Page 1 of 5 Early Modern Period 1. Rene Descartes(Renato Cartisius)- born March 31, 1596, jack of a tra!es, "ather of #o!

ern rationa is#, "ir# a!herent of Ro#an Catho ic "aith, Cartesian Phi oso$h%. "a#ous !ictu#- &nothing is certain, e'er%thing is to be !oubte! 1. (e ief in sensor% !ata are not certain, because senses #ight be an i usion create! b% #a icious !ecei'er. )herefore senses cannot be truste!. *. )hrough reasoning, there is a c ai# that cannot be !oubte!- +,istence- .hen one conte#$ ates ones e,istence it is not $ossib e that to ha'e the highest !oubt that %ou e,ist. &cogito ergo su#/- 0 think, 1oubt, therefore, 0 e,ist- )he 0 is not a $h%sica $erson, but an i##ateria #in!, .ith the se f as a starting $oint, he then e,$ ore the #ore co#$ icate! truths on the e,istence of 2o! an! of the e,terna .or !. 3. Cartesian 1ua is#- )he .or ! consists t.o fun!a#enta t%$es of entities- a. Ph%sica bo!ies, b. 0##ateria #in!s. 3n % #in!s can think, the &cogito/ can on % be use! to sho. that #in!s e,ist. 4. 5e sees 2o! as the ink bet.een the Rationa 6or ! of the Min! an! the Mechanica .or ! of the inte ect. )he e,istence of 2o! is $ossib e b% the $resence of our #in! of an a e,terna 7$erfect being. )his cannot be a $ro!uct7creation of our #in!s since .e are an i#$erfect being. 2o! $ut the i!eas of an a $erfect being in our #in!s. 2o! !oes not e,ist #enta %, but rea %. 5. 5u#an beings are co#$ose! of t.o kin!s of substances- (o!% an! #in!7conscious, thinking being Min!- un!erstan!, .i s, senses, i#agines (o!%- bo!% being e,ten!e! in ength, .i!th an! breath Min!s are in'isib e, .here bo!ies are infinite % !i'isib e, #in!s are non entire % i##ateria an! non s$atia . )he &0/ is the #in!s an! can e,ist .ithout being e,ten!e!. Min! an! bo!% are of !ifferent natures, but the% causa % interact- #in! causes #otion in the bo!ies b% #o'ing a s#a $art of the brain, sensation an! e#otion. 6. (o!ies !iffer fro# ho. the% a$$ear through senses- co or, soun!, heat, etc. are sensations e,isting in thought(isi$ ang), there is nothing on bo!ies that asse#b e the#.

Page 2 of 5 *. Nicolo Machiavelli-0n his book the $rince a. &)he en! justif% the #eans/ 0. 00. 000. 8 #en are ba!, an! e'er rea!% to !is$ a% their 'icious nature .hene'er the% fin! occasion for it. Men act right on % un!er co#$u sion(fear) )he great #ajorit% of #ankin! are satisfie! .ith a$$earance as though the% .ere rea ities, an! are often e'en #ore inf uence! b% the things that see#s than those that are.

b. Men change #asters .i ing %, ho$ing to better the#se 'es 3. Thomas Hobbes- e'iathan8. 3n 5u#an 9ature- #an is a $re#ature .hose .ho e ife is a continue! strugg e for $o.er to satisf% his ne'er fu fi e! !esires that can ne'er be :uenche!, an! insist incessant % an! ferocious % against his fe o. or other #e#ber of his kin! (!o#inate others) Man as a creature is so se fish, before the for#ation of an% go'ern#ent, so that hu#an con!ition ( se fish) is $rone to :uarre because of co#$etition ( for the i#ite! su$$ ies of #ateria $ossession) the% a so !istrust others, he re#ain hosti e to $reser'e his $o.erfu $osition. 5u#ans are a .a%s in the state of constant .ar, #ora it% !oes not e,ists an%#ore 3 #oti'ations to en!( this .ar) a. "ear of !eath b. 1esire to ha'e an a!e:uate i'ing c. )he ho$e to attain this through one;s abor (. <a.s of 9ature7 9atura <a. )ra!ition of Morsa it%- fro# hu#an interest an! socia agree#ent a one, one can !e!uce! the a.s .hich are i##utab % fi,e! in nature 5e re!efines tra!itiona #ora ter#s because 15 a.s of nature

a. =eek $eace an! fo o. the a.s of se f-$reser'ation b. )he go !en ru e-#utua !i'esting of se f an! rights

Page 3 of 5 c. Men #ust $erfor# their co'enants #a!e !. Men $ursues their o.n se f interests, gratitu!e to those .ho co#$ %, ingratitu!e for those> e. 8cco##o!ating the interest of societ% because :uarre interru$ts $eace f. Cautious $ar!oning of those .ho co##it $ast offences

g. )he $ur$ose of $unish#ent is to correct the offen!er not an e%e for an e%e retribution h. 8'oi! !irect or in!irect signs of hatre!7conte#$t of another i. j. 8'oi! $ri!e Retain on % those rights .hich %ou .ou ! ackno. e!ge in others

k. (e e:uitab e(fair), unfair !istribution an! !iscri#inator% $ractices causes ine:ua ities . =hare in co##on that .hich cannot be !i'i!e!

#. 0te#s .hich cannot be !i'i!e! or enjoine! in co##on shou ! be assign b% ot(!ra. ots) n. Me!iator of $eace shou ! ha'e safe con!uct o. Reso 'e !is$utes through an arbitrator C. =ocia Contract )heor% an! the so'ereign =ocia contract- a !e#ocratic organi?ation .herein $artici$ants are consi!ere! e:ua , e,$ecting the so'ereign( .ho enjo%e! a $ri'i ege status not boun! b% the socia contract an! entire % abo'e the a., free to !o .hat he .i , $ro'i!e! the guarantee that the subjects i'e u$ to the ter#s of the contract, that no $o.er su$erior to his o.n !is$ ace his o.n $osition. Pur$ose- to #aintain $eace an! har#on%( !e#ocratic .a%), the abso ute so'ereignt% is the on % .a% to ensure socia securit% an! $re'ent ife fro# being so itar%, $oor, brutish an! short. )he so'ereign is on % ans.erab e to 2o!, he has no !uties against his subject. 5o. to beco#e a so'ereign@ a. (% institution b. (% ac:uisition

Page 4 of 5 the rights an! !uties of the so'ereign a. the subjects o.e hi# so o%a t% b. the subjects cannot be free! fro# their ob igation c. !issenters #ust consent .ith the #ajorit% in !ec aring a so'ereign !. the so'ereign cannot be unjust an! injure the subject e. the so'ereign cannot be $ut to !eath f. the so'ereign is the ju!ge of a o$inions, !ocu#ents an! !octrines

g. the egis ati'e $o.er of initiating an! $rescribing a.s h. the ju!icia $o.er of !eci!ing a contro'ersies i. j. #ake .ar an! $eace .ith other nations choose counse ors, ci'i a$$oint#ents inc u!ing the #i itar%

k. to gi'e re.ar! an! $unish#ent 4. John oc!e- +ng ish $hi oso$her( essa% concerning hu#an un!erstan!ing) 8. Man;s abi it% of gras$ing or un!erstan!ing the kno. e!ge of the uni'erse is i#ite!, the #in! at birth is & tabu a rasa/- nothing(no kno. e!ge at a ) 5u#an kno. e!ge is !eri'e! fro# sense e,$erience +,$eriences in the for# of sensation an! ref ections $ro'i!e ra. #ateria s .hich the #in! .orks .ith ana %?ing an! organi?ing the# in co#$ e, .a%s

(. Po itica $hi oso$h%- un!erstan!ing of $ro$ert% rights a. =tate of nature- con!ition .herein hu#an e,ists .ithout go'ern#ent, a an! is un-o.ne!, o.ne! b% 2o! on %, un-o.ne! an! beco#e o.ne!7$ri'ate $ro$ert% .hen the in!i'i!ua #i,es his abor .ith the un-o.ne! an! b. 8 $erson has e,c usi'e rights o'er his o.n bo!% an! abor C. <ocke c assifie! the $ri'ate o.nershi$ can be justifie! on % .hen enough an! as goo! an! re#aine! for others, a though %our right to the an! is co#$ ete!, .hen it !oes not 'io ate the ibert% of other $eo$ e

Page 5 of 5 5. 5" #ott$ried %ilhelm &on eibni'(2er#an) 8. Conce$tion of the nature of $ro$ositions an! substances- a $ro$ositions assert the inc usion of one conce$t in another. )hus, an%one .ho fu % un!erstan!s the conce$t of #an #ust kno. e'er%thing e se that is to kno. about hi# (ut .e !on;t ha'e a fu conce$t of #an, because such fu un!erstan!ing is be%on! the finite i#ite! #in!s, but not be%on! the gras$ of 2o!.

(. 8n% object in the uni'erse is connecte! in so#e .a% 7 another because e'er% substance is ike an entire .or ! it $ortra%s, an! each substance ref ects a the others. (" #eor)e *er!eley(0rish)- 8ng ican 8rchbisho$ in 0re an!, his $hi oso$h% are both an e,tension of an! reaction against Aohn <ocke. 8. 5e share! <ocke;s 'ie. or e#$iricist $re#ise that the objects of hu#an kno. e!ge are a i!eas either actua % i#$rinte! on the senses or e se to be $ercei'e b% the atten!ing to the $assion an! o$eration of the #in!. 8 i!eas for# b% the he $ of the #e#or% an! i#agination. (. 0n his i!ea is#- his co ection of i!eas ha'e the feature .e attribute to rea objects. Rea 3bjects- are co ection of i!eas(re$resentation of an object in the #in!) .hich are #ore affecting , or!er % !istinct, .ho $ro!uce these co ection of i!eas@- 2o! 5is conce$t of #ateria substance an! abstract i!eas are inco#$atib e .ith the 'ie. of <ocke- he ca e! this i##ateria is#, an! there are no #ateria e,istence, because nothing e,ists e,ce$t the #in!, an! the uni'ersa #in!- 2o!, #enta i!eas or content b% .hich 2o! co##unicate to the finite s$irit7#in!.

+" ,mman-el .ant- fa#ous .ork- )he criti:ue of $ure reason, about the nature an! i#it of hu#an kno. e!ge, the criti:ue of $ractica reason- ethics 8. =$ace an! ti#e are a Priori intuition of the #in!, base! on so#ething that is a rea!% kno.n, $ro'i!e! the #e!iu# for our e,$erience of objects. )he hu#an #in! has catergories .hich organi?e! our sensation into a unifie! an! interconnecte! .ho e. 5e #a!e a !istinction bet.een the .or ! of $heno#ena an! nou#en