Eth Diss 16707

Diss. ETH No.
16707
Use of FACTS Devices for
Power Flow Control and
Damping of Oscillations in
Power Systems
A dissertation submitted to the
SWISS FEDERAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ZURICH
for the degree of
Doctor of Technical Sciences
presented by
RUSEJLA SADIKOVI
C
Master of Science, Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
University of Tuzla
born October 14
th
, 1969
in Tuzla, Bosna and Hecegovina
accepted on the recommendation of
Prof. Dr. Goran Andersson, examiner
Prof. Dr. Caludio A. Ca nizares, co-examiner
2006
Acknowledgments
This dissertation presents the results of my research done at the Power
system Laboratory of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH)
during the years 2002 2004.
First of all I would like to express my deep gratitude to my advisor
Prof. Goran Andersson for giving me the opportunity to work on this
project. His valuable suggestions and his encouragement and patience
have been a big help for me over the last for years.
I am very grateful to Dr. Petr Korba four his skilled guidance, valuable
comments, stimulating discussions and support throughout this project.
Special thanks go to Prof. Claudio A. Ca nizares for accepting to co-
referee this thesis.
I also would like to thank my colleagues at the laboratory for the en-
joyable discussions and friendly atmosphere. I particularly thank my
oce-mates Dr. Andrei Karpatchev and Mirjana Milosevic for the re-
laxed work atmosphere in our oce. I am very grateful as well to Maria
Lourdes Steiner-Igcasenza for proofreading this thesis.
Finally, I would like to extend my deepest gratitude and personal thanks
to those closest to me. In particular, I would like to thank my husband
Adnan, my son Berin and my parents for their support, encouragement
and understanding.
Rusejla Sadikovic
3
Abstract
Due to the deregulation of the electrical market, diculty in acquiring
rights-of-way to build new transmission lines, and steady increase in
power demand, maintaining power system stability becomes a dicult
and very challenging problem. In large, interconnected power systems,
power system damping is often reduced, leading to lightly damped elec-
tromechanical modes of oscillations. Implementation of new equipment
consisting high power electronics based technologies such as Flexible
Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS) and proper con-
troller design become essential for improvement of operation and con-
trol of power systems.
The aim of this dissertation is to examine the ability of FACTS de-
vices, such as Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC), Unied
Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and Static VAr Compensator (SVC)
for power ow control and damping of electromechanical oscillations in
a power system. A power ow control strategy is based on linearization
of active and reactive power ows around an operating point. A control
strategy for damping of oscillations, including several FACTS devices
and PSSs, is based on dierent approaches, both o-line and on-line,
e.g. residue based method, pole shifting method and genetic algorithms.
The robustness of each approach is discussed. One part of this disser-
tation deals with location of FACTS devices considering multiple tasks,
power ow control and damping of oscillations.
The results of the case studies demonstrate advantages and disadvan-
tages of the considered control approaches.
5
Kurzfassung
Als Folge der Liberalisierung vieler Elektrizit atsm arkte ergeben sich f ur
den Netzbetrieb zusatzliche anspruchsvolle Aufgaben. Die Erschwer-
nis des Baus zusatzlicher

Ubertragungsleitungen aufgrund langwieriger
Bewilligungsverfahren sowie ein starkes Wachstum der Nachfrage nach
elektrischer Energie stellen an die Netzbetreiber hohe Anspr uche bez u-
glich der Gewahrleistung der Systemstabilit at. In grossen, stark ver-
maschten Netzstrukturen werden Leistungspendelungen nur bedingt ge-
dampft und konnen zu erheblichen elektromechanischen Schwingungen
f uhren. Aus diesem Grund ist die Anwendung neuer Kontrollmecha-
nismen basierend auf leistungselektronischen Technologien wie Flexible
Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS) hinsichtlich eines
sicheren Netzbetriebs notwendig.
Das Ziel dieser Dissertation ist die Untersuchung der Eignung von FACTS
Geraten, wie Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC), Unied
Power Flow Controller (UPFC) sowie Static VAr Compensator (SVC) in
Bezug auf Lastuss-Steuerung sowie D ampfung von Leistungspendelun-
gen. Es wird ein auf der Linearisierung des Wirk- und Blindleistungs-
usses basierendes Verfahren zur Lastuss-Regelung vorgestellt, welches
die D ampfung von Leistungspendelungen mittels FACTS Geraten und
PSSs beinhaltet. Dabei setzt sich dieses Verfahren aus den folgenden
o- und on-line Methoden zusammen: Der Residuen basierten Meth-
ode, der Pol-Verschiebungsmethode und den genetischen Algorithmen.
Erlauterungen bez uglich der Robustheit dieser Methoden werden eben-
falls diskutiert. Ein weiterer Bestandteil dieser Dissertation setzt sich
mit der Bestimmung des Einsatzortes von FACTS-Ger aten auseinander.
Als Resultat der untersuchten Fallstudien werden sowohl Vor- als auch
7
8 Kurzfassung
Nachteile der betrachteten Methoden zur Lastuss-Steuerung aufgezeigt.
Contents
1 Introduction 13
1.1 Thesis outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2 Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 List of Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 Modeling of FACTS devices 19
2.1 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Unied Power Flow Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Static VAr Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3 Use of FACTS Devices for Damping of Power System
Oscillations 33
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Modal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3 FACTS POD Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4.1 Design of TCSC POD Controller . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4.2 Design of UPFC POD Controller . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4.3 Design of SVC POD Controller . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
9
10 Contents
4 On the Location of the TSCS 55
4.1 Dynamic Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2 Static Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3 Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5 Self-Tuning Controllers 65
5.1 Adaptive Model Identication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.2 Residue Based Adaptive Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3 Pole Shifting Adaptive Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6 Coordinated Tuning of PSS and FACTS POD
Controllers 87
6.1 Genetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.1.1 Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.1.2 Crossover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.1.3 Mutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.2 PSS and FACTS POD Controller design . . . . . . . . . 90
6.3 Case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.3.1 Case Study with the TCSC - Case Study I . . . 95
6.3.2 Case Study with the SVC - Case Study II . . . . 100
6.3.3 Case Study with the TCSC and the SVC - Case
Study III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Contents 11
7 Concluding Remarks 111
A IEEE 39 Bus Test System Data 115
B IEEE 68 Bus Test System Data 121
C IEEE Sensitivity Analysis 129
Bibliography 133
Chapter 1
Introduction
Modern bulk power systems cover large geographic areas, e.g. the Eu-
ropean UCTE system and the North American systems, and have a
large number of load buses and generators. Additionally, available gen-
erating plants are often not situated near load centers and power must
consequently be transmitted over long distances. To meet the load and
electric market demands, new lines should be added to the system, but
due to environmental reasons, the installation of electric power trans-
mission lines must often be restricted. Hence, the utilities are forced to
rely on already existing infra-structure instead of building new trans-
mission lines. In order to maximize the eciency of generation, trans-
mission and distribution of electric power, the transmission networks
are very often pushed to their physical limits, where outage of lines or
other equipment could result in the rapid failure of the entire system.
With such increasing stress on the existing transmission lines the use
of Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) devices becomes an im-
portant and eective option.
FACTS technologies oer competitive solutions to todays power sys-
tems in terms of increased power ow transfer capability, enhancing
continuous control over the voltage prole, improving system damping,
minimizing losses, etc. FACTS technology consists of high power elec-
tronics based equipment with its real-time operating control [1, 2, 6].
There are two groups of FACTS controllers based on dierent techni-
cal approaches, both resulting in controllers able to solve transmission
13
14 Chapter 1. Introduction
problems.
The rst group employs reactive impedances or tap-changing trans-
formers with thyristor switches as controlled elements; the second group
employ self-commutated voltage-sourced switching converters. The so-
phisticate control and fast response are common for both groups. The
Static VAr Compensator (SVC), Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
(TCSC) and Phase Shifter, belong to the rst group of controllers while
Static Synchronous Compensators (STATCOM), Static Synchronous
Series Compensators (SSSC), Unied Power Flow Controllers (UPFC)
and Interline Power Flow Controllers (IPFC) belong to the other group.
The power system may be thought of as a large, interconnected non-
linear system with many lightly damped electromechanical modes of
oscillation. If the damping of these modes become too small, or even
positive, it can impose severe constraints on the systems operation. It
is thus important to be able to determine the nature of those modes,
nd stability limits and in many cases use controls to prevent insta-
bility. The poorly damped low frequency electromechanical oscillations
occur due to inadequate damping torque in some generators, causing
both local-mode oscillations (1 Hz to 2 Hz) and inter-area oscillations
(0.1 Hz to 1 Hz) [19]. The traditional approach employs power sys-
tem stabilizers (PSS) on generator excitation control systems in order
to damp those oscillations. PSSs are eective but they are usually de-
signed for damping local modes and in large power systems they may
not provide enough damping for inter-area modes. Hence, in order to
improve damping of these modes, it is of interest to study FACTS power
oscillation damping (POD) controllers [17]. In large power systems the
number of inter-area modes is usually larger than the number of control
devices available [3]. Generally, damping of power system oscillations
is not the primary reason of placing FACTS devices in the power sys-
tem, but rather power ow control [6, 7]. However, when installed,
supplementary control lows can be applied to existing devices in order
to improve damping, as well as satisfy the primary requirements of the
device.
One of the very important questions in the practical application of con-
troller installation is whether to use local or remote input signals (often
referred to as global signals) as feedback signals. There are dierent
approaches, [3, 13, 15, 17]. The advantages of the local signals are their
15
simplicity and reliability. On the other hand, they might not give ade-
quate observability of some of the signicant inter-area modes [4]. The
advantage of the global signals is that they contain information about
the overall network dynamics in contrast to the local signals. But from
an economic viewpoint, the implementation of a control scheme using
global signals may be more cost eective than installing new control
devices [3]. Since remote signals are often transmitted by the exist-
ing communication channels, time delay is involved, which could be an
impediment. In this thesis, the local signal is used as the controllers
feedback signal.
A conventional damping control design considers a single operating con-
dition of the system. In this kind of controller the feedback is xed and
amplies the control error, which in turn determines the value of the
input signal u (controller output) to the system. The way in which the
error is processed is the same for all operating conditions. In Chapter 3,
a conventional lead-lag controller designed for nominal operating point
is presented and applied on three dierent types of FACTS devices.
This controller is simple, but works often only within a limited operat-
ing range. In case of contingencies, changed operating conditions can
cause poorly damped or even unstable oscillations since the controller
parameters yielding satisfactory damping for one operating condition
may no longer provide sucient damping for another one. In order
to address this issue, researchers, over the years, have proposed dier-
ent approaches for adaptive control structures for PSSs as well as for
FACTS devices. Some of them are reviewed in Chapter 5.
The primary idea is to overcome the problems that might be encoun-
tered by conventionally tuned controllers with the changing of operating
conditions. Dealing with an adaptive on-line tuning, the identication
of the static and dynamic characteristics of the system plays an impor-
tant role together with the control strategy itself. In Chapter 5, on-line
identication based on the automatic detection of oscillations in power
systems using dynamic data such as currents, voltages and angle dif-
ferences measured across transmission lines, provided on-line by phasor
measurement units, is presented [5]. The on-line collected measured
data are subjected to a further evaluation with the objective to esti-
mate dominant modes (frequencies and damping) during any operation
of the power system or to give reduced transfer function of the unknown
power system.
Based on two approaches of on-line identication of the power system, a
control strategy for on-line tuning of the POD controllers is developed.
The rst approach is based on modal analysis, i.e. residue method,
and the second employs self-tuning controllers (STC) based on the pole
shifting method. The self-tuning controller is based on the idea of sep-
arating the estimation of unknown parameters from the design of the
optimal controller, [29].
Although controllers tuned by the conventional design approach are
simple, lack of robustness of that kind of controllers is not the only
problem encountered. Conventional procedures become time consum-
ing and dicult to implement for cases in which:
there is a signicant number of PSSs and FACTS POD controllers
to be coordinated,
coordination must be conducted for a variety of operating conditions
and
certain performance specications have to be satised.
As a consequence of the presence of dierent types of the stabilizers in
the system, e.g. the PSSs and FACTS POD controllers, the undesired
and detrimental interactions between them may occur [34]. To avoid
this a simultaneous optimization and coordination of the parameter set-
tings of both stabilizers is required in order to enhance overall system
stability and minimizing possible adverse interactions. A solution to
this problem is the use of Genetic Algorithms (GA) methodology, and
this has been investigated in Chapter 6.
In [38] and [39], PSS tuning by means of GA is presented. These papers
investigate the use of genetic algorithms to design robust PSS, in which
several operating conditions and system congurations are simultane-
ously considered in the design process. In [38], simultaneous tuning of
nine PSSs in 14 operating conditions for the New England power sys-
tem was performed. The objective function used for GA optimization
was the sum of the damping ratios for all eigenvalues in all operating
conditions. Two additional objective functions that allowed some eigen-
values to be shifted to the left-hand side of the complex plane or to a
1.1. Thesis outline 17
wedge-shape sector in the complex plane were further investigated in
[39]. In [40], the authors propose the use of advanced techniques in
GA for the optimal tuning of PSSs again for dierent operating condi-
tions. The results obtained in these papers proved that GA could be
a powerful tool for robust PSS damping controller design. Considering
FACTS POD tuning, the GA approach is used in [36] in order to design
SVC and TCSC damping controllers to enhance damping of inter-area
modes in a three-area six-machine system. In Chapter 6 of this thesis,
the GA approach is used as well, as a tool for design of multiple POD
controllers in a large, realistic system.
1.1 Thesis outline
Following the Introduction, Chapter 2 describes the injection models of
the FACTS devices, and their use in power ow control.
Chapter 3 gives an overview of the conventional POD controller de-
sign and their application on the TCSC, UPFC and SVC.
In Chapter 4, an approach for the optimal location of FACTS devices
combining the static (for optimal location of the power ow controller)
and the dynamic criteria (for optimal location of the damping controller)
is presented.
The concept of one-line tuning of the FACTS POD controllers is pre-
sented in Chapter 5.
In Chapter 6 a method for simultaneous coordinated tuning of the
FACTS POD controller and the PSS controllers is presented.
Chapter 7 summarizes the ndings in this work with some suggestions
for future research directions.
1.2 Contributions
The main contributions of this dissertation can be summarized as:
Application of POD controller to Unied Power Flow Controllers
(UPFC) based on residue approach, considering dierent local sig-
nals as feedback signals.
Proposal of an approach for location of FACTS devices for multi-
ple control objectives, considering static and dynamic criteria.
Application of self-tuning controllers based on residue method and
on pole shifting method.
Application of genetic algorithm methodology to coordination of
power system controllers for robust damping of electromechanical
oscillations.
1.3 List of publications
The work presented in this dissertation has been reported by the fol-
lowing publications:
1. R. Sadikovic and G. Andersson, Power Flow Control by Sensitivity
Based Facts Controllers, IPEC 2003, Singapore, November 2003.
2. R. Sadikovic, G. Andersson and P. Korba, A Power Flow Control
Strategy for FACTS Devices, WAC 2004, Spain, June 2004.
3. R. Sadikovic, P. Korba and G. Andersson, Application of FACTS
Devices for Damping of Power System Oscillations, IEEE Pow-
erTech 2005, Russia, June 2005.
4. R. Sadikovic, G. Andersson and P. Korba, Method for Location of
FACTS for Multiple Control Objectives, X SEPOPE, Brasil, May
2006.
5. R. Sadikovic, P. Korba and G. Andersson, Self-tuning Controller
for Damping of Power System Oscillations with FACTS Devices,
IEEE PES General Meeting, Canada, June 2006.
6. R. Sadikovic, G. Andersson and P. Korba, Damping Controller
Design for Power System Oscillations, Intelligent Automation &
Soft Computing Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp: 51-62, 2006.
Chapter 2
Modelling of FACTS
Devices
Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) devices are installed in
power systems to increase the power ow transfer capability of the trans-
mission systems, to enhance continuous control over the voltage prole
and/or to damp power system oscillations [6, 7]. The ability to control
power rapidly can increase stability margins as well as the damping of
the power system, to minimize losses, to work within the thermal limits
range, etc.
In this chapter, injection models of the Thyristor Controlled Series Ca-
pacitor (TCSC), Unied Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and Static Var
Condensator (SVC), used in this dissertation, with appropriate controls,
are presented.
2.1 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
Model
A Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) conguration consists
of a series capacitor bank, C, in parallel with a thyristor-controlled re-
actor, L, as shown in Figure 2.1. This simple model utilizes the concept
19
20 Chapter 2. Modelling of FACTS Devices
of a variable series reactance. The series reactance is adjusted automat-
ically, within limits, to keep the specied amount of active power ow
across the line. There are the certain values of inductive and capacitive
reactance which cause steady-state resonance. The TCSC can be con-
tinuously controlled either in capacitive or in inductive area, avoiding
the steady-state resonant region. The details about the modelling of
the TCSC can be found in [6, 7].
The control action of the TCSC is usually expressed in terms of its
percentage of the compensation, k
c
, dened as:
k
c
=
x
c
x
l
100% (2.1)
where, x
l
is the line reactance and x
c
is the eective capacitive reac-
tance provided by TCSC.
L
C
Figure 2.1: Basic TCSC topology
The TCSC is assumed to be connected between buses i and j in a trans-
mission line as shown in Figure 2.2, where the TCSC is presented sim-
plied like a continuously controllable reactance (capacitive) [11].
V
j
r jx +
l l
-jx
c
I
se
- + V
s
V
i
Figure 2.2: TCSC located in a transmission line
2.1. Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor Model 21
From Figure 2.2 the line current I
se
is given by :
I
se
=
V
i
V
j
r
l
+j(x
l
x
c
)
(2.2)
The inuence of the capacitor is equivalent to a voltage source which
depends on voltages V
i
and V
j
. The current injection model of the
TCSC is obtained by replacing the voltage across the TCSC by an
equivalent current source I
s
as seen in Figure 2.3. In Figure 2.2, V
S
=
jx
c
I
se
, and from Figure 2.3 follows
I
S
=
V
S
r
l
+jx
l
=
jx
c
I
se
r
l
+jx
l
(2.3)
Current injections into nodes i and j are
V
i
V
j
r + jx
l l
I
ij
I
s
Figure 2.3: Replacement of a voltage source by a current source
V
i
V
j
r +jx
l l
I
si
I
sj
Figure 2.4: Current injection model for a TCSC
I
Sj
=
jx
c
r
l
+jx
l
V
i
V
j
r
l
+j(x
l
x
c
)
(2.4)
I
Si
= I
Sj
(2.5)
and therefore the appropriate current injection model of the TCSC can
be presented as shown in Figure 2.4.
TCSC
Control
Strategy
Dk
c
K
cd
1
sT
cd
-
+
P
P
ref
Power
network
I
si
I
sj
1
Ts+1
k
c
D
max
k
c
D
min
+
+
+
C
damp
DP
Figure 2.5: General form of the TCSC control system
The general form of the TCSC control system used in this thesis is
shown in Figure 2.5, where the Control Strategy block represents the
design method for power ow controller based on linearization of power
ow equations around an operating point. The output of the block is
the change of the compensation degree given by:
k
c
= P(r
2
l
+ (x
l
x
c
)
2
)/{2(V
2
i
V
i
V
j
cos
ij
)(1 k
c
)...
r
2
l
(V
i
V
j
cos
ij
)
1
x
l
+V
i
V
j
sin
ij
(1 k
c
)} (2.6)
where P = P
ref
P is the input in the block.
K
cd
is the proportional part and T
cd
is the integral time constant of
the TCSC PI controller. The time constant T approximates delay due
to the main circuit characteristics and control systems. C
damp
is the
signal from TCSC damping controller, explained in next chapter. P is
the TCSC line active power and P
ref
is the line active power to be main-
tained by TCSC. k
min
and k
max
are the limits on the compensation
degree changes.
2.2. Unied Power Flow Controller 23
2.2 Unied Power Flow Controller
The UPFC can provide simultaneous control of all basic power system
parameters (transmission voltage, impedance and phase angle). The
controller can fulll functions of reactive shunt compensation, series
compensation and phase shifting, meeting multiple control objectives.
From a functional perspective, the objectives are met by applying a DC
capacitor, shunt connected transformer and voltage source converter in
parallel branch and dc capacitor, voltage source convertor and series
injected transformer in the series branch.
The two voltage source converters are a so called back to back AC
to DC voltage source converters operated from a common DC link ca-
pacitor, Figure 2.6. The shunt converter is primarily used to provide
active power demand of the series converter through the common DC
link. Converter 1 can also generate or absorb reactive power, if it is
desired, and thereby provides independent shunt reactive compensation
for the line. Converter 2 provides the main function of the UPFC by in-
jecting a voltage with controllable magnitude and phase angle in series
with the line, Figure 2.7. The reactance x
s
describes the reactance seen
from terminals of the series transformer and is equal to (in p.u. base on
system voltage and base power)
x
S
= x
k
r
2
max
(S
B
/S
S
) (2.7)
where x
k
denotes the series transformer reactance, r
max
the maximum
per unit value of injected voltage magnitude, S
B
the system base power,
and S
S
the nominal rating power of the series converter.
The UPFC injection model is derived enabling three parameters to be si-
multaneously controlled [8]. They are namely the shunt reactive power,
Q
conv1
, and the magnitude, r, and the angle, , of injected series voltage
V
se
. Figure 2.7 shows the circuit representation of a UPFC, where the
series connected voltage source is modelled by an ideal series voltage
which is controllable in magnitude and phase, and the shunt converter
is modelled as an ideal shunt current source. In Figure 2.7,
I
sh
= I
t
+I
q
= (I
t
+jI
q
)e
j
i
(2.8)
where I
t
is the current in phase with V
i
and I
q
is the current in quadra-
ture with V
i
. In Figure 2.8 the voltage source V
se
is replaced by the
i
j
shunt side series side
series
transformer
shunt
transformer
Converter 1 Converter 2
Figure 2.6: Implementation of the UPFC by back-to-back voltage
source converters
V
i
V
j
jx
s
I
se
I
sh
V
se
V
i
P
sh
Q
sh
P
se
, Q
se
Figure 2.7: The UPFC electric circuit arrangement
current source I
inj
= jb
s
V
se
in parallel with x
s
. The active power
V
i
jx
s
I
inj
V
j
I
sh
Figure 2.8: Transformed series voltage source
supplied by the shunt current source can be calculated from
P
CONV 1
= Re[V
i
(I
sh
)]
= V
i
I
t
(2.9)
With the UPFC losses neglected,
P
CONV 1
= P
CONV 2
(2.10)
The apparent power supplied by the series voltage source converter is
calculated from
S
CONV 2
= V
se
I
se
= re
j
V
i
_
V
i
V
j
jx
s
_
(2.11)
Active and reactive power supplied by Converter 2 are distinguished as
P
CONV 2
= rb
s
V
i
V
j
sin(
i

j
+) rb
s
V
2
i
sin (2.12)
Q
CONV 2
= rb
s
V
i
V
j
cos(
i

j
+) +rb
s
V
2
i
cos (2.13)
Substitution of (2.9) and (2.12) into (2.10) gives
I
t
= rb
s
V
i
V
j
sin(
i

j
+) +rb
s
V
i
sin (2.14)
The current of the shunt source is then given by
I
sh
= (I
t
+jI
q
)e
j
i
= (rb
s
V
j
sin(
ij
+) +rb
s
V
i
sin +jI
q
)e
j
i
(2.15)
From Figure 2.8 the bus current injections can be dened as
I
i
= I
sh
I
inj
(2.16)
I
j
= I
inj
(2.17)
where
I
inj
= jb
s
V
se
= jb
s
rV
i
e
j
(2.18)
Substituting (2.15) and (2.18) into (2.16) and (2.17) gives
I
i
= (eb
s
V
j
sin(
ij
+) +rb
s
V
i
sin +jI
q
)e
j
i
+
+jrb
s
V
i
e
j(
i
+)
(2.19)
I
j
= jb
s
V
i
e
j(
i
+)
(2.20)
where I
q
is an independently controlled variable, representing a shunt
reactive source. Based on (2.19) and (2.19), the current injection model
can be presented as in Figure 2.9. Besides the expressions for current
jx
s
V
i
V
j
I
si
I
sj
Figure 2.9: UPFC current injection model
bus injection, due to the control purposes, it is very useful to have
expressions for power ows from both sides of the UPFC injection model
dened. At the UPFC shunt side, the active and reactive power ows
are given as
P
i1
= rb
s
V
i
V
j
sin(
ij
+) b
s
V
i
V
j
sin(
ij
) (2.21)
Q
i1
= rb
s
V
2
i
cos +Q
conv1
b
s
V
2
i
+b
s
V
i
V
j
cos
ij
(2.22)
whereas at the series side they are
P
j2
= rb
s
V
i
V
j
sin(
ij
+) +b
s
V
i
V
j
sin
ij
(2.23)
Q
j2
= rb
s
V
i
V
j
cos(
ij
+) b
s
V
2
j
+b
s
V
i
V
j
cos
ij
(2.24)
As can be seen from previous equations, the UPFC current injection
model is dened by the constant series branch susceptance, b
s
, which
is included in the system bus admittance matrix, and the bus current
injections, I
i
and I
j
. If there is a control objective to be achieved, the
bus current injection are modied through changes of the UPFC con-
trol parameters r, and I
q
. In the case of power ow control, i.e. the
third control variable, I
q
, is inactive, so the UPFC performs the func-
tion of the series compensation, the control objective is to maintain the
power of controlled line at the expected value. That means the UPFC
should operate in the automatic power ow control mode keeping the
active and reactive line power ow at the specied values P
ref
and Q
ref
.
The control objective can be achieved by linearizing the line power ow
equations, (2.23) and (2.24), around an operating point [10]. Figure 2.10
shows the general form of the UPFC control system used in this dis-
sertation. The linearization results with the Control Strategy block in
Figure 2.10. The outputs of the block are the changes of the control
variables r and , given by
r =
P sin(
ij
+) + Qcos(
ij
+)
b
s
V
i
V
j
(2.25)
=
P cos(
ij
+) Qsin(
ij
+)
rb
s
V
i
V
j
(2.26)
where P = P
ref
P and Q = Q
ref
Q are the inputs in the block.
In this thesis it is assumed that the third control variable I
q
is inactive,
so the UPFC performs the function of the series compensation. K
and
K
r
are the proportional parts and T
and T
r
are the integral time con-
stants of the UPFC PI controllers. C
damp
and C
dampr
are the signals
from the UPFC damping controllers, explained in the next chapter.
UPFC
Dg
Dr
Q
+
-
Control
strategy
I
si
I
sj
Power
network
K
g
1
sT
g
+
K
r
1
sT
r
+
+
+
C
dampg
+
+
C
dampr
P
P
ref Q
ref
limiter
DP
DQ
Figure 2.10: General form of the UPFC control system
Operation of the UPFC demands proper power rating of the series and
shunt branches. The rating should enable the UPFC to archive pre-
dened power ow objective. The ow chart of Figure 2.11 shows an
algorithm for UPFC rating [8].
The algorithm starts with denition of the series transformer short cir-
cuit reactance, x
k
, and the system base power, S
B
. Then, the initial
estimation is given for the series converter rating power, S
S
, and the
maximum magnitude of the injected series voltage, r
max
. In the next
step can be determined the eective reactance of the UPFC seen from
the terminals of the series transformer, (x
S
).
Load ows are computed by changing the angle between 0
0
and 360
0
in steps of 10
0
, with the magnitude r kept at its maximum value r
max
.
Such rotational change of the UPFC parameter inuences active and
reactive power ows in the system. The largest impact is given to the
power owing though the line with UPFC installed. The control objec-
tive is to maintain the active and reactive power ow whose prescribed
values should be achieved within the UPFC steady state operation.
Then, the power ow procedure is performed to check whether the pre-
dened objective is achieved satisfactory with estimated parameters. If
the load ow requirements are not satised at any operating points, it is
necessary to go one step back, estimate again S
S
and r
max
, and perform
new rotational change of the UPFC within the power ow procedure.
This loop is performed until the load ow requirements are completely
fullled. In addition, the active, reactive and apparent power of the
series converter are calculated for each step change in the angle .
With the power ow requirements fullled and the series converter pow-
ers calculated, it has to be checked whether the maximum value of the
series converter apparent power max S
conv2
, is larger than the initially
estimated power S
s
. If max S
conv2
is not larger than the power S
S
, it is
necessary to check whether the power S
S
is at an acceptable minimum
level. If not, the value of S
S
is reduced and the loop starts again. The
acceptable minimum is achieved when two consecutive iterations do not
dier more than the pre-established tolerance.
When the power S
S
is minimized, the load ow procedure is performed
with smaller step of rotational change of the angle (1
0
), in order to
get maximum absolute value of the series/shunt converter active power,
max |P
conv1
|. The value given by max |P
conv1
| is considered to be min-
imum criterion for dimensioning shunt converter rating power, whereas
the power S
S
represents series converter rating power as a function of
the maximum magnitude r
max
.
DEFINE x
k
, S
B
r
max
, Initial S
S
CALCULATE
2
max
B
s k
S
S
x x r
S
=
PERFORM LOAD FLOW
g
0 0 0
[0 :10 : 360 ] =
IS
LOAD FLOW
REQUIREMENTS
FULFILLED?
NO
(INCREASE S
s
)
YES
CALCULATE
P
conv2
, Q
conv2
, S
conv2
IF
max S
conv2
> S
S
?
YES
(INCREASE S
s
)
IS
S
S
minimum?
YES
NO
PERFORM LOAD FLOW
g
0 0 0
[0 :10 : 360 ] =
CALCULATE max |P
conv1
|
OUTPUT S
S
, S
conv1
, r
max
DECREASE S
s
Figure 2.11: Algorithm for optimal rating of the UPFC, [8]
2.3 Static VAr Compensator
The Static VAr Compensator (SVC) is a shunt connected device whose
main functionality is to regulate the voltage at a chosen bus by suit-
able control of its equivalent reactance. A basic topology consists of a
series capacitor bank, C, in parallel with a thyristor-controlled reactor,
L, as shown in Figure 2.12. In practice the SVC can be seen as an
adjustable reactance [1], that can perform both inductive and capaci-
tive compensation. The details about the modelling of the SVC can be
found in [6, 7]. The SVC connected at node j is shown in Figure 2.13.
L
C
Figure 2.12: Basic SVC topology
Figure 2.14 shows the injection model of the SVC, where I
jsvc
is the
complex SVC injected current at node j, V
i
and V
j
are the complex
voltages at nodes i and j. The reactive power injection in node j is
given by:
Q
j
= V
2
j
B
SV C
(2.27)
where, B
SV C
= B
C
B
L
, B
C
and B
L
are the susceptance of the xed
capacitor and thyristor controlled reactor, respectively. The reactive
power can be transferred into injected current at bus j given by
I
jsvc
= jV
j
B
SV C
(2.28)
Figure 2.15 shows the SVC control block diagram where V
t
is the voltage
magnitude at the SVC terminal, V
ref
is the voltage to be maintained by
SVC, K is the gain of the controller, T is the time constant associated
2.3. Static VAr Compensator 31
with the SVC control action, B
min
and B
max
denote the limits to
the change of the SVC susceptance and C
damp
is the signal from the
damping controller.
V
i
V
j
r + jx
l l
jB
SVC
Figure 2.13: Representation of a SVC
I
j
V
i
V
j
r + jx
l l
Figure 2.14: Current injection model of a SVC
K
1+sT
+
-
+
V
ref
C
damp
V
t
B
max
B
min
+
Power
network
SVC
I
j
D
D
B D V D
Figure 2.15: General form of the SVC control system
Chapter 3
Use of FACTS Devices
for Damping of Power
System Oscillations
3.1 Introduction
The power system may be thought of as a large, interconnected non-
linear system with many lightly damped electromechanical modes of
oscillation. If the damping of these modes become too small or nega-
tive, it can impose severe constraints on the systems operation. It is
thus important to be able to determine their nature, nd stability limits
and in many cases use controls to prevent their instability. Electrome-
chanical oscillations can be broadly classied into two main groups:
Inter area oscillations
Local oscillations
Inter-area oscillations are observed when a group of machines in one
area swings against another group in another area normally with a fre-
quency below 1 Hz. The study the inter-area modes is quite complicated
since it requires detailed representation of the entire interconnected sys-
33
34 Chapter 3. Use of FACTS Devices for Damping...
tem and inter-area modes are inuenced by several states of larger areas
of the power network.
Local oscillations are observed when one particular plant swings against
the rest of the system or several generators at frequencies of typically 1
Hz to 2 Hz [12].
With the power industry moving toward deregulation, long-distance
power transfers are steadily increasing, outpacing the addition of new
transmission facilities and causing the inter-area oscillations to become
more lightly damped [11]. During the last decade, FACTS devices have
been employed to damp power system oscillations [13, 14, 15, 16]. Some-
times, these controllers are placed in the power system for some other
reasons (to improve the voltage stability or to control power ow) [6, 7],
then to damp power oscillations. However, when installed, supplemen-
tary control can be applied to existing controllers in order to improve
damping, as well as satisfy the primary requirements of the device. POD
control can be applied as well through power system stabilizer (PSS)
on generator excitation control systems. PSSs are eective but they are
usually designed for damping local electromechanical oscillations and
in large power systems tuning all of them might be very dicult. In
this chapter, POD control has been applied to three FACTS devices,
TCSC, UPFC and SVC in order to damp inter-area oscillations. The
main focus is on the TCSC, UPFC and SVC inuence on power os-
cillation damping when a large disturbance is applied. The controller
design method utilizes the residue approach [15, 16, 17]. The presented
approach solves the optimal location of the FACTS devices, as well as
the selection of the proper feedback signals.
3.2 Modal Analysis
In order to identify oscillatory modes of a multi-machine system, the
linearized system model including PSS and FACTS devices system can
be used by
x = Ax +Bu
y = Cx +Du (3.1)
where
x is the state vector of length equal to the numbers of states n
3.2. Modal Analysis 35
y is the output vector of length m
u is the input vector of length r
A is the n by n state matrix
B is the control or input matrix of size n by r
C is the output matrix of size m by n
D is the feed forward matrix of dimensions m by r.
The equation
det(I A) = 0 (3.2)
is referred to as the characteristic equation of matrix A and the values
of , which satisfy the characteristic equation, are the eigenvalues of
matrix A. Because the matrix A is a n by n matrix, it has n solutions
of eigenvalues
=
1
,
2
, ...
n
(3.3)
with assumption that
i
=
j
, i = j.
For every eigenvalue
i
, there is an eigenvector
i
which satises Equa-
tion
A
i
=
i
i
(3.4)
i
is called the right eigenvector of the state matrix A associated with
the eigenvalue
i
. Each right eigenvector is a column vector with the
length equal to the number of the states.
Left eigenvector associated with the eigenvalue
i
is the n-row vector
which satises
i
A =
i
i
(3.5)
The right eigenvector describes how each mode of oscillation is dis-
tributed among the system states. In other words, it indicates on which
system variables the mode is more observable. The right eigenvector is
called mode shape.
The left eigenvector, together with the systems initial state, determines
the amplitude of the mode. A left eigenvector carries mode controlla-
bility information.
Numerous indices, such as participation factors, transfer function residues
and mode sensitivities can be calculated from eigenvectors. Those in-
dices are very useful in system analysis and controller design.
For a particular eigenvalue
i
=
i
+ j
i
, the real part of the eigen-
value gives the damping, and the imaginary part gives the frequency of
oscillation. The relative damping ratio is given by
=

i
_
2
i
+
2
i
(3.6)
The oscillatory modes having damping ratio less than 3% are said to
be critical [18]. When designing damping controls one has to take care
about margin due to uncertainties or disturbances. Hence the damp-
ing ratio of at least 5% should be the objective of the control design [19].
Participation factors
The sensitivity of a particular eigenvalue
i
to the changes in the diag-
onal elements of the state matrix A is given, [18], by
p
ki
=

i
a
kk
=
ki
ki
(3.7)
where
ki
is the k
th
element in the i
th
row of the the left eigenvector
i
,
and
ki
is the k
th
element in the i
th
column of the right eigenvector
i
.
The participation factor p
ki
is a measure of the relative participation of
the kth state variable in the ith mode, and vice versa. The participation
factor is used in this thesis for purpose of conventional tuning of PSSs,
in Chapter 6.
Controllability and observability
In order to modify a selected oscillatory mode by a feedback controller,
the chosen input of the controller must inuence the behavior of that
mode and the mode must also be visible in the chosen feedback sig-
nal i.e. the behavior of that mode should be reected in the feedback
signal. The measures for those two properties are the modal control-
lability and observability, respectively. The modal controllability and
modal observability matrices are dened, [18], by
B
=
1
B
C
= C (3.8)
The mode is not controllable if the corresponding row of the matrix B
is a zero vector, and the mode is not observable if the corresponding

3.2. Modal Analysis 37
column of the matrix C
is a zero vector. If a mode is either not con-

trollable or not observable, feedback between the output and the input
will have no eect on the mode.
Residues
Considering (3.1) with single input and single output (SISO) and as-
suming D = 0, the open loop transfer function of the system can be
obtained by
G(s) =
y(s)
u(s)
= C(sI A)
1
B (3.9)
The transfer function G(s) can be expanded in partial fractions of the
Laplace transform of y in terms of C and B matrices and the right and
left eigenvectors as
G(s) =
N
i=1
C
i
i
B
(s
i
)
=
N
i=1
R
i
(s
i
)
(3.10)
Each term in the denominator, R
i
, of the summation is a scalar called
residue. The residue R
i
of a particular mode i gives the measure of
that modes sensitivity to a feedback between the output y and the
input u; it is the product of the modes observability and controllability.
Figure 3.1 shows a system G(s) equipped with a feedback control H(s).
When applying the feedback control, eigenvalues of the initial system
G(s) are changed. It can be proven, [17], that when the feedback control
is applied, the shift of an eigenvalue can be calculated by
i
= R
i
H(
i
) (3.11)
It can be observed from (3.11) that the shift of the eigenvalue caused
by the controller is proportional to the magnitude of the corresponding
residue. For a certain mode, the same type of feedback control H(s),
regardless of its structure and parameters, can be tested at dierent
locations. For the mode of the interest, residues at all locations have
to be calculated. The largest residue then indicates the most eective
location to apply the feedback control.
3.3 FACTS POD Controller Design
Supplementary control action applied to FACTS devices to increase
the system damping is called Power Oscillation Damping (POD). Since
FACTS controllers are located in transmission systems, local input sig-
nals are always preferred, usually the active or reactive power ow
through FACTS device or FACTS terminal voltages. Figure 3.1 shows
the considered closed-loop system where G(s) represents the power sys-
tem including FACTS devices and H(s) FACTS POD controller.
G(s)
y
ref
y(s)
+
-
u
e
H(s)
Figure 3.1: Closed-loop system with POD control
Input Output
sT
w
1+sT
lead
1+sT
lead
1+sT
w
1+sT
lag
1+sT
lag
K
p
m
c
stages
1
1+sT
m
Figure 3.2: POD controller structure
The POD controller consists of an amplication block, a wash-out and
low-pass lters and m
c
stages of lead-lag blocks as depicted in Figure 3.2
(usually m
c
= 2). The transfer function, H(s), of the POD controller
is given by
H(s) = K
_
1
1 +sT
m
__
sT
w
1 +sT
w
__
1 +sT
lead
1 +sT
lag
_
m
c
= KH
1
(s) (3.12)
where K is a positive constant gain and H
1
(s) is the transfer function
of the wash-out lter, low pass lter and lead-lag blocks. T
m
is a mea-
surement time constant and T
w
is the washout time constant. T
lead
and
T
lag
are the lead and lag time constant, respectively. Changes of an
eigenvalue
i
can be described by (3.11). The objective of the FACTS
damping controller is to improve the damping ratio of the selected oscil-
lation mode i. Therefore,
i
must be a real negative value in order to
3.3. FACTS POD Controller Design 39
move the real part of the eigenvalue to the left half complex plane. Fig-
ure 3.3 shows the displacement of the eigenvalue after FACTS damping
control action.
j
comp
arg(R
i
)
Direction of R
i
Dl
i
l
i
(0)
l
i
(1)
( ) K=0 ( ) K= K D
Direction of Dl
i
= K H
1 i
R
i
D l ( )
jw
s
Figure 3.3: Shift of eigenvalues with the POD controller
From (3.11), it can be clearly seen that with the same gain of the
feedback loop, a larger residue will result in a larger change of the
corresponding oscillatory mode. Therefore, the best feedback signal for
the FACTS damping controller is the one with the largest residue for
the considered mode of oscillation. The same is true for the optimal lo-
cation of the POD controller, which also automatically means the best
location for the FACTS device in order to damp oscillations. In Fig-
ure 3.3, the phase angle shows the compensation angle, which is needed
to move the eigenvalue direct to the left parallel with the real axis. This
angle will be achieved by the lead-lag function and the parameters T
lead
and T
lag
, [17], determined by
comp
= 180
0
arg(R
i
)
c
=
T
lead
T
lag
=
1 sin(
comp
m
c
)
1 +sin(
comp
m
c
)
T
lag
=
1
w
i
c
T
lead
=
c
T
lag
(3.13)
where arg(R
i
) denotes the phase angle of the residue R
i
, w
i
is the
frequency of the mode of oscillation in rad/sec. The controller gain K
is computed as a function of the desired eigenvalue location according
to (3.11):
K =
i,des

i
R
i
H
1
(
i
)
(3.14)
3.4 Case Studies
The FACTS POD controller location and the feedback signal should be
selected in a such a way that the residues corresponding to each of the
critical modes are as high as possible [20]. Anyhow, it might not be
cost eective to place the FACTS device at a particular location just to
damp oscillations. In order to satisfy the primarily requirements of the
FACTS device as well as the damping of oscillations, a compromise has
to be made for each individual case. In this chapter, only damping is
considered, i.e. the primary aim is to damp oscillations.
Since the FACTS devices are located in transmission lines, local input
signals like power deviation, bus voltages or bus currents, are preferably
used. To nd the best location and the most appropriate feedback sig-
nal for FACTS POD controller, dierent lines in the system are tested.
A 10 machine, 39 bus test system, known as New England system,
shown in Figure 3.4, [21], is considered here for the case studies. The
static and dynamic data are given in Appendix A.
3.4.1 Design of TCSC POD Controller
The uncontrolled system has one critical oscillatory interarea mode
characterized with eigenvalue = 0.0517+j2.35, and with low damp-
ing ratio, = 0.022, i.e. less than 3%. Table 3.1 shows the numerical
results of the residue values associated with critical mode calculated
using the transfer functions P/k
c
. P is active power deviation,
chosen as a feedback signal, k
c
represent TCSC input, characterized
by the compensation degree, i.e. the compensation in p.u. of the line
reactance. According to Table 3.1, the line 37-38 has the largest residue
for the transfer function, having k
c
as the TCSC control variable and,
3.4. Case Studies 41
G
G
10
31
39
1
G
38
37
36
35
34
G
33
32
18 17
26
G
8
25 28 29
9
2
14
15
16
G
11 13
12
3
30
27
24
21
19
G G
5 4
20
23
22
G
6
G
7
Figure 3.4: System conguration for the case study
therefore, the most eective location to apply the feedback control. Us-
ing the method presented above, the POD controller parameters are
calculated in order to shift the real part of the oscillatory mode, to the
left half complex plane. The gain K is calculated in order to reach the
relative damping ratio of the oscillatory mode at least 5%.
The root-locus, when the gain of TCSC controller K varies from 0 to
10, is shown in Figure 3.5. It is clear that TCSC POD controller has
minor inuence on local modes, like on mode #4. The local modes can
be successfully damped by PSSs, which are not used in this test system.
It is also obvious that POD controller aects the oscillatory mode the
most (mode #1), but another inter-area mode, mode #2, might become
critical, if the POD gain K is too high. Some other modes are aected
as well. In order to have good damping of inter-area modes, and as less
as possible negative inuence on the other modes, compromise for the
POD gain has to be found for each individual application. With the
chosen gain in this case, all modes aected remains well damped, see
Mode residues of the transfer function P/k
c
TCSC location |R
i
|
line 37-38 0.0814
line 39-31 0.0753
line 16-19 0.0715
line 26-29 0.0357
line 31-32 0.0349
line 21-22 0.0254
line 31-25 0.0243
line 23-24 0.0177
line 35-36 0.0129
line 16-17 0.0123
line 16-21 0.0115
line 25-26 0.0018
Table 3.1: Location indices of TCSC
Figure 3.6.
The obtained transfer function for the TCSC POD controller is:
H(s) =
P
k
c
= 1.4749
_
1
0.1s + 1
__
10s
10s + 1
__
0.3000s + 1
0.6041s + 1
_
2
(3.15)
In order to check controller ability to stabilize the system, a three-
phase fault is applied in the line 33-14 closed to the bus 33. The fault is
cleared after 50 ms by opening the faulted line. In Figure 3.7, a direct
comparison between the power ow response of the system with the
fault with and without damping control is given. The reference value
for the active power ow is calculated from the steady state calculation
for the faulted line out of service.
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Damping ratio 0.05

j
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
Mode 4
Figure 3.5: Root-locus of the TCSC POD controller
when K varies from 0() to 10(2)
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Damping ratio 0.05

j
Figure 3.6: Displacement of eigenvalues without () and with () the
proposed POD control
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
Time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]
Fault at bus 33 with line 3314 out

With control
Without control
Figure 3.7: Active power ow with and without damping control in con-
trolled line 37-38
3.4.2 Design of UPFC POD Controller
The same procedure as for the TCSC is here repeated for the UPFC.
The UPFC has two control parameters, r and , the magnitude and
the angle of the series injected voltage, respectively. The third vari-
able, shunt reactive power, Q
conv1
is inactive, so the UPFC performs
the function of the series compensation. Therefore, it is theoretically
possible to consider four possible POD control loops, as indicated in
Table 3.2. However, from Table 3.2, where the critical mode residues
of the resulting four transfer functions are calculated, one can see that
Q is not a good choice for the POD controller as an input signal, since
the residues of P/r and P/ have almost always larger values
than Q/r and Q/. Based on this fact, P is considered to be
a better input signal than Q. Hence, there are two suitable loops re-
maining: the rst one based on the feedback signal r and the second
one based on the signal . From Table 3.2, the line 25-26 has the
largest residue for the transfer function P/r and therefore would be
the most eective location to apply the feedback control on r variable.
The corresponding transfer functions employed here are given by (3.16)
and (3.17) where the lead-lag parameters were obtained according to
(3.13).
H
r
(s) =
P
r
= 0.0933
_
1
0.1s + 1
__
10s
10s + 1
__
0.2776s + 1
0.6405s + 1
_
2
(3.16)
H
(s) =
P
= 7.8998
_
1
0.1s + 1
__
10s
10s + 1
__
0.3104s + 1
0.5705s + 1
_
2
(3.17)
However, the residue of the other transfer function, P/, is not large.
This means, the contribution of the damping controller applied to that
control variable in this chosen line will be rather small, see Figure 3.8.
The contribution to the damping of oscillations with two applied POD
controllers does not dier much, compared to the results when the only
one POD controller, given by (3.16), is applied. That could be expected,
due to small residue value of P/. According to this observation,
another line should be selected for the UPFC location. Good candidates
for UPFC location might also be the lines 37-38, 16-19 and 28-29, see
Table 3.2.
Mode residues, |R
i
|, of the dierent transfer functions
UPFC location P/r P/ Q/r Q/
( =
0
) (r = r
0
) ( =
0
) (r = r
0
)
line 25-26 3.0329 0.0286 1.0916 0.0070
line 37-38 2.6801 0.1725 1.5417 0.1212
line 26-28 2.0020 0.0455 0.2111 0.0334
line 26-29 1.8797 0.0660 0.1868 0.0492
line 31-25 1.8479 0.0531 0.3506 0.0273
line 16-19 1.7738 0.2545 0.0787 0.1055
line 31-32 1.7178 0.0277 0.3357 0.0257
line 28-29 1.7080 0.3657 0.5652 0.2784
line 39-31 1.5249 0.0007 0.1400 0.0019
line 17-27 1.0282 0.0320 0.4294 0.0362
line 21-22 0.7048 0.2192 0.3736 0.1905
line 16-21 0.6422 0.0829 0.3361 0.0769
line 23-24 0.4436 0.0324 0.3310 0.0316
Table 3.2: Location indices of UPFC
Figures 3.9 and 3.10 show the root locus for the UPFC located in line 37-
38 and with two POD controllers obtained by transfer functions P/r
and P/, when the gain of UPFC POD controller, K, varies from 0
to 10. As in the case with the TCSC, the oscillatory mode #1 is moved
to the left half complex plane, but another inter-area mode, mode #2, is
moved towards the right direction. Local modes, mode #3 and #4, are
slightly aected as well. However, with the chosen gain, in Figures 3.9
and 3.10 marked with (), aected modes remain well damped, see
Figure 3.11. Note that with two POD controllers added to the UPFC,
stability performance does not change.
The ability of the UPFC POD controller with UPFC location in the
line 37-38 is shown in Figures 3.12 and 3.13. The fault is applied to the
line 36-37 close to the bus 36 and cleared after 50 ms by opening the
faulted line. The corresponding transfer functions employed in this line
are given by (3.18) and (3.19). The reference values for the active and
reactive power ows are calculated from the steady state calculations,
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
2
0
2
4
6
Time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
3
2
1
0
1
Time [s]
R
e
a
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]

Both POD controller
Controller on gamma
Controller on r
Without controller
Both POD controller
Controller on gamma
Controller on r
Without controller
Figure 3.8: Active and reactive power ow with damping control in con-
trolled line 25-26
for the case when the faulted line is out of service.
P
r
= 0.09
_
1
0.1s + 1
__
10s
10s + 1
__
0.3118s + 1
0.5752s + 1
_
2
(3.18)
P
= 1.35
_
1
0.1s + 1
__
10s
10s + 1
__
0.3071s + 1
0.5831s + 1
_
2
(3.19)
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Gain 0.09
Damping ratio 0.05
j
Mode 2
Mode 3
Mode 4
Mode 1
Figure 3.9: Root-locus of the UPFC POD controller (
P
r
)
K varies from 0() to 10(2)
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Gain 1.35
Damping ratio 0.05 j
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
Mode 4
Figure 3.10: Root-locus of the UPFC POD controller (
P
)
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Damping ratio 0.05
j
Figure 3.11: Dominant eigenvalues without controller () and with both
controllers (2), for chosen gains
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Time[s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
Time [s]
R
e
a
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]
Figure 3.12: Active and reactive power ow without damping control
in controlled line 37-38
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Time [s]
R
e
a
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]

With both POD controllers
With controller on r
With controller on gamma
With both POD controllers
With controller on r
With controller on gamma
Figure 3.13: Active and reactive power ow with damping control in
controlled line 37-38
3.4.3 Design of SVC POD Controller
In order to nd a suitable location for the SVC to damp an oscilla-
tory mode, the SVC is located in dierent buses of the test system.
Table 3.3 shows the numerical results of the residues for the transfer
function V/B
SV C
, where V denotes SVC bus terminal voltage
and B
SV C
susceptance of the SVC. According to Table 3.3, bus 28
has the biggest residue value associated with critical mode and therefore
the most eective location to apply the feedback control.
Mode residues of the transfer function V/B
svc
SVC location |R
i
|
bus 28 0.0388
bus 29 0.0385
bus 26 0.0219
bus 20 0.0243
bus 23 0.0210
bus 19 0.0199
bus 27 0.0189
bus 22 0.0183
bus 24 0.0173
bus 21 0.0172
bus 16 0.0168
bus 17 0.0160
Table 3.3: Location indices of SVC
The corresponding transfer function employed as POD controller in bus
28 is given by:
H(s) =
V
B
SV C
= 2.5471
_
1
0.1s + 1
__
10s
10s + 1
__
0.2871s + 1
0.6133s + 1
_
2
(3.20)
The root-locus, when the gain of SVC POD controller, K, varies from
0 to 10, is shown in Figure 3.14. Like in the case of TCSC and UPFC,
SVC POD controller has little inuence on local modes. Here, it has
to be pointed out that the rst shift into the left half complex plane
in Figure 3.14 is inuenced by the SVC voltage controller. POD SVC
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Damping ratio 0.05

j
Mode 1
Mode 2
Figure 3.14: Root-locus of the SVC POD controller
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
1.1
1.15
Time [s]
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

o
n

S
V
C

b
u
s

[
p
u
]

With control
Without control
Figure 3.15: Voltage magnitude of SVC bus
3.5. Summary 53
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Time [s]
F
a
u
l
t
e
d

b
u
s

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

[
p
u
]

With control
Without control
Figure 3.16: Voltage magnitude of the faulted bus
controller itself has a small inuence on the damping of the oscillatory
mode in this case. Figures 3.15 and 3.16 show the response of the SVC
with and without a POD controller to the fault applied in line 23-24
close to the bus 23. The fault is cleared after 50 ms by opening the
faulted line.
3.5 Summary
In this chapter the residue controller design method has been presented.
It is a conventional, linear approach and requires the linearized system
model at a particular operating point. The controllers obtained from
conventional approach are simple but often work only within a limited
operating range. In case of contingencies, changed operating conditions
can cause poorly damped or even unstable oscillations since the set
of existing controller parameters yielding satisfactory damping for one
operating condition may no longer be valid for another one.
Chapter 4
On the Location of the
TCSC
Provided optimal locations, FACTS devices are capable of performing
multiple tasks; for example power ow control, voltage control, minimiz-
ing the losses, damping of oscillations etc. The location of the FACTS
device has a large impact on its performance with regard to the objec-
tives to be fullled. A location being the best for one objective may be
less suitable for another objective.
If the objective of the Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC),
for example, is the power ow control, the most eective location is of-
ten in highly loaded lines [11]. Applying the power ow control or any
other objective of FACTS devices in general, it is often desirable to have
a control design which enables the operation of the controlled transmis-
sion path without aecting the rest of the system. So far there is no
FACTS controller that is able to satisfy the control objective without af-
fecting the rest of the system, but it is possible to minimize its inuence.
In this Chapter a procedure for placing a TCSC considering both power
ow control and damping of power oscillations is presented. A method-
ology used to give the insight into the inuence of the TCSC location in
the system, on the rest of the system, is power ow sensitivity analysis.
Sensitivity analysis gives a direct measure of the controllability of the ac-
tive power ow in the specied line by the chosen location of the TCSC.
55
56 Chapter 4. On the Location of the TCSC
Besides power ow control, satisfactory damping of power oscillations
is an important issue as well. In Chapter 3 damping control utilizes the
residue method and the presented approach solves the optimal location
of the TCSC device regarding damping of the oscillatory modes.
In this chapter both methodologies are used in order to nd the suit-
able location for both tasks, power ow control and damping control.
The proposed algorithm has been demonstrated on the same test as in
previous Chapter.
4.1 Dynamic Criterion
Dynamic criteria is based on the residue method. This part is presented
in Chapter 3. According to this criteria, the most eective location
means the best location of the POD controller, while the compromise
has to be found for the location of both the power ow controller and
POD controller. In general, the optimal location of the TCSC controller
obtained from a dynamic criteria is not the same as that with a static
criteria.
4.2 Static Criterion
The static criteria used for optimal location of the TCSC controller
is based on the sensitivity of the line ows with respect to the series
compensation in a line. The sensitivity of the line ows determines the
inuence of an output variable to a control variable. In this case, it is a
direct measure of the controllability of the active power ow in specied
line by the TCSC located in the same, or in another line.
A power system in the steady state is modelled by the load ow equa-
tions:
F(X, Z, D) = 0 (4.1)
where X is the (n
x
1) vector of state variables, Z is the (n
z
1)
vector of control variables, i.e. input form FACTS devices, D is the
vector of parameters, i.e. line reactances, loads. The rst order Taylor
4.2. Static Criterion 57
expansion of (4.1) in the neighborhood of the nominal operating point
(X
0
, Z
0
, D
0
) gives
0 = F(X
0
+ X, Z
0
+ Z, D
0
+ D)
F(X
0
, Z
0
, D
0
) +F
x
X +F
z
Z +F
D
D (4.2)
with Jacobian matrices F
x
, F
z
, F
D
that are computed at the nominal
operating point (X
0
, Z
0
, D
0
). From (4.2) follows that
F
x
X +F
z
Z +F
D
D = 0 (4.3)
since F(X
0
, Z
0
, D
0
) = 0. Assuming that F
x
is non-singular,
X = F
1
x
F
z
Z F
1
x
F
D
D
= S
xz
Z +S
xD
D (4.4)
with
S
xz
= F
1
x
F
z
S
xD
= F
1
x
F
D
(4.5)
At the operating point, the power ow vector W
0
is determined by a
function H,
W
0
= H(X
0
, Z
0
, D
0
) (4.6)
With a perturbation by Z it becomes
W
0
+ W = H(X
0
+ X, Z
0
+ Z, D
0
+ D) (4.7)
Linearization yields
W W
x
X +W
z
Z +W
D
D (4.8)
Substituting (4.4) into (4.8) gives
W = [W
x
F
1
x
F
z
+W
z
]Z + [W
x
F
1
x
F
D
]D (4.9)
Assuming D = 0 leads to
W = [W
x
S
xz
+W
z
]Z (4.10)
where
S
wz
= W
x
S
xz
+W
z
(4.11)
Equation (4.11) represents the power ow sensitivities of output vari-
ables with respect to control variables, i.e. it gives the direct measure
of the controllability of the active power in the specied line l by the
chosen location of the TCSC, w. In the line ow compensation system,
W is the active line ow vector and Z is the vector of control variables,
degree of compensation, F
x
is the Jacobian matrix used in standard
Newton-Raphson load ow computations. The Jacobian matrices F
z
,
W
z
and W
x
are derived in Appendix C.
4.3 Case Study
According to the dynamic criteria, i.e. the residue method, line 37-38
has the largest residue value, and therefore the most eective location
to apply the feedback control. Due to clarity, Table 4.1 presented in
Chapter 3 is repeated here, with the lines that have the largest residue
values.
Mode residues, of the transfer function P/k
c
TCSC location |R
i
|
line 37-38 0.0814
line 39-31 0.0753
line 16-19 0.0715
line 26-29 0.0357
line 31-32 0.0349
line 21-22 0.0254
line 31-25 0.0243
Table 4.1: Location indices of TCSC according to dynamic criteria
Applying the power ow control or the damping of oscillations control,
it is often desirable to have a control design which enables the operation
of the controlled transmission path without aecting the rest of the sys-
tem; e.g. changed active power value in one line has minimum inuence
on active power ows in the other lines. In order to see whether there
is a suitable location of the TCSC that would give us that minimum
inuence, active power ow sensitivities are calculated for each TCSC
location. To present all sensitivities would be quite unreadable, so the
4.3. Case Study 59
Table 4.2 shows the sum of the absolute values of all line sensitivities
(number of line, l = 46), for those TCSC locations (w), that have the
largest residue values, according to Table 4.1. Power ow sensitivities
are presented in normalized form, i.e. power ow sensitivity has value
one in the line where the TCSC located, and calculated for a few dif-
ferent operating points. Note that here it is not important whether the
sensitivities have a positive or negative sign. The optimal location of
the TCSC utilizing the static criterion results with the minimum inu-
ence on the active power ows in the other lines.
TCSC |S
w,z
| |S
w,z
| |S
w,z
| |S
w,z
|
location Base case Line 23-24 Line 13-14 Line 33-14
(all lines) outage outage outage
line 26-29 2.9785 2.9791 2.9752 2.9786
line 26-28 3.0108 3.0114 3.0105 3.0106
line 31-32 7.9969 7.9977 7.8947 7.6942
line 31-25 8.4293 8.4339 7.5489 8.7549
line 39-31 11.0626 11.0558 10.3349 11.0744
line 37-38 11.2313 11.3853 10.3954 12.4894
line 16-19 14.3080 14.2161 14.1640 14.1025
Table 4.2: Sum of normalized power ow sensitivities for dierent TCSC
locations (Base case and line outage cases for 39-bus test
system)
The power ow sensitivities are valid only for the operating points for
which they are computed. The value of the active power ow through
the lines is not of interest and consequently not the specic power ow
sensitivity value for each line. As can be observed from Table 4.2,
the actual power ow sensitivity values for dierent lines outages dier
slightly from the base case. In that sense, the power ow sensitivity
matrix calculated for the base case gives proper insight into the inu-
ence of the TCSC location on the rest of the system.
Figure 4.1 shows the relation between the residue and the power ow
sensitivity for dierent locations of the TCSC. There are three groups.
The rst group presents the lines with the biggest residue values, i.e.
they give the best location in order to satisfy the dynamic criterion, but
with very high power ow sensitivities. Considering the static criterion,
the lines from the rst group are not appropriate locations for the TCSC.
The lines from the second group have lower values of the residues but
lower values of the power ow sensitivities as well. In the third group
there is just one line, 26-29, with the minimal value of the power ow
sensitivity, i.e. that line gives the best location in order to satisfy the
static criterion, and the residue value is in the middle of the sorting list
in Table 4.1, i.e. it is big enough.
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Residue
P
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

s
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
i
t
y
Group I
Group II
Group III
Line 1619
Line 3931
Line 3738 Line 3125
Line 3132
Line 2629
Figure 4.1: Functionality of two dierent criterion
Considering both criteria, line 26-29 is found to be the optimal loca-
tion for the TCSC. The obtained transfer function for the TCSC POD
controller in line 26-29 is given by:
H(s) =
P
k
c
= 0.7
_
1
0.1s + 1
__
10s
10s + 1
__
0.2353s + 1
0.8576s + 1
_
2
(4.12)
In order to investigate whether the TCSC located in the line 26-29 can
successfully damp the oscillation, the fault is applied in the line 33-14
close to bus 33 and cleared after 50 ms by opening the faulted line.
The TCSC is located subsequently in the lines 26-29 and 37-38, since
the line 37-38 has the maximum residue value and hence, it is the best
location to damp oscillations in the system. For both locations, TCSC
4.3. Case Study 61
has the same level of compensation. The dynamical response of active
power ow in Figure 4.2, shows that the TCSC located in line 26-29 can
successfully damp oscillations.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

i
n

l
i
n
e

1
6
1
9

[
p
u
]

TCSC in line 3738
TCSC in line 2629
Figure 4.2: Active power ow in the line 16-19 for two dierent TCSCs
locations
For the next case, the TSCS is located subsequently again in lines 26-29
and 37-38 respectively and the loads in the TCSCs terminal buses 26
and 37 respectively, are increased for 10%, followed by the fault in the
line 13-14 closed to the bus 13, cleared after 50 ms without changing
the system topology. Due to the load increase, the active power refer-
ence values through TCSCs are changed. Dynamical response of active
power ow for this case is shown in Figure 5.13. Oscillatory mode is
successfully damped for both locations, but active power ow change in
the line 26-29 aects less (less than 1%) the base case value of the active
power ow in observed line 31-32, which validates line 26-29 again as
the optimal TCSC location for the tested system.
One other scenario is studied. The loads on buses 15, 18 and 27 are
increased for 10% but the reference values of the active power through
the controlled lines are kept constant. Figure 4.4 shows the active power
ow response and the variation of the percentage compensation of the
TCSC located in line 37-38. For this case the available controllability
is lost, i.e. it is not possible to reach the specied reference value of the
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

i
n

l
i
n
e

3
1
3
2

[
p
u
]

TCSC in line 3738
TCSC in line 2629
Figure 4.3: Active power ow in the line 31-32 for two dierent TCSCs
locations
active power ow, while for TCSC located in line 26-29, controllability
is still exible, Figure 4.5.
0 20 40 60 80 100
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
10
20
30
40
time [s]
C
o
m
p
e
n
s
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

T
C
S
C

[
%
]
Figure 4.4: Active power ow and compensation of TCSC in the con-
trolled line 37-38 for the case of multiple load increase
4.4. Summary 63
0 20 40 60 80 100
2.3
2.25
2.2
2.15
time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]
0 20 40 60 80 100
27
28
29
30
31
time [s]
C
o
m
p
e
n
s
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

T
C
S
C

[
%
]
Figure 4.5: Active power ow and compensation of TCSC in the con-
trolled line 26-29 for the case of load increase
4.4 Summary
In this Chapter, an approach for the optimal location of a FACTS de-
vice combining the static (for optimal location of the power ow con-
troller) and the dynamic criterion (for optimal location of the damping
controller) has been presented. In general, the optimal location of the
TCSC controller obtained according to the dynamic criteria is not the
same as that one obtained according to the static criteria. In this Chap-
ter the static criteria and the dynamic criteria were combined in such a
way that the resulting location of the FACTS device could be optimally
selected with respect to both control objectives.
Chapter 5
Self-Tuning Controllers
A conventional damping control design considers a single operating con-
dition of the system. In this kind of controllers, feedback is xed and
amplies the error, which in turn determines the value of the input sig-
nal u (controller output) for the system. The way in which the error is
processed is the same for all operating conditions. The basis of the adap-
tive system is that it inuences the way in which the error is processed.
There are three basic approaches to the problem of adaptive control;
heuristic approach, self-tuning controllers (STC) and model adaptive
reference systems (MRAS), [28].
The self-tuning controller is based on the idea of separating the estima-
tion of unknown parameters from the design of the optimal controller,
[29]. The unknown parameters are estimated on-line, using recursive es-
timation of the characteristics of the system and its disturbances. The
approach used in STCs was rst mentioned in the work of Kalman in
1958, [30] and then revived in the early 1970s by the work of Astrom
and Wittenmark, [31], and others. Researchers, over the years, have
been developing this approach. A self-tuning controller for power sys-
tem stabilizers (PSSs) has been reported in [22] where Prony analysis
extracts oscillation modes from sequential data and estimates oscillation
frequency, damping, amplitude and phase of each mode. The authors
in [24, 25, 26] have done the work on PSS self-tuning controller based
on pole assignment where the amount of pole shifting is adjusted de-
pending upon the changes of system operating conditions.
65
66 Chapter 5. Self-Tuning Controllers
In Chapter 3, a conventional lead-lag controller designed usually for one
particular operating point, usually the nominal one, has been presented.
This controller is simple, but works satisfactorily often only within a
limited operating range. In case of contingencies, changed operating
conditions can cause poorly damped or even unstable oscillations since
the set of controller parameters yielding satisfactory damping for one
operating condition may no longer be valid for another one. A more
sophisticated controller which can maintain good damping over a wide
range of operating conditions, is therefore needed. To reach this goal,
the identication of the static and dynamic characteristics of the system
plays an important role together with the control strategy itself.
5.1 Adaptive Model Identication
As mentioned, on-line identication of process parameters is an impor-
tant part of a self-tuning controller. Figure 5.1 shows the adaptive
control scheme for the self-tuning controller for FACTS POD parame-
ters. While it is necessary to work with derivatives of measured signal
+
y
Linear
Model
^
y
Controller
Design
z
-1
e
-
Kalman
Filter
Controller
r
-
Power
System
F
A
C
T
S
u
e
Figure 5.1: Adaptive control scheme for FACTS, general form
when describing a continuous-time dynamic system, like power system,
it is considerably simpler to construct discrete models. They rely on
5.1. Adaptive Model Identication 67
signal values taken at sampling periods, T
s
. In the case of controlling a
continuous-time system one considers a continuous-time control object
and a discrete controller. An interface between dierently operating dy-
namic systems, like sample and hold units, is essential. It is necessary
to use a suitable mathematical description to express behavior of the
discretized control loop.
The considered system model is linear, having single-input single-output
(SISO) and time-varying parameters. The theoretical assumption is
that the power system is working around a certain operating point for
a certain period of time, which enables the estimated coecient of the
time varying linear model to converge to the actual values. The consid-
ered model has in time domain the form given by
y(k) =
n
a
i=1
a
i
y(k i) +
n
b
i=1
b
i
u(k i) +e(k) (5.1)
where y(k) is the value of the measured output variable at time k, u(k)
is the value of the measured input variable at time k (controller output)
and e(k) is the random nonmeasurable component (white noice). This
model is called AutoRegressive with an eXternal input (ARX model)
or regression model. It is more convenient to describe ARX model
employing backward time-shift operator z
1
, i.e z
1
y(k) = y(k 1),
A(z
1
)y(k) = B(z
1
)u(k) +e(k) (5.2)
where the individual polynomials of equation (5.2) take the form
A(z
1
) = 1 +a
1
z
1
+a
2
z
2
+... +a
n
a
z
n
a
B(z
1
) = b
1
z
1
+b
2
z
2
+... +b
n
b
z
n
b
(5.3)
The quality of the regression model used is valuated by the estimation
error given by
(k) = y(k) y(k) (5.4)
where y(k) is the model output at time k with e(k) = 0. The goal of
the parameter estimation is to identify (n
a
+ n
b
) coecients a
i
(k) and
b
i
(k) of the model (5.1) in a way that the sum of the squared prediction
errors (5.5) is minimized.
J = min
2
(k) = min
a
i
,b
i
[y(k) y(k)]
2
(5.5)
For the model to be optimal for k, its parameters must be updated
recursively once per sampling period T
s
for each new measurements u(k)
and y(k). The method used for identication of the values of the model
parameters is based on Kalman Filtering technique (KF). More details
regarding the KF theory can be found in [33]. The set of standard KF
equations in a recursive form to be solved once per sampling period T
s
is given by (5.6)-(5.10) and the variables are described in Table 5.1.
g(k) = K(k 1)(k)
_
T
(k)K(k 1)(k) +Q
m
1
(5.6)
y(k) =
T
(k)p(k 1) (5.7)
(k) = y(k) y (5.8)
p(k) = p(k 1) +(k)g(k) (5.9)
K(k) = K(k 1) g(k)
T
(k)K(k 1) +Q
p
(5.10)
Variable Description
y(k) output measurement (desired response of model at time k)
u(k) input measurement (controller output at time k)
y(k) model output (response of model at time k)
(k) buered measurements (k) R
(n
a
+n
b
)1
(k) = [y(k 1) y(k n
a
)u(k 1) . . . u(k n
b
)]
T
(k) estimation error at time k
p(k) vector of estimated parameters p(k) R
(n
a
+n
b
)1
p(k) = [a
1
(k), . . . , a
n
a
(k), b
1
(k), . . . b
n
b
(k)]
g(k) Kalman-gain, g(k) R
n1
K(k) correlation of estimation error, K(k) R
nn
Q
m
correlation of measurement noise, Q
m
R
11
Q
p
correlation of process noise, Q
p
R
nn
Table 5.1: Variables of the algorithm for parameter estimation
To ensure numerical robustness, the above standard adaptive ltering
algorithm has been enhanced by (5.11) and (5.12). The covariance
matrix K(k) is enforced by (5.11) to remain symmetrical. For a better
parameter tracking, a regularized constant trace algorithm (5.12) has
5.2. Residue Based Adaptive Control 69
been employed with experimentally obtained c
1
/c
2

= 10
4
and I being
the unitiy matrix of the same dimension as K(k) [5].
K(k) =
K(k) +K
T
(k)
2
(5.11)
K(k) =
c
1
K(k)
tr(K(k))
+c
2
I (5.12)
As a result of the described adaptive model identication technique, the
power system model required for the controller design becomes available
at any time k.
5.2 Residue Based Adaptive Control
For the residue based adaptive controller, adaptive model identication
part diers from above described procedure in model used for the es-
timation. The estimation method chosen here is autoregressive (AR)
model, given by (5.13), which presents the counterpart of the ARX
model, (5.1), for a single output signal.
y(k) =
n
a
i=1
a
i
y(k i) +e(k) (5.13)
rewritten in z
1
domain
A(z
1
)y(z) = e(k) (5.14)
Figure 5.2 shows adaptive control scheme for this method. The result of
this adaptive model identication is detection of the dominant oscilla-
tory mode in the system. The estimated linear discrete-time AR model
(5.13) of power system is given by
G(z) =
1
A(z
1
)
=
1
1 +
n
a
i=1
a
i
z
i
(5.15)
The detected oscillations are characterized by the solution of the char-
acteristic polynomial equation. The characteristic equation results from
(5.15) and has the form
A(z
1
) = 1 +a
1
z
1
... +a
n
z
a
n
= 0 (5.16)
+
y
Linear
Model
^
y
z
-1
e
-
Power
System
F
A
C
T
S
u
x
i
f
i
Controller
Design
Controller
r
-
e
Kalman
Filter
Parameters
of
Oscillations
Figure 5.2: General form of residue based adaptive control scheme for
FACTS
and the n solutions:
d
i
=
d
i
jw
d
i
(5.17)
The estimated discrete-time model of the system has to be converted
to a continuous one. Here, Tustins approximation is employed. The
relationship between z
1
and s to be substituted into (5.16) to obtain
i
is for Tustins approximation given by
z
1
=
1 s
T
s
2
1 +s
T
s
2
(5.18)
The next step is to calculate the eigenvalues,
i
, of the continuous-time
model. The most important oscillations that should be detected regard-
ing stability are the dominant ones. They are characterized by complex
eigenvalues having the biggest real part among the others. Finally, the
parameters characterizing the oscillations of interest, such as frequency
f and relative damping , are directly calculated from the dominant
eigenvalue pair
i
=
i
jw
i
as follows:
= 100

i
_
2
i
+w
2
i
[%] (5.19)
f =
|w
i
|
2
[Hz] (5.20)
G(s)
K(
i,
f
i
) z
Ts+1
1
T s+1
w
T s
w
T
lead
(f
i
)s + 1
T
lag
(f
i
)s + 1
DP
line
Adaptive
algorithm based
on Kalman filter
z
i
f
i
T
lead
(f
i
)s + 1
T
lag
(f
i
)s + 1
Dk
POD
+
+
k
ref
Figure 5.3: Residue based adaptive controller, using Kalman ltering
Figure 5.3 shows the closed loop control system with a residue based
POD controller. This kind of the controller is presented in detail in
Chapter 3. With an oscillatory mode known from identication part,
POD parameters are obtained from the equations below, presented in
Chapter 3 by
comp
= 180
0
arg(R
i
) (5.21)
c
=
T
lead
T
lag
=
1 sin(
comp
m
c
)
1 +sin(
comp
m
c
)
(5.22)
T
lag
=
1
w
i
c
(5.23)
T
lead
=
c
T
lag
(5.24)
K =
i,des

i
R
i
H
1
(
i
)
(5.25)
Since no information about the angle of compensation is available for an
update it has to be assumed that the mode residue remains unchanged.
Hence, the system model has to be available in order to nd optimal
location for FACTS devices, in this case TCSC, and consequently to cal-
culate the values of residues for the controller design. From Figure 5.3,
one can see that T
lead
, T
lag
and the gain K are updated online at every
sampling period, T
s
, according to (5.23)-(5.25). A relatively simple and
powerful adaptive controller tuning has been achieved in considered test
system using this approach.
The test system used for applying the residue based controller is the
New England 39 bus system, shown in Figure 3.4, Chapter 3. For this
case study the dynamic data of some generators were modied in or-
der to get illustrative results. The modied system has one oscillatory,
inter-area mode characterized by = 0.0784 j5.3677 with damping
ratio = 1.46%. Performed residue and sensitivity analysis show that
the line 26-29 is, again, the most suitable location for TCSC in order to
satisfy both, i.e. a power ow and damping control.
As mentioned, the problem with a set of xed controller parameters
i.e. tuned by conventional method, arises when the system topology is
changed. In such cases, the re-tuning of POD parameters is required.
One solution of this problem is to re-tune the controller parameters for
every new operating condition based on a complete set of the model
parameters. In following Figures, dynamic responses obtained by this
approach are denoted as re-tuned POD, i.e. POD is re-tuned for ap-
propriate operating condition, e.g. with the line out of service, whereas
xed POD means POD controller tuned as well by residue based
method, but for nominal condition.
In order to compare all approaches, the following disturbances are con-
sidered for simulation with a fault for 100 ms close to the buses:
1. bus # 16 followed by outage of the line 16-17 and with line 25-26
out of service
2. bus # 25 followed by outage of the line 25-26 and with lines 23-24
and 32-18 out of service
Figures 5.4 and 5.5 show the active power ow dynamic response for
the rst disturbance, with comparison of the results obtained for xed
tuned POD, re-tuned POD, and proposed adaptive tuned POD. It can
be noted that re-tuned POD, tuned for systems operating condition
when line 25-26 is out of service, is not able to damp oscillations af-
ter the applied disturbance, i.e. when the system topology is changed
again. Figures 5.6 and 5.7 show the dynamic response for the second
disturbance. The re-tuned POD is able in this case to damp oscil-
lations as well as the xed POD. The disadvantage of this approach is
the necessity of knowing all power systems data and performing on-line
linearization for the each new operating condition.
However, all gures show that the adaptive tuned POD in both cases
has the best performance and shows the robustness compare to conven-
tional tuned POD. Figure 5.7 shows the comparison between xed POD
and adaptive tuned POD, for the second disturbance. Figure 5.8 shows
the results of detection of oscillations for case in Figure 5.4; relative
damping of the dominant oscillatory mode, frequency of the dominant
oscillatory mode and predictive error, which is the error between the
ltered measured signal and its prediction.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]
Fault at bus 16 with line 1617 out and line 2526 out of service
Adaptive tuned POD
Fixed POD
Figure 5.4: Active power ow in the controlled line 26-29
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]
Adaptive tuned POD
Retuned POD
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
Time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]
Fault at bus 25 with line 2526 out and lines 2324 and 3218 out of service
Adaptive tuned POD
Retuned POD
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
Time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]
Fault at bus 25 with line 2526 out and lines 2324 and 3218 out of service
Adaptive tuned POD
Fixed POD
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
50
0
50
100
Dominant relative damping [%]
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Dominant frequency [Hz]
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0.5
0
0.5
1
Predictive error
time [s]
Figure 5.8: Results of detection of oscillations for the case in Figure 5.4
5.3 Pole Shifting Adaptive Control
In order to apply residue based adaptive control method, the system
model has to be available in order to nd optimal location for FACTS
devices and consequently to calculate the values of residues for the con-
troller design. For the self-tuning controller design technique proposed
in this section, no system model is required. An adaptive control based
on pole-shifting is employed as a self-tuning controller.
The pole shifting method is based on pole assignment method [26]. A
controller based on the pole assignment method is designed to achieve
the pre-dened poles of the characteristic polynomial [28]. Like the pole
assignment method, pole shifting method deals with closed loop poles.
The poles of the open loop system are rst obtained from characteristic
polynomial and then shifted toward the origin of the unit z circle by a
pole shifting factor .
S (z )
-1
y +
-
u
r
H (z )
-1
e
Figure 5.9: Considered closed loop control system
Figure 5.1 shows the considered adaptive control scheme. Employed
controller design comes from the general closed loop diagram shown in
Figure 5.9. The uncontrolled system is identied by a discrete model of
the ARX form, (5.2), or by a transfer function
S(z
1
) =
Y (z
1
)
U(z
1
)
=
B(z
1
)
A(z
1
)
(5.26)
with polynomials
A(z
1
) = 1 +a
1
(k)z
1
+a
2
(k)z
2
+... +a
n
a
(k)z
n
a
(5.27)
B(z
1
) = b
1
(k)z
1
+b
2
(k)z
2
+... +b
n
b
(k)z
n
b
(5.28)
where the system parameters a
i
and b
i
are known from a real-time
parameter identication method for any time k. The poles of the open-
loop system are rst obtained by solving the open-loop characteristic
5.3. Pole Shifting Adaptive Control 77
equation from (5.27) frozen for the actual time k:
A(z
1
) = 1 +a
1
z
1
+a
2
z
2
+... +a
n
a
z
n
a
= 0 (5.29)
The discrete transfer function of the considered controller is given by
H(z
1
) =
U(z
1
)
E(z
1
)
=
G(z
1
)
F(z
1
)
(5.30)
where
F(z
1
) = 1 +f
1
z
1
+... +f
i
z
i
+... +f
n
f
z
n
f
(5.31)
G(z
1
) = g
0
+g
1
z
1
+... +g
i
z
i
+... +g
n
g
z
nf
(5.32)
and n
f
= n
b
1, n
g
= n
a
1.
The transfer function of the closed loop system, illustrated in the block
diagram in Figure 5.9, then takes the form
Y (z
1
)
R(z
1
)
=
B(z
1
)G(z
1
)
A(z
1
)F(z
1
) +B(z
1
)G(z
1
)
(5.33)
The transfer function of the closed loop system has to be suitably ad-
justed by choosing a controller transfer function to guarantee the over-
all stability of the closed loop system. According to pole assignment
method, by choosing the characteristic polynomial
P(z
1
) = 1 +
n
p
i=1
p
i
z
i
(5.34)
in the polynomial equation
P(z
1
) = A(z
1
)F(z
1
) +B(z
1
)G(z
1
) (5.35)
where n
p
= max(n
a
+ n
f
, n
b
+ n
g
), one should achieve the pre-set
poles. As mentioned, the open loop poles of the system are obtained by
solving (5.29). If all the roots of (5.29) are within the unit circle in the
z-domain, the system is stable. It is clear, the system is more stable as
the closer the poles are to the origin of the unit circle. The function of
the pole shifting self-tuning control is to shift all roots of (5.29) towards
the origin of the unit circle by a factor . This implies that P(z
1
)
takes the form of a polynomial A(z
1
) multiplied with an array of ,
P(z
1
) = 1 +
n
p
i=1
p
i
z
i
= 1 +
n
p
i=1
i
a
i
z
i
(5.36)
where 0 < < 1 and the prescribed coecients p
i
= 0 for i > n
a
.
Hence, the resulting close-loop poles will be the roots of the character-
istic equation given by
P(z
1
) = 0 (5.37)
Substituting (5.27), (5.28), (5.31), (5.32) and (5.36) into (5.35) and
comparing the coecients at the same power of z
1
on the both sides,
gives:
M H = L (5.38)
where
M =
_
_
1 0 . 0 b
1
0 . 0
a
1
1 . 0 b
2
b
1
. 0
. a
1
. . . b
2
. .
a
n
a
. . 1 b
n
b
. . b
1
0 a
n
a
. a
1
0 b
n
b
. b
2
. 0 . . . 0 . .
. . . . . . . .
0 0 . a
n
a
0 0 . b
n
b
_
_
(5.39)
H =
_
_
f
1
.
.
f
n
f
g
0
.
.
g
n
g
_
_
(5.40)
L =
_
_
a
1
( 1)
a
2
(
2
1)
.
.
a
n
a
(
n
a
1)
0
.
0
_
_
(5.41)
If the variable in matrix L is xed, one has a special case of the pole
assignment control algorithm where the coecients of the controller
transfer function, f
i
(i = 1, ...n
f
) and g
i
(i = 1, ...n
g
), can be calculated
at every sample from (5.38) by
H = M
1
L (5.42)
and the control u can be calculated, as shown in Fig. 5.9, by
U(z
1
)
E(z
1
)
=
G(z
1
)
F(z
1
)
= H(z
1
) (5.43)
or with zero reference value r
U(z
1
)
Y (z
1
)
=
G(z
1
)
F(z
1
)
= H(z
1
) (5.44)
From (5.44) follows
U(z
1
)F(z
1
) = Y (z
1
)G(z
1
) (5.45)
rewritten in time domain
u(k)+f
1
u(t1)+...+f
n
f
u(tn
f
) = g
0
y(t)+g
1
y(t1)+...+g
n
g
y(tn
g
)
(5.46)
or
u(k) =
T
(k)H(k) (5.47)
with (k) = [u(k 1), ..., u(k n
f
), y(k), ..., y(k n
g
)] and H given
by (5.40).
Proper value of the pole shifting factor depends on the operating condi-
tions. For that reason it is desirable to adapt the parameter on line.
From (5.47), it is obvious that the control at time k, u(k), is a function
of pole shifting factor at that time, with constraint u
min
u u
max
.
Sensitivity function can be calculated from (5.47) as
du
d
=
T
dH
d
(5.48)
Substituting (5.42) into (5.48) gives
du
d
=
T
M
1
dL
d
(5.49)
du
d
=
T
M
1
[a
1
, 2a
2
, ..., n
a
a
n
a
n
a
1
] (5.50)
With the approximation
du
d
=
u
(5.51)
the modication factor is given by
= K |
du
d
|
1
u (5.52)
where u is the control margin dened as
u =
_
u
max
u u 0
u u
min
u < 0
(5.53)
and K is a positive constant chosen to avoid excessive variation in .
The variable pole shifting factor, (k), can be calculated by
(k) = (k
0
) + (5.54)
where (k
0
) is any value between 0 and 1.
Figure 5.10 and Figure 5.13 show the direct comparison between the
active power ow response of the system to the fault with xed POD
parameters and adaptive tuned parameters of the POD controller, for
two dierent cases. The simulations are carried out for two disturbances
for 100 ms. The faults are created 1.0 s after the start of the simulations
and they are applied close to the following buses:
1. bus #16 followed by outage of the line 16-17
2. bus #21 followed by outage of the line 21-22 and with line 32-18
and 33-14 out of service
The xed POD parameters are tuned using the residue method. The
results given in this Figures show that the oscillations of the system
are damped out eciency and demonstrates the ability of the system
to adapt to a new operating conditions. Figure 5.12 shows the compar-
ison of the active power ow for the case on Figure 5.10, with xed and
variable pole shifting factor, .
Variation of the pole shifting factor for two studied cases is shown in
Figure 5.11 and Figure 5.14. It can be seen that pole shifting factor
adapts itself to the dynamic of the system and it can converge either to
some random value or to its starting value, [32], in order to achieve the
desired closed-loop poles.
One more result of the adaptive model identication is shown on Fig-
ure 5.15 and Figure 5.16. Figure 5.15 shows the poles of the closed loop
system with the POD parameters tuned using the residue method, in
the case with the fault applied in the line 29-30 and with the lines 12-26
and 13-22 out of service, frozen for actual time k. Figure 5.16 shows,
for the same case, the poles of the characteristic polynomial equation
of the system closed with an adaptive tuned POD controller, frozen as
well for actual time k.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
Time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]

Adaptive tuned POD
Fixed tuned POD
Figure 5.10: Active power ow in controlled line 26-29
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Time [s]
P
o
l
e

s
h
i
f
t
i
n
g

f
a
c
t
o
r
Figure 5.11: Variation of the pole shifting factor, , for case in Fig-
ure 5.10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
Time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]

variable alpha
alpha = 0.2
alpha = 0.9
Figure 5.12: Comparison of active power ow in controlled line 26-29
with xed and variable pole shifting factor,
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Fault at bus 29 with 2930 out and with lines 1226 and 1322 out of service
Time [s]
A
c
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

f
l
o
w

[
p
u
]

Fixed tuned POD
Adaptive tuned POD
Figure 5.13: Active power ow in controlled line 26-29
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Time [s]
P
o
l
e

s
h
i
f
t
i
n
g

f
a
c
t
o
r
Figure 5.14: Variation of the pole shifting factor, , for case in Fig-
ure 5.13
1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

a
x
i
s
Real axis
Figure 5.15: Poles of the closed loop system with xed tuned POD con-
troller for case in Figure 5.13
1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Real axis
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

a
x
i
s
Figure 5.16: Poles of the closed loop system with adaptive tuned POD
controller for case in Figure 5.13
5.4. Summary 85
5.4 Summary
In the rst part of this chapter, a simple adaptive tuning method based
on residue approach has been elaborated and applied to the TCSC. It
has been shown that in some cases the set of TCSC POD controller
tuned by conventional methodology, can not stabilize the power system
under all admissible operating conditions. In this case, a re-tuning is
necessary. An algorithm for detection of oscillation has been utilized to
automate this procedure. For this approach, the system model has to be
available in order to nd optimal location for FACTS devices and con-
sequently to calculate the values of residues for the controller design.
That has been motivation for applying more exible self-tuning con-
troller based on pole shifting approach, elaborated in the second part of
the chapter. Using the proposed indirect adaptive control scheme, there
is no need to know a priori the actual parameters of the power system
model in order to design the controller. This is a practical advantage of
the presented method. Simulations showed that the proposed method
led automatically to an improvement of the damping characteristic un-
der dierent operating conditions.
Chapter 6
Coordinated Tuning of
PSS and FACTS POD
Controllers
With a conventional design approach, it might be very dicult to prop-
erly handle a coordinated design for multiple controllers and for a va-
riety of operating conditions. Power oscillation damping controllers of
FACTS devices (FACTS POD) are eective in contribution to the damp-
ing of poorly damped inter-area modes while power system stabilizers
(PSSs) are an ecient tool for damping of the local modes, but they
can damp the inter-area modes as well [19]. The aim of tuning both
stabilizers is the same as for tuning the individual ones; to ensure that
the power system operates with adequate damping over a wide range of
operating conditions and system congurations.
As a consequence of the action of both stabilizers in the system, the
PSSs and FACTS POD, undesired interactions between them may oc-
cur [34]. This requires a simultaneous optimization and coordination
of the parameter settings of both stabilizers in order to enhance overall
system stability and minimizing possible adverse interactions between
stabilizers.
This chapter presents a method used for the coordinated tuning of POD
87
88 Chapter 6. Coordinated Tuning...
FACTS controllers and PSSs using Genetic Algorithms (GA). For GA
technique it suces to specify the objective function and to place nite
bounds on the optimized parameters. It provides greater exibility re-
garding controller structure and objective function considered [?], than
conventional optimization techniques. The use of GA helps to obtain an
optimal tuning for all PSS and FACTS POD parameters simultaneously,
which thereby takes care of undesired interaction between controllers.
6.1 Genetic Algorithms
Genetic Algorithms (GAs) are optimization methods based on concepts
of natural selections and genetics. They work with a population of so-
lutions, each representing a possible solutions to given problem. One of
the advantages of genetic algorithms is that they do not require any prior
knowledge or special properties of the objective function [37]. There are
some disadvantages of GAs as well, like long computing times, parame-
ter tuning, e.g. some parameters have to be adjusted by the user (mu-
tation and crossover probabilities, population size etc.), GAs are bet-
ter suited for unconstrained optimization problems than to constrained
problems [37].
The main component of GA is a string which represents one parameter
or one chromosome of an individual. Each individual represents a possi-
ble solutions within a search space. A number of individuals constitute
a population. The initial population consist of N randomly generated
individuals, where N is the size of population. At every iteration of
the algorithm, the tness of each individual in the current population
is computed. The genetic operators, selection, crossover and mutation
are then applied in order to create new population that is closer to the
optimal solution as described below.
6.1.1 Selection
After the individuals have received their tness value, the selection
mechanism copy them according to their tness. The individuals with
high tness value have better possibility for reproduction into the next
generation. There are several schemes for the selection process; roulette
6.1. Genetic Algorithms 89
Figure 6.1: One-point crossover example
wheel selection, tournament selection and rank-based selection are com-
mon selection methods. Stochastic uniform selection is used in GA
simulations in this chapter.
6.1.2 Crossover
In the next stage, two individuals (parent) are chosen and combined
to create osprings. The combination is done with a given probability,
typically in the range of 0.6-1.0, otherwise parents are unchanged. The
simplest crossover operator is on-point crossover. It does the combina-
tion by choosing at random a cutting point at which each of the parents
is divided into two parts in order to create two osprings which contain
information from each of the parent string. Figure 6.1 shows one-point
crossover example.
6.1.3 Mutation
The mutation operator is applied to change the values in a randomly
chosen location on an individual. This enables the search of some re-
gions of the search space which would be otherwise unreachable. There
are many forms for dierent types of presentation. Figure 6.2 shows the
single mutation operation.
Figure 6.2: Mutation example
The described operators are used when the individuals are encoded with
binary alphabet. Binary encoding is a standard GA representation that
can be applied to many problems.
The GA requires an initial population to begin the search process. The
most common method is to randomly generate solutions for the entire
population. The GA moves from generation to generation selecting and
reproducing the parents until a stopping criterion is met. The simplest
stopping criterion is a specied maximum number of generations.
6.2 PSS and FACTS POD Controller De-
sign
PSS acts through the excitation system in order to produce an addi-
tional damping torque proportional to speed change of the generator,
[19], used as input signal for PSS for simulations in this chapter. It
involves transfer function consisting of an amplication block, a wash-
out block and two lead-lag blocks. The following equation describes the
structure of the PSS used in this dissertation.
H
PSS
(s) = K
PSS
_
sT
w
1 +sT
w
__
1 +sT
1
1 +sT
2
__
1 +sT
3
1 +sT
4
_
(6.1)
The lead-lag blocks provide the appropriate phase-lead characteristics
to compensate the phase lag between the exciter input and the generator
electrical torque.
As discussed in Chapter 3, the structure of FACTS POD controller has
a similar structure to that of the PSS controllers.
H
FACTS
(s) = K
FACTS
_
sT
w
1 +sT
w
__
1 +sT
1
1 +sT
2
_
2
(6.2)
The time constant T
w
is usually considered as a known parameter with
some predened values.
The objective of the parameter tuning by the GA optimization pro-
cedure is to achieve the minimum 5% damping for all oscillatory modes
over all operating conditions under consideration, i.e. when all
i
5%,
the optimization procedure is stopped. Parameters to be determined by
the GA procedure are K
PSSi
, T
1i
, T
2i
, T
3i
and T
4i
for PSS controllers,
and K
FACTSj
, T
1j
and T
2j
for FACTS POD controllers, where i and j
are the numbers of PSS and FACTS POD controllers, respectively.
6.3. Case Study 91
Let represent the set of selected operating points. For a certain
operating point, the power system is linearized around the operating
point, the eigenvalues of the closed loop system are computed, and the
objective function is evaluated using the eigenvalues whose have damp-
ing ratio less than 5%. The optimization problem to be solved by the
GA is formulated as a max-min optimization problem, where the ob-
jective function maximizes the minimum damping ratio in all scenarios
in [35]. Hence the problem can be mathematically described as the
optimization problem
F = max
p
min
n
(6.3)
subject to
K
PSSi, min
K
PSSi
K
PSSi, max
T
1i, min
T
1i
T
1i, max
T
2i, min
T
2i
T
2i, max
T
3i, min
T
3i
T
3i, max
T
4i, min
T
4i
T
4i, max
K
FACTSj, min
K
FATCSj
K
FACTSj, max
T
1j, min
T
1j
T
1j, max
T
2j, min
T
2j
T
2j, max
(6.4)
where p is total number of operating conditions under consideration, n
is the number of eigenvalues with damping ratio less than 5% and is
the closed-loop damping ratio.
6.3 Case Study
A 16-machine, 68 bus test system, shown in Figure 6.3, is considered
for the case studies. This is a reduced order equivalent of the inter-
connected New England test system (NETS) and New York power sys-
tem (NYPS). The static and dynamic data are adopted from [19], and
can be found in Appendix B, but the buses are renumbered keeping the
topology and data the same. All generators except the slack generator
G13 are equipped with static excitation system and power system stabi-
lizer (PSS), to ensure appropriate damping for its local modes. FACTS
devices used in case studies are the TCSC and the SVC. For the test
system with all devices installed, the active power ow and bus voltage
were chosen as feedback signal for the TCSC POD and the SVC POD,
respectively, and generator speed for PSSs. Figure 6.4 shows the domi-
nant eigenvalues of the linearized system model, without any controller.
It is found that the system has four inter-area modes which are lightly
damped, shown in Table 6.1.
Eigenvalue Damping ratio Frequency (Hz)
j

_
2
+
2
2
Mode 1 0.0347 j2.4208 0.0143 0.3853
Mode 2 0.0662 j3.7208 0.0178 0.5922
Mode 3 0.1020 j4.3134 0.0236 0.6865
Mode 4 0.1390 j4.9806 0.0279 0.7927
Table 6.1: Inter-area modes of the test system
To nd the best location for TCSC, the following tie-lines have been
investigated: 4142, 4252, 4753, 5354, 5327, 4946, 6061,
50 51. Table 6.2 shows the normalized residues in the system for dif-
ferent TCSCs locations. The results reveal that the line 50-51 is the
most suitable TCSCs location for mode #1, mode #2 and mode #4,
whereas the line 42-41 is the most suitable location for mode #2, mode
#3 and mode #4.
To nd the best location for SVC, the following load buses have been
investigated: 27, 41, 42, 50, 51, 52, 53, 60, 61. Table 6.3 shows the
normalized residues in the system for proposed SVCs locations. It can
be seen that the bus 50 is the most suitable location for SVC in order
to inuence damping of all inter-area modes.
The GA methodology used in this dissertation is provided by MAT-
LAB 7.1, [41]. The population size is set to 100, the maximum number
of generation is 30.
6
.
3
.
C
a
s
e
S
t
u
d
y
9
3
41
14
40 48 47 54
1
8
25 26
28
29
9
24
21
22
6
7
23
5
20
66
67
68
17 18
55
30
53
27
61 56
64
65
63
58
57
60
59
2
62
3
13
37
36
43
44
45
35
34
33
32
10
38 46
49
42
15
52
50
51
16
39
12
11
31
G G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
19
G
4
G
G
G
G
G
G
F
i
g
u
r
e
6
.
3
:
1
6
-
m
a
c
h
i
n
e
t
e
s
t
s
y
s
t
e
m
1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
Mode 4
Damping ratio 0.05
j
Figure 6.4: Dominant open-loop eigenvalues of the test system
Normalized residues
Line Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4
52 42 0.0475 0.0120 0.0305 0.0146
42 41 0.0023 1 0.9573 0.9551
53 47 0.0184 0.0002 0.001 0.0004
53 54 0.1288 0.0358 0.7726 0.0055
53 27 0.0086 0.0024 0.0515 0.0004
46 49 0.043 0.0249 0.0079 0.0367
60 61 0.1210 0.0556 1 0.0111
50 51 1 0.3699 0.5525 1
Table 6.2: Location indices of TCSC
6.3.1 Case Study with the TCSC - Case Study I
Case study I considers the GA methodology for the simultaneous tuning
of 15 PSSs and TCSC POD controller, in a way that the closed loop
system is stable and suciently damped for the specied system cong-
urations. The TCSC is located in line 50 51. To design the proposed
controllers, linearized models for the following four dierent operating
6.3. Case Study 95
Normalized residues
Bus Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4
27 0.0163 0.0194 0.1527 0.0035
41 0.0090 0.0090 0.0071 0.0020
42 0.0004 0.001 0.0015 0.0026
50 0.4064 1 0.4937 1
51 0.0585 0.8669 0.1369 0.9643
52 0.0304 0.0916 0.0088 0.2786
53 0.0383 0.3695 0.4296 0.0811
60 0.0065 0.0263 0.2069 0.0132
61 1 0.0524 1 0.6080
Table 6.3: Location indices of SVC
conditions for uncontrolled system are considered:
Base case
Line 52 42 out of service
The considered operating conditions are chosen as not desirable scenar-
ios, since an outage of one of the lines in the inter-connection between
two part of the test system, NETS and NYPS, weakens that connection
considerably. During the optimization, each PSS is set up with bounds
ranging from 0 to 40 for the gain and from 0 to 1 seconds for the time
constants, the same as for TCSC POD lead and lag time constants. The
bound for TCSC POD gain is set from 0 to 10.
Figure 6.5 shows the dominant eigenvalues of the test system where
the controllers are tuned by conventional approach, based on residue
method, and by GA methodology.
Remark: Tuning by conventional approach is done just for the base
case. The change of operating conditions for the system lead to the
new system topology and hence, the new residue values and lead and
lag time constants. Therefore it would be very dicult to nd the op-
4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14

GA tuning
Conventional tuning
Damping ratio
0.05
j
Figure 6.5: Dominant closed-loop eigenvalues with the TCSC installed
in the system (for nominal operating conditions)
timal parameters for all considered operating conditions by the residue
method.
The nal values of the optimized parameters for PSSs and TCSC POD
controller are given in Table 6.4 and Table 6.5 respectively, obtained by
GA approach. Tables 6.6 and 6.7 show the same parameters obtained
by conventional approach.
To evaluate the performance of the designed controllers, the simula-
tions are carried out for two disturbances for 80 ms. The faults are
created 1.0 s after the start of the simulations and they are applied
close to the following buses:
1. bus # 42 followed by outage of the line 42-41
out of service
The dynamic responses of the system following the descriebed distur-
bances are shown in Figure 6.9 and 6.10, respectively. The angular
separation between machines G1 and G16 are chosen to display since
6.3. Case Study 97
they are located in dierent areas. In order to examine the robustness
of the proposed controllers, a second disturbance, shown in Figure 6.7,
which does not belong to the group of the considered operating condi-
tions when damping the controller.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Fault at bus 42 with bus 4241 out
Time [s]
A
n
g
l
e

(
G
1
G
1
6
)

[
d
e
g
]

GA tuning
Conventional tuning
Figure 6.6: Relative angle between generators G1 and G16 for operating
condition mentioned on the top of plot - Case study I
Nonlinear simulations of the two previously described contingencies for
the system controlled by the designed PSSs and TCSC POD conrm the
result shown in Figure 6.5. Although the controllers are tuned, using
conventional and GA methodology, aimed at achieving same minimum
damping, the controllers tuned by the GA methodology provide better
damping compared to the controllers tuned by conventional methodol-
ogy.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Time [s]
A
n
g
l
e

(
G
1
G
1
6
)

[
d
e
g
]

GA tuning
Conventional tuning
condition mentioned on the top of plot - Case study I
6.3. Case Study 99
PSS number T
w
K
PSS
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
G1 10 22.2085 0.0908 0.5953 0.9584 0.3501
G2 10 11.7805 0.6349 0.2291 0.8014 0.5889
G3 10 37.7845 0.8869 0.1574 0.6691 0.6452
G4 10 38.3255 0.4376 0.9192 0.8552 0.5144
G5 10 13.8715 0.2788 0.8789 0.2990 0.4632
G6 10 0.6275 0.0322 0.9801 0.0224 0.2799
G7 10 18.9483 0.4391 0.7087 0.6754 0.0140
G8 10 4.2650 0.4639 0.9662 0.4519 0.8767
G9 10 23.5469 0.3073 0.1616 0.9874 0.6020
G10 10 16.5584 0.8783 0.7659 0.6242 0.8721
G11 10 33.1221 0.7248 0.1394 0.5936 0.8328
G12 10 39.6903 0.5653 0.0709 0.0889 0.8833
G13 - - - - - -
G14 10 39.2158 0.9117 0.0488 0.9381 0.8997
G15 10 16.0124 0.2167 0.6825 0.3896 0.4715
G16 10 29.8229 0.7304 0.1906 0.3278 0.6659
Table 6.4: Parameters for PSSs controllers obtained by GA approach in
case study I
FACTS controller T
w
K
FACTS
T
lead
T
lag
TCSC 10 3.9740 0.1521 0.8118
Table 6.5: Parameters for for FACTS POD controllers obtained by GA
approach in case study I
PSS number T
w
K
PSS
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
G1 10 10 0.093 0.1695 0.0930 0.1695
G2 10 15 0.0871 0.1179 0.0871 0.1179
G3 10 20 0.1326 0.1405 0.1326 0.1405
G4 10 20 0.0947 0.2214 0.0947 0.2214
G5 10 20 0.0989 0.2121 0.0989 0.2121
G6 10 20 0.1210 0.1734 0.1210 0.1734
G7 10 25 0.0687 0.1492 0.0687 0.1492
G8 10 20 0.0848 0.1859 0.0848 0.1859
G9 10 28 0.1063 0.1483 0.1063 0.1483
G10 10 20 0.1196 0.1275 0.1196 0.1275
G11 10 10 0.0839 0.0892 0.0839 0.0892
G12 10 10 0.1221 0.1348 0.1221 0.1348
G13 - - - - - -
G14 10 40 0.2613 0.2766 0.2613 0.2766
G15 10 40 0.2145 0.2498 0.2145 0.2498
G16 10 40 0.1951 0.2062 0.1951 0.2062
Table 6.6: Parameters for PSSs controllers obtained by conventional ap-
proach in case study I
FACTS controller T
w
K
FACTS
T
lead
T
lag
TCSC 10 2 0.1470 0.9395
Table 6.7: Parameters for for FACTS POD controllers obtained by con-
ventional approach in case study I
6.3. Case Study 101
6.3.2 Case Study with the SVC - Case Study II
In the case study II, the aim is the simultaneous tuning of all PSSs
and SVC POD controller. The SVC is located on bus 50. The same
linearized models as in Case Study I are used for uncontrolled system
in order to design the proposed controllers. Figure 6.8 shows the dom-
inant eigenvalues with the SVC installed in the system. Again, the
tuning with GA provides better damping compare to conventional tun-
ing based on modal analysis. Considering damping of inter-area modes,
Figures 6.5 and 6.8 show that the system with the TCSC installed pro-
vides better damping for inter-area modes compare to the system with
the SVC.
4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14

Conventional tuning
GA tuning
j
Damping ratio
0.05
Figure 6.8: Dominant closed-loop eigenvalues with the SVC installed in
the system (for nominal operating condition)
The following disturbances are considered for simulation with a fault
for 80 ms close to the following buses:
1. bus # 53 followed by outage of the line 53-47
out of service
The dynamic responses of the system following described disturbances
are shown in Figure 6.9 and 6.10, respectively.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
74
72
70
68
66
64
62
Time [s]
A
n
g
l
e

(
G
1
G
2
)

[
d
e
g
]

GA tuning
Conventional tuning
condition mentioned on the top of plot - Case study II
In both cases, the controllers tuned by GA methodology provide better
damping compared with conventional approach. The nal values of the
optimized parameters for PSSs and SVC POD controllers are given in
Table 6.10 and Table 6.11.
Comparing Figures 6.10 and 6.7, since they show dynamical response
for the same operating condition, it is obvious that the PSSs and the
TCSC, tuned by the GA, are able to damp the oscillations within about
25 s, whereas the PSSs and the SVC need about 35 s for the same.
6.3. Case Study 103
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
Time [s]
A
n
g
l
e

(
G
1
G
1
6
)

[
d
e
g
]

GA tuning
Conventional tuning
Figure 6.10: Relative angle between generators G1 and G16 for oper-
ating condition mentioned on the top of plot - Case study
II
PSS number T
w
K
PSS
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
G1 10 10.2653 0.4424 0.8189 0.7508 0.2351
G2 10 7.6746 0.2703 0.2072 0.1832 0.5312
G3 10 36.9950 0.4360 0.6476 0.6372 0.4812
G4 10 31.0307 0.2924 0.0048 0.9534 0.9431
G5 10 32.8585 0.1354 0.3087 0.8306 0.2327
G6 10 33.9995 0.2272 0.2861 0.2747 0.9942
G7 10 19.5452 0.2215 0.1830 0.9778 0.3111
G8 10 37.9839 0.6944 0.2559 0.5545 0.6437
G9 10 26.4172 0.6150 0.0533 0.9972 0.9212
G10 10 14.9597 0.8245 0.1457 0.2640 0.7141
G11 10 12.7762 0.8742 0.4090 0.0697 0.3345
G12 10 39.6353 0.8836 0.6029 0.9424 0.5495
G13 - - - - - -
G14 10 37.2248 0.6760 0.2154 0.7316 0.5303
G15 10 21.4287 0.8316 0.4252 0.9441 0.7204
G16 10 22.0855 0.1195 0.1746 0.9431 0.6054
Table 6.8: Controller parameters for PSSs controllers obtained by GA
approach in case study II
FACTS controller T
w
K
FACTS
T
lead
T
lag
SVC 10 7.09 0.9301 0.8319
Table 6.9: Controller parameters for FACTS POD controllers obtained
by GA approach in case study II
6.3. Case Study 105
PSS number T
w
K
PSS
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
G1 10 10 0.0976 0.1580 0.0976 0.1580
G2 10 10 0.1083 0.1250 0.1083 0.1250
G3 10 10 0.1329 0.1391 0.1329 0.1391
G4 10 5 0.0980 0.1040 0.0980 0.1040
G5 10 20 0.1130 0.1861 0.1130 0.1861
G6 10 40 0.1179 0.1783 0.1179 0.1783
G7 10 30 0.0687 0.4205 0.0687 0.4205
G8 10 40 0.0367 0.1426 0.1106 0.1426
G9 10 30 0.1314 0.1417 0.1314 0.1417
G10 10 20 0.1198 0.1274 0.1198 0.1274
G11 10 10 0.0839 0.0892 0.0839 0.0892
G12 10 10 0.1220 0.1349 0.1220 0.1349
G13 - - - - - -
G14 10 40 0.2615 0.2758 0.2615 0.2758
G15 10 40 0.1997 0.2014 0.1997 0.2014
G16 10 40 0.1950 0.2064 0.1950 0.2064
Table 6.10: Controller parameters for PSSs controllers obtained by con-
ventional approach in case study II
FACTS controller T
w
K
FACTS
T
lead
T
lag
SVC 10 5 0.1529 0.4717
by conventional approach in case study II
6.3.3 Case Study with the TCSC and the SVC -
Case Study III
This case study presents the results after applying GA methodology
to the simultaneous tuning of all PSSs, the SVC and the TCSC POD
controllers in test system. Since there are two FACTS POD controllers,
the aim is to achieve 7% damping for all oscillatory modes over all op-
erating conditions under consideration. According to the results shown
in Table 6.2 and Table 6.3, line 41 42 is chosen for TCSC location,
whereas bus 50 is chosen for SVC location. To design the proposed
controllers, linearized models for the following four dierent operating
conditions for uncontrolled system are considered:
Base case
Line 53 47 and line 60 61 out of service
The following disturbances are considered for simulation with a fault
for 80 ms close to the following buses:
out of service
out of service
Dynamic responses for above disturbances are shown in Figures 6.12
and 6.13, respectively. These gures exhibit the relative angular sepa-
ration between the generators located in separate geographical regions.
The nal values of the optimized parameters for PSSs and SVC POD
controllers are given in Table 6.14 and Table 6.15.
As in case studies I and II, the GA methodology provides better damp-
ing compared with conventional damping. To evaluate the performance
6.3. Case Study 107
4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14

GA tuning
Conventional tuning
Damping ratio 0.07
j
Figure 6.11: Dominant closed-loop eigenvalues with the TCSC and the
SVC installed in the system (for nominal operating condi-
tion)
and robustness of the designed controllers, the second disturbance is
chosen to be the same as for the previous cases.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
95
90
85
80
75
70
Time [s]
A
n
g
l
e

(
G
1
G
1
6
)

[
d
e
g
]

GA tuning
Conventional tuning
Figure 6.12: Relative angle between generators G1 and G16 for operat-
ing condition mentioned on the top of plot
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
Time [s]
A
n
g
l
e

(
G
1
G
1
6
)

[
d
e
g
]

GA tuning
Conventional tuning
Figure 6.13: Relative angle between generators G1 and G16 for operat-
ing condition mentioned on the top of plot
6.3. Case Study 109
PSS number T
w
K
PSS
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
G1 10 31.3586 0.7606 0.3331 0.0848 0.4809
G2 10 38.2932 0.9468 0.1699 0.6002 0.9166
G3 10 34.5484 0.5244 0.2125 0.2413 0.2052
G4 10 36.4488 0.9070 0.4036 0.4063 0.3791
G5 10 31.8271 0.3701 0.2870 0.4896 0.8186
G6 10 27.4265 0.4169 0.7222 0.6956 0.1588
G7 10 32.2473 0.9946 0.8566 0.3700 0.4241
G8 10 38.9045 0.4319 0.7723 0.5000 0.3217
G9 10 32.7795 0.8846 0.3527 0.6502 0.7449
G10 10 36.9588 0.8781 0.2445 0.6507 0.3935
G11 10 35.5656 0.2881 0.4313 0.0605 0.0462
G12 10 35.0717 0.9287 0.1631 0.2421 0.5010
G13 - - - - - -
G14 10 38.0251 0.9202 0.4881 0.9249 0.3611
G15 10 36.7685 0.9485 0.0903 0.0250 0.3818
G16 10 35.3055 0.8335 0.4210 0.9522 0.4564
Table 6.12: Controller parameters for PSSs controllers obtained by GA
approach in case study III
FACTS controller T
w
K
FACTS
T
lead
T
lag
SVC 10 0.4397 0.5247 0.6396
TCSC 10 0.3272 0.0519 0.9687
by GA approach in case study III
PSS number T
w
K
PSS
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
G1 10 40 0.0929 0.1696 0.0929 0.1696
G2 10 25 0.1083 0.1250 0.1083 0.1250
G3 10 25 0.1118 0.1212 0.1118 0.1212
G4 10 40 0.0947 0.2214 0.0947 0.2214
G5 10 40 0.0989 0.2121 0.0989 0.2121
G6 10 35 0.1210 0.1734 0.1210 0.1734
G7 10 40 0.0687 0.1492 0.0687 0.1492
G8 10 40 0.0850 0.1856 0.0850 0.1856
G9 10 40 0.1065 0.1481 0.1065 0.1481
G10 10 30 0.1198 0.1277 0.1198 0.1274
G11 10 15 0.0839 0.0892 0.0839 0.0892
G12 10 25 0.1220 0.1349 0.1220 0.1349
G13 - - - - - -
G14 10 40 0.4018 0.4174 0.4018 0.4174
G15 10 40 0.1254 0.1412 0.1254 0.1412
G16 10 40 0.2116 0.2124 0.2116 0.2124
Table 6.14: Controller parameters for PSSs controllers obtained by con-
ventional approach in case study III
FACTS controller T
w
K
FACTS
T
lead
T
lag
SVC 10 2 0.1137 0.3954
TCSC 10 0.5 0.0737 0.6098
by conventional approach in case study III
6.4. Summary 111
6.4 Summary
In this chapter, simultaneous tuning of multiple PSSs and FACTS POD
controllers has been illustrated using GA methodology. The control
design methodology was illustrated by three case studies. In the rst
two cases, the POD controllers were designed for 15 PSSs and a dierent,
single FACTS POD controller. In the third case, the aim was to tune 15
PSSs and two FACTS POD controllers. The performance of the design
was validate using non-linear simulations. Furthermore, comparison
with the conventional tuning procedure showed that the performance is
more robust when damping controllers were designed by GA procedure.
Chapter 7
Concluding Remarks
In this thesis, dierent control design methodologies for designing FACTS
power ow controllers and power oscillations damping controllers in
power systems have been illustrated.
The injection models of the Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC),
Unied Power Flow Controllers (UPFC) and Static VAR Compensator
(SVC) with their power ow controllers have been demonstrated. The
injection models are very simple to implement and they have been ap-
propriate for the kind of investigation carried out in this dissertation.
The software for both steady-state study and dynamic study of large
power systems embedded with FACTS devices have been developed.
The application of FACTS damping controllers, using conventional ap-
proach based on the residue method turned out to lack robustness under
changed operating conditions. Poorly damped or even unstable oscilla-
tions can result in instability, since the controller parameters yielding
satisfactory damping for one operating condition may no longer be valid
for another one. In those cases, a re-tuning is necessary. That provided
the motivation for developing an adaptive control strategy.
A simple adaptive tuning method based on the residue approach has
been developed and applied to the TCSC. The disadvantage of this sim-
ple approach is that the system model has to be available in order to
nd optimal location for FACTS devices and consequently to calculate
113
114 Chapter 7. Concluding Remarks
the values of residues for the controller design. This is the reason for the
implementation of a more exible self-tuning controller. The pole shift-
ing method was applied in the control design. As the system dynamics
are identied on-line, based on the automatic detection of oscillations in
power systems using dynamic data from the system, the most dominant
oscillation mode present at any time is identied. Hence, the control
provides maximum damping of the identied frequency all the time,
under dierent operating conditions, leading to an improvement of the
damping characteristic.
In general, the optimal location of the FACTS controller obtained ac-
cording to the dynamic criteria is not the same as the one obtained
according to the static criteria. A compromise has to be found for each
particular case, considering multiple tasks, for example power ow con-
trol and damping of oscillations. The procedure for considering the
TCSC location in order to satisfy the mentioned requirements has been
presented. As the static criteria (for optimal location of the power ow
controller), power ow sensitivity analysis has been used; as the dy-
namic criteria (for optimal location of the damping controller), residue
analysis has been used. Verication by simulation matched predicted
location as optimally selected TCSC location with respect to both con-
trol objectives.
The concept of simultaneous coordination of multiple controllers in the
system, like PSS and FACTS POD controllers, has been applied. The
concept has been based on Genetic Algorithm (GA) methodology, in
which an optimization problem to be solved is to determine the con-
troller parameters so that they provide required damping of the closed-
loop system, under dierent operating conditions. Furthermore, com-
parison with the conventional based tuning procedure showed that the
performance is more robust when damping controllers were designed by
GAs procedure.
In this thesis, on-line tuning was applied just on the TCSC. It would be
desirable to apply all proposed on-line approaches to FACTS devices,
e.g. SVC and UPFC. This task could be the subject of future research.
Designing POD controllers, local signals as a feedback signals were used
in this work. In general, the use of phasor measurement units (PMU)
ensures transmission of remote signals in almost real time. Allowing the
115
controller to use multiple input signals, some of which might be remote,
could prove as more eective in damping of oscillations. Moreover, it
might be possible to build a hierarchical control scheme in order to
achieve better control of oscillations and, for example, optimization of
power ow, especially in case of multiple contingencies. Future research
in this direction would provide more insight into these possibilities.
Appendix A
IEEE 39 Bus Test
System Data
The topology of the system is shown in Figure 6.3. All data here are in
pu with a base power of 100 MVA.
Bus Nr. Voltage Power generation Real load Reactive load
1 1.03 10.00 11.04 2.50
2 0.982 - 0.092 0.046
3 0.983 6.50 0.00 0.00
4 0.997 6.32 0.00 0.00
5 1.011 5.08 0.00 0.00
6 1.050 6.50 0.00 0.00
7 1.063 5.60 0.00 0.00
8 1.0278 5.40 0.00 0.00
9 1.0265 8.30 0.00 0.00
10 1.045 2.50 0.00 0.00
Table A.1: Machine bus data
117
118 Appendix A. IEEE 39 Bus Test System Data
Bus Nr. Real load Reactive load
11 0.00 0.00
12 0.075 0.88
13 0.00 0.00
14 0.00 0.00
15 3.20 1.53
16 3.29 0.32
17 0.00 0.00
18 1.58 0.30
19 0.00 0.00
20 6.28 1.03
21 2.74 1.15
22 0.00 0.00
23 2.47 0.846
24 3.086 -0.92
25 2.24 0.472
26 1.39 0.17
27 2.81 0.755
28 2.06 0.276
29 2.835 0.269
30 0.00 0.00
31 0.00 0.00
32 3.22 0.024
33 5.00 1.84
34 0.00 0.00
35 0.00 0.00
36 2.338 0.84
37 5.22 1.76
38 0.00 0.00
39 0.00 0.00
Table A.2: Load bus data
119
From To Resistance Reactance Line charging Tap ratio
39 31 0.0035 0.0411 0.6987 0.00
39 1 0.0010 0.0250 0.7500 0.00
31 32 0.0013 0.0151 0.2572 0.00
31 25 0.0070 0.0086 0.1460 0.00
32 33 0.0013 0.0213 0.2214 0.00
32 18 0.0011 0.0133 0.2138 0.00
33 34 0.0008 0.0128 0.1342 0.00
33 14 0.0008 0.0129 0.1382 0.00
34 35 0.0002 0.0026 0.0434 0.00
34 37 0.0008 0.0112 0.1476 0.00
35 36 0.0006 0.0092 0.1130 0.00
35 11 0.0007 0.0082 0.1389 0.00
36 37 0.0004 0.0046 0.0780 0.00
37 38 0.0023 0.0363 0.3804 0.00
38 1 0.0010 0.0250 1.2000 0.00
30 11 0.0004 0.0043 0.0729 0.00
30 13 0.0004 0.0043 0.0729 0.00
13 14 0.0009 0.0101 0.1723 0.00
14 15 0.0018 0.0217 0.3660 0.00
15 16 0.0009 0.0094 0.1710 0.00
16 17 0.0007 0.0089 0.1342 0.00
16 19 0.0016 0.0195 0.3040 0.00
16 21 0.0008 0.0135 0.2548 0.00
16 24 0.0003 0.0059 0.0680 0.00
17 18 0.0007 0.0082 0.1319 0.00
17 27 0.0013 0.0173 0.3216 0.00
21 22 0.0008 0.0140 0.2565 0.00
22 23 0.0006 0.0096 0.1846 0.00
23 24 0.0022 0.0350 0.3610 0.00
25 26 0.0032 0.0323 0.5130 0.00
26 27 0.0014 0.0147 0.2396 0.00
26 28 0.0043 0.0474 0.7802 0.00
26 29 0.0057 0.0625 1.0290 0.00
28 29 0.0014 0.0151 0.2490 0.00
12 11 0.0016 0.0435 0.0000 1.006
12 13 0.0016 0.0435 0.0000 1.006
Continued on next page
120 Appendix A. IEEE 39 Bus Test System Data
Continued from previous page
35 2 0.0000 0.0250 0.0000 1.070
30 3 0.0000 0.0200 0.0000 1.070
19 4 0.0007 0.0142 0.0000 1.070
20 5 0.0009 0.0180 0.0000 1.009
22 6 0.0000 0.0143 0.0000 1.025
23 7 0.0005 0.0272 0.0000 0.00
25 8 0.0006 0.0232 0.0000 1.025
31 10 0.0000 0.0181 0.0000 1.025
29 9 0.0008 0.0156 0.0000 1.025
19 20 0.0007 0.0138 0.0000 1.060
Table A.3: Line data
1
2
1
Machine X
l
R
a
X
d
X
d
T
d
X
q
X
q
T
q
H D
G1 0.003 0.00 0.02 0.006 7.0 0.019 0.008 0.7 500 0
G2 0.035 0.00 0.295 0.0697 6.56 0.282 0.170 1.5 30.3 0
G3 0.0304 0.00 0.2495 0.0531 5.7 0.237 0.0876 1.5 35.8 0
G4 0.0295 0.00 0.262 0.0436 5.69 0.258 0.166 1.5 28.6 0
G5 0.054 0.00 0.67 0.132 5.4 0.62 0.166 0.44 26.0 0
G6 0.0224 0.00 0.254 0.05 7.3 0.241 0.0814 0.4 34.8 0
G7 0.0322 0.00 0.295 0.049 5.66 0.292 0.186 1.5 26.4 0
G8 0.028 0.00 0.29 0.057 6.7 0.280 0.0911 0.41 24.3 0
G9 0.0298 0.00 0.2106 0.057 4.79 0.205 0.0587 1.96 34.5 0
G10 0.0125 0.00 0.1 0.031 10.2 0.069 0.008 0.0 42.0 0
Table A.4: Machine dynamic data
1
2
2
A
p
p
e
n
d
i
x
A
.
I
E
E
E
3
9
B
u
s
T
e
s
t
S
y
s
t
e
m
D
a
t
a
Machine no. K
A
T
A
V
Rmin
V
Rmax
K
E
T
E
A
ex
B
ex
K
F
T
F
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 6.2 0.05 -1.0 1.0 0 0.405 0.1175 2.0252 0.057 0.5
3 5.0 0.06 -1.0 1.0 0 0.5 0.0031 1.6988 0.08 1.0
4 5.0 0.06 -1.0 1.0 0 0.5 0.0006 2.0787 0.08 1.0
5 40.0 0.02 -10.0 10.0 0 0.785 0.0000 1.0384 0.03 1.0
6 5.0 0.02 -1.0 1.0 0 0.471 0.0004 1.6608 0.0754 1.246
7 40.0 0.02 -6.5 6.5 0 0.73 0.0821 0.2830 0.03 1.0
8 5.0 0.02 -1.0 1.0 0 0.528 0.0005 1.8645 0.0854 1.26
9 40.0 0.02 -10.5 10.5 0 1.4 0.1015 0.1953 0.03 1.0
10 5.0 0.06 -1.0 1.0 0 0.25 0.0010 1.5249 0.04 1.0
Table A.5: DC excitation system data
Appendix B
IEEE 68 Bus Test
System Data
The topology of the system is shown in Figure 6.3. All data here are in
pu with a base power of 100 MVA.
Table B.1: Machine bus data
Bus Nr. Voltage Power generation
1 1.045 2.5
2 0.98 5.45
3 0.983 6.50
4 0.997 6.32
5 1.011 5.052
6 1.050 7.00
7 1.063 5.60
8 1.03 5.40
9 1.025 8.00
10 1.010 5.00
11 1.000 10.00
12 1.0156 13.50
13 1.011 35.91
123
124 Appendix B. IEEE 68 Bus Test System Data
Table B.1: Machine bus data (continued)
Bus Nr. Voltage Power generation
14 1.00 17.85
15 1.00 10.00
16 1.00 40.00
Table B.2: Load bus data
17 0.00 0.00
18 1.58 0.30
19 0.00 0.00
20 6.80 1.03
21 1.740 1.15
22 0.00 0.00
23 1.48 0.85
24 3.09 -0.92
25 2.24 0.47
26 1.39 0.17
27 2.81 0.76
28 2.06 0.28
29 2.84 0.27
30 0.00 0.00
31 0.00 0.00
32 0.00 0.00
33 1.12 0.00
34 0.00 0.00
35 0.00 0.00
36 1.02 -0.1946
37 60.00 3.00
38 0.00 0.00
39 2.67 0.126
40 0.6563 0.2353
41 10.00 2.50
42 11.50 2.50
125
Table B.2: Load bus data (continued)
43 0.00 0.00
44 2.6755 0.0484
45 2.08 0.21
46 1.507 0.285
47 2.0312 0.3259
48 2.4120 0.022
49 1.64 0.29
50 2.00 -1.47
51 4.37 -1.22
52 24.7 1.23
53 2.527 1.1856
54 0.00 0.00
55 3.22 0.02
56 5.00 1.84
57 0.00 0.00
58 0.00 0.00
59 2.34 0.84
60 5.22 1.77
61 1.04 1.25
62 0.00 0.00
63 0.00 0.00
64 0.09 0.88
65 0.00 0.00
66 0.00 0.00
67 3.20 1.53
68 3.29 0.32
Table B.3: Line data
53 54 0.0070 0.0822 0.3493 0
53 30 0.0008 0.0074 0.48 0
54 55 0.0013 0.0151 0.2572 0
Table B.3: Line data (continued)
54 25 0.007 0.0086 0.146 0
54 1 0.00 0.0181 0.00 1.025
55 56 0.0013 0.0213 0.2214 0
55 18 0.0011 0.0133 0.2138 0
56 57 0.0008 0.0128 0.1342 0
56 66 0.0008 0.0129 0.1382 0
57 58 0.0002 0.0026 0.0434 0
57 60 0.0008 0.0112 0.1476 0
58 59 0.0006 0.0092 0.1130 0
58 63 0.0007 0.0082 0.1389 0
58 2 0 0.0250 0 1.07
59 60 0.0004 0.0046 0.078 0
60 61 0.0023 0.0363 0.3804 0
61 30 0.0019 0.0183 0.29 0
62 63 0.0004 0.0043 0.0729 0
62 65 0.0004 0.0043 0.0729 0
62 3 0 0.02 0 1.07
64 63 0.0016 0.0435 0 1.06
64 65 0.0016 0.0435 0 1.06
65 66 0.0009 0.0101 0.1723 0
66 67 0.0018 0.0217 0.366 0
67 68 0.0009 0.0094 0.171 0
68 17 0.0007 0.0089 0.1342 0
68 19 0.0016 0.0195 0.3040 0
68 21 0.0008 0.0135 0.2548 0
68 24 0.0003 0.0059 0.0680 0
17 18 0.0007 0.0082 0.1319 0
17 27 0.0013 0.0173 0.3216 0
19 20 0.0007 0.0138 0 1.06
19 4 0.0007 0.0142 0 1.07
20 5 0.0009 0.0180 0 1.009
21 22 0.0008 0.0140 0.2565 0
22 23 0.0006 0.0096 0.1846 0
22 6 0 0.0143 0 1.025
23 24 0.0022 0.0350 0.3610 0
127
23 7 0.0005 0.0272 0 0
25 26 0.0032 0.0323 0.5310 0
25 8 0.0006 0.0232 0 1.025
26 27 0.0014 0.0147 0.2396 0
26 28 0.0043 0.0474 0.7802 0
26 29 0.0057 0.0625 1.0290 0
28 29 0.0014 0.0151 0.2490 0
29 9 0.0008 0.0156 0 1.025
61 30 0.0019 0.0183 0.29 0
61 36 0.0022 0.0196 0.34 0
61 36 0.0022 0.0196 0.34 0
36 37 0.0005 0.0045 0.32 0
34 36 0.0033 0.0111 1.45 0
35 34 0.0001 0.0074 0 0.946
33 34 0.0011 0.0157 0.202 0
32 33 0.0008 0.0099 0.168 0
30 31 0.0013 0.0187 0.333 0
30 32 0.0024 0.0288 0.488 0
53 31 0.0016 0.0163 0.25 0
31 38 0.0011 0.0147 0.247 0
33 38 0.0036 0.0444 0.693 0
38 46 0.0022 0.0284 0.43 0
46 49 0.0018 0.0274 0.27 0
53 47 0.0013 0.0188 1.31 0
47 48 0.0025 0.0268 0.40 0
47 48 0.0025 0.0268 0.40 0
48 40 0.0020 0.022 1.28 0
35 45 0.0007 0.0175 1.39 0
37 43 0.0005 0.0276 0 0
43 44 0.0001 0.0011 0 0
44 45 0.0025 0.073 0 0
39 44 0 0.0411 0 1.00
39 45 0 0.0839 0 0
45 51 0.0004 0.0105 0.72 0
50 52 0.0012 0.0288 2.06 0
50 51 0.0009 0.0221 1.62 0
49 52 0.0076 0.1141 1.16 0
52 42 0.0040 0.0600 2.25 0
42 41 0.0040 0.0600 2.25 0
41 40 0.0060 0.0840 3.15 0
31 10 0 0.026 0 1.04
32 11 0 0.013 0 1.04
36 12 0 0.0075 0 1.04
37 13 0 0.0033 0 1.04
41 14 0 0.0015 0 1.00
42 15 0 0.0015 0 1.00
52 16 0 0.0030 0 1.00
53 27 0.032 0.32 0.41 0
Machine no. K
A
T
A
V
Rmin
V
Rmax
1 200 0.05 -5 5
2 200 0.05 -5 5
3 200 0.05 -5 5
4 200 0.05 -5 5
5 200 0.05 -5 5
6 200 0.05 -5 5
7 200 0.05 -5 5
8 200 0.05 -5 5
9 200 0.05 -5 5
10 200 0.05 -5 5
Table B.4: Static excitation system data
1
2
9
Machine X
l
R
a
X
d
X
d
T
d
X
q
X
q
T
q
H D
G1 0.0125 0.00 0.1 0.031 10.2 0.069 0.028 1.5 42 0
G2 0.035 0.00 0.295 0.0697 6.56 0.282 0.060 1.5 30.2 0
G3 0.0304 0.00 0.2495 0.0531 5.7 0.237 0.050 1.5 35.8 0
G4 0.0295 0.00 0.262 0.0436 5.69 0.258 0.040 1.5 28.6 0
G5 0.027 0.00 0.33 0.066 5.4 0.31 0.060 0.44 26.0 0
G6 0.0224 0.00 0.254 0.05 7.3 0.241 0.045 0.4 34.8 0
G7 0.0322 0.00 0.295 0.049 5.66 0.292 0.045 1.5 26.4 0
G8 0.028 0.00 0.29 0.057 6.7 0.280 0.05 0.41 24.3 0
G9 0.0298 0.00 0.2106 0.057 4.79 0.205 0.050 1.96 34.5 0
G10 0.0199 0.00 0.169 0.0457 9.37 0.115 0.045 1.5 31.0 0
G11 0.0103 0.00 0.128 0.018 4.1 0.123 0.015 1.5 28.2 0
G12 0.022 0.00 0.101 0.031 7.4 0.095 0.028 1.5 92.3 0
G13 0.0030 0.00 0.0296 0.0055 5.9 0.0286 0.005 1.5 248.0 0
G14 0.0017 0.00 0.018 0.00285 4.1 0.0173 0.0025 1.5 300.0 0
G15 0.0017 0.00 0.018 0.00285 4.1 0.0173 0.0025 1.5 300.0 0
G16 0.0041 0.00 0.0356 0.0071 7.8 0.0334 0.006 1.5 225.0 0
Table B.5: Machine dynamic data
Appendix C
Sensitivity Analysis
Notation
In this part, the following notations and denitions are used:
n
: number of transmission lines

,
: indices for transmission lines

z
= r
+j(x
x
c
) : series impedance of line
y
= g
+jb
: series admittance of line

Z
C
= {x
c
}
n
1
: vector of series capacitive resistances
P : vector of active power injections at all nodes except slack node
Q : vector of reactive power injections at PQ-nodes
W : vector of active power line ows
S
L(i)
: set of lines connected to bus i
S
PV
: set of PV nodes
S
PQ
: set of PQnodes
SLK : slack node
131
132 Appendix C. Sensitivity Analysis

ij
=
i

j

=
g
x
c
=
2r
(x
x
c
)
(r
2
+ (x
x
c
)
2
)
2

=
b
x
c
=
(x
x
c
)
2
+r
2
(r
2
+ (x
x
c
)
2
)
2
Jacobian Matrix F
z
F
z
=
_
P
Z
C
Q
Z
C
_
P
i
Z
C
=
_

(V
2
i
V
i
V
j
cos
ij
)
V
i
V
j
sin
ij
i = SLK, S
L(i)
0 otherwise
(C.1)
Q
i
Z
C
=
_

(V
2
i
+V
i
V
j
cos
ij
)
V
i
V
j
sin
ij
i S
PQ
, S
L(i)
0 otherwise
(C.2)
Jacobian Matrix W
x
W
x
=
_
W
W
V
i
=
_
g
V
i
V
j
sin
ij
b
V
i
V
j
cos
ij
i = SLK, i, j
0 otherwise
(C.3)
W
j
=
_
g
V
i
V
j
sin
ij
+b
V
i
V
j
cos
ij
i = SLK, i, j
0 otherwise
(C.4)
W
V
i
=
_
2g
V
i
g
V
j
cos
ij
b
V
j
sin
ij
i S
PQ
i, j
0 otherwise
(C.5)
W
V
j
=
_
g
V
i
cos
ij
b
V
i
sin
ij
i S
PQ
i, j
0 otherwise
(C.6)
133
Jacobian Matrix W
z
W
z
= [W
Z
C
]
W
Z
C
=
_

(V
2
i
V
i
V
j
cos
ij
)
V
i
V
j
sin
ij
=
0 =
(C.7)
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Curriculum vitae
EDUCATION
2002 2006 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH),
Zurich, Switzerland, PhD studies in Electric
Power Systems
1998 2001 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Tuzla, Bosna
and Hercegovina, MSc studies in Electric Power
Engineering
1988 1995 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Tuzla, Bosna
and Hercegovina, BSc studies in Electric Power
Engineering
1984 1988 Secondary school: Gymnasium Mesa Se-
limovic, Tuzla, Bosna and Hercegovina
EXPERIENCE
2002 2006 Research Assistant at the Power Systems Lab-
oratory, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
(ETH), Zurich, Switzerland
1997 2002 Research Assistant at Faculty of Electrical Engi-
neering, Tuzla, Bosna and Hercegovina
1996 1997 ICS, Italian Nongovernmental Humanitarian Or-
ganization, Tuzla, Bosna and Hercegovina
1993 1995 Local Center for Refugees, Tuzla, Bosna and
Hercegovina
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is a zero vector, and the mode is not observable if the corresponding

is a zero vector. If a mode is either not con-

Damping ratio 0.05

Damping ratio 0.05

Damping ratio 0.05

: number of transmission lines

: indices for transmission lines

: series admittance of line

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