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Project Report

TYPES OF CRANES
MUHAMMAD UMAR
09-ME-84
Department of Mechanical Engineering.
UET Taxila.
Summary
1
The project report on the topic of cranes and its types contains the following
headings:-
1. Introduction of cranes
2. Historical background of cranes
3. asic structure of cranes
!. "iagra#atic e$planation of cranes
%. &echanics and working of cranes
'. Types of cranes
(. I#pro)e#ents in cranes with ti#e
*. Industrial applications of cranes
+. ,ocal or do#estic use of cranes
1-. .d)antages of cranes
11. "isad)antages and accidents related to cranes
12. /are about cranes
13. 0uture hori1ons
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Preface
2orkshop being an ad)anced and all ti#e progessi)e area has so #uch
applications that one can hardly i#agine.This report regarding the cranes and
its types has sufficient #aterial to get an o)er )iew of the topic with respect to
old present and future ages.
"uring the #aking of this book the #ain objecti)es in #y #ind were:-
1. To co)er the basic infor#ation that how cranes ca#e into being3 got
#odified and lead to the present for#.
2. To present the basic structure of cranes.
3. To show the working #echanis# and #echanics of cranes.
!. To o)er )iew the applications of cranes.
%. To discuss about )arious types of cranes.
'. To de)elop a better understanding of the topic with respect to our
subject.
The special features of this publications are:-
1. 4p to date infor#ation.
2. &any basic structural study with co#prehensi)e details.
3. 5tarting fro# ancient root #o)ed to #odern cranes.
!. 6#phasis on understanding of cranes and its types in #odern world.
%. 6$a#ples fro# daily life.
'. .ll ter#s used are purely technical.
(. 7esource /" and 88T files for better understanding of the topic.
3
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge with special thanks the )alueable suggestions3
guidance3 co##ents3 criticis# and prase by the following people:-
5ir "r 5hahid khalil 5ir .bid
46T 3 Ta$ila 46T 3 Ta$ila
/hair#an &echanical dept. ,ecturer &echanical dept.
&r &uha##ad .h#ad &y all seniors
46T 3 Ta$ila and colligues.
5tudent 6lectrical "ept.
It is only due to their help that I was able to write this publication. 0inally I
would thank all #y teachers3 #y parents and all of #y friends for such helping
and kind beha)ior.
4
Dedication
This book is dedicated
To my teachers, and to my session fellows
for their kindness and enhancing #y interest to the subject.
5
Contents
8reface
Introduction -1
Historical )iew about cranes -2
&echanics and working -(
&ain types of cranes 12
0i$ed cranes 12
&obile cranes 2*
"isad)antages and accidents !3
&aintainance !!
/onclusion %'
7esearch papers %(
ibliography
6
Objectives
2hile writing this book the objecti)es in #y #ind were:-
1. To co)er the basic infor#ation that how cranes ca#e into being3 got
#odified and lead to the present for#.
2. To present the basic structure of cranes.
3. To show the working #echanis# and #echanics of cranes.
!. To o)er )iew the industrial usage of cranes.
%. To o)er )iew the local use of cranes in our life.
'. To discuss about )arious types of cranes in detail.
(. To de)elop a better understanding of the topic with respect to our
subject.
*. To study role of cranes in econo#ic world.
+. To see the future hori1ons about cranes.
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Introduction
. crane is a lifting #achine3 generally e9uipped with a winder :also called a
wire rope dru#;3 wire ropes or chains and shea)es3 that can be used both to lift
and lower #aterials and to #o)e the# hori1ontally.
It uses one or #ore si#ple #achines to create #echanical ad)antage and thus
#o)e loads beyond the nor#al capability of a hu#an. /ranes are co##only
e#ployed in the transport industry for the loading and unloading of freight3 in
the construction industry for the #o)e#ent of #aterials and in the
#anufacturing industry for the asse#bling of hea)y e9uip#ent.
.rchi#edes said:
<=i)e #e a le)er long enough and a place to stand and I will lift the world>
This state#ent fro# the ancient ti#es is self e$plaining that cranes either in
si#plest for# were thought and were present in all ti#es. The co##on
thinking that any big si1ed #achine is a crane is not that #uch true. .ccording
to definition any si#ple or co#ple$ #achine that #ay be s#all or big if helps
in carrying load and hea)y operations3 than it is a crane. /ranes are of )arious
types according to #otility3 shapes3 working etc.
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Historical view of cranes
The first construction cranes were in)ented by the .ncient =reeks and were
powered by #en or beasts of burden3 such as donkeys. These cranes were used
for the construction of tall buildings. ,arger cranes were later de)eloped3
e#ploying the use of hu#an treadwheels3 per#itting the lifting of hea)ier
weights.
In the High &iddle .ges3 harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload
ships and assist with their construction ? so#e were built into stone towers for
e$tra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed fro# wood3
but cast iron and steel took o)er with the co#ing of the Industrial 7e)olution.
0or #any centuries3 power was supplied by the physical e$ertion of #en or
ani#als3 although hoists in water#ills and wind#ills could be dri)en by the
harnessed natural power. The first @#echanical@ power was pro)ided by stea#
engines3 the earliest stea# crane being introduced in the 1*th or 1+th century3
with #any re#aining in use well into the late 2-th century. &odern cranes
usually use internal co#bustion engines or electric #otors and hydraulic
syste#s to pro)ide a #uch greater lifting capability than was pre)iously
possible3 although #anual cranes are still utilised where the pro)ision of
power would be unecono#ic.
/ranes e$ist in an enor#ous )ariety of for#s ? each tailored to a specific use.
5i1es range fro# the s#allest jib cranes3 used inside workshops3 to the tallest
tower cranes3 used for constructing high buildings3 and the largest floating
cranes3 used to build oil rigs and sal)age sunken ships.
In Ancient Greece
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The earliest known are:-
=reco-7o#an Trispastos :AThree-pulley-craneA;3 the si#plest crane type :1%-
kg load;
=reco-7o#an 8entaspastos :A0i)e-pulley-craneA;3 a #ediu#-si1ed )ariant :ca.
!%- kg load;
The crane for lifting hea)y loads was in)ented by the .ncient =reeks in the
late 'th century /. The archaeological record shows that no later than c.%1%
/ distincti)e cuttings for both lifting tongs and lewis irons begin to appear
on stone blocks of =reek te#ples. 5ince these holes point at the use of a lifting
de)ice3 and since they are to be found either abo)e the center of gra)ity of the
block3 or in pairs e9uidistant fro# a point o)er the center of gra)ity3 they are
regarded by archaeologists as the positi)e e)idence re9uired for the e$istence
of the crane.
The introduction of the winch and pulley hoist soon lead to a widespread
replace#ent of ra#ps as the #ain #eans of )ertical #otion. 0or the ne$t two
hundred years3 =reek building sites witnessed a sharp drop in the weights
handled3 as the new lifting techni9ue #ade the use of se)eral s#aller stones
#ore practical than of fewer larger ones. In contrast to the archaic period with
its tendency to e)er-increasing block si1es3 =reek te#ples of the classical age
like the 8arthenon in)ariably featured stone blocks weighing less than 1%-2-
tons. .lso3 the practice of erecting large #onolithic colu#ns was practically
abandoned in fa)our of using se)eral colu#n dru#s.
.lthough the e$act circu#stances of the shift fro# the ra#p to the crane
technology re#ain unclear3 it has been argued that the )olatile social and
political conditions of =reece were #ore suitable to the e#ploy#ent of s#all3
professional construction tea#s than of large bodies of unskilled labour3
#aking the crane #ore preferable to the =reek polis than the #ore labour-
intensi)e ra#p which had been the nor# in the autocratic societies of 6gypt or
.ssyria.
The first une9ui)ocal literary e)idence for the e$istence of the co#pound
pulley attributed to .ristotle :3*!-322 /;3 but perhaps co#posed at a slightly
later date. .round the sa#e ti#e3 block si1es at =reek te#ples began to #atch
their archaic predecessors again3 indicating that the #ore sophisticated
co#pound pulley #ust ha)e found its way to =reek construction sites by then.
In Ancient Rome
7econstruction of a 1-.!# high 7o#an 8olyspastos powered by a treadwheel
at onn3 =er#any
The heyday of the crane in ancient ti#es ca#e during the 7o#an 6#pire3
when construction acti)ity soared and buildings reached enor#ous
di#ensions. The 7o#ans adopted the =reek crane and de)eloped it further
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The si#plest 7o#an crane3 the Trispastos3 consisted of a single-bea# jib3 a
winch3 a rope3 and a block containing three pulleys. Ha)ing thus a #echanical
ad)antage of 3:13 it has been calculated that a single #an working the winch
could raise 1%- kg :3 pulleys $ %- kg B 1%-;3 assu#ing that %- kg represent
the #a$i#u# effort a #an can e$ert o)er a longer ti#e period. Hea)ier crane
types featured fi)e pulleys :8entaspastos; or3 in case of the largest one3 a set of
three by fi)e pulleys :8olyspastos; and ca#e with two3 three or four #asts3
depending on the #a$i#u# load. The 8olyspastos3 when worked by four #en
at both sides of the winch3 could already lift 3--- kg :3 ropes $ % pulleys $ !
#en $ %- kg B 3--- kg;. In case the winch was replaced by a treadwheel3 the
#a$i#u# load e)en doubled to '--- kg at only half the crew3 since the
treadwheel possesses a #uch bigger #echanical ad)antage due to its larger
dia#eter. This #eant that3 in co#parison to the construction of the 6gyptian
8yra#ids3 where about %- #en were needed to #o)e a 2.% ton stone block up
the ra#p :%- kg per person;3 the lifting capability of the 7o#an 8olyspastos
pro)ed to be '- ti#es higher :3--- kg per person;.
Howe)er3 nu#erous e$tant 7o#an buildings which feature #uch hea)ier
stone blocks than those handled by the 8olyspastos indicate that the o)erall
lifting capability of the 7o#ans went far beyond that of any single crane. .t
the te#ple of Cupiter at aalbek3 for instance3 the architra)e blocks weigh up
to '- tons each3 and the corner cornices blocks e)en o)er 1-- tons3 all of the#
raised to a height of about 1+ #. In 7o#e3 the capital block of Trajan@s
/olu#n weighs %3.3 tons3 which had to be lifted to a height of about 3! #.
It is assu#ed that 7o#an engineers lifted these e$traordinary weights by two
#easures: 0irst3 as suggested by Heron3 a lifting tower was set up3 whose four
#asts were arranged in the shape of a 9uadrangle with parallel sides3 not
unlike a siege tower3 but with the colu#n in the #iddle of the structure
:&echanica 3.%;. 5econd3 a #ultitude of capstans were placed on the ground
around the tower3 for3 although ha)ing a lower le)erage ratio than treadwheels3
capstans could be set up in higher nu#bers and run by #ore #en :and3
#oreo)er3 by draught ani#als;.
In the Middle Ages
5#all-scale reconstruction of the #edie)al gantry crane at rugge harbor
&edie)al port crane with building o)erhanging in the for#er Hanse town of
"an1ig :=daDsk;.
"uring the High &iddle .ges3 the treadwheel crane was reintroduced on a
large scale after the technology had fallen into disuse in western 6urope with
the de#ise of the 2estern 7o#an 6#pire. The earliest reference to a
treadwheel :#agna rota; reappears in archi)al literature in 0rance about 122%3
followed by an illu#inated depiction in a #anuscript of probably also 0rench
origin dating to 12!-.In na)igation3 the earliest uses of harbor cranes are
docu#ented for 4trecht in 12!!3 .ntwerp in 12'33 rugge in 12** and
Ha#burg in 12+13 while in 6ngland the treadwheel is not recorded before
1331.
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=enerally3 )ertical transport could be done #ore safely and ine$pensi)ely by
cranes than by custo#ary #ethods. Typical areas of application were harbors3
#ines3 and3 in particular3 building sites where the treadwheel crane played a
pi)otal role in the construction of the lofty =othic cathedrals. Ee)ertheless3
both archi)al and pictorial sources of the ti#e suggest that newly introduced
#achines like treadwheels or wheelbarrows did not co#pletely replace #ore
labor-intensi)e #ethods like ladders3 hods and handbarrows. 7ather3 old and
new #achinery continued to coe$ist on #edie)al construction site and
harbors.
.part fro# treadwheels3 #edie)al depictions also show cranes to be powered
#anually by windlasses with radiating spokes3 cranks and by the 1%th century
also by windlasses shaped like a ship@s wheel. To s#ooth out irregularities of
i#pulse and get o)er @dead-spots@ in the lifting process flywheels are known to
be in use as early as 1123.
The e$act process by which the treadwheel crane was reintroduced is not
recorded3 although its return to construction sites has undoubtedly to be
)iewed in close connection with the si#ultaneous rise of =othic architecture.
The reappearance of the treadwheel crane #ay ha)e resulted fro# a
technological de)elop#ent of the windlass fro# which the treadwheel
structurally and #echanically e)ol)ed. Its reintroduction #ay ha)e been
inspired3 as well3 by the obser)ation of the labor-sa)ing 9ualities of the
waterwheel with which early treadwheels shared #any structural si#ilarities.
0irstly when big si1ed cranes were there the #o)e#ent was locked to two
di#entional but with ti#e need and progress cranes with three di#entional
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free #o)e#ents were for#ed and #odified.
The development of slewing level luffing cranes from 1856-1956
.nother type of crane or si#ilar to it is a derric and it #ay be e$plained as:-
. derrick is a lifting de)ice co#posed of one #ast or pole which is hinged
freely at the botto#. It is controlled by lines :usually four of the#; powered by
so#e #eans such as #an-hauling or #otors3 so that the pole can #o)e in all
four directions.
In old ti#es there was no discri#ination between the two but now they are
studied as two different tools but their progress is inter reli)ant so in the
history section they will be treated as sa#e.
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The development of floating cranes 1905-1936
6nor#ous ad)ances now #ean that huge loads can be lifted by
offshore- and derricking- and slewing cranes where hoisting capacities
of 2--- tons or #ore are routine. 0igure illustrate the
de)elop#ent of cranes o)er relati)ely short periods of ti#e and show
the )ast differences in si1e and lifting capacity. figure
show typical cranes that are in use today.
Mechanics and working of cranes
efore entering the study of the working of a crane we will firstly o)er )iew
its structure:
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Figure showing the structure of a crane
The #edie)al treadwheel was a large wooden wheel turning around a central
shaft with a treadway wide enough for two workers walking side by side.
2hile the earlier @co#pass-ar#@ wheel had spokes directly dri)en into the
central shaft3 the #ore ad)anced @clasp-ar#@ type featured ar#s arranged as
chords to the wheel ri#3 gi)ing the possibility of using a thinner shaft and
pro)iding thus a greater #echanical ad)antage.
/ontrary to a popularly held belief3 cranes on #edie)al building sites were
neither placed on the e$tre#ely lightweight scaffolding used at the ti#e nor on
the thin walls of the =othic churches which were incapable of supporting the
weight of both hoisting #achine and load. 7ather3 cranes were placed in the
initial stages of construction on the ground3 often within the building. 2hen a
new floor was co#pleted3 and #assi)e tie bea#s of the roof connected the
walls3 the crane was dis#antled and reasse#bled on the roof bea#s fro#
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where it was #o)ed fro# bay to bay during construction of the )aults. Thus3
the crane FgrewG and FwanderedG with the building with the result that today all
e$tant construction cranes in 6ngland are found in church towers abo)e the
)aulting and below the roof3 where they re#ained after building construction
for bringing #aterial for repairs aloft.
,ess fre9uently3 #edie)al illu#inations also show cranes #ounted on the
outside of walls with the stand of the #achine secured to putlogs.
Mechanics and operation
In contrast to #odern cranes3 #edie)al cranes and hoists - #uch like their
counterparts in =reece and Rome - were primarily capable of a vertical lift,
and not used to move loads for a considerable distance hori1ontally as well.
.ccordingly3 lifting work was organi1ed at the workplace in a different way
than today. In building construction3 for e$a#ple3 it is assu#ed that the crane
lifted the stone blocks either fro# the botto# directly into place3 or fro# a
place opposite the centre of the wall fro# where it could deli)er the blocks for
two tea#s working at each end of the wall. .dditionally3 the crane #aster who
usually ga)e orders at the treadwheel workers fro# outside the crane was able
to #anipulate the #o)e#ent laterally by a s#all rope attached to the load.
5lewing cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly
suited for dockside work appeared as early as 13!-. 2hile ashlar blocks were
directly lifted by sling3 lewis or de)il@s cla#p :=er#an Teufelskralle;3 other
objects were placed before in containers like pallets3 baskets3 wooden bo$es or
barrels.
It is noteworthy that #edie)al cranes rarely featured ratchets or brakes to
forestall the load fro# running backward .This curious absence is e$plained by
the high friction force e$ercised by #edie)al treadwheels which nor#ally
pre)ented the wheel fro# accelerating beyond control.
Harbor usage
.ccording to the <present state of knowledge> unknown in anti9uity3
stationary harbor cranes are considered a new de)elop#ent of the &iddle
.ges. The typical harbor crane was a pi)oting structure e9uipped with double
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treadwheels. These cranes were placed docksides for the loading and
unloading of cargo where they replaced or co#ple#ented older lifting
#ethods like see-saws3 winches and yards.
Two different types of harbor cranes can be identified with a )arying
geographical distribution: 2hile gantry cranes which pi)oted on a central
)ertical a$le were co##only found at the 0le#ish and "utch coastside3
=er#an sea and inland harbors typically featured tower cranes where the
windlass and treadwheels were situated in a solid tower with only jib ar# and
roof rotating. Interestingly3 dockside cranes were not adopted in the
&editerranean region and the highly de)eloped Italian ports where authorities
continued to rely on the #ore labor-intensi)e #ethod of unloading goods by
ra#ps beyond the &iddle .ges.
4nlike construction cranes where the work speed was deter#ined by the
relati)ely slow progress of the #asons3 harbor cranes usually featured double
treadwheels to speed up loading. The two treadwheels whose dia#eter is
esti#ated to be ! # or larger were attached to each side of the a$le and rotated
together. Today3 according to one sur)ey3 fifteen treadwheel harbor cranes
fro# pre-industrial ti#es are still e$tant throughout 6urope. eside these
stationary cranes3 floating cranes which could be fle$ibly deployed in the
whole port basin ca#e into use by the 1!th century.
Mechanical principles
/ranes can #ount #any different utensils depending on load :left;. /ranes can
be re#ote-controlled fro# the ground3 allowing #uch #ore precise control3
but without the )iew that a position atop the crane pro)ides :right;.
The stability of a #obile construction crane can be jeopardi1ed when
outriggers sink into soft soil3 which can result in the crane tipping o)er.
There are two #ajor considerations in the design of cranes. The first is that the
crane #ust be able to lift a load of a specified weight and the second is that the
crane #ust re#ain stable and not topple o)er when the load is lifted and
#o)ed to another location.
Lifting capacity
/ranes illustrate the use of one or #ore si#ple #achines to create #echanical
ad)antage.
17
The le)er. . balance crane contains a hori1ontal bea# :the le)er;
pi)oted about a point called the fulcru#. The principle of the le)er
allows a hea)y load attached to the shorter end of the bea# to be lifted
by a s#aller force applied in the opposite direction to the longer end of
the bea#. The ratio of the load@s weight to the applied force is e9ual to
the ratio of the lengths of the longer ar# and the shorter ar#3 and is
called the #echanical ad)antage.
The pulley. . jib crane contains a tilted strut :the jib; that supports a
fi$ed pulley block. /ables are wrapped #ultiple ti#es round the fi$ed
block and round another block attached to the load. 2hen the free end
of the cable is pulled by hand or by a winding #achine3 the pulley
syste# deli)ers a force to the load that is e9ual to the applied force
#ultiplied by the nu#ber of lengths of cable passing between the two
blocks. This nu#ber is the #echanical ad)antage.
The hydraulic cylinder. This can be used directly to lift the load or
indirectly to #o)e the jib or bea# that carries another lifting de)ice.
/ranes3 like all #achines3 obey the principle of conser)ation of energy. This
#eans that the energy deli)ered to the load cannot e$ceed the energy put into
the #achine. 0or e$a#ple3 if a pulley syste# #ultiplies the applied force by
ten3 then the load #o)es only one tenth as far as the applied force. 5ince
energy is proportional to force #ultiplied by distance3 the output energy is
kept roughly e9ual to the input energy :in practice slightly less3 because so#e
energy is lost to friction and other inefficiencies;.
Stability
0or stability3 the su# of all #o#ents about any point such as the base of the
crane #ust e9uate to 1ero. In practice3 the #agnitude of load that is per#itted
to be lifted :called the Arated loadA in the 45; is so#e )alue less than the load
that will cause the crane to tip :pro)iding a safety #argin;.
4nder 45 standards for #obile cranes3 the stability-li#ited rated load for a
crawler crane is (%H of the tipping load. The stability-li#ited rated load for a
#obile crane supported on outriggers is *%H of the tipping load. These
re9uire#ents3 along with additional safety-related aspects of crane design3 are
established by the .#erican 5ociety of &echanical 6ngineers.
5tandards for cranes #ounted on ships or offshore platfor#s are so#ewhat
stricter because of the dyna#ic load on the crane due to )essel #otion.
.dditionally3 the stability of the )essel or platfor# #ust be considered.
0or stationary pedestal or kingpost #ounted cranes3 the #o#ent created by the
boo#3 jib3 and load is resisted by the pedestal base or kingpost. 5tress within
the base #ust be less than the yield stress of the #aterial or the crane will fail.
.s the purpose of this publication is solely to study the types of cranes thatGs
why the #echanics section has got only a birds eye )iew.
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Types of cranes
They are co##only used in the construction industry and in the
#anufacturing of hea)y e9uip#ent. /ranes for construction are nor#ally
te#porary
structures3 either fi$ed to the ground or #ounted on a purpose built )ehicle.
They can either be controlled fro# an operator in a cab that tra)els along with
the crane3 by a push button pendant control station3 or by radio type controls.
The crane operator is ulti#ately responsible for the safety of the crews and the
crane
.
The most basic types of cranes
The few main types of cranes
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The cranes )isible in the figure are showing the history as well as the
ad)ance#ent in cranes with ti#e. .lthough the concept about cranes in ones
#ind would be as abig #achine but the basic type of crane can break the the
concept.In the basis of #odern crane study and ad)ance#ent there are two
basic types of cranes:-
1. 0i$ed /ranes
2. &obile or &o)able /ranes
Eow we will discuss the two types of cranes in detail:-
Fixed cranes
.s the na#e indicates3 these cranes would not show any appreciable
#o)e#ent. 6$changing #obility i.e. the ability to #o)eJ for the ability to
carry greater loads and reach greater heights as co#pare to any other type of
cranes3and it is due to increased stability3 these types of cranes are
characterised that they :or at least their #ain structure; does not #o)e during
the period of use. Howe)er3 #any can still be asse#bled and disasse#bled and
so#eti#es show a little #o)e#ent too but again it is not appreciable to a li#it
that we #ay say the# #obile. &obile cranes are so #uch easy to use and
#o)e but the i#portance and use of fi$ed cranes hasnGt lost its i#portance and
we see the# e)erywhere.The #ost i#portant by use and stability are:-
1. Tower crane
2. 5elf-erecting crane
3. Telescopic crane
4. Ha##erhead crane
5. ,e)el luffing crane
6. =antry crane
7. I)erhead crane
8. "eck crane
9. Cib crane
10.ulk-handling crane
11.,oader crane
12.5tacker crane
Tower cranes
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The tower crane is a #odern for# of balance crane. 0i$ed to the ground :and
so#eti#es attached to the sides of structures as well;3 tower cranes often gi)e
the best co#bination of height and lifting capacity and are used in the
construction of tall buildings.
The jib :collo9uially3 the @boo#@; and counter-jib are #ounted to the turntable3
where the slewing bearing and slewing #achinery are located. The counter-jib
carries a counterweight3 usually of concrete blocks3 while the jib suspends the
load fro# the trolley. The Hoist #otor and trans#issions are located on the
#echanical deck on the counter-jib3 while the trolley #otor is located on the
jib. The crane operator either sits in a cabin at the top of the tower or controls
the crane by radio re#ote control fro# the ground. In the first case the
operator@s cabin is #ost usually located at the top of the tower attached to the
turntable3 but can be #ounted on the jib3 or partway down the tower. The
lifting hook is operated by using electric #otors to #anipulate wire rope
cables through a syste# of shea)es.
In order to hook and unhook the loads3 the operator usually works in
conjunction with a signaller :known as a @rigger@ or @swa#per@;. They are #ost
often in radio contact3 and always use hand signals. The rigger directs the
schedule of lifts for the crane3 and is responsible for the safety of the rigging
and loads.
. tower crane is usually asse#bled by a telescopic jib :#obile; crane of
greater reach :also see Aself-erecting craneA below; and in the case of tower
cranes that ha)e risen while constructing )ery tall skyscrapers3 a s#aller crane
:or derrick; will often be lifted to the roof of the co#pleted tower to dis#antle
the tower crane afterwards.
It is often clai#ed that a large fraction of the tower cranes in the world are in
use in "ubai. .nd definitely it represents their progressing rate.
Self-erecting crane
21
=enerally a type of tower crane3 these cranes3 also called self-asse#bling or
AKangarooA cranes3 lift the#sel)es off the ground using jacks3 allowing the
ne$t section of the tower to be inserted at ground le)el or lifted into place by
the partially erected crane itself. They can thus be asse#bled without outside
help3 or can grow together with the building or structure they are erecting.
2ith a co#bination of superior reach3 safer operating techni9ues and 9uiet
operation3 selferecting cranes outperfor# telehandlers. The cranes are used in
areas not accessible to a telehandler and reach across an entire jobsite instead
of one area3 thus enhancing safety. 7adio re#ote control allows operation
close to the load to accurately pick and place #aterials. 4sers benefit fro# the
cranes ability to work in en)iron#entally sensiti)e areas due to electric power
operation fro# a genset that is 9uieter than #obile alternati)es.
Telescopic cranes
. telescopic crane has a boo# that consists of a nu#ber of tubes fitted one
inside the other. . hydraulic or other powered #echanis# e$tends or retracts
the tubes to increase or decrease the total length of the boo#. These types of
boo#s are often used for short ter# construction projects3 rescue jobs3 lifting
boats in and out of the water3 etc. The relati)e co#pactness of telescopic
boo#s #ake the# adaptable for #any #obile applications.
22
Eote that while telescopic cranes are not auto#atically #obile cranes3 #any of
the# are. These are often truck-#ounted.
Hammer head cranes
The Aha##erheadA3 or giant cantile)er3 crane is a fi$ed-jib crane consisting of
a steel-braced tower on which re)ol)es a large3 hori1ontal3 double cantile)erJ
the forward part of this cantile)er or jib carries the lifting trolley3 the jib is
e$tended backwards in order to for# a support for the #achinery and counter-
balancing weight. In addition to the #otions of lifting and re)ol)ing3 there is
pro)ided a so-called ArackingA #otion3 by which the lifting trolley3 with the
load suspended3 can be #o)ed in and out along the jib without altering the
le)el of the load. 5uch hori1ontal #o)e#ent of the load is a #arked feature of
later crane design. These cranes are generally constructed in large si1es3 up to
3%- tons.
The design of ha##erkran e)ol)ed first in =er#any around the turn of the
1+th century and was adopted and de)eloped for use in ritish shipyards to
support the battleship construction progra# fro# 1+-!-1+1!. The ability of
the ha##erhead crane to lift hea)y weights was useful for installing large
pieces of battleships such as ar#our plate and gun barrels. =iant cantile)er
cranes were also installed in na)al shipyards in Capan and in the 45.. The
ritish =o)ern#ent also installed a giant cantile)er crane at the 5ingapore
Ea)al ase :1+3*; and later a copy of the crane was installed at =arden Island
Ea)al "ockyard in 5ydney :1+%1;. These cranes pro)ided repair support for
the battle fleet operating far fro# =reat ritain.
23
The principal engineering fir# for giant cantile)er cranes in the ritish
6#pire was 5ir 2illia# .rrol L /o ,td building 1!. If around '- built
across the world few re#ainJ ( in 6ngland and 5cotland of about 1%
worldwide.
The Titan /lydebank is one of the ! 5cottish cranes on the /lydebank and
preser)ed as a tourist attraction.
Level luffing crane
Eor#ally a crane with a hinged jib will tend to ha)e its hook also #o)e up and
down as the jib #o)es :or luffs;. . le)el luffing crane is a crane of this
co##on design3 but with an e$tra #echanis# to keep the hook le)el when
luffing.
. level luffing crane is a crane #echanis# where the hook re#ains at the
sa#e le)el whilst luffingJ #o)ing the jib up and down3 so as to #o)e the hook
inwards and outwards relati)e to the base.M1N
5o#e types of crane are inherently le)el luffing: those with a fi$ed hori1ontal
jib3 such as gantry3 ha##erhead or the fi$ed-jib tower cranes co##only used
in construction. 4sually though3 the description is only applied to those with a
luffing jib that ha)e so#e additional #echanis# applied to keep the hook le)el
when luffing.
24
,e)el luffing is #ost i#portant when careful #o)e#ent of a load near ground
le)el is re9uired3 such as in construction or shipbuilding. This partially
e$plains the popularity of fi$ed hori1ontal jibs in these fields.
Toplis cable luffing
5tothert L 8itt crane with Toplis gear
.n early for# of le)el luffing gear was the AToplisA design3 in)ented by a
5tothert L 8itt engineer in 1+1!.M2NM3N This is also a purely #echanical
linkage3 arranged by the ree)ing of the hoist cables to the jib o)er pulleys at
the crane@s ape$ abo)e the cab3 so that luffing the jib upwards allows #ore free
cable and lowers the hook to co#pensate.
Horse-head jibs
Horse-head jib3 showing the le)el position of the hook
Horse-head design
The usual #echanis# for le)el luffing in #odern cranes is to add an additional
Ahorse headA section to the top of the jib. y careful design of the geo#etry3
this keeps le)el #erely by the linked action of the pi)ots.M!N
Powered level luffing
.s cranes and their control syste#s beca#e #ore sophisticated3 it beca#e
possible to control the le)el of luffing directly3 by winching the hoist cable in
and out as needed. The first of these syste#s used #echanical clutches
between luffing and hoist dru#s3 gi)ing si#plicity and a Anear le)elA result.M%N
,ater syste#s ha)e used #odern electronic controls and 9uickly re)ersible
#otors with good slow-speed control to the hoist winch #otors3 so as to gi)e a
positioning accuracy of inches. 5o#e early syste#s used controllable
hydraulic gearbo$es to achie)e the sa#e result3 but these added co#ple$ity
and cost and so were only popular where high accuracy was needed3 such as
for shipbuilding.
Luffing cabs
,uffing #echanis#s ha)e also been applied to the dri)er@s cab being #ounted
on its own jib3 following the #o)e#ent of the crane@s #ain jib M'N These are
used for tasks such as ship unloading3 where the )iew fro# the dri)er@s cab is
greatly i#pro)ed by cantile)ering it forwards and o)er the ship.
25
Gantry crane
. gantry crane has a hoist in a fi$ed #achinery house or on a trolley that runs
hori1ontally along rails3 usually fitted on a single bea# :#ono-girder; or two
bea#s :twin-girder;. The crane fra#e is supported on a gantry syste# with
e9uali1ed bea#s and wheels that run on the gantry rail3 usually perpendicular
to the trolley tra)el direction. These cranes co#e in all si1es3 and so#e can
#o)e )ery hea)y loads3 particularly the e$tre#ely large e$a#ples used in
shipyards or industrial installations. . special )ersion is the container crane
:or A8ortainerA crane3 na#ed by the first #anufacturer;3 designed for loading
and unloading ship-borne containers at a port.
oth overhead travelling cranes and gantry cranes are types of crane which
lift objects by a hoist which is fitted in a trolley and can #o)e hori1ontally on
a rail or pair of rails fitted under a bea#. .n o)erhead tra)elling crane3 also
known as an o)erhead crane or as a suspended crane3 has the ends of the
supporting bea# resting on wheels running on rails at high le)el3 usually on
the parallel side walls of a factory or si#ilar large industrial building3 so that
the whole crane can #o)e the length of the building while the hoist can be
#o)ed to and fro across the width of the building. . gantry crane or portal
crane has a si#ilar #echanis# supported by uprights3 usually with wheels at
the foot of the uprights allowing the whole crane to tra)erse. 5o#e portal
cranes #ay ha)e only a fi$ed gantry3 particularly when they are lifting loads
such as railway cargoes that are already easily #o)ed beneath the#.
I)erhead tra)elling cranes and gantry cranes are particularly suited to lifting
)ery hea)y objects and huge gantry cranes ha)e been used for shipbuilding
where the crane straddles the ship allowing #assi)e objects like ships@ engines
to be lifted and #o)ed o)er the ship. Two fa#ous gantry cranes built in 1+(!
and 1+'+ respecti)ely3 are 5a#son and =oliath3 which reside in the largest dry
dock in the world in elfast3 Eorthern Ireland. 6ach crane has a span of 1!-
#etres and can lift loads of up to *!- tonnes to a height of (- #etres3 #aking
a co#bined lifting capacity of o)er 13'-- tonnes3 one of the largest in the
world.
Howe)er3 gantry cranes are also a)ailable running on rubber tyres so that
tracks are not needed3 and s#all gantry cranes can be used in workshops3 for
e$a#ple for lifting auto#obile engines out of )ehicles.
26
Container crane
. ship-to-shore rail #ounted gantry crane is a specialised )ersion of the gantry
crane in which the hori1ontal gantry rails and their supporting bea# are
cantile)ered out fro# between fra#e uprights spaced to suit the length of a
standard freight container3 so that the bea# supporting the rails projects o)er a
9uayside and o)er the width of an adjacent ship allowing the hoist to lift
containers fro# the 9uay and #o)e out along the rails to place the containers
on the ship. The uprights ha)e wheels which run in tracks allowing the crane
to #o)e along the 9uay to position the containers at any point on the length of
the ship. The first )ersions of these cranes were designed and #anufactured by
8aceco /orporation. They were called 8ortainers and beca#e so popular that
the ter# 8ortainer is co##only used as a generic ter# to refer to all ship-to-
shore rail #ounted gantry cranes.
Workstation Gantry Cranes
2orkstation gantry cranes are used to lift and transport s#aller ite#s around a
working area in a factory or #achine shop. 5o#e workstation gantry cranes
are e9uipped with an enclosed track3 while others use an I-bea#3 or other
e$truded shapes3 for the running surface. &ost workstation gantry cranes are
intended to be stationary when loaded3 and #obile when unloaded.
27
Rail Mounted or EOT Gantry Cranes
6lectrical I)erhead Tra)elling :6IT; cranes or =antry /ranes are co##only
found in factory applications such as steel yards3 paper #ills or loco#oti)e
repair shops. The 6IT gantry crane functions si#ilarly to an o)erhead bridge
crane3 but has rails installed on the ground and gantry-style legs to support the
crane. /apacities range fro# 2 to 2-- tons. &ost are electrically powered and
painted safety yellow.
Overhead crane
.lso known as a @suspended crane@3 this type of crane work )ery si#ilar to a
gantry crane but instead of the whole crane #o)ing3 only the hoist O trolley
asse#bly #o)es in one direction along one or two fi$ed bea#s3 often #ounted
along the side walls or on ele)ated colu#ns in the asse#bly area of factory.
5o#e of these cranes can lift )ery hea)y loads.
.n overhead crane is a type of crane where the hook-and-line #echanis#
runs along a hori1ontal bea# that runs along two widely separated rails. Iften
it is in a long factory building and runs along rails along the building@s two
long walls. It is si#ilar to a gantry crane.
.n o)erhead crane typically consists of three i#portant parts:
1. The hoist3 pro)iding upOdown #otion to lift ite#s.
2. The trolley3 pro)iding leftOright #otion for the hoist and load.
3. The bridge3 pro)iding backOforward #otion for trolley3 hoist3 and load.
This is per#anently installed in a factory3 shop3 or warehouse to #o)e ite#s
not #o)eable by hu#ans or forklifts.
28
The #ost co##on o)erhead crane use is in the steel industry. 6)ery step of
steel3 until it lea)es a factory as a finished product3 the steel is handled by an
o)erhead crane. 7aw #aterials are poured into a furnace by crane3 hot steel is
stored for cooling by an o)erhead crane3 the finished coils are lifted and
loaded onto trucks and trains by o)erhead crane3 and the fabricator or sta#per
uses an o)erhead crane to handle the steel in his factory. The auto#obile
industry uses o)erhead cranes for handling of raw #aterials. 5#aller
workstation cranes handle lighter loads in a work-area3 such as /E/ #ill or
saw.
Deck crane
,ocated on the ships and boats3 these are used for cargo operations or boat
unloading and retrie)al where no shore unloading facilities are a)ailable. &ost
are diesel-hydraulic or electric-hydraulic
The #ost ad)anced for# of a deck crane is a =, deck crane. =, electro-
hydraulic deck cranes are designed for bulk carriers. 2e focused on gi)ing the
=, a robust design3 and e$cellent control and operational properties. The
range co)ers lifting capacities fro# 2% to 3' tonnes3 with 1*-3- # outreaches.
=, cranes are built fro# #odules3 and are easy to #aintain and install.
=eneral design:
=, cranes are designed to #eet the rules of all recognised classification
societies and regulatory bodies. They are designed to work in the tough
conditions that go with grab and log handling. The cranes ha)e a stepless
control syste#3 and hoisting3 luffing and slewing #otions are independent of
29
each other. This #eans that at their #a$i#u# capacity =, cranes can
operate at full speed using all three #o)e#ents at the sa#e ti#e. These cranes
can be supplied with the tools needed for handling particular cargoes.
1ib crane
. jib crane is a type of crane where a hori1ontal #e#ber :jib or boo#;3
supporting a #o)eable hoist3 is fi$ed to a wall or to a floor-#ounted pillar. Cib
cranes are used in industrial pre#ises and on #ilitary )ehicles. The jib #ay
swing through an arc3 to gi)e additional lateral #o)e#ent3 or be fi$ed. 5i#ilar
cranes3 often known si#ply as hoists3 were fitted on the top floor of warehouse
buildings to enable goods to be lifted to all floors.
Floor Mounted 1ib Crane
o 4p to % Ton 5tandard /apacities
o 4p to 2- 0eet 5pan
o 4nli#ited /usto# "esign
Wall Mounted 1ib Crane
o 4p to % Ton 5tandard /apacities
o 4p to 2- 0eet 5pan
o 4nli#ited /usto# "esign
Special Application 1ib Cranes
o 4p to 1 Ton /apacity
o 4p to 1' 0eet 5pan
o 3 "ifferent &ounting 5tyles: 0loor3 /eiling and 2all.
30
1ib extension on a scotch derrick
y linking the e$tension to the #ain jib :in the e$a#ple abo)e there is a rigid
tie-bar between the top of the pillar and the end of the e$tension; you can
arrange for the load to re#ain at about the sa#e height as the crane jib is
luffed3 that is if you lift the #ain jib the load #o)es closer to the crane but
re#ains at the sa#e le)el.
This was co##on on dockside cranes3 although the e$a#ple shown below3
taken fro# a 1+3-s book on engineering3 is a )ery large crane3 probably based
on one at a ship yard rather than a 9uay. These are known as @horses heads@3 at
least by sailors.
31
Bulk-handling crane
ulk-handling cranes are designed fro# the outset to carry a shell grab or
bucket3 rather than using a hook and a sling. They are used for bulk cargoes3
such as coal3 #inerals3 scrap #etal etc.
. bulk-handling crane is one that3 instead of a si#ple hook that can handle a
range of slung loads3 has an integral grab for lifting bulk cargoes such as coal3
#ineral ore etc.
2here the grab is a two-piece hinged bucket3 it is known as a shell grab or
shell bucket. 2orking the grab re9uires e$tra cables fro# the crane jib3 so
re9uires a specialised design of crane throughout3 not #erely an attach#ent.
5o#e grabs use 2 cables for lift and control3 others use !.
In 1+2(3 5tothert L 8itt of ath3 5o#erset produced the first specialised bulk-
handling crane. This was to unload coal at arking power station in ,ondon.
Orange-peel grabs
2here a cargo is coarser in si1e than #inerals3 co##only for scrap #etal3
then an orange-peel grab #ay be used instead of a shell. These ha)e si$ or
eight seg#ents of ApeelA independently hinged around a central core. They are
better able to grab at an une)en load3 rather than just scooping at s#all pieces.
If the load is #ade of long thin pieces3 a grab #ay also be able to carry far
#ore than a single AgrabfulA at one ti#e.
.lthough orange-peel grabs #ay be hung fro# cables on a jib3 they@re also
co##only #ounted directly onto a jib. This is #ore suitable for grabbing at
awkward loads that #ight otherwise tend to tip a hanging grab o)er. They #ay
also use hydraulics to control the seg#ents rather than weight and hoist cables.
32
Kangaroo cranes
.nother of 5tothert L 8itt@s inno)ations was the kangaroo crane. 7ather than
slewing :rotating; the crane to reach the deli)ery hopper on-shore3 a kangaroo
crane has its own in-built hopper beneath the jib3 that slews with it as the crane
rotates. "u#ping the grab contents into the hopper now only re9uires the
9uicker luffing #o)e#ent3 without needing to slew for each load.
The ter# Akangaroo craneA has also been applied #ore recently to ju#ping
cranes3 tower cranes used in the construction of skyscrapers that are capable of
raising their towers as construction grows upwards.
Loader crane
. loader crane :also called a knuckle-boo# crane or articulating crane ; is a
hydraulically-powered articulated ar# fitted to a truck or trailer3 and is used
for loadingOunloading the )ehicle. The nu#erous jointed sections can be
folded into a s#all space when the crane is not in use. Ine or #ore of the
sections #ay be telescopic. Iften the crane will ha)e a degree of auto#ation
and be able to unload or stow itself without an operator@s instruction. The
nu#erous sections can be folded into a s#all space when the crane isnGt in
use.
4nlike #ost cranes3 the operator #ust #o)e around the )ehicle to be able to
)iew his loadJ hence #odern cranes #ay be fitted with a portable cabled or
radio-linked control syste# to supple#ent the crane-#ounted hydraulic
control le)ers.
In the 4K and /anada3 this type of crane is al#ost in)ariably known
collo9uially as a AHiabA3 partly because this #anufacturer in)ented the loader
crane and was first into the 4K #arket3 and partly because the distincti)e
na#e was displayed pro#inently on the boo# ar#.
. rolloader@ crane is a loader crane #ounted on a chassis with wheels. This
chassis can ride on the trailer. ecause the crane can #o)e on the trailer3 it can
be a light crane3 so the trailer is allowed to transport #ore goods.
33
Stacker crane
. crane with a forklift type #echanis# used in auto#ated :co#puter
controlled; warehouses :known as an auto#ated storage and retrie)al syste#
:.5O75;;. The crane #o)es on a track in an aisle of the warehouse. The fork
can be raised or lowered to any of the le)els of a storage rack and can be
e$tended into the rack to store and retrie)e product.
The product can in so#e cases be as large as an auto#obile. 5tacker cranes are
often used in the large free1er warehouses of fro1en food #anufacturers. This
auto#ation a)oids re9uiring forklift dri)ers to work in below free1ing
te#peratures e)ery day.
This crane is a #achine integrated into an .uto#ated 5torageO7etrie)al
5yste#3 also known as .5O75. The .5O75 are co#puter-controlled syste#s
for storing and retrie)ing products in #anufacturing warehouses and facilities.
The stacker cranePs role in the syste# is to transfer large unit loads fro# a
specific storage slot to a pickup or deli)ery station. The stacker crane is a large
carriage that is built directly between the aisles of the .5O75. In a highly
sophisticated syste#3 #ultiple stacker cranes can be assigned to one aisle. It
can be built to #o)e either )ertical or parallel in the aisle.
I/5 stacker crane is highly reputed for the stable auto#atic pallet
transportation. 2ell-e9uipped option for single or double load de)ices3 it
allows the #a$i#u# throughput with high-speed and stable bay perfor#ance.
34
Single-mast stacker crane
The single-#ast stacker crane &.=ITI now offers the fa#iliar top
perfor#ance of the &ustang for heights of up to 1* #. . new construction
concept for the #ast head pro)ides for additional stability3 which allows the
de)ice to opti#ally bear the high speed and accelerations. The &.=ITI can
be co#bined with all standard load handling de)ices and is thus suitable for all
applications between 1! and 1* #.
Depth stacker-cranes
5ingle or double depth stacker-cranes
&ono or bi-pallet stacker-cranes
/ur)e stacker-crane :transferring3 switching;
. co#ple#ent to traditional storage functions3 these technologies are perfectly
suited to :
- Eegati)e or controlled te#perature warehouses3
- ufferstock with rapid turno)er3
- 5upply of order preparation stations integrated in or e$terior to storage3
35
Mobile Cranes
These are the new type of cranes and are #o)able to a great e$tent. This
#o)e#ent is of the crane fro# one place to another as well as the #o)e#ent
of crane basic work tool. The #ost basic type of crane consists of a steel truss
or telescopic boo# #ounted on a #obile platfor#3 which could be a rail3
wheeled3 or e)en on a cat truck. The boo# is hinged at the botto# and can be
either raised or lowered by cables or hydraulic cylinders. The #ain types of
#obile or #o)able cranes are:-
1. Truck-#ounted crane
2. 5idelift crane
3. 7ough terrain crane
4. .ll terrain crane
5. /rawler crane
6. 7ailroad crane
7. 0loating crane
8. .erial crane
Eow we will discuss each type in detail:
Truck-mounted crane
/ranes #ounted on a rubber tire truck will pro)ide great #obility. Iutriggers
that e$tend )ertically or hori1ontally are used to le)el and stabili1e the crane
during hoisting. . crane #ounted on a truck carrier pro)ides the #obility for
this type of crane.
=enerally3 these cranes are able to tra)el on highways3 eli#inating the need
for special e9uip#ent to transport the crane. 2hen working on the jobsite3
outriggers are e$tended hori1ontally fro# the chassis then )ertically to le)el
and stabili1e the crane while stationary and hoisting. &any truck cranes ha)e
slow-tra)elling capability :a few #iles per hour; while suspending a load.
=reat care #ust be taken not to swing the load sideways fro# the direction of
tra)el3 as #ost anti-tipping stability then lies in the stiffness of the chassis
suspension. &ost cranes of this type also ha)e #o)ing counterweights for
stabili1ation beyond that pro)ided by the outriggers. ,oads suspended directly
aft are the #ost stable3 since #ost of the weight of the crane acts as a
counterweight. 0actory-calculated charts :or electronic safeguards; are used by
crane operators to deter#ine the #a$i#u# safe loads for stationary
:outriggered; work as well as :on-rubber; loads and tra)elling speeds.
36

Truck cranes range in lifting capacity fro# about 1!.% 45 tons to about 13--
45 tons.
1930s and 1940s small mobile motor cranes
y the early 1+3-s #otor lorries e9uipped with petrol engined cranes were in
regular use3 the railways used the# in larger goods yards :often for handling
containers;3 those seen on non-railway work were usually owned by a
contractor and hired out with its dri)er as re9uired. There were so#e
apparently purpose built )ehicles in which the dri)er could turn his seat round
to operate the crane but there nor# see#s to ha)e been a crane unit with
operators seat :in the open3 cabs ca#e in in the later 1+3-s but open seats were
seen into the 1+'-s; bolted to the rear of a lorry chassis. 0or people working
on II scale the .irfi$ @7.0 7eco)ery 5et@ includes a crane that saw
widespread use in railway yards after the second world war :and the associated
articulated lorry tractor was also a type used by 73 although not with the long
7.0 trailer;. .s far as I a# aware nothing si#ilar is yet a)ailable in E.
37

&odern diesel engined cranes3 with hydraulic ra#s to lift and so#eti#es to
e$tend the jib and an electric or hydraulic #otor to wind in the hoisting cable3
started to appear in the late 1+%-s. These use a co#pressor to pro)ide the
hydraulic pressure and because co#pressors heat up the fluid they use oil
rather than water to a)oid the risk of stea# for#ing. The e$a#ple shown
below is traced fro# a photo taken in the 1+%-s showing such a crane being
used to load coke into road lorries. Eote there is li#ited articulation and little
use of the hydraulics3 the jib is raised and lowered by the two ra#s behind the
cab3 and the grab is operated by hydraulics3 but the rest is all #echanical
linkages. Eote the double wheels at the front3 single at the rear.
Early mobile hydraulic crane
The application of hydraulics to produce #ore co#ple$ articulated and
e$tending jibs had to wait for general engineering to catch up and produce
sufficiently accurate parts and effecti)e seals but by the 1+*-s #ost rail
#ounted cranes were of this general type.
Eote that by the #id 1+3-s cranes were by law clearly #arked with their safe
working load3 usually in the for# 52, 1 TIE written in white on both sides
of the jib :the law re9uiring the safe load to be established had been passed in
1*!! but it was the 1**-s before the tests produced #eaningful results;. The
si1e of the lettering )aried depending on the type of crane3 s#all hand cranes
where the operator was standing close to the jib #ight use lettering as s#all as
two inches high but for large cranes with a cab the lettering was usually the
full height of the jib side. In the 1+2-s and less co##only in the 1+3-s so#e
cranes had so#ething like 3 TIE5 written on the side but the safe working
load was a legal re9uire#ent so the 52, abbre)iation soon beca#e standard.
4p until the 1+'-s for regular hea)y loads the best option was the o)erhead
gantry crane3 so#e were fi$ed in position3 others #ounted on a bridge across
38
two parallel raised rails :technically @tra)elling gantry cranes@;. ,arger railway
yards often had a gantry crane3 so#e were fi$ed but #ost I belie)e were the
tra)elling type :often called a =oiliath crane by railway#en;.
Kibri do a rather nice )intage gantry crane :-(!%2;3 this has a fi$ed base and
a co)ered gantry with railed walk ways and can span two tracks. Qoll#er offer
a #odern tubular #etal fi$ed gantry crane :(+-1;3 which would look well on
any layout set after the 1+'-s3 and as #entioned elsewhere they also offer the
only really con)incing I5I container handling crane :(+-%;. The ritish fir#
Knightwing offer a neat cast white #etal s#all fi$ed gantry crane well suited
to industrial use.
Two types which the #odeller #ight atte#pt are the )ery s#all gantry or
o)erhead con)eyor and the )ery large tra)elling gantry crane suitable for a
hea)y engineering factory or larger railway goods yard. The sketch below
shows the #ost basic for#3 a si#ple I section rail with a carriage running on
the botto# web that #ight be used in an engineering works to lift hea)y ite#s
on and off railway wagons :technically this is an @o)erhead con)eyor@ rather
than a crane;. .t a works the rail could e$tend into a building through a
doorway :the doors being cut away to allow this; so ite#s could be transferred
to and fro# inside the building and the railway wagons. Eote this re9uires two
doors :usually sliding rather than hinged;3 one either side of the top rail.
Sidelift crane
. sidelifter crane is a road-going truck or se#i-trailer3 able to hoist and
transport I5I standard containers. /ontainer lift is done with parallel crane-
like hoists3 which can lift a container fro# the ground or fro# a railway
)ehicle.
39

The is the #ost ad)anced for# and this fa#ily includes the state of the art of
0errari technology:
8iston pu#ps and load sensing distributor
8roportional le)ers or #ultifunctional joystick
0ull /.E 45 integrated #anage#ent
,ifting capacity under spreader up to ' high *@'@@
0677.7I 6/ -*
Iutstanding forklift truck for e#pty container handling pro)iding stability and
perfor#ances at top #arket le)el.
,ifting capacity under spreader up to + tons3 stacking up to * high R 1
Telescopic side spreader 2-@ !-@ single or double lift
6/ -* offers its best perfor#ances in :
- narrow ter#inals
- end on stacking
- fork handling
- double stacking
eing e9uipped with special spreaders to safely3 neatly and 9uickly handle
e#pty containers at the ter#inals3 it is de)eloped the new type )ehicles
focusing on se)eral crucial features-e$cellent )isibility3 high-#ounted pillar-
less cabin3 wider )iew #ast3 easy and tireless #aneu)erability3 increased
operation efficiency and operator friendliness as well.
40
Rough terrain crane
. crane #ounted on an undercarriage with four rubber tires that is designed
for pick-and-carry operations and for off-road and Arough terrainA
applications. Iutriggers are used to le)el and stabili1e the crane for hoisting.
These telescopic cranes are single-engine #achines3 with the sa#e engine
powering the undercarriage and the crane3 si#ilar to a crawler crane. In a
rough terrain crane3 the engine is usually #ounted in the undercarriage rather
than in the upper3 as with crawler crane.
Eo #atter where you want to build3 the 7ough Terrain /rane is ready to help
with realistic functionsS 0lip down the outriggers to stabili1e the load and
e$tend the powerful telescoping boo#S 7otate the base and acti)ate the
working controls on the back to lower the winch and raise the payload. 6ntire
crane rotates 3'- degrees.
41
All terrain crane
. #obile crane with the necessary e9uip#ent to tra)el at speed on public
roads3 and on rough terrain at the job site using all-wheel and crab steering.
.TFs co#bine the roadability of Truck-#ounted /ranes and the
#anoeu)rability of 7ough Terrain /ranes.
.TGs ha)e 2-+ a$les and are designed for lifting loads up to 12-- #etric tons.
.ll Terrain /rane adopts !-section bo$ type powered telescoping3 with all-
round he$agonal boo# profile3 #ade of high-tensile structural steel3 with
longitudinal reinforce#ent for i#pro)ing partial stability of boo# lower plate3
better lateral rigidity for boo#. % shea)es at boo# head3 the 2nd3 3rd sections
and the top one synchronously telescope3 telescoping syste# contains double-
action cylinder and wire ropes3 and with holding )al)e fitted in the cylinder. 2-
a$le chassis with en)iron#ent engine3 all a$le dri)e3 all wheel steering and
crab walk possible3 e9uipped with ad)anced hydro-pneu#atic suspension and
off-road tires3 suitable for )ariable co#plicated ground conditions. The )ehicle
can tra)el on )arious rough road3 operate 3'-TUfull circle3 and also on #id-
e$tended outrigger or on tires3 and tra)el with a suspended load.
0or e$a#ple #a$i#u# capacity on outriggers +- t ? ase #achine is as
follows:
Chassis
&anufactured by &archetti3 steel torsion-resistant bo$ type construction3
width
2.(% #.
2.('
Outriggers
! hydraulically telescoping bea# outriggers. Independent #o)e#ent controls
on
each side of the carrier and in the upper structure cab. Two different outrigger
positions a)ailable '.+ # L % #. The outriggersG pads are always clasped to
the
)ertical cylinders.
42
Engine
IQ6/I engine 03. turbo-intercooler 647I&IT 23 ' cylinder in line3 water
cooled. &a$ power 2*( k2 :3*% H8; at 2--- rp#. &a$ tor9ue 1(-- E# at
1---
rp#. 0uel tank capacity !%- liters.
Suspension
.ll a$les ha)e hydro-pneu#atic suspensions. ,ongitudinal and trans)erse
le)el
control and locking to allow #otion fro# the upper structure cab. .uto#atic
le)eling syste# for road tra)el. /ylinder stroke 22- ##.
Electrical system
2! Q 66/ co#pliant lighting syste#. E. 1 working light fi$ed to upper
structure
cabin.
5uperstructure
/ontinuous 3'-U rotation.
Hoist gear
=roo)ed dru#3 epicyclical reducer and auto#atic disk brakes. .$ial piston
engine
and descent control. 7otation indicator. .nti-slewing rope3 length 23- #
dia#eter
1+ ##. Hoisting capacity at the !th le)el3 '--- daE.
oo# ele)ation
Through 1 hydraulic double-effect cylinder with safety )al)e. oo# angle
fro# ?1U
to *2U
Slewing
8lanetary gear L e$ternal sprocket3 epicyclical reducer and auto#atic #ultiple
disk brakes.
Hydraulic system
Ine a$ial pistons load sensing pu#p for the craneGs #ain circuitsJ one geared
pu#p for slewing and for the outriggersJ one geared pu#p for the ser)ice
circuit.
8ossibility of acti)ating three conte#porary #aneu)ers. Ther#ostatically
controlled oil cooler for <hea)y duty> jobs.
43
Crawler crane
. crawler is a crane #ounted on an undercarriage with a set of tracks :also
called crawlers; that pro)ide stability and #obility. /rawler cranes range in
lifting capacity fro# about !- 45 tons to 3%-- 45 tons.
/rawler cranes ha)e both ad)antages and disad)antages depending on their
use. Their #ain ad)antage is that they can #o)e around on site and perfor#
each lift with little set-up3 since the crane is stable on its tracks with no
outriggers. In addition3 a crawler crane is capable of tra)eling with a load. The
#ain disad)antage is that they are )ery hea)y3 and cannot easily be #o)ed
fro# one job site to another without significant e$pense. Typically a large
crawler #ust be disasse#bled and #o)ed by trucks3 rail cars or ships to its
ne$t location.

/rawler cranes deli)er e$cellent #obility o)er soft surfaces. These #ultiple-
purpose cranes can be used in a broad range of applications3 ranging fro#
construction to ci)il engineering and port cargo handling.Here are gi)en so#e
specifications of the latest #odel of a crawler crane for understanding its
details:
1*-tons :1'.3-tonnes; pick-and-carry capacity ? 3'-U.
8ull L pin boo# - (-ft :2-#; length.
44
Telescopic jib for up to 1--ft :3-.%#; tip height.
1(3 hp :12+k2; diesel engine standard.
,ow ground bearing pressure of %.' psi :-.3+ kgOc#2; or less with
counterweight re#o)ed.
&antis-engineered auger options with optional hydraulic tool circuit.
Two-speed independent hydrostatic track dri)e to 3 #ph :!.* k#Ohr;.
*ft :2.!!#; #ini#u# tra)el width :with 1*ins :!%(##; tracks;.
6$traordinary (ft 11ns :2.!1#; #ini#u# clearance height.
/hoice of track shoe widths3 ape$ swa#p pads or bolt-on rubber track
pads to suit any ground surface.
%1-%!3---lb :23-2!.%-tonne; shipping weight fully e9uipped ? hauls as
a single3 ready-to-work load.
5teep (-H gradeability thanks to low centre of gra)ity.
Hydraulic on-the-fly track fra#e retraction and e$tension.
123---lb :%.!-tonne; planetary #ain winch with full load single line
speeds to 222 fp# :'(.( #p#;.
Iptional &antis 28-(%- Hea)y "uty 2ork 8latfor# for *2ft :2%#;
working height.
Railroad crane
. railroad crane has flanged wheels for use on railroads. The si#plest for# is
a crane #ounted on a railroad car. &ore capable de)ices are purpose-built.
"ifferent types of crane are used for #aintenance work3 reco)ery operations
and freight loading in goods yards. . railroad crane3 :crane car or wrecker
:45; or breakdown crane :4K;; is a type of crane used on a railroad for one
of three pri#ary uses: freight handling in goods yards3 per#anent way :82;
#aintenance3 and accident reco)ery work. .lthough the design differs
according to the type of work3 the basic configuration is si#ilar in all cases: a
rotating crane body is #ounted on a sturdy chassis fitted with flanged wheels.
The body supports the jib :4K; :boo# :45;; and pro)ides all the lifting and
operating #echanis#sJ on larger cranes3 an operator@s cabin is usually
pro)ided. The chassis is fitted with buffing and coupling gear to allow the
crane to be #o)ed by a loco#oti)e3 although #any are also self-propelled to
allow li#ited #o)e#ent about a work site.
0or cranes with a jib that e$tends beyond the length of the chassis3 a #atch
wagon :also known as a @jib carrier@ :4K; or @boo# car@ :45;; is pro)ided to
protect the jib and to allow the crane to be coupled within a train. The #atch
wagon is usually a long3 flat wagon that pro)ides a #eans of securing the jib
for transportationJ storage areas for special e9uip#ent or supplies are usually
fitted too. It was not unco##on for the #atch wagon to be built on a
withdrawn re)enue-earning wagon.
45
7ailroad cranes are usually designed specifically for one of three purposes:
Goods yard cranes
4sually the s#allest of the railroad cranes3 goods yard cranes were used in the
larger goods yards to pro)ide lifting capability in areas away fro# the ground-
#ounted goods cranes nor#ally pro)ided in such yards.
They were often s#all enough to be operated by hand3 and were not nor#ally
self-propelled3 instead re9uiring the use of a shunting engine to #o)e the#
into position. Ince cheap road-going #obile cranes were a)ailable3 these
superseded the rail-#ounted )ariety due to their greater fle$ibility and
#obility.
Maintenance cranes
The #ost )aried for#s of crane are used for #aintenance work. =eneral
purpose cranes #ay be used for installing signalling e9uip#ent or pointwork3
for e$a#ple3 while #ore specialised types are used for track laying.
Breakdown cranes
The largest cranes are used for accident reco)ery work3 usually for#ing part
of a breakdown train that includes staff acco##odation and reco)ery
e9uip#ent. These are large enough to lift derailed rolling stock back onto the
track3 although two or #ore cranes #ay be re9uired to safely reco)er a
loco#oti)e. In 45 ter#inology3 a @breakdown crane@ is often referred to as a
@wrecker@.
46
Construction
. railroad crane generally rese#bles a con)entional fi$ed-location crane
e$cept that the platfor# the crane sits on is a hea)y-duty reinforced flat car.
"irectly underneath the center of gra)ity for the crane is a pi)ot point that
allows the crane to swi)el around 3'-UJ in this way the crane can locate its
boo# o)er the worksite no #atter what its location is along the track. The
trucks on the car under the crane will often include traction #otors so that the
crane is able to #o)e itself along the track3 and possibly tow additional cars.
,arger cranes #ay be pro)ided with outriggers to pro)ide additional stability
when lifting. 5leepers are often carried on the #atch car to put under the
outriggers to spread the weight applied to the trackbed.
reakdown cranes :so#eti#es called wrecking cranes or @big hooks; were
necessary to e)ery railroad to reco)er derailed rolling stock and enginesJ while
also assisting with bridge building and yard construction.
Floating crane
0loating cranes are used #ainly in bridge building and port construction3 but
they are also used for occasional loading and unloading of especially hea)y or
awkward loads on and off ships. 5o#e floating cranes are #ounted on a
pontoon3 others are speciali1ed crane barges with a lifting capacity e$ceeding
1-3--- tons and ha)e been used to transport entire bridge sections. 0loating
cranes ha)e also been used to sal)age sunken ships.
/rane )essels are often used in offshore construction. The largest re)ol)ing
cranes can be found on 55/Q Thialf3 which has two cranes with a capacity of
(31-- #etric tons each.The floating cranes can be used in carrying out high-
standard harbour projects3 as well as for loading-unloading3 transhipping
assign#ents and transportation of hea)y loads. 0loating cranes #ade by
=ottwald are the ideal choice for cargo handling on waterways with few 9uays
or none at all or if capacities ha)e been e$hausted:
based on pro)en =ottwald &obile Harbour /rane technology
for cargo handling independent of 9uay a)ailability
designed for ship-to-ship or ship-to-9uay handling.
One Single Idea - Many Fields of Application
=ottwald floating cranes are #obile and can be used:
in ri)ers :#id-strea# tranship#ent;
in ports
in protected waters
47
in coastal waters
on the open sea
Proven Mobile Harbour Crane Technology on the Water
=ottwald 0loating /ranes co#bine &obile Harbour /rane technology with a
barge and can be designed as:
Harbour 8ontoon /ranes: the crane is on a pedestal #ounted on an
indi)idually designed barge.
8ortal Harbour /ranes #ounted on a barge: with this special type of
crane3 the barges ha)e rails upon which the H5K can be tra)elled
thanks to its rail-#ounted portal. This enables the crane to ser)ice
se)eral holds without warping the barge.
The nu#erous )ariants are de)eloped to #eet the re9uire#ents of the specific
fields of application.

.bo)e the slew ring3 they ha)e the sa#e co#ponents as =ottwald &obile
Harbour /ranes. .s a result3 this crane type pro)ides all the benefits of the
pro)en &obile Harbour /ranes3 such as:
diesel-electric or fully electric dri)es for opti#ised efficiency
designed to handle all for#s of cargo :containers3 bulk3 general and
project cargoes;
rapid change of lifting gear.
0loating cranes are a)ailable in all )ariants including !-rope grab )ariants for
professional bulk handling.
48
Aerial crane
ell !( helicopters were the first3 lightweight aerial cranes to be used in the
early 1+%-s. 4nfortunately3 due to the helicopter@s li#ited power3 it was ne)er
capable of carrying #ore than just a few hundred pounds of cargo. In the
1+'-s3 the 5ikorsky 5-%* replaced the ell !( because of its larger power
#argin. 6)en today3 5-%*s can be found carrying #ediu#-si1e loads. The
1+'-s also brought the ell 211 HueyTug3 a specially produced co##ercial
)ersion of the 4H-1/ for lifting #ediu# loads3 and e)en the popular ell 2-'
was used for light loads. ut there continued to be a de#and for aircraft able
to lift e)en larger loads. .erial crane or @5ky cranes@ usually are helicopters
designed to lift large loads. Helicopters are able to tra)el to and lift in areas
that are difficult to reach by con)entional cranes. Helicopter cranes are #ost
co##only used to lift unitsOloads onto shopping centers and highrises. They
can lift anything within their lifting capacity3 :cars3 boats3 swi##ing pools3
etc.;. They also perfor# disaster relief after natural disasters for clean-up3 and
during wild-fires they are able to carry huge buckets of water to e$tinguish
fires.
5o#e aerial cranes3 #ostly concepts3 ha)e also used lighter-than air aircraft3
such as airships.
5o Helicopters used to lift hea)y loads are called aerial cranes or skycranes.
.s aerial cranes3 helicopters carry loads connected to long cables or slings in
order to place hea)y e9uip#ent when other #ethods are not a)ailable or
econo#ically feasible3 or when the job #ust be acco#plished in re#ote or
inaccessible areas3 such as the tops of tall buildings or the top of a hill or
49
#ountain3 far fro# the nearest road. Helicopters were first used as aerial
cranes in the 1+%-s3 but it was not until the 1+'-s that the popularity of the use
of skycranes in the construction and other industries began to catch on. The
#ost consistent use of helicopters as aerial cranes is in the logging industry to
lift large trees out of rugged terrain where )ehicles aren@t able to reach3 or
where en)iron#ental concerns prohibit the buildings of roads.These
operations are referred to as longline because of the long3 single sling line used
to carry the load.
50
Disadvantages and accidents
Overload preventers
The #ain principles concerned are:
1. I)erload pre)enters with strain gauges or load cells.
2. I)erload pre)enters with load #easuring pins.
Overload preventers with strain gauges
The strain gauges or load cells can be built-in directly behind a deadend
of a hoisting wire rope or in a yoke which is carrying wire rope
shea)es3 or underneath a gear-bo$. 4sually the crane dri)er can check
the appro$i#ate weight of the carried load on a display in his cabin.
Overload preventers with load measuring pins
High 9uality stainless steel load pins contain strain gauges which are
#ounted in a particular way which gi)e a load proportional signal. The
load #easuring pins can be built-in in a wire rope shea)e or in the pin
of a hydraulic cylinder. ,oad #onitoring can also be done in the crane
dri)ers cabin etc.
Anti-collision systems
5o#e anti-collision syste#s work using the principles of:
? sonarJ
? radarJ
? low fre9uency near-field induction.
&iscellaneous 2*(
Sonar
.lthough the principle is )ery good3 there is the danger with this syste#
that a strong wind can blow the sonar wa)es away.
Radar
7adar usually uses ad)anced #icrowa)e or "oppler radar technology
co#bined with so#e digital signal processing. 5afety circuits are builtin3
and the syste# can sense objects up to a distance of about !- #.
The #a$i#u# crane tra)el speed is about 2-- #V#in.
The radar bea# which is sent out will be reflected by solid objects
and will be recei)ed by the sa#e radar antenna. It can #easure the
distance between two objects and also the speed with which the object
is approaching the sensed object.
Low-frequency near-field induction system
These low fre9uency syste#s work at a fre9uency of appro$i#ately +-
to 22- kH1 and ha)e a working #a$i#u# range of about 3- #. .
trans#itter and antenna is installed on the first crane and a recei)er and
51
antenna on the adjacent crane. 2ith this syste# it is possible to install
three distance steps between the cranes3 which should be respected. 0or
e$a#ple:
? at 3- # distance an audible signal is gi)enJ
? at 2- # distance the crane speed is decreasedJ
? at % # distance the final stop signal is gi)en.

Maintenance
General
2ith a well #ade piece of e9uip#ent3 #aintenance beco#es a #ajor
factor to keep this #achinery in good condition. .n organi1ation with
reliable #aintenance engineers should be for#ed to do this i#portant
job. "iscipline is needed to carry out regular inspections at the right
ti#e and with the necessary care and attention.
0or rolling e9uip#ent like straddle carriers and .=Qs :.uto#ated
=uided Qehicles;3 a well e9uipped workshop will be the best place to
concentrate all i#portant #aintenance jobs.
&o)eable platfor#s which can surround the taller e9uip#ent such
as straddle carriers can be useful3 as can #o)eable grease guns with
long3 fle$ible grease hoses and #o)eable drain containers. 5pecial cricks
can help to change hea)y tyres rapidly and easily.
The e$tensi)e #aintenance #anuals nor#ally gi)e enough infor#ation
about the fre9uency of inspection and the ite#s which are to be
checked and #aintained. The sa#e principles apply to #obile cranes
which are able to #o)e around freely. Howe)er3 as they are nor#ally
too large to be worked on inside a workshop3 the #aintenance #ust be
carried out in situ or in a predeter#ined #aintenance position at the
ter#inal or 9uay. 7efuelling of the diesel engines also needs to be
organi1ed with precision.
0or cranes running on rails3 such as the #any types of ship-unloading
and loading e9uip#ent3 stacking cranes3 etc. the #aintenance work
#ust be carried out in situ. The co#plete syste#s and the auto#ation
52
re9uire specialist skills. The training of a suitable tea# of operati)es is
31- /ranes ? "esign3 8ractice3 and &aintenance
e$pensi)e and ti#e consu#ing3 but absolutely necessary. Inspection and
#aintenance of the hydraulic e9uip#ent si#ilarly de#ands specialist
knowledge and a sound understanding of the syste#s which are in use.
&echanical engineers #ust inspect the wire ropes and wire rope syste#s3
hoist-3 tra)el-3 luff- and slew #echanis#s3 brakes3 gearbo$es3 and
dru#s. 5teel structures also re9uire checking for fatigue cracking and
other faults. olts should be checked regularly for signs of loosening3
corrosion3 cracking or other da#age. =reasing and lubrication are an
i#portant part of this whole process because while this essential procedure
is being undertaken3 the engineers can carry out )isual3 #echanical
and other testing at the sa#e ti#e. =reasing and lubrication need
to be thorough and not ski#ped on e)en though it is both costly and
#essy. It is one of the #ost i#portant ways in which the useful life
of e9uip#ent can be e$tended and the downti#e through repair and
breakdown reduced.
7ailtracks should be inspected fro# ti#e to ti#e3 especially those
tracks which are laid on sleepers and ballast beds.
? .llowable de)iation of the span if spanW1% #3 =3##
if span.1% #3 =to
1-## increasing
? .llowable de)iation of one rail
fro# the no#inal straight line in
the hori1ontal plane #a$ 1:1---
? .llowable de)iation of one rail
fro# the no#inal straight line in local 1:1---J o)er the full
the )ertical plane length of the track 1:%---
CAUTION: "uring crane operations3 do not enter a crane cab without the
knowledge and e$pressed consent of the operator.
/onduct of Iperators
&obile crane operations can be co#ple$ and subject to ha1ards beyond those
e$perienced with fi$ed e9uip#ent. &obile crane operators re9uire applicable
e$perience and #ust e$ercise intelligence3 care3 and co##on sense in addition
to knowing the following rules:
"o not engage in any attention-di)erting acti)ity while operating the
crane.
2hen physically or #entally unfit3 do not engage in the operation of
e9uip#ent.
7espond to signals fro# the appointed signal person. Ibey a stop
signal no #atter who gi)es it. :5ee Hand 5ignals.;
Iperators are responsible for those operations under their direct
control. 2hene)er there is any doubt as to safety3 consult with the
super)isor before handling the loads.
53
efore lea)ing the crane unattended3 perfor# the following tasks:
land any load3 bucket3 lifting #agnet3 or other de)ice
disengage the #aster clutch
set tra)el3 swing3 boo# brakes3 and other locking de)ices
put controls in the off or neutral position
secure the crane against accidental tra)el
stop the engine.
.n e$ception to stopping the engine #ay e$ist when crane operation is
fre9uently interrupted during a shift and the operator #ust lea)e the crane.
4nder these circu#stances3 the engine #ay re#ain running and the following
conditions3 including the pre)ious bulleted ite#s abo)e3 shall apply:
crane is situated where unauthori1ed entry of the crane can be obser)ed
crane is located within an area protected fro# unauthori1ed entry.
2hen a local weather stor# warning e$ists3 follow the reco##endations of
the #anufacturer for securing the crane.
If there is a warning sign on the switch or engine starting controls3 do not close
the switch or start the engine until the warning sign has been re#o)ed by the
person who placed it or an appointed person.
efore starting the crane3 see that all controls are in the off or neutral position
and that all personnel are in the clear.
If power fails during operations:
set all brakes and locking de)ices
#o)e all clutches or power controls to the neutral position
if practical3 land the suspended load under brake control.
e fa#iliar with the e9uip#ent and its proper care. If adjust#ents or repairs
are necessary3 pro#ptly report this to the appointed person and notify the ne$t
operator.
Test all controls at the start of a new shift. If any controls fail to operate
properly3 they re9uire adjust#ent or repair before operations begin.
0ollow the #anufacturer@s boo# asse#bly and disasse#bly procedures. .ny
de)iation fro# the #anufacturer@s procedure shall re9uire blocking of the
boo# or boo# sections to pre)ent inad)ertent dropping of the boo#.
2hen re#o)ing pins or bolts fro# a boo#3 workers should stay out fro#
under the boo#.
6ach outrigger shall be )isible to the operator or to a signaler during e$tension
or setting.
54
Iperating 8ractices
5wing 7adius?8inch 8oint /learance
2hen the crane is in operation3 #aintain a #ini#u# clearance of 3- inches
:(' centi#eters; between the swing radius of the crane superstructure or
counterweights and any stationary object. 2hen this clearance cannot be
#aintained3 isolate pinch point ha1ards with barricades or safeguards. 2here
possible3 flag or barricade the swing radius.
Handling the ,oad
,oad no crane beyond the specifications of the load rating chart3 e$cept for
test purposes.
CAUTION: Total load always includes the lifted ite# and the rigging.
.dditionally3 the crane hook3 block3 and load line #ay also be considered part
of the load. .ttach#ents to the boo# such as a jib or au$iliary whip lines
affect crane stability and #ay be considered part of the load. /onsult the
#anufacturerGs operating #anual for direction.
2hen the precise load weight is not known3 the person responsible for the lift
shall ascertain that the weight does not e$ceed the crane rating at the radius at
which the load is to be lifted.
CAUTION: If a load of unknown weight is potentially near the craneGs
capacity3 a load-indicating de)ice should be used. If a load #ust Abreak-looseA
before lifting3 or while being handled3 or if it #ay #eet an obstruction3 a load-
indicating de)ice should be used.
If a lift is potentially li#ited by structural co#petence of the crane3 rather than
by stability3 the load shall be deter#ined within plus or #inus 1-H before it is
lifted.
4se regular lay wire rope for crane load lines with an operating design factor
of no less than 3.%.
,oad lines with rotation-resistant ropes re9uire an operating design factor of
no less than %.
Note: 5tandard .5&6 3-.%-3.2.1 grants special pro)isions for the use of
rotation-resistant ropes with an operating design factor less than %3 but no less
than 3.%. These pro)isions are not intended for duty cycle of repetiti)e lifts.
The crane #anufacturer shall be consulted and strict co#pliance with .5&6
3-.% is re9uired if such special pro)isions are i#ple#ented.
.ttaching the ,oad
8erfor# the following tasks when attaching the load:
55
Ee)er wrap the hoist rope around the load.
.ttach the load to the hook by #eans of slings or other de)ices of
sufficient capacity.
If the crane is not e9uipped with auto#atic dru# and boo# braking
syste#s and the load is to re#ain suspended for any considerable
length of ti#e3 set the dru# and boo# brakes to hold the load.
Holding the Load
"o not lea)e the controls while the load is suspended.
.s an e$ception to the direction abo)e3 when a load is to be held suspended
for a period e$ceeding nor#al lifting operations3 the operator #ay lea)e the
controls pro)ided:
The super)isor and the operator establish re9uire#ents for restraining
the boo# hoist3 telescoping3 load3 swing3 and outrigger functions.
arricades3 or whate)er other precautions #ay be necessary3 are taken.
Eo person should be per#itted to stand or pass under a suspended load.
Moving the Load
CAUTION: Ground- and Bearing-Pressure Considerations. It is i#portant
to ensure that no underground installations e$ist that could be co#pro#ised3
such as electrical )aults3 conduit banks3 tanks3 and piping. 2hen crane load
foundations and bearing pressure are a concern to crane stability and
underground installation integrity3 site utility layout3 crane #anufacturerGs
ground-loading infor#ation3 crane configuration3 and load and tra)el path
infor#ation shall be e)aluated and analy1ed by a 9ualified person. The
9ualified person shall deter#ine if ground scans3 soil stability tests3 and
structural analysis of underground structures is necessary. If analysis is
perfor#ed3 a docu#ented plan to ensure crane stability and integrity of
underground installations shall be pro)ided to the super)isor of the lift
operation and discussed with in)ol)ed or affected personnel.
Preconditions. The person directing the lift :super)isor or designated leader;
shall ensure:
crane is le)el and3 where necessary3 blocked
load is well secured and balanced in the sling or lifting de)ice before it
is lifted #ore than a few inches
lift and swing path is clear of obstructions
all persons are clear of the swing radius of the crane counterweight.
Before Starting the Lift. efore starting the lift3 the operator shall ensure:
56
hoist rope is not kinked
#ultiple-part lines are not twisted around each other
hook is o)er the load in such a #anner as to #ini#i1e swinging
if there is a slack rope condition3 the rope is seated on the dru# and in
the shea)es as the slack is re#o)ed
wind speed and other weather conditions shall be considered. "o not
atte#pt lifts if weather conditions are ad)erse to safe load-handling
operations.
load line is plu#b so the cranes will not drag the load sideways.
During Lifting Operations. "uring lifting operations3 care shall be taken to
ensure:
no sudden acceleration or deceleration of the #o)ing load.
load3 boo#3 or other parts of the #achine do not contact any
obstructions or enter the "anger Xone around electrical trans#ission
lines :see Iperating /ranes Eear 6nergi1ed Trans#itters or 6lectric
8ower ,ines; or a trans#itter tower :see Iperating Eear a Trans#itter
Tower;.
CAUTION: 2hen landing loads on blocking3 the loads #ust be set on
ade9uate blocking to pre)ent da#age to the slings and the loads #ust be safely
landed and properly blocked to a)oid une$pected roll o)er or tipping before
being unhooked and unslung.
Side Loading. 5ide loading of boo#s shall be li#ited to freely suspended
loads. "o not drag loads sideways.
Avoid Loads Over People. The operator should a)oid carrying loads o)er
people.
Wheel-Mounted Cranes - Lifting Over Front. In wheel-#ounted cranes3
do not lift o)er the front area3 e$cept as specified by the #anufacturer.
CAUTION: 2orking on or under a suspended load is prohibited3 e$cept when
the load can be supported by blocking or cribbing3 can be securely braced3 or
can be supported substantially by so#e other #eans that would pre)ent the
load fro# #o)ing. ,oads being lifted and set in place #ay re9uire special
handling control #easures that #ay re9uire personnel to position their hands
or other body parts under the load when inspecting3 landing3 setting3 or
controlling the load. To ensure that appropriate controls are i#ple#ented to
control unwanted #o)e#ent of the load3 issues concerning Ahands-onA work
under suspended loads3 guiding or controlling suspended loads3 and fine load
control shall be discussed and resol)ed during pre-lift planning.
Brake Test - When Load Approaching Rated Load. 2hene)er a load
approaching the rated load is handled3 the operator shall test the brakes by
lifting the load a few inches and applying the brakes.
57
Outriggers. .nyti#e the load or radius re9uires the use of outriggers3 fully
e$tend or deploy the# per the load rating chart specifications. Iutriggers are
set to re#o)e the #achine weight fro# wheels. 2hen outrigger floats are
used3 they shall be attached to the outriggers. locking under outrigger floats3
shall #eet the following conditions:
Ha)e sufficient strength to pre)ent crushing3 bending3 or shear failure.
e of ade9uate si1e and thickness to co#pletely support the float3
trans#it the load to the supporting surface3 and pre)ent shifting3
toppling3 or e$cessi)e settle#ent under load.
4se blocking only under the bearing surface of the outrigger.
Minimum Two Wraps on Drums. Eeither the load nor the boo# shall be
lowered below the point where less than two full wraps of rope re#ain on the
respecti)e dru#s.
Lifts with Two or More Cranes. 2hen two or #ore cranes are used to lift a
load3 a designated person shall direct the lifting operation. That person
analy1es the operation and instructs in)ol)ed personnel in the proper crane
positioning3 rigging3 and the #o)e#ents that will be acco#plished. "ecisions3
such as the necessity to reduce crane ratings3 load position3 boo# location3
ground support3 and speed of #o)e#ent shall be #ade. . pre-lift #eeting
shall be held by the designated person with the crane operators and other
in)ol)ed personnel in attendance. The planOprocedure shall be re)iewed and
9uestions shall be resol)ed.
Moving Cranes From One 1ob Site to Another (Transit). 8repare the crane
for transit in accordance with the #anufacturer@s instructions. :5ee ,attice
oo# "is#antlingO.sse#bly concerning lattice boo# dis#antlingOasse#bly.;
The following additional precautions shall be e$ercised while the crane is in
transit fro# job to job:
/arry the boo# in line with the direction of #otion.
5ecure the superstructure against rotation :or place the boo# in a boo#
rack #ounted on the carrier;3 e$cept when negotiating turns when there
is an operator in the cab or the boo# is supported on a dolly.
,ash down or otherwise secure e#pty hook:s; to restrain the# fro#
swinging freely. If 9uestions arise about this pro)ision3 the
#anufacturer@s instructions shall go)ern.
Notes: 1; 2hen the #achine #o)es under its own power fro# one location to
another on a job site3 the super)isor andOor crane operator shall deter#ine the
#achine@s condition for tra)el. 2; 5ee "efinitions and .crony#s3 Tra)el3 and
Transit.
Traveling with a Load. Tra)eling with suspended loads entails #any
)ariables :i.e.3 the type of terrain3 boo# length3 #o#entu# in starting and
stopping3 etc.; Therefore3 it is i#possible to for#ulate a single standard
58
procedure with any assurance of safety. Thus3 while tra)eling with a load3 a
designated person3 in coordination with the crane operator3 #ust e)aluate
pre)ailing conditions and deter#ine applicable safety precautions.
efore a crane tra)els with a load3 deter#ine that the #anufacturer does not
prohibit this practice. If the #anufacturer has appro)ed tra)eling with a load3 a
designated person shall be responsible for the operations. "ecisions such as
the necessity to reduce crane ratings3 load position3 boo# location3 ground
support3 tra)el route3 speed of #o)e#ent3 and outrigger position shall be in
accordance with that personGs deter#ination and the #anufacturerGs
instructions. Eo person shall ride on the #achine during Apick-and-carryA
operations. 4nless allowed by the #anufacturerGs operating instructions or
written appro)al fro# the #anufacturer3 do not place the load on any part of
the crane. /heck the specified tire pressure and tra)el with the boo# in line
with the direction of tra)el. .)oid sudden starts and stops. 4se tag or restraint
lines as necessary to control swinging of the load.
CAUTION: The tra)el path should be s#ooth3 fir#3 and le)el. If soil stability
is 9uestionable3 soil tests #ay be necessary to deter#ine stability. 2here
potential underground ha1ards e$ist :such as electrical )aults3 conduit banks3
tanks3 and piping;3 they #ust be e)aluated and action #ust be taken to #ake
sure #obile crane operations can be acco#plished safely.
. crane with or without a load #ust not tra)el with the boo# so high that it
#ay bounce back o)er the cab.
"uring Apick-and-carryA operations3 e$ercise e$tra caution to a)oid electrical
ha1ards fro# working near energi1ed trans#itters or power lines :see
Iperating /ranes Eear 6nergi1ed Trans#itters or 6lectric 8ower ,ines;.
"uring Apick-and-carryA operations3 always use a #ini#u# of two signal
persons to assist the crane operatorJ one signal person will ser)e as the flagger
with key responsibility for watching the load and signaling as necessary to
control load #o)e#ent. The second signal person will ha)e the key
responsibility to watch for and signal as necessary to a)oid ha1ards in)ol)ing
the crane@s #o)e#ent. Typical obstructions and hang-ups include power lines
and any other obstructions for which the crane operator #ay not ha)e a clear
line of sight
59
.
Rotational Speed. 2hen the crane is rotated3 a)oid sudden starts and stops.
,i#it the rotational speed such that the load does not swing out beyond the
radius at which it can be controlled. 4se tag or restraint lines as necessary to
control the load.
Boom at Fixed Angle. 2hen a crane is to be operated with the boo# at a
fi$ed angle3 the boo#-hoist pawl or other positi)e holding de)ice shall be
engaged.
Use of Winch Heads. . winch head shall not be used without the knowledge
of the operator. 2hile a winch head is being used3 the operator shall be within
con)enient reach of the power unit control le)er.
Riding Hook or Load-Not Permitted. 8ersonnel are not per#itted to ride the
bare hook3 hook ball or a suspended load. :0or personnel lifting3 see ,ifting of
8ersonnel.;
Footing. . fir# footing under both crawler tracks3 all tires3 or indi)idual
outrigger pads should be pro)ided. 2here such a footing does not e$ist3
ti#bers3 cribbing3 or other structural #e#bers shall be pro)ided to distribute
the load. "o not e$ceed the bearing capacity of the underlying #aterial. :5ee
/aution: =round-and earing-8ressure /onsiderations abo)e.; The crane #ust
be le)el within tolerances and in accordance with the instructions fro# the
#anufacturer.
Ballast or Counterweight. 6nsure ballast or counterweight is in place as
specified by the crane #anufacturer. The addition of ballast or counterweight
60
other than that specified by the crane #anufacturer is dangerous and not
allowed.
Personnel Lifting. :5ee ,ifting of 8ersonnel.; /ontact the 8E2" Hoisting
and 7igging subject #atter e$pert.
Operating Cranes Near Energized Transmitters or Electric Power Lines.
It is recogni1ed that operating #obile cranes where they can beco#e
electrified fro# electric power lines and trans#itter towers is an e$tre#ely
ha1ardous practice. It is ad)isable to perfor# the work so there is no
possibility of the crane3 load line3 or load beco#ing a conducti)e path.
Note: . sign warning of electrocution ha1ards is re9uired on cranes3 see
5igns.
Operating Near a Transmitter Tower. efore initiating work near a
trans#itter tower :e.g.3 radio3 #icrowa)e; where an electrical charge can be
induced in the e9uip#ent or #aterials being handled3 the trans#itter shall be
de-energi1ed or tests shall be #ade to deter#ine if electrical charge is induced
on the crane. If an electrical charge is induced and the trans#itter cannot be
de-energi1ed3 the following shall be done:
The e9uip#ent shall be pro)ided with an electrical ground directly to
the upper rotating structure supporting the boo#.
=round ju#per cables shall be attached to the #aterials that are being
handled.
/o#bustible and fla##able #aterials shall be re#o)ed fro# the
i##ediate area before operations.
Operating Near Electric Power Lines :5ee 0igure 1;. .ny o)erhead wire
shall be considered to be an energi1ed line unless and until the owner of the
line or the electrical utility authorities indicate that it is not an energi1ed line.
"o not rely on the co)erings of wires for protection. /rane acti)ities shall be
conducted so that no part of the crane3 load line or load beco#es a conducti)e
path. /ranes shall not be used to perfor# any lifting operations under power
lines if any co#bination of boo#3 load3 load line3 or #achine co#ponent has
the capability of entering the prohibited 1one or if the re9uire#ents of Crane
Operations Within the Prohibited Zone and the Power Lines are
Energized ha)e not been #et. /ranes should not be used to handle loads o)er
power lines. The following four conditions #ust be considered when operating
a #obile crane near electric power lines:
8ower lines de-energi1ed and grounded as in Crane Operation Near
De-energized and Grounded Electric Power Lines.
8ower lines energi1ed3 crane operating less than the erectedOfully
e$tended boo# length away as in Power Lines Energized, Crane
Operating Within the Erected/Fully Extended Boom Length of the
Prohibited Zone.
61
8ower lines energi1ed3 crane within prohibited 1one as in paragraph
Crane Operations Within the Prohibited Zone and the Power
Lines are Energized.
/rane in transit3 no boo# and load lowered as in Crane in Transit
With No Boom and Load Lowered.
Required Notification Before Work. . #ini#u# of !* hours before
co##ence#ent of operations near electric power lines3 notify the electrical
utility for an onsite #eeting to establish conditions to safely co#plete the
operations. 8rior to the beginning the work acti)ity3 notify electrical utilities in
person or by phone3 the day the work acti)ity will take place to re-establish the
location3 e9uip#ent and working conditions.
Crane Operation Near De-energized and Grounded Electric Power Lines.
This describes the preferred condition under which the operation can be
perfor#ed safely. The ha1ard of injury or death due to electrocution has been
re#o)ed. The following steps shall be taken to ensure that de-energi1ation of
the power lines has occurred:
The power co#pany or owner of the power lines shall de-energi1e the
lines.
The lines shall be )isibly grounded to a)oid electrical feedback and
appropriately #arked at the job-site location.
0igure 1. Iperating /ranes Eear 6lectrical 8ower ,ines Eot 2ithin a oo#
,ength of 8rohibited Xone. :/rane does not ha)e the capacity to boo# down3
swing or e$tend into the prohibited 1one.;
62
. 9ualified representati)e of the owner of the lines or a designated
representati)e of the electrical utility shall be on site to )erify that the steps
abo)e ha)e been co#pleted and that the lines are not energi1ed.
If cage-type boo# guards3 insulating links3 or other pro$i#ity warning de)ices
are used on cranes3 such de)ices shall not be used as a substitute for
re9uire#ents of Iperating /ranes Eear 6nergi1ed Trans#itters or 6lectric
8ower ,ines. If such de)ices are used3 due to the lethal nature of electrical
ha1ards and to lessen the potential of false security3 the crane operator3 crew3
and load handling personnel shall recei)e instructions and ha)e an
understanding of:
the electrical ha1ard in)ol)ed
operating conditions for the de)ices
li#itations of such de)ices
testing re9uire#ents prescribed by the de)ice #anufacturer.
63
Conclusion
Recommended Daily, when used:
/heck the control #echanis#s for #aladjust#ent that #ay interfere
with proper operation.
/heck safety de)ices and operator aids for proper operation :see
Iperator .ids;.
Inspect hydraulic hoses. Hoses that fle$ in nor#al operation of crane
functions shall be )isually inspected.
6$a#ine crane hooks and latches for defor#ation3 che#ical da#age3
cracks3 and wear.
6$a#ine the hydraulic syste# for proper oil le)el.
Qisually inspect running ropes. . )isual inspection shall consist of
obser)ation of the rope that can reasonably be e$pected to be in use
during the day@s operations. These )isual obser)ations should be
concerned with disco)ering gross da#age3 such as the following3
which #ay be an i##ediate ha1ard:
o rope distortion such as kinking3 crushing3 unstranding3
birdcaging3 #ain strand. displace#ent3 or core protrusion :loss
of rope dia#eter in a short rope length or une)enness of outer
strands should pro)ide e)idence that the rope or ropes #ust be
replaced;.
o general corrosion.
o broken or cut strands.
o nu#ber and distribution of )isible broken wires :see 2ire
7ope3 for further guidance;.
6nsure inspections :wire rope and crane; are current )ia inspection
sticker3 other docu#entation or )erbal confir#ation fro# e9uip#ent
custodian.
8erfor# other inspections as reco##ended by the #anufacturer
Tips on using cranes and hoists
Before moving a load:
A V 6nsure all loose #aterials3 parts3 blocking and packing ha)e been re#o)ed
fro# the load before lifting.
A V 7e#o)e any slack fro# the sling and hoisting ropes before lifting the load.
A V &ake sure that the lifting de)ice seats in the saddle of the hook.
To move loads safely:
A V &o)e crane controls s#oothly. .)oid abrupt3 jerky #o)e#ents of the load.
A V 0ollow signals only fro# one slinger in charge of the lift3 e$cept a stop
signal.
64
A V &ake sure e)eryone is away fro# the load before hoisting.
A V 5ound a bell3 siren or other warning de)ice and start to hoist slowly.
A V 6nsure nothing links or catches on the load while raising it or tra)elling.
A V 6nsure that nothing obstructs the #o)e#ent of a load.
A V Keep the load under control when lowering a load. If the braking syste#
stops working3 the load can
usually be lowered by re)ersing the hoist controller to the first or second point.
Before leaving the crane:
A V 7e#o)e the load hanging on crane hooks.
A V 7aise all hooks to a #id position.
A V 5pot the crane at a designated location.
A V 8lace all controls in the I00 position.
A V Ipen the #ain switch to the I00 position.
Avoid when operating an overhead crane:
A V "o not operate a crane if li#it switches are out of order3 or if cables show
defects.
A V "o not atte#pt lifts beyond the rated load capacity of a crane or slings.
A V "o not lift a load fro# the side. /entre the crane directly o)er the load
before hoisting to a)oid swinging
the load.
A V "o not allow anyone to ride on a load or hooks.
A V "o not lea)e slings dangling fro# the load hook. Ha)e sling hooks placed
on the sling ring when carrying
slings to the load.
A V "o not raise loads higher than necessary to clear objects.
A V "o not pass a load o)er workers.
A V "o not re)erse a #otor until it has co#e to a full stop e$cept to a)oid
accidents
.
65
Visualizing Crane Selection and Operation in Virtual
Environment
Abstract
5electing suitable cranes in a construction project needs careful planning to
#eet se)eral re9uire#ents fro# capacity3
safety and spatial aspects. To pro)ide construction #anagers with )isual
assistance3 we present a #ethod
to design and i#ple#ent ad)anced 3" ani#ation #ethods to )isuali1e crane
selection and construction processes
in 3" )irtual en)iron#ent. This paper discusses this approach including
spatial conflict detection for
e9uip#ent workspace using )irtual crane ani#ation based on forward and
in)erse kine#atics. In addition3 the
)irtual cranes can dyna#ically present their kine#atics action while respecting
the functional constraints for
safety and effecti)eness of operations. . prototype syste# de)eloped in Ca)a
language is used to de#onstrate
the feasibility of the proposed #ethod for reali1ing the proposed #ethod.
Keywords
Qisuali1ation3 construction operations3 si#ulation3 )irtual reality3 crane
selection3 kine#atics ani#ation3 workspace.
66
1. INTRODUCTION
It is esti#ated that one crane upset occurs during e)ery 1-3--- hours of crane
use. .ppro$i#ately 3 percent of upsets result in death3 * percent in lost ti#e3
and 2- percent in da#age to property other than the crane. Eearly *- percent
of these upsets can be attributed to predictable hu#an error when the operator
inad)ertently e$ceeds the crane@s lifting capacity :"a)is and 5utton 2--3;.
2ith the ad)ent of #icro-processing electronics3 load-#easuring syste#s ha)e
been de)eloped to sense the actual load and the boo# angle and length and
warn the operator as rated capacity is approached :"a)is and 5utton 2--3;.
8arallel to this de)elop#ent in e9uip#ent hardware3 de)elop#ent in
si#ulation software is #aking it possible to train crane operators using )irtual
reality :Q7; :5i#log 2--'; and to )isuali1e the results of construction
si#ulation :Ka#at and &artine1 2--1;. 0urther#ore3 #uch research has been
done to study the selection of cranes and si#ulating the working processes
using integer progra##ing and opti#i1ation techni9ues :,in and Haas 1++';
and three-di#ensional graphics :Hornaday et al. 1++3J "harwadkar et al.
1++!;. Ither studies ha)e been de)eloped for crane selection and location
opti#i1ation utili1ing knowledge-based e$pert syste#s :Xhang et al. 1+++;.
.nother issue related to cranes is the selection of the suitable crane for a
specific task. 5electing the wrong type of crane would result in large losses
because of the high cost of renting or purchasing the e9uip#ent. The
following criteria should be considered when selecting a crane :&obile /rane
/ode of 8ractice 2--';: :1; The weights3 di#ensions and lift radii of the
hea)iest and largest loads to be liftedJ :2; The #a$i#u# lift height and radius3
and the weight of the loads to be handled at these pointsJ :3; The nu#ber and
fre9uency of lifts to be #adeJ :!; How long the crane will be re9uired at the
workplaceJ :%; The type of lifting to be done :e.g.3 precise place#ent of loads;J
:'; The type of carrier re9uiredY this depends on ground conditions and
#achine capacity in its )arious operating 9uadrantsJ :(; 2hether loads are to
be walked or carriedJ :*; 2hether loads are to be suspended for lengthy
periods of ti#eJ and :+; The workplace conditions3 including the ground on
which the crane is to be set up3 access roads and ra#ps it #ust tra)el on3 space
for erection3 and any obstacles that #ay i#pede access or operation. 7ecently3
.l-Hussein et al. :2--13 2--%; de)eloped a syste# that can assist in selecting
and locating cranes
on construction sites using the infor#ation of load charts and working range
:0igure 1;. This syste# uses a crane database3 na#ed "-/rane that has the
load charts of different #anufacturers and the key di#ensions of each crane
including its carrier3 #ain boo#3 jibsOe$tensions3 and accessories. The syste#
ensures that the selected crane has the re9uired lift capacity and can fit on site
by satisfying a set of constraints described with detailed e9uations. In addition3
the syste# can check the feasibility of the lifting path by creating a 3"
graphical ani#ation. Howe)er3 the syste# supports a set of predefined
configurations of the site layout focusing on buildings with si#ple shapes as
the #ain type of obstacles. Therefore3 for structures with #ore co#ple$
67
shapes3 such as through truss bridges3 the syste# #ay not be able to
ade9uately represent the spatial constraints.
. #ore specific issue related to crane selection and operation is workspace
planning3 which is particularly i#portant in the case of large projects where
cranes are re9uired. 2orkspace conflicts are one of the i#portant proble#s
that can delay construction acti)ities3 reduce
producti)ity3 or cause accidents that threaten the safety of workers :=uo
2--2;. Tantise)i and .kinci :2--'; discussed the concept of workspaces of
construction tasks that can be used to represent the spaces used by cranes
during a specific task and to detect spatial conflicts. .nother approach to
check spatial conflicts is the si#ulation approach. 5i#ulation can help in
selecting the ade9uate e9uip#ent that satisfies both the re9uire#ents of
construction tasks and the spatial constraints of the site :,aw and Kelton
2---;. Ka#at :2--1; presented a #ethod for de)eloping 3" ani#ation of
construction processes #odelled at typical high le)el of abstraction. Howe)er3
this #ethod analy1es the kine#atics #otions of the cranes without considering
the load capacity. The present paper ai#s to e$tend the pre)ious research on
crane selection and si#ulation while taking ad)antage of the interaction
between the user and the syste# in a Q7 #odel. The paper discusses the
#ethod of establishing an interacti)e syste# for )isuali1ing crane selection
and operation considering the load capacity and the spatial constraints.
68
2. PROPOSED APPROACH
The ad)antage of )isuali1ation is that the user can si#ulate and check the
functional constraints and interferences that #ay happen in reality between the
3" physical ele#ents and )irtual workspaces or a#ong )irtual workspaces. In
#any infrastructure projects3 such as the case study discussed in 5ection %3 a
physical #odel of the project is built to check the usability of different types
of cranes and to check workspace interferences. The following subsections
discuss the #odeling of a crane and its workspace and the general interacti)e
procedure of e9uip#ent selection and workspace analysis. The proposed
approach for )isuali1ing crane selection and operation in )irtual en)iron#ent
:Q6; is part of a #ore co#prehensi)e research project undertaken by the
authors and ai#ing to study the spatiote#poral conflicts related to
construction e9uip#ent :Xhang and Ha#ad 2--%;. This paper focuses on
)isuali1ing the interacti)e crane selection and operation while checking
workspace conflicts and functional constraints within a Q6 of the construction
site.
2.1 Crane modelling and animation
In order to build a general #odel for a crane that can be used in interacti)e Q7
si#ulation3 an abstract crane #odel should be created to represent the different
co#ponents of the crane and their topological relationships. 0urther#ore3
kine#atics ani#ation is essential for producing the interaction needed to
operate a crane in the Q6. 0igure 2 :"a)is and 5utton 2--3; shows an
e$a#ple of a hydraulic crane that has four degrees of freedo# :"o0; for the
#o)e#ents of the boo# and hook.
. partial abstract #odel of the crane including its carrier3 boo#3 jib3 hook3
counterweight3 etc. 6ach of these co#ponents has a graphical representation
that can be created in a separate file. In order to reali1e crane@s kine#atics
ani#ation3 the /yclic /oordinate "escent ://"; #ethod is used :2ang and
/hen 1++1;. 0or e$a#ple3 the initial and final positions of the lift can be used
to calculate the in)erse kine#atics transfor#ations to be applied on the crane
#odel using the //" #ethod. The proposed syste# has the following
functionalities:
:1; ased on the infor#ation of the abstract #odel in the database3 the
syste# can generate instances of different kinds of cranes co#bining
the graphical representations of their co#ponents. . transfor#ation
#atri$ is used to specify the relati)e location of each co#ponent with
respect to its parent. 0or e$a#ple3 the first part of the boo# is located
relati)e to the carrier of the crane. .fter generating the crane #odel3
the prototype syste# applies the suitable transfor#ation :scaling3
rotation3 and translation; on the crane so that it is correctly located at
the initial position in the Q7 #odel. The parentchild relationships
between the co#ponents guarantee the consistency of the relati)e
69
positions of the co#ponents when the user si#ulates the operation of
the crane. 0or e$a#ple3 when the user starts e$tending the length of the
boo# fro# its initial co#pact length3 a translation is applied on the
second part of the boo# with a step of unit length up to the total length
of the second part. Then3 the sa#e transfor#ation is applied on the
third part of the boo#3 and so on3 until the boo# reaches its full length.
:2; In addition to following the kine#atics relationships3 the si#ulated
operation of a crane should respect the constraints i#posed by the
working ranges and load charts. 5e)eral rules are de)eloped to
represent these constraints which are stored in the database. The
working range shows the #ini#u# and #a$i#u# boo# angle
according to the length of the boo# and the counterweight. ,oad charts
gi)e the lifting capacity based on the boo# length3 boo# angel and the
counterweight.
:3; 0urther#ore3 geo#etric attributes :e.g.3 transfor#ations3 nor#al
)ectors; of the physical objects :e.g.3 structural ele#ents; are co#puted
based on infor#ation e$tracted directly fro# the scene graph. This
infor#ation is used to locate the crane relati)e to a physical object. The
nor#al )ectors of the surfaces of the objects are used to represent the
orientation of the crane3 and offset distances along those )ectors are
used to define its relati)e location
:!; .fter interacti)ely selecting a crane fro# the databaseand
positioning it in the Q6 at a suitable location3 the user of the syste# can
specify the lift weight before operating the crane to si#ulate the lifting task.
The syste# can dyna#ically detect the changes of the boo# length and angle
and check whether the #anoeu)ring operation is allowed by 9uerying the
database.
:%; The syste# continuously checks and pre)ents any collision of crane
with other objects in Q6
2.2 Workspace modeling
5i#ulation of crane operation needs considerable effort. In sa#e cases3 it #ay
be enough to generate a si#plified #odel of the crane workspace without the
details of the kine#atics of the crane co#ponents. 0or specific acti)ity of
construction3 the workspace of a crane can be defined to check the possible
conflicts between e9uip#ent workspaces and ensure the safety on site. To
represent workspaces in the 3" #odel3 infor#ation about the workspaces
should be retrie)ed fro# the database based on a specific period of ti#e. .ll
the corresponding acti)ities are retrie)ed3 and the infor#ation about the
related physical objects :structural ele#ents3 e9uip#ent3 etc.; are found and
used to initiali1e the attributes of the workspaces3 such as the start ti#e and the
duration of a workspace. 0igures % :a; and :b; show the workspace of a crane3
which can be generated based on the para#eters obtained fro# the database
and input fro# the user. 2orkspaces are located in the Q6 following the sa#e
#ethod e$plained in step :3; in section 2.1. .fter all the workspaces are
created based on the abo)e infor#ation3 conflict detection is applied on pairs
70
of workspaces :or a workspace and a physical object;3 which ha)e te#poral
o)erlap. If a conflict e$ists3 a conflict
shape is created3 its attributes are calculated3 and the conflict infor#ation is
added to the database for future analysis of the conflict :Xhang et al. 2--%;.
2.3 Procedure of visualizing crane selection and operation and
workspace analysis
This section identifies the #ain steps needed in a co#puteri1ed syste# for
)isuali1ing crane slection3 operation and the workspace generation and
analysis. The syste# will integrate infor#ation fro#3 and add infor#ation to3
the following databases and #odels :0igure
';:
:1; .cti)ity database: This database includes infor#ation about all the
acti)ities in the construction project3 such as the start and finish ti#es
of each acti)ity3 the target physical co#ponents and their attributes3
and the types of e9uip#ent re9uired in that acti)ity. 0or e$a#ple3 in
the project of the replace#ent of a bridge deck that is discussed in the
case study3 a typical acti)ity is the replace#ent of an old section of the
deck with a pre-fabricated panel. In this e$a#ple3 each acti)ity will
include the start and finish ti#es3 the I" nu#ber of the target section3
and the re9uired e9uip#ent such as cranes3 trucks3 etc.
:2; 69uip#ent databases: 69uip#ent #anufacturers and large
construction co#panies usually ha)e databases of different e9uip#ent
used in their work. These databases include the specifications about the
different #odels of a certain type of e9uip#ent. "-/rane is a good
e$a#ple of such databases :.l-Hussein 2--1;.
:3; 2orkspace and conflict database: This database has the sche#ata
representing the attributes of workspaces and spatio-te#poral conflicts.
2orkspaces are represented by co#posite shapes3 and each basic shape
is described by a nu#ber of para#eters. /onflict infor#ation is
calculated using a conflict detection algorith# :2att 2--3;. This
infor#ation includes reference to the conflicting workspaces and the
duration for which the conflict e$ists in addition to the attributes of the
intersection shape of the workspaces3 such as its )olu#e. This database
is specific for each project and can be used by the construction project
#anager for resol)ing the conflicts.
:!; 3" #odel of the site: This #odel integrates the digital terrain
#odel of the construction site and the 3" /." #odels of the
surrounding structures. In addition3 3" shapes representing the
workspaces will be generated and added to this 3" #odel as e$plained
below. These shapes will be used to )isuali1e and detect conflicts
between the 3" ele#ents representing the structures and the
workspaces3 or a#ong the workspaces the#sel)es3 using the conflict
detection algorith#. The 3" #odel of the e9uip#ent based on /."
drawings is also added to the 3" Q6.
71
72
4sing the abo)e databases and the 3" Q63 the following procedure can be
applied:
:1; The user starts by selecting the #ain acti)ity to be considered in
the crane selection3 operation and the workspace analysis.
:2; The syste# retrie)es the infor#ation about this acti)ity and all
other o)erlapping acti)ities fro# the acti)ity database. The
infor#ation includes the related objects and the re9uired e9uip#ent
types.
:3; Then3 feasible e9uip#ent are selected for each re9uired type fro#
the corresponding e9uip#ent database. It should be noted that
selecting the opti#al e9uip#ent is beyond the scope of this
research.
:!; The ne$t step is to retrie)e the basic e9uip#ent para#eters
necessary to define their workspaces.
:%; Ither para#eters that are necessary for creating workspaces and
that are related to the specific site layout are input #anually using
the user interface of the syste#. In addition3 the relati)e location of
e9uip#ent on site can be defined with respect to the reference
object that was retrie)ed fro# the acti)ity database in step 23 such
as the section of the bridge deck to be replaced. The para#eters
include the orientations and the offset distances between the
workspace and the object. 0urther#ore3 the user can input the load
weight to si#ulate the crane operation in the 3" en)iron#ent.
:'; In this step3 workspaces are generated using the para#eters
introduced in steps ! and %. To locate a workspace in the 3" #odel3
the absolute location of the reference object is retrie)ed and co#bined
with the relati)e location of the workspace to generate the absolute
location of the workspace. &eanwhile3 the 3" #odel of the crane is
also generated on the sa#e location inside the workspace. The user can
use the keyboard or joystick to control the operation of the crane.
3. IMPLEMENTATION
To de#onstrate the feasibility and usefulness of the proposed #ethod3 a
prototype syste# has been de)eloped and discussed in detail in this section.
The prototype syste# is built using Ca)a language integrating 3" #odels of
cranes and structures3 object-relational database3 and so#e constraints of crane
load charts and work ranges. The 3" #odels are created using Ca)a3"3 which
is an .8I for de)eloping portable applications and applets that can run on
#ultiple platfor#s :2alesh and =ehringer 2--1;. The database is designed
with &icrosoft .ccess Z8 and is accessed using Ca)a "atabase /onnecti)ity
:C"/;. The te#poral infor#ation associated with each acti)ity and related
objects are also stored in the database. The na#es3 types3 di#ensions3
locations3 properties3 and the start and end dates of the construction or
73
#aintenance acti)ities of each #e#ber are defined in the corresponding
tables. The data can be retrie)ed and updated using 5tructured [uery
,anguage :5[,;. 3"5 loader and Ca)a .d)anced I#aging :C.I; are used to
i#ple#ent the 3" #odels and te$ture #apping. Infor#ation about the
a)ailable co#ponent of the selected crane is instantly retrie)ed fro# the
database and listed. Ince a co#ponent is selected3 the related infor#ation is
auto#atically retrie)ed fro# the database and added to the 3" #odel of the
crane in the Q6. 0igure ( shows an e$a#ple of dyna#ically changing the hook
of a crane.
The user can operate the )irtual crane to gain a realti#e e$perience and test
the loading capacity of the crane under functional constraints and the li#its of
the workspace. ased on the functional constraints3 the syste# dyna#ically
calculates and displays the current angle and length of boo#3 and whether the
current action is safe or not as shown in 0igure *. In 0igure *:a;3 the syste#
checks the current status and shows a warning #essage when the current angle
and length of the boo# do not #eet the capacity re9uire#ent. The user can
interacti)ely operate the crane to find the work range for the defined capacity
as shown in 0igure *:b;.
74
5. CASE STUDY
The re-decking project of Cac9ues /artier ridge in &ontreal is used to
e)aluate the prototype syste#. The deck of this bridge was replaced in 2--1-
2--2. The new deck is constructed of precast3 prestressed and post-tensioned
panels #ade of high perfor#ance concrete. The case study focuses on the two
acti)ities of re#o)ing e$isting deck sections and installing new panels on the
#ain span of the bridge. The e$isting deck was re#o)ed by saw-cutting the
deck into sections si#ilar in di#ensions to the new panels. 6ach e$isting deck
section was re#o)ed by two telescopic cranes and a new panel was installed
using the sa#e cranes. 0igure + shows a sche#atic representation of the
worksite layout during the deck replace#ent. 0igure 1- shows the 3" crane
#odels and their workspaces on the bridge using our prototype syste#. The
user can operate the cranes to e)aluate and test the spatial conflicts of
workspaces. ecause of the low clearance below the cross-fra#es of the
through trusses3 the operation of the crane is difficult. oth conflicts a#ong
workspaces and between workspaces and physical ele#ents are detected.
75
6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
The paper presented a new #ethod to select and operate cranes in )irtual
reality en)iron#ent. The #ethod enables engineers to )isuali1e crane selection
and operation3 si#ulate construction processes3 and generate workspaces
based on functional and spatial constraints on site. The proposed #ethod
enhances the safety of crane operation by e)aluating possible collisions and
capacity constraints in a )irtual en)iron#ent. 0uture de)elop#ent will include
the following aspects: :1; &odelling the deflection responses of a crane under
the lift loadJ and :2; 6$tending the #ethod used in this research for crane
selection and operation to other construction e9uip#ent.
76
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Ziangyang Tan and Hong 8ang fro# /oncordia
4ni)ersity for their contribution in de)eloping the 3" #odels of cranes and
\unke Xhang for organi1ing engineering constraints.
77
78
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