacks present.

Also for the specimens on this test rack, uniform corrosion was no problem. See figure 90. The only
alloy not attacked at this site were 1.4652 (654 SMO), 1.4547 (254 SMO), 1.4529 (Uranus B26), 1.4659
(Uranus B66) and 2.4819 (Alloy C-276), while one out of two specimens of alloy 1.4565 was attacked
by slight crevice corrosion. All other alloys were attacked by crevice corrosion and alloy 1.4507
(Uranus B52N+) also by pitting in the base metal.

Number of crevice corrosion attacks, X/12, upper part of Washer 2, test rack 15, Plant D
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1.4652 1.4547 1.4547 1.4529 1.4659 1.4565 1.4565 1.4439 1.4563 1.4462 1.4507 1.4410 2.4819
base
C
r
e
v
i
c
e

a
t
t
a
c
k
s
,

X
/
1
2
B 15m
47m
108m
65m 86m 123m

Figure 90: Local corrosion attacks observed at the upper part of Washer 2 in Plant D,
128

Wash liquor bottom sump in washer 1
Figure 91 shows test racks WL1 and WL2, before the test start, at the bottom sump of washer 1. Figure
92 shows the appearance of test rack No. WL1, after 11 months exposure. The condensate at this stage
was around 10% HCl (pH <1, 100.000ppm Cl
-
+ F
-

Figure 91: Test racks WL1 and WL2
at the wash liquor bottom sump in
washer 1.

Figure 92: Test rack No. WL1 after
11 months exposure in the wash
liquor sump in washer 1.


129

Table 33: Test results, test rack No. WL1, wash liquor sump in washer 1, Plant D.
1.4659 Uranus B66 0.416 NA - NA NA NA NA
1.4652 654 SMO 0.407 NA - NA NA NA NA
1.4507 Uranus 52N+ >2.928
1.4410 SAF 2507 >2.330
1.4462 Uranus 45NMo >3.273
1.4439 317 LMN 2.269 NA - NA NA NA NA
1.4547 254 SMO 0.954 NA - NA NA NA NA
1.4565 4565 2.076 NA - NA NA NA NA
B=in base metal NA=not applicable due to severe uniform
H=in HAZ -= no pitting attack
F=in fusion line x= 0-5 pitting attacks
X=>5 pitting attacks

Uniform corrosion was the main problem at this site and figure 93 shows the results in a graph. None of
the alloys exposed performed well, and all the duplex grade specimens corroded away totally. The best
performing alloy was 2.4819 (Alloy C-276)

Corrosion rates, wash liquor, test rack WL1, Plant D
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
1.4529 1.4652 1.4563 1.4659 1.4547 1.4565 1.4565 1.4439 1.4410 1.4507 1.4462 2.4819
C
o
r
r
.
r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y
M
M
M

Figure 93: Corrosion rates measured in wash liquor at the bottom sump of Washer 1 in Plant
D, Germany.

130

Figure 94 shows the appearance of test rack No. WL2 after 11 months exposure. The condensate at this
-
+ F
-

Figure 94: Test rack No. WL2 after 11
months exposure in the wash liquor sump in
washer 1.

The detailed test results for the individual specimens of rack WL2 are found in table 34.

Edge attacks were not applicable. Uniform corrosion was the main problem also for the alloys on this
test rack and figure 95 shows the results in a graph. None of the alloys exposed performed well, and all
the duplex grade specimens corroded away totally. The best performing alloy was 2.4819 (Alloy C-
276).

Table 34: Test results, test rack No. WL2, wash liquor sump washer 1, Plant D.
1.4652 654 SMO 0.409 NA - NA NA NA NA
1.4507 Uranus 52N+ >2.900
1.4410 SAF 2507 >2.345
1.4462 Uranus 45NMo >3.251
1.4439 317 LMN 2.200 NA - NA NA NA NA
1.4547 254 SMO 0.950 NA - NA NA NA NA
1.4565 4565 1.938 NA - NA NA NA NA
H=in HAZ -= no pitting attack
F=in fusion line x= 0-5 pitting attacks
Edge attacks: not applicable

131

Corrosion rates, wash liquor, test rack WL2, Plant D
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
1.4652 1.4529 1.4659 1.4563 1.4547 1.4565 1.4565 1.4439 1.4410 1.4507 1.4462 2.4819
C
o
r
r
.
r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y
M
M
M

Figure 95: Corrosion rates measured in wash liquor at the bottom sump of Washer 1 in Plant D,
Germany.

4.1.5 French incineration plant Saint-Ouen, Plant E.

The observations of the specimens exposed in the Saint-Ouen incinerator show that the assembly of
welded specimen on the base plate for condensate exposure does not permit to avoid the formation of
crevice underside the specimens. This is a weak point of the chosen assembly because it is not sure that
the design between the specimen and the Teflon film was identical for all samples. On the other hand,
this phenomenon contributed to increase the value of corrosion rate that would normally represent only
the rate of uniform corrosion.

Nevertheless the results show an increase of the aggressiveness from the inlet of the scrubber to the
bottom of the chimney. Indeed, no signs of corrosion were identified in the location 1. In this area the
temperature is probably higher than the dewpoint of the raw gas and no condensate forms. The
relatively weak aggressiveness of the conditions in location 2 is a little bit surprising but the fact that
corrosion damages occur on some samples shows that the specimens were in contact with solution. In
washing liquor, uniform, pitting and crevice corrosion are the main risk identified. Then in condensate
locations, the aggressiveness increases from the outlet of the scrubber to the outlet of the droplets
filters. For the last location at the bottom of the chimney, the very aggressive conditions are mainly due
to an adherent deposit which covers all the surfaces of the duct. The chemical analysis of condensate
collected at the bottom of the chimney shows a medium not very aggressive. Several stainless steels
tested would withstand localised corrosion in this environment (including crevice corrosion). That
seems to indicate that the composition measured at the bottom of chimney is not representative of the
composition of condensates that form locally in the duct.

Since the risk of crevice corrosion is closely linked to the design of the process, we choose to separate
in two parts the list of recommended material which could be edited following this field test.
Figure 113 : the observed local corrosion for the condensate rack number 20 installed
inthe duct before the chimney in Saint-Ouen (location 7).

132

Table was erected, location by location, by considering if the risk of crevice corrosion could be
eliminated or not. Of course, in the actual condition, that seems to be difficult for location 7.

In conclusion it appears that some super austenitic grades could be used in some parts of the process.

Figure 96 : Scheme of welded
specimen.

Figure 97 : Scheme of welded specimen and principle of assembly on the condensate rack.

133

(a) drilling plan

(b) arrangement
Figure 98 : Scheme of base plate condensate rack and arrangement of welded samples on it.

(a)

(b)
Photo 1 : view of one condensate rack and one welded specimen before exposure.

134

Figure 99 : Schematic drawing of the scrubber and the chimney with locations of
exposure.

Photo 2 : view of immersion rack used by
INDUSTEEL before exposure.

135

before exposure

after 15 months

Photo 3 : rack n18 welded on the door of the hole man situated above the inlet of lime, before and
after its exposure (location 1).

before the exposure

(b) after 15 months
Photo 4 : rack n21 welded on the wall of the scrubber in washing area, before and after the
exposure (location 2).

136

(a)

(b)

(c)
Immersion rack location 3 wash liquor condensate rack location 7
in the duct before the chimney
Photo 5 : Immersion and condensate racks after 15 months of exposure.

(a) location 4

(b) location 5

c) location 6

Photo 6 : Condensate racks after 15 months of exposure between the outlet of the scrubber and
the first droplets filter (a), between the two droplets filters (b) and at the outlet of the
second droplets filter (c).

137

Table 36 : chemical composition and temperature of the clean gas at the outlet of the chimney
Average Standard deviation Max Min
Temperature (C) 66,5 1,6 69,0 64,0
Humidity (%) 18,8 1,2 20,0 17,0
CO2 (%) dry 9,1 1,0 11,9 8,2
O2 (%) dry 10,8 0,5 11,7 9,8
Ash (mg/Nm3) 9,6 4,2 17,0 4,5
NOx (in NO2, mg/Nm3) 359 42 452 295
HCl (mg/Nm3) 5,5 9,4 31,0 0,1
SOx (in SO2, mg/Nm3) 73,1 33,6 126,0 9,3
HF (mg/Nm3) 0,4 0,2 0,7 0,2
.
Table 35 : chemical composition and temperature of the raw gas at the inlet of
the scrubber.
Average Ecart type Max Min
Temperature (C) 184,6 15,1 208,0 167,0
Humidity (%) 10,0 0,9 11,4 9,3
CO2 (%) dry 9,1 0,3 9,4 8,7
O2 (%) dry 10,6 0,4 11,0 10,2
HCl (mg/Nm3) 359,2 176,9 551,0 149,0
SOx (in SO2, mg/Nm3) 92,0 22,2 123,0 65,0
HF (mg/Nm3) 2,0 1,9 5,3 0,6
138

Table 37 : Chemical composition of the condensate collected at the bottom of the
chimney.
Year 2003 2004 2005
Month 11 1 3 5 9 1 3
Average
Standard
deviation
Min Max
pH 6,20 6,87 7,00 6,74 8,00 7,70 7,00 7,07 0,60 6,20 8,00
Cl- (mg/l) 173 65,7 91,3 277 61,4 73,0 85 118 80 61 277
SO42- (mg/l) 205 70 114,2 791 116 47 236 226 258 47 791
NO3- (mg/l) 22 39 28 21,7 18,5 18,3 21,5 24 7 18 39
Ag (mg/l) <0,002 <0,005 <0,005 0,0006 <0,005 <0,005 <0,005 0,0006 - 0,0006 0,0006
Al (mg/l) 0,014 0,0247 0,29 0,013 3,071 0,331 0,108 0,5502 1,1194 0,0130 3,0710
As (mg/l) 0,012 <0,010 0,016 <0,010 <0,010 <0,010 <0,010 0,0140 0,0028 0,0120 0,0160
B (mg/l) 0,066 - 0,018 0,057 0,052 0,041 0,061 0,0492 0,0175 0,0180 0,0660
Bi (mg/l) <0,002 <0,010 <0,010 0,008 0,028 0,007 <0,010 0,0143 0,0118 0,0070 0,0280
Ca (mg/l) 121 4,82 272 133 134 5 272
Cd (mg/l) 0,487 0,0399 0,199 2,70 0,164 0,225 0,09 0,5578 0,9553 0,0399 2,7000
Co (mg/l) 0,003 <0,005 <0,005 0,005 0,001 <0,005 <0,005 0,0030 0,0020 0,0010 0,0050
Cr (mg/l) <0,002 0,0012 <0,005 <0,005 0,015 0,005 0,005 0,0066 0,0059 0,0012 0,0150
Cu (mg/l) 0,041 0,0391 0,059 0,091 0,292 0,186 0,146 0,1220 0,0930 0,0391 0,2920
Fe (mg/l) 0,005 0,0154 2,54 0,009 3,006 0,542 2,777 1,2706 1,4255 0,0050 3,0060
Hg (mg/l) <0,002 <0,010 <0,010 <0,010 <0,010 <0,010 <0,010 - - 0,0000 0,0000
Mg (mg/l) 0,071 <0,005 6,77 7,56 6,024 4,277 4,362 4,8440 2,6763 0,0710 7,5600
Mn (mg/l) 0,103 0,0299 0,058 0,127 0,04 0,034 0,045 0,0624 0,0377 0,0299 0,1270
Mo (mg/l) 0,003 <0,005 <0,005 0,009 0,004 <0,010 <0,010 0,0053 0,0032 0,0030 0,0090
Nb (mg/l) <0,005 <0,010 <0,010 <0,010 <0,010 <0,010 <0,010 - - 0,0000 0,0000
Ni (mg/l) 0,021 0,0048 0,017 0,026 0,009 0,013 0,012 0,0147 0,0072 0,0048 0,0260
P (mg/l) 0,046 0,0462 0,163 0,198 0,53 0,089 0,14 0,1732 0,1676 0,0460 0,5300
Pb (mg/l) 0,007 0,0241 0,27 0,6 1,226 1,658 2,804 0,9413 1,0284 0,0070 2,8040
Sb (mg/l) 0,044 0,0233 0,037 <0,005 0,029 0,067 0,133 0,0556 0,0409 0,0233 0,1330
Si (mg/l) <0,005 <0,010 0,998 0,722 2,789 2,87 2,896 2,0550 1,0959 0,7220 2,8960
Sn (mg/l) 0,013 0,0036 <0,010 <0,010 0,079 0,026 0,01 0,0263 0,0306 0,0036 0,0790
Ti (mg/l) <0,002 <0,010 <0,005 <0,005 0,011 <0,005 <0,005 0,0110 - 0,0110 0,0110
V (mg/l) <0,020 0,0141 <0,005 <0,005 0,006 <0,005 <0,005 0,0101 0,0057 0,0060 0,0141
W (mg/l) 0,027 0,0447 <0,010 <0,010 <0,010 <0,010 <0,010 0,0359 0,0125 0,0270 0,0447
Zn (mg/l) 22,8 2,352 8,54 2,81 6,585 9,521 4,956 8,2234 6,9690 2,3520 22,8000
Zr (mg/l) <0,002 <0,005 <0,005 <0,005 <0,005 <0,005 <0,005 - - - -

139

(a) Before cleaning - recto

(b) After cleaning - recto

(c) After
cleaning - verso

(c) After cleaning - verso
Photo 7 : rack n18 after the exposure
(location 1 : above the inlet of lime).
(location 2 : in the washing area).
S31266 1.4547
1.4507 1.4565 1.4652 2.4819
1.4529 1.4410 1.4439 1.4563
1.4547 1.4462
140




(location 4 : outlet scrubber, before the
droplets filter)
(location 5 : in the droplets filter)
S31266 1.4547
1.4507 1.4565 1.4652 2.4819
1.4529 1.4410 1.4439 1.4563
1.4547 1.4462
141




(location 6 : at the outlet of the droplets
filter).
(location 7 : in the pipe before the chimney).
S31266 1.4547
1.4507 1.4565 1.4652 2.4819
1.4529 1.4410 1.4439 1.4563
1.4547 1.4462
142

Before cleaning recto

(b) After cleaning recto

(c) After cleaning verso
Photo 13 : immersion rack n1&2 after the exposure
(location 3 : in washing liquor).
1.4439 1.4462 1.4410 1.4507 1.4529
1.4565 1.4563 1.4652 S31266 2.4819 1.4547
143

Photo 14 : UNS S31266 after exposure in loc.
2
Photo 15 : EN 1.4410 after exposure in
loc. 3

Photo 16 : EN 1.4439 after exposure in loc. 3 Photo 17 : EN 1.4529 after exposure in
loc. 4

loc. 4
144

loc. 6

6
Photo 23 : UNS S31266 after exposure
in loc. 6
(verso)

loc. 7
145

7
Photo 27 : EN 1.4563 after exposure in
loc. 7

loc. 7
(verso)

loc. 7

146

Figure 100:the observed local corrosion for the condensate rack number 18 installed
above the inlet of lime in Saint Ouen (location 1)

Figure 101 : Corrosion rates in m/year for the condensate rack number 18 installed
above the inlet of lime in Saint Ouen (location 1)

147

Figure 102: Corrosion rates in m/year for the condensate rack number 21 installed in the
washing area in Saint-Ouen (location 2).

Figure 103 : The observed local corrosion for the condensate rack number 21
installed in the washing area in Saint-Ouen (location 2).

148

Figure 104 : corrosion rates in m/year for the washing liquor racks number 1&2
installed in Saint-Ouen (location 3).

Figure 105 : the observed local corrosion for the washing liquor racks number 1&2
installed in Saint-Ouen (location 3).
149

Figure 106 : Corrosion rates in m/year for the condensate rack number 17 installed at the
outlet of the scrubber and before the first droplets filter in Saint-Ouen (location 4).

Figure 107 : the observed local corrosion for the condensate rack number 17 installed at the
outlet of the scrubber and before the first droplets filter in Saint-Ouen (location 4).
150

Figure 108 : corrosion rates in m/year for the condensate rack number 19 installed between
the two droplets filters in Saint-Ouen (location 5).

between the two droplets filters in Saint-Ouen (location 5).

151

Figure 110 : Corrosion rates in m/year for the condensate rack number 16 installed
at the outlet of the second droplets filter in Saint-Ouen (location 6).

Figure 111 : the observed local corrosion for the condensate rack number 16 installed at
the outlet of the second droplets filter in Saint-Ouen (location 6).

152

Figure 112 : corrosion rates in mm/year for the condensate rack number 20 installed in
the duct before the chimney in Saint-Ouen (location 7).

inthe duct before the chimney in Saint-Ouen (location 7).

153

Table 38 : Possible recommendation for materials versus identified corrosion risk for stainless
steels tested in Saint-Ouen incinerator (P = pitting, C= crevice and U = uniform).
Possible recommended
grades
Location Operating conditions
Identifie
d
corrosio
n risk
Without
crevice risk
With
crevice
risk
1above
washing area
T > dewpoint of the raw gas None All tested grades
2 washing
area
Raw gas

HCl 550mg/Nm3
SOx 125mg/Nm3
HF 5mg/Nm3
O2 = 10%
Humidity = 10%
P, C
EN 1.4565
EN 1.4529
EN 1.4547
EN S31266
En 1.4652
EN 2.4819
EN 1.4565
EN 1.4529
EN 1.4547
En 1.4652
EN 2.4819
3 - washing
liquor
pH = 1.5

30000ppm [Cl-]
40000ppm
P, C, U
EN 1.4565
EN 1.4529
EN 1.4547
EN S31266
En 1.4652
EN 2.4819
En 1.4652
EN 2.4819
4 outlet of
scrubber
P, C
EN 1.4565
EN 1.4529
EN 1.4547
EN S31266
En 1.4652
EN 2.4819
En 1.4652
EN 2.4819
5 in droplets
filter
P, C
EN S31266
En 1.4652
EN 2.4819
En 1.4652
EN 2.4819
6 - outlet of
droplets filter

P, C, U
EN S31266
En 1.4652
EN 2.4819
En 1.4652

7 duct to
chimney
Clean gas

HCl 30mg/Nm3
SOx 125mg/Nm3
HF 1mg/Nm3
O2 = 10%
Humidity = 20%
T 70C

P, C, U
En 1.4652
EN 2.4819
None

4.1.6 Results of field tests
At the end of the exposure, all samples were cleaned (see from Photo 7 to Photo 13). Then optical
observations were done and corrosion rate calculated considering that uniform corrosion occurred on
all sides. However, a lot of case of corrosion underside the welded specimens (crevice type) have
been observed (see Photo 23, for example), hence the corrosion rate should be considered with
precaution.
154

Except for location 5, the corrosion resistance of the two reference samples in EN 1.4547 appears to
be very similar. This indicate that corrosion conditions were homogenous for each condensate racks.
In all condensate locations, no sign of corrosion was observed on the base plate in EN 2.4605 nickel
base alloy.
Location 1 (above inlet of lime, see Photo 7, 3b, figures 100 and 101)

A lot of samples were covered with a lot of ash (see Photo 3b). After cleaning and whatever the
grade, no sign of localised corrosion was observed. Corrosion rates are very low (< 1m/y).

Location 2 (washing area, see Photo 8, figures 102 and 103.)
A lot of samples were covered with a rust deposit that is probably corrosion products from carbon
steel used for duct situated above the scrubber (see Photo 4b and Photo 8a). The austenitic grade EN
1.4439 and EN 1.4563, and all the duplex grades suffered from pitting corrosion. Slight crevices (not
very deep) have been also observed on EN 1.4439, EN 1.4563 and UNS S31266 (see for example
Photo 14). After 15 month of exposure that seams to indicate that these grades are able to withstand
crevice corrosion propagation. For grades that not suffer from localised corrosion, corrosion rate are
lower than 1m/y (against < 3,5m/y for the other grades).

Location 3 (wash liquor, see Photo 13, Figure 104 and Figure 105)
3 groups of grades may be identified from their value of corrosion rate. A first made with En 1.4439
and EN 1.4410 which have the highest values (about 0,1mm/y), a second with duplex grade EN
1.4462 and super duplex grade EN 1.4507 for which values are in the range 20-60m/year and a third
with all the others grades for which the values of corrosion rate are less than 10m/year. Like in
location 2, only EN 1.4439, EN 1.4563 grades and all the duplex grades suffered from pitting
corrosion. On the other hand, numerous and deep crevices were observed under washers for all the
grades with the exception of EN 1.4652 stainless steel and EN 2.4819 Ni-base alloy (one very slight
attack for the last) . Examples of degradation are presented on Photo 15 and Photo 16.

Location 4 (outlet of the scrubber, see Photo 9, figures 106 and 107)
The highest corrosion rates were observed for EN 1.4439, EN 1.4563, EN 1.4529 and duplex grades
but they remain weak (20 90m/y). The grades that suffered from pitting corrosion are the same
than in location 2 and 3. As in location 3, only EN 1.4652 stainless steel and EN 2.4819 Ni-base alloy
did not suffer from crevice corrosion under washer (examples of crevice corrosion are presented on
Photo 17 and Photo 18). For some of the other grades, the number and the depth of crevices are
nevertheless lower than in location 3. Photo 19 shows a particular attack of EN 1.4410 super duplex
grade along the heat affected zone.

Location 5 (between the two droplets filters, see Photo 10, Figure 108 and 109)
Results are very similar to those obtained in location 4 with the exception of :
- EN 1.4547 grade which did not suffer from crevice corrosion but from pitting corrosion in the
weld (see Photo 20)
- EN 1.4565 and EN 1.4563 grades on which pits were observed.
Location 6 (outlet of the second droplet filters, see Photo 11, Figure 110 and 111)
The corrosion rate of three grades are higher than 0,1mm/y : EN 1.4439 (0,33mm/y), EN 1.4410
(0,2mm/y) and UNS S31266 (0,13mm/y). For this last grade, a pronounced corrosion underside
certainly contributes to this value (see Photo 23). Only EN 1.4652, UNS S31266 and EN 2.4819
grades withstand pitting corrosion and only EN 1.4652 resist to crevice corrosion (slight crevice
attacks for EN 2.4819). For example the following damages were observed :
- crevice corrosion under washer and pitting corrosion in the weld for EN 1.4547 super austenitic
stainless steel (see Photo 21),
- crevice corrosion under washer and underside the specimen for UNS S31266 super austenitic
stainless steel (Photo 22 and Photo 23),
155

- pitting corrosion in base metal and weld with crevice corrosion under washer for EN 1.4410
super duplex stainless steel (see Photo 24).
Location 7 (pipe before the chimney, see Photo 12, Figure 112 and 113)

A large amount of solid ash deposit covered base plate and specimens and promoted the development of
crevice corrosion on the upper side of some specimens. The corrosion rates are in the range 0,09
0,13mm/y except for EN 1.4439 (but with a pronounced corrosion underside, see Photo 30) and duplex
grades which haves higher values and except for the EN 2.4819 nickel base alloy which have the
lowest value (0,03mm/y). Only EN 1.4652 stainless steel and the nickel base alloy withstand pitting
corrosion. Crevices under washer were observed on all specimens. For example the following damages
were identified :

- crevice corrosion under washer for the nickel base alloy (numerous but not very deep attack,
see Photo 25),
- pitting corrosion in base metal and crevice corrosion under washer for UNS S31266 super
austenitic stainless steel (see Photo 26),
- pitting corrosion in base metal and crevice corrosion under washer and under ash deposit for
EN 1.4563 super austenitic stainless steel (see Photo 27),
- knife attack along the heat affected zone for EN 1.4410 super duplex grade (see Photo 28 and
Photo 29),
- crevice corrosion under washer and under ash deposit on the weld for EN 1.4547 super
austenitic stainless steel (see Photo 31).
4.2. Task4b). Exposure of cooled tubes
The exposure of cooled tubes was performed in one of the plants used for field-testing. The results were
to be compared to those from laboratory testing in synthetic condensates according to the tasks 3b and
3c.

An introductory test of the device for cooled tube exposures was performed in plant A. The sample was
produced of a tube of the steel 1.4547 with the dimensions: L=108 mm, = 20 mm and t = 1.5 mm. At
the exposure a 12-mm length at one end of the sample was covered by a PTFE bushing for fastening of
the sample to a supporting thermally insulated tube. A lid of 1.4547, which was TIG-welded to the tube,
closed the other end of the sample. Two thermocouples for registration of the skin temperature of the
tube were located in drilled 1-mm holes through the tube wall. The thermocouples were welded to the
tube by TIG welding from the outside of the sample. The chemical analysis of the tube material is
shown in table 1. The analyses of the filler material and the shielding gas used are shown in table 2.

The cooling of the sample is regulated by means of the two thermocouples in the sample, each of which
is connected to a switch that opens or closes a valve for compressed air, which is flowing through the
tube sample. Thus, for temperature regulation, either none, 1 or 2 valves may be open.

The skin temperature of the sample was kept at 60 1.5
o
C during 140 hours exposure. According to
results from task 2, a condensate precipitated at 60
o
C in plant A would have the pH value 0,6 and the
main anion concentrations: 16 g/l Cl
-
and 8 g/l SO
4
2-
. The condensate on the surface of the cooled tube
was thus expected to have the same composition.

In this introductory test the sample was however installed in a duct with flue gas, which was not cleaned
mechanically and therefore contained ash-particles. It appeared when the sample was removed for
inspection that the ash had stuck to the moist metal surface and formed a grey scale. The scale had
uneven thickness with a maximum of about 2 mm. After removal of the scale by brushing and rinsing in
water, the tube surface showed a severely corroded surface both on parts with thick and thin scale while
156

the weld filler material had only slightly etched spots. The attack on the tube may be characterised as
uniform with uneven distribution. Due to the presence of the ash-scale the test result may not be
representative of conditions in pure condensate. Thus the weight loss was not determined since it should
be of little value. The largest local corrosion depth was measured using a metallurgical microscope and
was found to be 0.46 mm. This corrosion depth was however measured versus the close surrounding on
the tube, which was also attacked to some extent. Consequently the real corrosion depth was larger than
the measured value. A typical appearance of the corroded tube surface is shown in figure 114. Slightly
etched filler material surrounded by the corroded tube surface is shown in figure 115. The role of the
scale in the corrosion mechanism is uncertain.

Figure 114: Typical appearance on the surface of the cooled tube of the steel 1.4547 after 140 h
exposure with the skin temperature 60 1.5
o
C in untreated flue gas in Plant A.

Figure 115: Slightly etched filler material surrounded by the corroded cooled tube of the steel 1.4547
after 140 h exposure with the skin temperature 60 1.5
o
C in untreated flue gas in Plant A.

A second exposure of a cooled tube was also performed in plant A. To avoid deposition of
particles from the gas on the tube surface, the exposure was this time made in a flue gas duct at
a position where the gas had passed a mechanical textile filter. In similarity to the previous test,
the sample was produced of a tube of the steel 1.4547. The tube sample had the same
dimensions and was produced in the same way as the previous sample.
157

The skin temperature of the sample was kept at 60 1.5
o
C during 165 hours exposure. Consequently
the precipitated condensate was also in this case supposed to have a pH near 0,6 and the main anion
concentrations 16 g/l Cl
-
and 8 g/l SO
4
2-
.

For the evaluation, the tube-sample was cleaned with water and a soft brush followed with finally
submerging in 25 % HNO
3
for 5 minutes and was finally dried. The corrosion attack was uniform with
exception for some minor localised attacks in the fusion zone of the weld at the lid. The corrosion rate
was determined by determination of weight loss assuming that all corrosion was uniform. Using the
density 8.0 given by the steel producer, the corrosion rate was found to be 1.49 mm / year.

The exposure of cooled tubes constitutes a comparatively small part of the project. It may be concluded
however, that this testing has been successful since the test device performed very well. The test
method might be a useful tool for simple corrosion measurements e.g. for comparative testing of tube
materials under condensation conditions.

5 List of figures and tables
5.1 List of figures:
Figure 1 a c. The figures show schematically three different designs of wet cleaning systems for waste
incineration plants
Figure 2: Principle outline of a tube- or plate condenser
Figure 3: Principle outline of a scrubber condenser
Figure 4. Schematic construction of flue gas cleaning system in Plant A
Figure 5. Analysed gas compositions from Plant A after the particle filter, for the days on which
condensation collection was performed
Figure 6 Schematic sketch of equipment for electrochemical determination of flue gas dew point
Figure 7 Schematic sketch of the flue gas cooler
Figure 8. Dominant anionic and cationic species present in the condensate analyses from plants A, B
and C
Figure 9. Summary of analyses for all three plants, expressed in terms of the molar concentrations of the
dominant species
Figure 10 pH and molar concentrations of H+ and Cl- as a function of condensation temperature. Thick
lines show the range of maximum condensation temperatures for each plant. These represent the limits
to which it is relevant to extrapolate the analysis data. Circled crosses show the conditions selected for
laboratory tests in simulated condensate
Figure 12. S/Cl ratios in the gas phase (left) and in the condensate (right) from Plant A. The sulphite
(SO
3
2-
) levels in the condensate were below measurable limits so only sulphate is included
Figure 13 Thermodynamic calculations of gas-condensate equilibria for different gases
2
12-20%H
2
O, 9%O
2
, 6-600ppm HCl, balance Ar. The asymptotic increase in the concentration indicates
the dew point. Also included are measured points from Plant A
Figure 15: The Avesta Cell
Figure 16: Average CPT values according to ASTM G150 obtained in 3M NaBr. Test surfaces wet
ground to 320 grit
Figure 17: Average CPT values according to ASTM G150 obtained in 1M NaCl. Test surfaces wet
ground to 320 grit
Figure 18(a) Polarisation curves for the three austenitic grades in HCl environments
Figure 19. Corrosion potentials (lighter bars and right scale) and current maxima for steels polarised in
simulated condensation environments containing HCl at 50C and 70C. * denotes specimen for which
pitting occurred at high potentials
Figure 20 Current maxima and corrosion potentials for 1.4439 and 1.4547 in the various environments.
HCl/H
2
SO
4
denotes sulphate replacement (environment 6) and HCl+H
2
SO
4
is sulphate addition
(environment 7)
158

Figure 21. Pitting potentials for 1.4439 in the various environments
Figure 22 Polarisation curves for 1.4439 and 1.4547 in simulated condensate environments based on
HCl containing various anions and cations
Figure 23 Polarisation curves for 1.4439 and 1.4410 showing the effect of aeration / deaeration
Figure 24 Corrosion potentials and current maxima for 1.4439 and 1.4547 in three environments. Also
comparison (dark bars) with corrosion potentials measured in thin electrolyte films by
Korrosionsinstitutet
Figure 25 Schematic drawing of test coupon for field exposure, in mm
Figure 26: The type of spool rack used for immersed coupons with crevice formers
Figure 27: Schematic picture of the test device for lab-testing of creviced coupons
Figure 28. Corrosion rate of parallel samples in spool racks immersed in 0.8 M HCl +0.2 M H
2
SO
4
at
50
o
C for 216 hours
Figure 29: Corrosion rate of the samples in figure 28 as function of their Ni content
Figure 30: Corrosion rate of the samples in figure 28 as function of their Mo content
Figure 31: Knife-line attack along weld in 1.4410
Figure 32(a). Polarisation curves for creviced and uncreviced specimens of austentic steels in 0.8M HCl
at 70C
Figure 33(a-c) Furnace setup for laboratory condensation testing with external temperature monitor
Figure 34 Appearance of specimens after laboratory condensation tests. The position of the different
specimens is the same in all three cases
Figure 35. Corrosion rates in laboratory condensation tests. There were two specimens of 1.4547 on
each rack, the lighter bar is for specimen . Note the difference between these duplicates in Test 1,
probably caused by uneven cooling of the baseplate
Figure 36. Powder XRD with CuKg radiation of green deposits on 1.4547 and 1.4462 in Test 1.
Intensity peaks marked(x) are from Si internal standard, those marked (o) are identified as FeCl
2
.4H
2
O
(JCPDS 16-123).Zero point offset for 1.4462 for clarity
Figure 37: Schematic drawing of the specimens used in the glass loup laboratory condensation, in mm.

Figure 38: The set-up used in [3] and also used for the condensate with only hydrochloric acid
Figure 39: The modified set-up with both hydrochloric and sulphuric acid
Figure 40: Test specimen used for the field corrosion tests
Figure 41: Example of condensation rack
Figure 42: Specimen assembly
Figure 43 The location of the different test specimens on the Alloy C-276 base plate
Figure 44: Principle of test rack used for tests in wash liquors
Figure 45: Schematic drawing of the Hgdalen plant. Test racks were installed at positions B and C. It
was planed to exposure a rack at position A
Figure 46: The waste incineration plant, Plant B, in Sweden
Figure 47: Field corrosion test sites in the wet cleaning stage at the waste incineration plant, Plant B, in
Sweden.. 8=textile filter, 9=scrubber (pre-cooler) made of glass-fibre reinforced plastic, 10=254 SMO
flue gas condenser (the parts above and below the condenser are made of glass-fibre reinforced plastic),
11=re-heater, 12=gas outlet to chimney
Figure 48 Test rack No. 3 for exposure at the top of the condenser
Figure 49 Close picture of site for installing rack during service in Uppsala
Figure 50: Schematic sketch of the German plant, Plant D
Figure 51: Sketch of the flue gas cleaning system in the German plant. Condensation test racks were
exposed in both the lower and the upper stage in washer 1 and in the upper stage in washer 2. Wash
liquor racks were exposed at the bottom sump of washer 1
Figure 52: Condensate test racks No. 14 and 15 for exposure in washer 2
Figure 53: Wash liquor test rack No. WL1 for exposure at the bottom sump of washer 1
Figure 54 Specimens exposed in Plant A)
Figure 55: General and localised corrosion rates for samples exposed in Hgdalen in the neutral zone
Figure 56: General and localised corrosion rates for the second set of samples exposed in Hgdalen in
the neutral zone
Figure 57: General and local corrosion rates for one of the two racks installed in the inlet of the
condenser in Hgdalen, position C
159

Figure 58: General and local corrosion for the second of the two racks installed in the inlet of the
condenser in Hgdalen, position C
Figure 59: The flue gas inlet to the pre-cooler. Test rack No. 1 was exposed mounted onto the manhole
cover seen in the picture. The flue gas (135C) enters from the left. To the right, the three spray lances
are seen. The wash liquor is injected and sprays to the right. The tube in the centre of the manhole cover
is used for diluting the wash liquor with water. The wash liquor has a pH of 0.7-1.5 and the temperature
is 60-70C
Figure 60: Test rack No. 1 after almost 7 months exposure. The arrow to the right points to the base
plate edge facing down during the exposure
Figure 61: Corrosion rates measured on specimens exposed at the inlet to the pre-cooler in the wet
cleaning stage at the incineration plant in Sweden, Plant B
Figure 62: Attack on fusion line
Figure 63: Local corrosion attacks observed on specimens exposed at the inlet to the pre-cooler in the
wet cleaning stage at the incineration plant in Sweden, Plant B
Figure 64: The top of the pre-cooler. Test rack No. 2 was exposed mounted onto the manhole cover
seen in the picture. At this site the moisturised flue gas enters from below and has a temperature of
around 50-70C
Figure 66: Corrosion rates measured at the top of the pre-cooler in the wet cleaning stage at the
incineration plant in Sweden, Plant B
Figure 67: Local corrosion attacks observed at the top of the pre-cooler in the wet cleaning stage at the
Figure 68: The top of the condenser. Test rack No. 3 was exposed mounted onto the manhole cove
shown in the picture. The flue gas enters from above. Above the manhole, the spray lance for the wash
liquor is visible. The wash liquor sprays downwards to keep the top of the condenser wet. The flue gas
temperature at the top of the condenser is around 50-70C and the temperature is around 30C when the
gas leaves the condenser
Figure 70: Corrosion rates measured at the top of the condenser in the wet cleaning stage at the
Figure 71: Local corrosion attacks observed at the top of the condenser in the wet cleaning stage at the
Figure 72: The wash liquor buffer tank. Test racks No. WL1 and WL2 were exposed hanging down into
the spray water. The material in the buffer tank is glass fibre reinforced plastic
Figure 73: Test racks No. WL1 and WL2 after almost 7 months exposure
Figure 74: Local corrosion attacks observed in the wash liquor buffer tank in the wet cleaning stage at
the incineration plant in Sweden, Plant B
Figure 75 General and local corrosion rates in the field exposure in Uppsala
Figure 76: Test rack No. 10 after 11 months exposure in the lower stage of washer 1. The specimens
have faced the up streaming flue gas. The specimens of grades 1.4547, 1.4507, 1.4410, 1.4462 and
1.4439 are missing. The specimen fragment at the lower left is either grade 1.4547 or 1.4439 as it is not
magnetic
Figure 77: Corrosion rates measured at the lower part of Washer 1 in Germany, Plant D. The specimen
faced the up streaming flow gas
Figure 78: Test rack No. 11 after 11 months exposure in the lower stage of washer 1. The specimens
faced dripping condensate. The specimens of grades 1.4507, 1.4410, 1.4462 and 1.4565 are missing
Figure 79: Corrosion rates measured at the lower part of Washer 1 in Plant D, Germany. The specimen
faced dripping condensate
Figure 80: Test racks exposed at the upper level of washer 1. Test rack No. 12 facing down and test
rack No. 13 facing up
Figure 81: Test rack No. 12 after 11 months exposure in the upper stage of washer 1. The specimens
Figure 82: Corrosion rates at the upper part of Washer 1 at Plant D, Germany. The specimen faced the
up streaming flue gas
Figure 83 Local corrosion attacks observed at the upper part of Washer 1 at Plant D, Germany. The
specimens faced the up streaming flue gas
160

Figure 84 Test rack No. 13 after 11 months exposure in the upper stage of washer 1. The specimens
faced dripping condensate
Figure 85 Uniform corrosion rates measured at the upper part of Washer 1 in Plant D, Germany. The
specimens faced dripping condensate
Figure 86: Local corrosion attacks observed at the upper part of Washer 1 in Plant D, Germany. The
specimens faced dripping condensate
Figure 87 Test rack No. 14 after 11 months exposure in the upper stage of washer 2
Figure 88: Local corrosion attacks observed at the upper part of Washer 2 in Plant D, Germany
Figure 89 Test rack No. 15 after 11 months exposure in the upper stage of washer 2
Figure 90: Local corrosion attacks observed at the upper part of Washer 2 in Plant D, Germany
Figure 91: Test racks WL1 and WL2 at the wash liquor bottom sump in washer 1
Figure 92: Test rack No. WL1 after 11 months exposure in the wash liquor sump in washer 1
Germany
Figure 94: Test rack No. WL2 after 11 months exposure in the wash liquor sump in washer 1
Germany
Figure 96 : schema of welded specimen
Figure 97 : schema of welded specimen and principle of assembly on the condensate rack
Figure 98 : schema of base plate condensate rack and arrangement of welded samples on it
Figure 99 : schematic drawing of the scrubber and the chimney with locations of exposure
Figure 100 : corrosion rates in m/year for the condensate rack number 18 installed above the inlet of
lime in Saint-Ouen (location 1)
Figure 101 : the observed local corrosion for the condensate rack number 18 installed above the inlet of
lime in Saint-Ouen (location 1)
Figure 102 : corrosion rates in m/year for the condensate rack number 21 installed in the washing area
in Saint-Ouen (location 2)
Figure 103 : the observed local corrosion for the condensate rack number 21 installed in the washing
area in Saint-Ouen (location 2)
Figure 104 : corrosion rates in m/year for the washing liquor racks number 1&2 installed in Saint-
Ouen (location 3)
Figure 105 : the observed local corrosion for the washing liquor racks number 1&2 installed in Saint-
Ouen (location 3)
Figure 106 : corrosion rates in m/year for the condensate rack number 17 installed at the outlet of the
scrubber and before the first droplets filter in Saint-Ouen (location 4)
Figure 107 : the observed local corrosion for the condensate rack number 17 installed at the outlet of the
scrubber and before the first droplets filter in Saint-Ouen (location 4)
Figure 108 : corrosion rates in m/year for the condensate rack number 19 installed between the two
droplets filters in Saint-Ouen (location 5)
Figure 109 : the observed local corrosion for the condensate rack number 19 installed between the two
droplets filters in Saint-Ouen (location 5)
Figure 110 : corrosion rates in m/year for the condensate rack number 16 installed at the outlet of the
second droplets filter in Saint-Ouen (location 6)
Figure 111 : the observed local corrosion for the condensate rack number 16 installed at the outlet of the
second droplets filter in Saint-Ouen (location 6)
Figure 112 : corrosion rates in mm/year for the condensate rack number 20 installed in the duct before
the chimney in Saint-Ouen (location 7)
Figure 113 : the observed local corrosion for the condensate rack number 20 installed in the duct before
the chimney in Saint-Ouen (location 7)
Figure 114: Typical appearance on the surface of the cooled tube of the steel 1.4547 after 140 h
exposure with the skin temperature 60 1.5
o
C in untreated flue gas in Plant A
Figure 115: Slightly etched filler material surrounded by the corroded cooled tube of the steel 1.4547
after 140 h exposure with the skin temperature 60 1.5
o
C in untreated flue gas in Plant A

161

5.2 List of Tables
Table 1. Compilation of gas analyses from waste incineration plants from . Also included is data from
Plant A (one of several located in Hgdalen) in the current investigation
Table 2 Measurements and gas condensation in the three Swedish plants
Table 3 Location and condensation temperature of analysed samples
Table 4 Results of condensate analyses, showing the most significant species present
Table 5 Results of wash liquor analyses showing the most significant species present. Those designated
E1D3 were obtained from the plant. Analyses from the D plant are averages of between 9 and 16
measurements during the period January 2003-April 2004
Table 6 Maximum levels of other analysed species in condensate from waste incineration plants
2
(or H
2
SO
4
) as a
function of water content
Table 8. The tested materials and their chemical composition
Table 9. Filler material and shielding gas used for welded plate coupons and tube specimens

Table 10: CPT values according to ASTM G150 obtained in 3M NaBr. Test surfaces wet ground to 320
grit.
Table 11: CPT values according to ASTM G150 obtained in 1M NaCl. Test surfaces wet ground to 320
grit
Table 12. Steel grades used for electrochemical investigations
Table 13 Environments used for electrochemical tests
Table 15: Test welding material used for welding the test specimens produced at SMT
Table 15: Results of exposure of creviced steel panels immersed in 0.2M HCl at 50C during 648 hours
Table 16: Results of exposure of creviced steel panels in 0.8M HCl at 50C during 456 hours
Table 17: The concentration of acid in the condensates formed during the experiments in the Dew point
cell, four-day exposure. Test no 5 was performed without test specimens in the cell
Table 18: The weight losses during the experiments 1, 2 and 4. Position number 3 is always a reference
specimen of type AISI 304L material. Position no 1 is in the inlet of the condenser and position 5 in the
outlet
Table 19: The concentration of acid in the condensate formed during the experiments in the Dew point
cell, four-day exposure, two measurements per day in the morning and the afternoo
Table 20: The weight losses during the experiments. Position number 3 is always a reference specimen
of type AISI 304L material. Position no 1 is in the inlet of the condenser and position 5 in the outlet, the
other positions are in-between
Table 21: Materials used in the condensate and wash liquor field tests
Table 22: Test results, flue gas inlet to pre-cooler, Plant B
Table 23: Test results, top of pre-cooler, Plant B
Table 24: Test results, top of condenser, Plant B
Table 25: Test results, wash liquor buffer tank, rack WL1, Plant B
Table 26: Test results, wash liquor buffer tank, rack WL2, Plant B
Table 27:. Test results, test rack No. 10, lower stage of washer 1, Plant D
Table 28:. Test results, test rack No. 11, lower stage in washer 1, Plant D
Table 29:. Test results, test rack No. 12, upper stage of washer 1, Plant D
Table 30: Test results, test rack No. 13, upper stage in washer 1, Plant D
Table 31: Test results, test rack No. 14, upper stage of washer 2, Plant D
Table 32:. Test results, test rack No. 15, upper stage in washer 2, Plant D
Table 33:. Test results, test rack No. WL1, wash liquor sump in washer 1, Plant D
Table 34:. Test results, test rack No. WL2, wash liquor sump washer 1, Plant D
Table 35:.Chemical composition and temperature of the raw gas at the inlet of the scrubber
Table 36:Chemical composition and temperature of the clean gas at the outlet of the chimney
Table 37: Chemical composition of the condensate collected at the bottom of the chimney
Table 38: Possible recommendations for material versus identified corroson risk for stainless steels
tested in Saint-Ouen incinerator

162

6. List of references

1
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(1997) 505-518
2
. R. Plur: Incinerating municipal and industrial waste. Ed Richard W. Bruyers. Hemisphere Publ Corp 1991 pp
47-70
3
Y. Kawahara, H. . Nakamura, E. Shibuya, K. Yukawa. Paper 564, NACE Corrosion 95
4
. J. Mayrhuber, H. Lerjak: VGB Conference Research in power plant technology 1993 24/25 feb 1993
5
. H. H. Krause, P. L. Daniel. J. D: Corrosion of boiler tube alloys in refuse firing : shredded vs bulk refuse.
Materials Performance 33:8 (1994) pp 57-62
6
. E. Hggblom, L. Nylf: Materials advanced power engineering, Ed. P. Coutsoudaris et al. Kluwer Academie
Publishers Part II (1994) 1597-1606
7.
Yen-Hsiung Kiang: Predicting dewpoits of acid gases, Chemical Engineering Feb 9
th
(1981) p127
8.
W. M. M. Huijbregts, R. G. I. Leferink: Latest advances in the understanding of acid dewpoint corrosion:
corrosion and stress corrosion cracking in cobustion gas condensates. Anti Corrosion Methods and Materials 51: 3
(2004) 173-188
9. R.Pettersson, J. Flyg: Electrochemical evaluation of pitting and crevice corrosion of stainless steels in NaCl and
NaBr. Proc. 13
th
Scandinavian Corrosion Congress,2004
10. M.Nordling et.al. Materialval vid rkgasrening, Vrmeforsk Service AB Stockholm, 2004. In Swedish.
11. L.Troselius, Polarisation performance of stainless steels in H
2
SO
4
and HCl, Corrosion Science, vol 11 pp 437-
484. Pergamon Press 1971.
12. Q.J.M. Slaiman, Journal of Petroleum Research. Vol 4 (2), pp 139-151, (1985).
13. U. Kiviskk, Corrosion Science. Vol 45 pp 485-495 (2003).

163

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