Study of Supercritical Boilers

Chapter 1
Introduction
Advancements in cleaner, more efficient methods of power generation are a continuous focus of the industrialized nations of the world. Coal is an abundant fuel source, but its combustion characteristics create challenges that must be addressed. Utilizing enhanced supercritical steam parameters is one way to meet these challenges. Supercritical technology was first developed in the U.S. in the 19 !s, but the early units e"perienced reliability and operational fle"ibility issue. #he technology was introduced in $apan in the 19%!s, and is now adopted for all large capacity boilers for power generation. &ver 11! supercritical units are in operation in $apan, and the earliest units installed have been in operation for more than '! years.

(igure 1.1

(igures 1.)

&n*going research and development has resulted in improved reliability, fle"ibility for fuels and wider load range operation, by utilizing sliding pressure operation and computer control technology for load following. +ower producers in countries throughout Asia and &ceania, including ,orea, #aiwan, China, Australia and -ndia. have embraced supercritical technology such that it is fast becoming the worldwide standard for large capacity boilers. &nce*through boiler technology, which

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originated in /urope, has evolved into the most effective application for supercritical steam conditions. 0ith the need to e"pand or replace generation with lower cost, base load power, firms are now planning to add new coal*fired capacity. #his will enable us to reap the benefits of the technology developments that have been ongoing in $apan and 1ermany. #he 2an3in cycle efficiency of a pulverized coal fired steam plant can be increased in small steps to beyond ' 4 using supercritical steam parameters as shown in (igure 1.1 and 1.). 1.1 The Once-Through Boiler 0ith supercritical pressure there is not only a need to increase the wall thic3ness of the pressure components but there is also a need to adopt a type of boiler which is different to the type normally used for sub critical pressures. #his need is related to the type of technology that can be used in the 5evaporation5 circuit of the boiler. -t is this need for a different boiler technology which is the critical re6uirement in the adoption of supercritical pressure. (igure 1.7 shows the enthalpy and pressure of the fluid for both a high sub critical pressure cycle and a supercritical pressure cycle.

(igure 1.78 +ressure 9 enthalpy diagram

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At supercritical pressures, unli3e at sub critical pressures, there is no co* e"istence of the two phases, water and steam. #herefore the standard circulation system, which relies on the density difference between steam and water to drive the circulation for cooling the furnace wall tubes, and to separate the steam from the water to enable superheating to ta3e place in the super heater tubes, is no longer suitable. -nstead a once*through type of system must be used. /nsuring ade6uate cooling of the furnace walls is one of the more onerous re6uirements in boiler design. :ecause of the high heat flu"es on the furnace walls, cooling by water ;rather than steam< is re6uired and a certain minimum velocity in the tubes must be achieved. -n the once*through boiler the fluid flow available to cool the furnace wall tubes is only a fraction of the 6uantity in a circulation type of boiler. -n high pressure sub critical natural circulation boiler the 6uantity of water recirculated is in the range of five times the 6uantity of feed water flow. (or assisted circulation boilers the ratios vary between 1. and '. (or a once*through boiler the flow 6uantity is limited to only the feed water flow, #herefore in a once*through boiler there is insufficient flow of water to ade6uately cool the number of tubes that are re6uired to form the furnace wall enclosure when using vertical tube arrangements. #his is even more so at part load operation where the feed water flow is proportionately lower relative to the heat flu". =owever the USA manufacturers developed a circuitry for their supercritical boilers which enabled the furnace wall to be constructed of membrane panels using vertical tubes. #his necessitated the maintenance of supercritical pressure in the wall tubes at all times in order to prevent the formation of steam with a conse6uent need to incorporate a battery of throttle valve. at the outlet of the wall tubes for start*up purposes. #his design was relatively infle"ible. -n addition, unli3e the recirculation boiler where the tubes always contain some water and therefore operate at close to saturation temperature, in a once*though boiler there will be differential fluid temperatures between tubes due to differential heat absorption rate between tubes. #hermal stresses will e"ist between tubes in a membrane panel furnace wall but these must be 3ept to a minimum in order minimize the ris3 of fatigue. A supercritical pressures temperature differential are li3ely to be higher as there is no par of the heating process in which a constant temperature e"ists

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for change in fluid enthalpy. A more recent development is a vertical tube arrangement using internal rifling to enhance heat transfer.

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Chapter 2
History
&nce through boilers has long been the vision of boiler design engineers. -n the United States, patents for once through boiler concepts date from as early as 1>)'. #hese early inventors were undoubtedly motivated by the desire to improve the product safety because of the notoriety of pressure vessel failures associated with the early fire tube and water tube boilers. 0hile advances in the boiler industry in the late 1>!!s such as the developments by #he :abcoc3 9 0ilco" Company ;founded in 1>%?< significantly improved product safety, interest continued in the development of once through boilers both as a way to eliminate the need for the steam drum and with the hope that the design would better cope with impurities contained in the water. : 90@s research in once through boilers dates from 191% when boiler research was begun at the company@s :ayonne, Aew $ersey Baboratory. -n 3eeping with the technology of the time, this early research unit was operated at a pressure of ' C+a. #he first significant commercial application of once through boilers was made by Car3 :enson, a Czechoslova3ian inventor, when he in 19)7 provided ' tonDhr unit for /nglish /lectric Co., Btd. at 2ugby, /ngland. #his unit was designed to operate at critical pressure with the belief that operating at this pressure, where there is not density difference between steam and water, would avoid boiler tube overheating and solids deposition. Car3 :enson continued his development wor3 which included the installation in 197! of a 117 tonDhr unit in :elgium. Bi3e the unit for /nglish /lectric, this unit was intended to operate at critical pressure. #he hoped elimination of problems by operating at critical pressure, however, was not fulfilled and it was necessary to reduce the boiler operating pressure to overcome problems with tube failures. -n this case, the boiler inventor@s vision outreached the technology available at this time for both tube materials and water chemistry control. #hese early units were successful in operation and served as the foundation for the boiler development wor3 that set the direction for /uropean boiler development. Car3 :enson@s concepts were ultimately ac6uired by Siemens and it is from these concepts that the :enson :oiler #echnology now licensed worldwide by
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Siemens was developed. :90 also continued with their e"perimental wor3 on once through boilers in the 19)!s as boiler and power plant engineers envisioned the efficiency gains that could be achieved by the use of ultra supercritical pressure cycles. :90 in 19)> began e"perimental wor3 at its research center in a test facility capable of operation at 7'. C+a and )!C. #his test facility was used to e"amine thermal*hydraulic and heat transfer effects in the pressure range from 1! C+a to the ma"imum operating pressure of the unit. #he test rig was then transferred to +urdue University where research continued in collaboration with :90. Cuch of this wor3 was reported in #echnical +apers in the early 197!s by authors such as ,err and +otter. #hrough the 197!s and 19'!s power plant operating conditions were limited to the sub critical regime because of limitations of metallurgy and water chemistry control technology. -n /urope, boiler technology followed the once through philosophy. #his at least in part was driven by material availability constraints and too3 advantage of the fact that the once through boiler generally used smaller diameter and thinner walled tubes then did the natural circulation boiler. -n addition, the once through boiler eliminated the need for thic3 steel plate for the steam drum. -n the United States where material was more readily available, the technology continued to rely on the natural circulation boiler design. -n both /urope and the United States, the steam cycles used had similar steam conditions resulting in similar power generation efficiencies. 2.1 Historical issues of Supercritical units Operation and Maintenance issues #he maEor issues that have caused operation and maintenance difficulties in these e"isting units have been due to constant pressure operation, slagging problems resulting from inade6uate furnace size, and furnace tube failures due to inappropriate flow circuits in the early stages. #he original supercritical units were designed for constant pressure operation, i.e. the fluid conditions in the boiler remain at a constant pressure across the entire load range including start*up. (or start*up, constant pressure operation boilers re6uire a start*up bypass system to maintain minimum flow in the furnace at the fluid pressure of 7 !! psig.

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Issues experienced in older supercritical units /rosion of start*up valves Bong start*up times

Causes

Countermeasures (As applied in new supercritical units) Sliding pressure operation, simplified start*up system, and low load recirculation system Sliding pressure operation, simplified start*up system, and low load recirculation system. Sliding pressure operation.

Bow ramp rates

=igh minimum stable operating load Slagging

=igh differential pressure due to constant pressure operation and complicated start*up system Complicated start*up system and operation ;ramping operation re6uired, difficulty /stablishing metal matching condition, etc.< #urbine thermal stresses caused temperature change in =+ turbine during load changing ;due to constant pressure operation< :ypass operation 9 pressure ramp*up operation re6uired Undersized furnace and inade6uate coverage by soot blower system Cetal temperature rise due to inner scale deposit and fire side wastage -nappropriate water chemistry =igh air lea3age due to +ressurized furnace. 2= spray inEection re6uired due to complications of 2= steam temperature control in the double reheat cycle configuration. All the above

Circumferential crac3ing of water wall tubes (re6uent acid cleaning Bower efficiency than e"pected

Application of low load recirculation system Fesign of ade6uate plane area heat release rate and furnace height, without division walls. +rovision of ade6uate system of soot blowing devices andDor water blowers. &"ygenated water treatment ;&0#<. +rotective surface in combustion zone of furnace for high sulfur coal, e.g. thermal spray or weld overlay. Application of &0# #ight seal construction. Single reheat system with high steam temp. and temperature control by parallel damper gas biasing.

Bow availability

All the above

#able ).18 Summary of troubles e"perienced in the older supercritical units and the design features now available as countermeasures. #his system configuration is complicated, and it re6uires pressure ramp*up operation to full pressure when the operation mode is switched over to once*through. #his results in longer start*up time and the plant minimum load is higher than that for the sliding pressure units. #he start*up valves have to resist a large pressure difference during the bypass operation, which leads to faster erosion and hence more fre6uent valve maintenance. -n addition, the ramp rate is restricted on account of temperature

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change rate in =+ turbine during load change coming from constant pressure operation.

Chapter 3
Types of Supercritical Boilers
-n order to improve coal*fired power plant efficiency leading to a proportional reduction in coal consumption and carbon dio"ide emissions ;(igure 7.1<, it is widely accepted that the domestic power industry must move from sub critical to supercritical steam cycles. #he supercritical design not only improves efficiency by increasing the wor3ing fluid pressure but it allows superheating of the steam to higher temperatures which provides significant further efficiency improvement. (or many years the most popular boiler design has been the sub critical drum boiler. #his technology is low cost and well proven but does not have the potential for efficiency improvement inherent in supercritical cycles.

(igure 7.18 /ffect of plant efficiency on carbon dio"ide emissions #wo types of supercritical boiler designs are currently in use. #hey are8 1. ). #hose that operate with a constant pressure in the furnace tubes #hose that vary pressure with load.

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#he latter is the popular design for supercritical boilers today because it is not only more efficient at lower loads, but in combination with a circulation pump, it can also be cycled on and off much more rapidly. #hese features permit more fle"ibility to effectively follow system demand. #he constant pressure furnace has been used primarily in the U.S. while the variable pressure furnace design has been dominant in /urope ;see (igure 7.)<. #he constant pressure furnace utilizes tubes that are vertically oriented while the variable pressure furnace design wraps the tubes around the furnace in a spiral fashion as shown in the figure given below.

(igure 7.)8 Constant pressure 9 variable pressure furnace :oilers with constant pressure furnaces can accommodate variable pressure operation by utilizing a division valve between the furnaces and superheater to control pressure to the turbine. -n a rectangular furnace, the heat flu" imposed upon the furnace walls is not evenly distributed as shown in (igure 7.7 #o accommodate the differences in heat flu" around the periphery of the furnace and the upsets inherent in the combustion process, sufficient fluid flow must be provided to each tube to maintain tube temperatures within acceptable limits over the load range.

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(igure 7.78 Gertical 9spiral type water wall #o provide sufficient flow per tube, constant pressure furnaces, such as : 9 0@s Universal +ressure ;U+< design, employ vertically oriented tubes appropriately sized and arranged in multiple passes in the lower furnace where the burners are located and the heat input is high. :y passing the flow twice through the lower furnace periphery ;two passes<, the mass flow per tube can be 3ept high enough to ensure sufficient cooling. -n addition, the fluid is mi"ed between passes to reduce the upset fluid temperature. #he spiral design, on the other hand, utilizes fewer tubes to obtain the desired flow per tube by wrapping them around the furnace to create the enclosure.

(igure 7.'8 Schematic furnace arrangements for the different mass flu" design #his also has the benefit of passing all tubes through all heat zones to maintain a nearly even fluid temperature at the outlet of the lower portion of the furnace (igure 7.' shows schematic furnace arrangements for the high mass flow constant pressure vertical tube and spiral variable pressure designs as well as the new advanced low mass flow vertical tube variable pressure design.

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:ecause the tubes are HwrappedI around the furnace to form the enclosure, fabrication and erection are considerably more complicated and costly. (igure 7. shows the comple"ity of the tube arrangement forming the spiral and the additional vertical bars re6uired for wall support.

Spiral lower furnace

(igure 7. 8 #ube arrangement forming the spiral and the additional vertical bars re6uired for wall support :ecause of its relative simplicity and ability to self*support, the vertical tube furnace design is significantly less costly and easier to fabricate and construct than the spiral variable pressure furnace. &ver absorption of tubes receiving more heat than the average is an inherent capability of a natural circulation drum boiler because the tube mass flow increases with more heat input to redistribute the water flow from tubes with less heat input. A high mass flow once*through boiler will have a forced circulation Characteristic wherein the flow decreases with increasing heat input.

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(igure 7.%8 Gariation from average for individual tube As shown in (igure 7.%, with natural circulation tubes receiving more heat than the average tube naturally draw more flow, which increases cooling and protects the tube from overheating. =owever, in a once*through forced circulation furnace with high mass flow the tube receiving more heat than the average tube receives less flow, which can result in further increasing temperatures, potentially leading to failures. #hus the mass flow per tube must start very high to ensure ade6uate remaining flow after the heat upsets. Fesigns with medium mass flow, though attempted in once through forced circulation boilers with moderate success, e"hibit worse conse6uences than the high mass flow designs. 0hen the mass flow is degraded during load reduction in a tube receiving more heat than the average, the remaining flow will have fewer margins to provide acceptable cooling. Cedium mass flow designs can e"perience heat upsets andDor flow e"cursions that result in flows in individual tubes that are lower than the low mass flow design. A design with low mass flow, in the same range as used in sub critical drum type boilers, will be capable of natural circulation which will increase rather than decrease the mass flow in tubes receiving more heat than the average thus protecting the tube from overheating. #he ideal furnace design for a once*through boiler would have vertical tubes and capability to operate with variable pressure operation over the load range while e"hibiting natural circulation characteristics, thus protecting the tubes from overheating. #hese characteristics should be achieved with as low a flow per tube as practical to obtain a low friction resistance to promote natural Circulation, minimize furnace pressure loss, and reduce the pump +ower re6uired. Such a design represents a significant advancement for tube protection in once*through boiler circulation technology. Achievement of sufficient natural circulation characteristic in a once* through furnace to maintain safe temperatures in all tubes and allow for variations of heat input, while operating with variable pressure and minimal average mass flow,

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

has not been ade6uately demonstrated to produce the desired effects. Until recently, the components and design criteria to provide a successful furnace design which permits a low mass flow per tube, operates with variable pressure over the load range, is capable of on off cycling, and has all of the structural, fabrication and installation advantages of a furnace with vertically oriented tubes has not been available.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

Chapter
Boiler !escription
.1 Boiler !escription "#ater-Stea$ circuit% #he supercritical boilers generate steam above critical pressure and at high temperature. #he design of water wall tubes and the steam circuit play a vital role in its steam generating capacity and thus calls for superior metallurgy. #he boiler water wall tubes are made either spiral or vertical in construction. #he super heater construction is almost same as the natural circulation boiler i.e. primary S= then an attemperator and followed by final super heater. #he supercritical boilers have no drum. they mainly employ a separator to separate the water particles from steam during the startup conditions. #he collected water is drained to a water collecting tan3 and this is recirculated to the main feed water supply chain with the help of a boiler circulating pump.

(igure '.18 :oiler water, steam circuit

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

:oiler circulation pump is used mainly during startup and at low load operation for establishing the circulation and the inEecting the collected water in the water collecting tan3 to economizer inlet. 2efer figure '.1 the steam generator design is one of the indoor type with a two pass boiler configuration which includes coal firing, once through, supercritical steam pressure single reheat, dry bottom and balanced draft. #he boiler is capable of firing with pulverized coal producing continuous stem flow not less than re6uired for a Galve wide open rating of the turbine generator with throttle steam conditions of )'% 3gDs6.cm, %% deg cel, and reheat at %%deg cel. A low load recirculation is incorporated which includes separator, drain vessels and circulating pumps. #he furnace water walls and super heater operate with variable pressure without boiler throttle valves :oiler Au"iliaries ) " !4 capacity a"ial forced draft fans ) " !4 capacity a"ial induced draft fans ) " !4 capacity Centrifugal primary air fans ) " !4 capacity lEungstrom trisector A+= ) " !4 capacity SCA+= % coal Silos, %gravimetric coal feeders and % pulverizes

.2 &o' (O) Burners A&" emissions have been lin3ed to acid rain, photochemical smog, and ozone destruction. #his has led to establishment of regulatory measures and to development of technologies to reduce A&" emissions from both e"isting and new power plants. &ne of the techni6ues are used to reduce A&" emissions involves modification of the combustion process ;staged combustion< and includes low*A&" burners ;with and without overfire air J&(AK< and gas or coal reburning. this methodology is described in this section. &o' (O) Burner Technology Bow*A&" burners ;BA:s< are designed to LstageL combustion ;(igure '.)<. -n this technology, a fuel*rich combustion zone is created by forcing additional air to the

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

outside of the firing zone ;au"iliary air< and by delaying the combustion of coal. 2eduction of 7! to percent of A&" can be achieved with low*A&" burners. Advanced stage combustion technologies use overfire air and gas or coal reburning to achieve even greater reductions of A&".

(igure '.)8 Combustion A&" Control &ptions #he figure shows the combustion A&" controls. #he left side of the figure shows technologies used in the burner low*A&" burners, overfire air, and reburning. !esign of a &o'-(O) Burner

(igure'.78 Staged Combustion in a Bow*A&" :urner Staging #he figure shows the introduction of au"iliary air outside the coal nozzle ;right side of figure'.7<, which creates an o"ygen*deficient region and delayed combustion in the primary and secondary combustion zones ;center<. &verfire air
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Study of Supercritical Boilers

;left< completes the combustion. Conventionally 3nown as &ver (ired Air ;&(A< techni6ue, Air Staging involves diversion of 1!4 to ) 4 of combustion air from main burners to inEection nozzles located in the upper part of the furnace, in order to produce sub*stoichiometric conditions in the primary ;fuel inEection< zone and conse6uently to depress A&" formation.&(A systems introduce 1! to ) percent of the combustion air above the main combustion zone, creating a fuel*rich combustion. BA: plus &(A can reduce A&" by '! to %! percent. *e+urning -n reburning, the rate of flow of coal into the main combustion zone is reduced by up to )! percent. #his technology has been developed to ma"imize the Lin*furnaceL A&" emission reduction and re6uires part of the total fuel heat input to be inEected into the furnace in a region above the primary ;main burners< flames to create a reducing atmosphere ;re*burn zone<, where hydrocarbon radicals react with A&" to produce elemental nitrogen. #o assist the efficient mi"ing of reburn fuel with the upcoming products of combustion, a proper flue gas flow from economiser outlet is recycled and inEected into the furnace with the reburn fuel. An &(A flow is then inEected above the reburn zone, to secure the complete combustion of unreacted hydrocarbons. Coal reburning can reduce A&" by up to %! to ?! percent. #he A&" reduction potential of these three low*A&" burner systems, as well as the associated capital costs, and re6uired outage for retrofit are summarized in #able '.1. Costs ;USMD30< #echnology 2etrofit Aew :oiler A&" 2eduction 4 BA: BA: N &(A 2eburning *1! 1!*) )!* ! 1*7 7*1! 1!*7! 7!* '!*%! !*?!

#able '.18 Associated capital costs Aote8 BA: O low*A&" burner, &(A O overfire air
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Chapter ,
!esign co$ple)ities
$So%e of t&e design co%ple'ities we &a(e already discussed in c&apter 1 ) 3*

,.1

Si-e of heat e)change surfaces =igher steam temperatures automatically diminish the temperature differences

between the flue gas and steam, with relatively large superheated and reheater heating surfaces as a conse6uence. As higher tube wall temperatures also mean an increased tendency to fouling, corresponding heating surface reserves must be provided. (eed water temperature has a large effect on the size of the heating surfaces in the cooler flue*gas path. Galues of )9!PC to 7!!PC or higher are necessary for high*efficiency plants. As on the one hand the flue*gas temperature downstream of the economizer is set in the design case at roughly '!!PC Q the temperature window for Fe A&" Q and on the other hand the water outlet temperature from the economizer is limited to avoid steaming, the upstream super heaters must absorb more heat with increasing feed water temperature. At higher steam conditions, especially at increasing reheat pressures, the e"haust steam temperatures from the =+ section of the turbine and thus the reheat inlet temperatures also increase. 0hile these temperatures are still appro". 7)!PC at a design main steam temperature of '!PC, they already increase to over 7 !PC in a %!!PC mainstream temperature design and even up to over ')!PC in a ?!!PC design. #his considerably decreases the temperature difference to the flue gas, with the conse6uence of still larger heating Surfaces in the reheaters. Under consideration of a cost*effective heating surface design, feed water temperatures should not /"ceed 7!!PC, and =+ e"haust steam pressures should lie in the range of %! bar. ,.2 .nd of e/aporation #he location of the separator determines the location of the end of the evaporator on startup and at low load in recirculation mode. Usually the separator is configured such that its temperature is slightly superheated at the lowest once*through
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load point. Fesign of the boiler for high steam temperatures and pressures leads to this being already the case in lower areas of the furnace walls instead of as from the outlet first pass or in the boiler roof. #he reason for this is the increasing degree of superheat and correspondingly decreasing fraction of evaporation in the heat input to the =+ section with increasing steam parameters. At a load of '!4, the degree of superheat in a '!PC boiler is appro". )?4, and this increases to 794, for e"ample, in a design for ?!!PC main steam temperature ;figure .1 9 .)<

(igure .18 =eat flow distribution in variable pressure operation As the highly loaded heating surface area must lie upstream of the separators for reasons of evaporator cooling and the separator thus cannot be moved arbitrarily toward the burners, a significantly larger degree of superheat will result at the lowest once*through operating point as in fig .7 ;a, b, c, d<.

(igure .)8 Rones of /vaporation ;at +art Boad<

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(igure .7;a<8 (ull load steam condition ;19! barD 7 PC D 7 PC<

(igure .7;b<8 (ull load steam condition ;) ! barD '!PC D %!PC<

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(igure .7;c<8 (ull load steam condition ;)9! barD%!! PC D%)! PC<

(igure .7;d<8 (ull load steam condition ;7 ! barD?!! PC D?)! PC< (igure .7;a, b, c, d<8 -ncreasing steam conditions lead to different evaporator designs.
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Study of Supercritical Boilers

#his considerably increases the downward step of the steam temperatures on the transition to recirculation mode. -n order to e"tensively prevent this temperature change, the transition from once*through to recirculation mode must be placed at a very low load point, re6uiring recirculation mode only for startup. 0hereas for boilers with spiral wound tubing the minimum load in once through operation is in the range of 7!4 to '!4, an evaporator based on the L:enson Bow Cass (lu"L design with vertical rifled tubes enables loads to below )!4.

(igure .'8 +ressure 9 enthalpy diagram

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

,.3

#ater 'alls #he water walls in boilers for sub critical steam conditions are generally

configured as evaporators. At increasing steam temperatures and pressures, the fraction of evaporator heating surfaces decreases, with the result that parts of the water walls must also be configured as super heaters, i.e. downstream of the separator. -n the highly loaded furnace area, spiral*wound evaporator tubing is usually used with smooth tubes and high mass flu"es Q appro". )!!! Q ) !! 3gDmSs. Since spiral*wound furnace tubing of this type is not self*supporting, it is reinforced with support straps which are welded to the tube wall with support bloc3s. =igh steam parameters also lead to higher material loading in the evaporator. #he previously e"isting designs are no longer suitable, with the result that a detailed stress analysis is re6uired for the design of the evaporator tubing in each case. As a result of the re6uisite large wall thic3nesses, the design of highly loaded heating surface areas is in part no longer determined by the primary stresses due to internal pressure but rather by the secondary stresses due to re strained thermal e"pansion. #he higher evaporator temperatures also result in increasing temperature differences between the tubes and support straps on startup and shutdown. #his in turn leads to longer startup times, especially on cold start. #he success of the low mass flow vertical tube variable pressure design depends on the capability of the tube internal geometry to promote cooling of the tube when e"posed to high heat flu"es. #wo rib designs, single and multi*lead, have been applied in the past. #he single lead design promotes significant turbulence at the wall and is e"cellent in preventing departure from nucleate boiling ;FA:< but it also produces a high pressure drop due to friction and must be produced by machining, which is e"pensive. #he conventional multi*lead ;CB2< tube provides a much lower friction resistance ;and pressure loss< and can be e"truded but does not produce as much turbulence at the wall as the &CB2 tube;&ptimized Culti*Bead 2ibbed<, which is needed to prevent FA: at flows low enough to achieve natural circulation characteristics in a once through boiler. #he primary application of CB2 tubes is to prevent FA: in high heat flu" zones of boilers to reduce the ma"imum average mass

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

flow per tube re6uired for the furnace design. #o provide sufficient cooling at a low mass flow per tube, Siemens*,0U built on previous wor3 by :90 that provided 3nown performance characteristics for internally ribbed tubes to develop their patented optimized internally ribbed tube design. #his tube has displayed natural circulation characteristics and e"cellent cooling at low flow. #hough it can be fabricated using normal e"trusion methods, the rib design is uni6ue in that it employs a greater rib height and a flatter lead angle which creates turbulence and mi"ing near the tube wall to promote cooling ;see (igure . <.

(igure . 8 Fifferent lead ribbed tubes :90 is now adopting this concept to the ne"t step of more complete testing of the tube@s characteristics at full scale in a real boiler furnace. Successful application of the vertical tube variable pressure furnace design will provide all of the operational benefits of the currently popular spiral boiler design while significantly reducing the cost and construction time for the furnace and providing some reduction in pressure drop and an increase in plant efficiency. ,. ./aporator0super heater di/iding point At high steam parameters the water walls can no longer be designed entirely as an evaporator. #he transition from evaporator walls to super heater walls then lies above the furnace. #his transition must be designed so as to minimize the temperature differences between the evaporator and super heater sections of the walls which automatically result on water filling after shutdown, especially on water filling after
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Study of Supercritical Boilers

an emergency shut down. Galues of upto >! , represent no cause for concern. (or higher values such as can occur at very high steam conditions as well as in large furnaces, a fle"ible connection, not necessarily welded gas*tight, should also be ta3en into consideration for this transition. ,., Super heater heating surfaces (or steam temperatures up to appro". !PC, all heating surfaces can be

constructed of ferritic or martensitic materials, while at %!!PC austenitic materials are necessary for the final super heater heating surfaces for both the =+ section of the boiler as well as the reheater. -n addition to the strength parameters, corrosion behavior on the flue*gas and o"idation behavior on the steam sides is especially determinative for material selection. (ig. .%1 Super heater materials for high temperatures, shows a selection of available materials. 0ith regard to strength parameters, construction of super heater heating surfaces for steam temperatures up to % !PC is currently already feasible with austenitic steel materials. #he corrosion resistance of the available materials however reduces the design limits to about %7!PC.

#able .%8 Available Super heater #ube Caterials

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

,.2

Thic3-'alled co$ponents -n the first steam generators with very high steam temperatures, austenitic

materials were used for the hot headers and connecting lines. =owever, the poor thermo elastic behavior Q low thermal conductivity, high thermal e"pansion Q render these materials unsuitable for boilers which are implemented in power plants with a large number of load changes and minimum startup times. #he development of chromium steels such as +91, +9) or /911 has enabled steam temperatures up to %)!PC without the use of austenitic materials for thic3*walled components. Core recent developments such as A(1) and Save 1) could e"tend the limits of implementation at moderate main steam pressures up to % !PC in the near future. 0ith regard to the thic3*walled components, especially for the main steam headers, it proves that the main steam pressures should more li3ely lie below 7!! bars for optimum component utilization.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

Chapter 2
Materials
2.1 Introduction and Bac3ground -mproving the efficiency of pulverized coal ;+C< power plants, by increasing the temperature and pressure of the wor3ing fluid ;steam< has been pursued for many decades. (igure %.1 illustrates the improvements in heat rate that can be achieved by increasing steam temperature and pressure by use of advanced steam conditions ;1<. (or e"ample, using a 7>PCD1>. C+a ;1!!!P(D)%!! psi< steam plant as a base case ,an efficiency increase of nearly %4 is achieved by changing the steam conditions to about 97PCD7! C+a ;11!!P(, '7!! psi<. At % !PC ;1)!!P(< the increase in efficiency is as much as >4. #he desire for increased efficiency led eventually in the late fifties and early si"ties to the introduction of numerous supercritical boilers operating at or above % PC ;1! !P(< and )' C+a ;7'!! psi< steam pressure.

(igure %.18 -mprovements in heat rate ;efficiency< achieved by increasing steam pressure and pressure using single and double reheat cycles

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

2.2

Boiler Materials *e4uire$ents #he 3ey components whose performance is critical for supercritical plants

are high*pressure steam piping, headers, super heater tubing and water wall tubing. All of them have to meet creep strength re6uirements. -n addition, pipes and headers, being heavy section components, are subEect to fatigue induced by thermal stresses. (erritic Dmartensitic steels are preferred because of their lower coefficient of thermal e"pansion and higher thermal conductivity compared to austenitic steels. Cany of the early problems in the SC plants were traceable to the use of austenitic steels which were very prone to thermal fatigue. 2esearch during the last decade has, therefore, focused on developing cost*effective, high*strength ferrite steels that could be used in place of austenitic steels. #his has resulted in ferritic steels capable of operating at metal temperatures up to %)!PC ;11 !P(<, with good weld ability and fracture toughness. Unfortunately, the strongest of these steels which can be used up to metal temperature of %)!PC ;11 !P(< purely from a creep strength point of view are still limited by fireside corrosion to metal temperature of can e"ceed the steam temperature by as much as )>PC ; !P(<. 2.3 Choice of Materials for Headers and Stea$ 5ipes Caterial*property re6uirements for headers and steam pipes are li3ely to be similar, and hence they have been grouped together. Some minor differences e"ist which may affect material selection. #he steam temperature is li3ely to be much more uniform in steam pipes, but subEect to time*dependent and location*dependent fluctuations in headers. =ence, the thermal fatigue* strength re6uirements are greater for headers than for steam pipes. Several candidate ferritic steels have emerged succeeding the +11 and +)) steels, which are capable of operation up to 97PC ;11!!P(<. #hese include =#9, =#91, =CC9C, =CC1) and +91. Alloys =#9 and =#91 are well*established steels with an e"tensive stress*rupture database which e"ceeds 1! h at temperatures in the range !! to %!!PC ;97! to 111!P(< for all product forms. 97PC ;11!!P(<. #his corresponds to a steam temperature of about % PC since S=D2= metal temperature

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

#here is also e"tensive operating e"perience ;U)! years< in 1ermany, :elgium, =olland, south Africa, and Scandinavia for steam temperatures up to '!PC ;1!!!P(< and some limited e"perience on a few small units with steam temperatures from %! to >!PC ;1!'! to 1!? P(<. #his e"perience generally has been satisfactory. Fifficulties have, however, been reported during fabrication and particularly during welding and post*weld heat treatment. #his arises because the relatively high carbon content of the steel ;!.)4< and the correspondingly low CS temperature promote the possibility of austenite retention after welding, high residual stresses, and crac3ing prior to and during stress relief. -t is reported that these problems have been overcome by careful control of preheat treatment and post weld heat treatment bac3ed up by vigorous 6uality control. Fifficulties have also been reported when the material has been given inade6uate solution heat treatment. 2. Choice of Materials for Super heater0*eheater Tu+es #he super heater tubes in the boiler are li3ely to undergo the most severe service conditions and must meet stringent re6uirements with respect to fire*side corrosion, steam side o"idation, creep rupture strength and fabric ability. -n addition, they must be cost*effective. :ased on these issues candidate materials for various steam conditioning have been summarized in #able %.1. #he rationale for these selections is discussed in the following sections. 1. Creep *upture Strength 2. 6ire-side Corrosion 3. Stea$-side o)idation

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Co$ponent

5hase 7 31M5a " ,77 psi% ,2,0,2,0,2,8C "17,7017,7017,78 6%

5hase 1 31M5a " ,77 psi% ,930,930,938C "1177011770117786 %

5hase 1B 31M5a " ,77 psi% 227022702278C "11,7011,7011,78

5hase 2 3 .,M5a ",777 psi% 2,702,702,78C "1277012770127786 % SAG/1)N A(1)N +9), +1)) /911, A(1) A( ?!9 -nconel %1? Cr 7!A A( ?!9D-A?)VV Same as S= Same as +hase !

=eadersDsteam pipes

+)), =CC)S ;+)7< +91, +9), +1)) v #91, 7!'=, 7'?

+91, +9), +1)), /911

+9), +1)) /911, A(1), SAG/1) A( ?!9 Super 7!' = 71! AbA ;=27C< Super 7!'=D-A?)VV Same as S= Same as +hase 1 Same as +hase 1 Same as +hase !

(inishing S= non corrosive Corrosive

#+7'? =(1 Super 7!' =D+* 1))V 71! AbA ;=27C< SS7'?D-A?)VV Same as S= #11, #1), #)) #)7 ;=CC1)< Same as +hase !

71! AbA ;=27C<

(inishing 2= 0ater wall Bower wall Upper wall (or low A&" :oilers N =igh S coal

Same as S= C steel #11, #1), #)) Clad with alloy containing U)!4 Cr or chromized

#able %.18 Candidate Caterials for Advanced Supercritical +lants for Garious Steam Conditions V =igh strength ferritic alloys with 94Cr are suitable for steam piping and headers, but may suffer e"cessive fire side o"idation. 1)Cr Steels may be suitable, but further testing is needed. VV -A?) ;''Cr, bal Ai< weld overlay for corrosion protection N Fevelopmental Alloy 2., Choice of Materials for #ater #alls 2ecent reductions in A&" emissions, mandated by the /nvironmental +rotection Agency in the USA have led to the introduction of deeply staged combustion systems, in which the airDfuel ratio is significantly less than 1, and additional combustion air is added above the burners via over fire air ports. Several boilers in the USA retrofitted with such systems have reported severe corrosion of low alloy steel water walls, with metal losses in the 1*7 mmDyr ;'!*1)! milDyr< range.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

(igure %.)8 Comparison of allowable stresses of ferritic steels for boiler Supercritical units are generally more severely affected than sub critical units and severe corrosion is generally limited to coals with more than 14S. =owever above 14S there is no strict correlation between S and corrosion rate.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

Chapter :
Constant and Sliding-5ressure Options for (e' Supercritical 5lants
#o advance plant efficiencies to '!4 ;==G< and beyond, supercritical steam conditions ;higher than 7,)!> psi< are employed. &peration at these pressures, where there is no phase distinction between li6uid and vapor, re6uires uni6ue steam generator design features, most notably in furnace circuitry and components. 0ithin this category of steam generators, the design is also very much influenced by the intended operating mode8 constant pressure or sliding pressure. :eyond the apparent differences in component and construction design features, the choice of mode has broader implications, for e"ample, on overall furnace sizing differences and materials options. #hese less*discussed differences can have a noticeable impact on cost and can become even more significant as steam conditions are gradually advanced toward ultra*supercritical conditions in pursuit of greater efficiency and reduced emissions. +lant designers should factor these steam generator design implications into their strategic planning and their development of specifications for new plants to arrive at the most cost*effective generation portfolio. :.1 !esigns for Sliding 5ressure -n sliding*pressure operation, because the steam generator operates under both supercritical and sub critical conditions as load is varied, the furnace must be designed to accommodate both single* and two*phase fluid flow. :ecause the two pressure regimes and the wide variation in fluid specific volume ma3e continual forced recirculation rather impractical, it is appropriate to use a once*through design, in which flow rate through the furnace is directly proportional to load. Steam flow rate and velocity through the furnace tubes are critical for cooling the tubes, and with flow proportional to load, low*load operation presents a challenge to proper furnace tube cooling.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

(urther, in sliding*pressure mode at low load, the fluid is sub critical, posing specific challenges to heat transfer and tube cooling. :oth departure from nucleate boiling and steam dry*out carry the potential for elevated tube metal temperatures. #hese conditions are mitigated or avoided, in part, by providing sufficient steam mass flow density at sub critical, once*through, low loads. Fesigning for proper steam cooling effect at low loads produces very high steam mass flow density and pressure drop at full load in a once*through design. #herefore, specifying minimum once*through load should be done with careful consideration of its conse6uences at full load. :elow the minimum design once* through flow rate, recirculation pumps are usually used to protect the furnace. Sufficiently high steam mass flow density at once*through loads is provided by use of a small flow area. :ecause the furnace perimeter has certain minimum limitations due to conventional firing configurations and slag control, the challenge of providing a small flow area to envelop a relatively large furnace enclosure re6uires special plumbing arrangements. :ut because sliding pressure operation involves two* phase fluid over most of the load range, multiple furnace passes with up*down*up flow direction become difficult to manage, ma3ing a single upward flow progression preferable. #he upward flow progression in a single pass is achieved with fewer tubes by laying the wall tubes down at a low inclination angle rather than hanging the tubes vertically. A given transverse dimension of a furnace wall normally covered by nine vertical tubes and membrane fins can be spanned by only three inclined tubes of the same tube and membrane size ;(igure ?.1<. Although the furnace cross*section remains rectangular, this inclined tube arrangement is often called a LspiralL design due to the overall progression of each tube upward and around the furnace. #he tube inclination angle is typically 1! to )! degrees from horizontal, so the tube length is three to five times greater than the vertical distance gained.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

(igure ?.18 Spiral arrangement #he furnace circuit flow area and the tube count can be reduced by inclining the wall tubing at a low angle. Special internally rifled tubing could allow a lower steam mass flow density and the use of vertical tubes, but the range of operating conditions under sliding* pressure operation would ma3e such a system design 6uite challenging. (igure ?.) is an e"ample of a sliding*pressure unit, with a spiral arrangement in the high heat*flu" zone of the lower furnace. Although much e"perience has been gained and many lessons learned from such a furnace wall design, it remains a complicated structure to design, fabricate, erect, and maintain. &nce the tubes rise into a sufficiently low heat*flu" zone, the e"pensive arrangement is terminated and a transition is made to vertical tubes in the upper furnace. #he transition is commonly accomplished by a ring of forgings around the perimeter of the furnace and an e"ternal ring mi"ing header. #he walls composed of inclined tubes are not self*supporting, so an Le"os3eletonL support system is used, consisting of vertical support straps and load transfer by many welded lugs over the wall surfaces.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

(igure ?.)8 Sliding*pressure, once*through furnace construction #he lower walls with inclined tubing are supported by e"ternal support straps. :.2 !esign for Constant 5ressure #wo*phase heat transfer crises are not encountered in furnaces maintained at supercritical pressure, so constant*pressure operation allows greater fle"ibility and the use of a conventional design. :y employing furnace recirculation smoothly over the entire operating range, low load does not dictate furnace design. As a result, a furnace can be designed with Gertical, self*supporting, smooth*bore tubes. A single upward pass with the same simple construction as a conventional drum unit. Ao intermediate mi"ing or e"ternal piping. .

(igure ?.78 Constant +ressure supercritical unit

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

:.3

Beyond 5lu$+ing -n addition to incorporating these constructional differences, a sliding*

pressure furnace ;evaporator system< must be sized to yield a greater outlet enthalpy ;energy content of steam<, so it re6uires a greater heat duty and furnace size. #o illustrate this, (igure ?.' compares the steam generator operating conditions and trends on an enthalpy*pressure steam diagram. #his steam property diagram is used to trace the rising heat content ;enthalpy< of the steam as it flows and loses pressure through the boiler ;the series of circled data mar3ers and dashed lines at right<.

(igure ?.'8 Steam generator operating conditions and trends on an enthalpy*pressure steam diagram Sliding*pressure operation during load reductions moves the furnace operation into the sub critical, two*phase region at loads below ?!4 to ? 4 CC2. #he nearly horizontal dashed lines in (igure ?.' indicate the trend of furnace inlet and outlet conditions over the load range. #o accommodate the two*phase boiling condition of steam, there are specific conditions that must be fulfilled at the minimum once* through load, and so it is sometimes low loadWrather than full loadWthat determines the heat duty and size of the furnace or evaporator system. #hose conditions are8 1. #he economizer size is limited to prevent steaming within it. ). #he furnace size must be sufficient to produce dry steam in once* through mode to prevent introduction of li6uid water into super heaters.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

#hese re6uirements are indicated in (igure ?.' at the 7 4 of CC2 load condition. A furnace sized for a certain minimum once*through load produces the indicated conditions at full load, including the total heating duty ;the arrow on the far right< and the furnace outlet enthalpy and temperature. Accordingly, the selection of minimum once*through load has conse6uences not only on the steam flow area and the full*load pressure drop. it also drives the overall furnace size and operating steam and metal temperatures. -n contrast, constant*pressure units stay in the supercritical, single*phase region and therefore have no such waterside sizing criterion. (igure ?. shows in blue the operating conditions of the constant*pressure, 2iley +ower recirculating unit over the same load range.

(igure ?. 8 &perating conditions of the constant*pressure recirculating unit over the same load range. #he usual gas*side furnace sizing criteria that apply to any operating pressure unitWsuch as firing arrangement re6uirements, residence time and burnout, emissions considerations, and e"it gas temperature limits for slagging and fouling controlWwill dictate. Fepending on the particular fuel and fireside conditions, the constant*pressure furnace could be sized as indicated ;the large blue arrow<. :ut unli3e natural*circulation units, the supercritical unit remains fle"ible in its performance, because it does not have a fi"ed evaporator ;furnace< end point. /vaporative and superheat duty can be shifted between furnace and convective surfaces in response to changes in fuel, slagging, or other conditions. #his feature is

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not limited to once*through designs, and the constant*pressure design retains this fle"ibility at all loads. :y comparison, a sliding*pressure unit has less fle"ibility as pressure is reduced and the margin above saturation ;two*phase boiling< decreases. Aearly as important as this size difference, the furnace outlet temperature of the constant*pressure unit can be significantly less than that from the sliding*pressure unit ;due to this enthalpy difference<. (urthermore, the thermodynamics of steam are such that, at the greater outlet enthalpy level re6uired for the sliding*pressure unit, temperature is much more sensitive to differences in enthalpy between furnace tubes. #his increased sensitivity is partly mitigated by the heat absorption e6ualizing effect of the spiral tube arrangement around the sliding*pressure furnace. :. ; <isi+le !ifference A constant*pressure furnace designed according to the universal gas*side criteria results in a furnace outlet steam enthalpy of about 1,! ! :tuDlb ;at ?%!(<. #he e6uivalent sliding*pressure furnace is about )!4 larger in order to yield the re6uired outlet enthalpy of 1,1 ! :tuDlb ;at ?9! to >!!(<. :ecause the larger furnace is effectively accomplishing some of the superheat duty at higher loads, the radiant super heater can be reduced accordingly, but the net cost increase is positive. Additionally, a particular advantage of the recirculating supercritical design is that it does not re6uire intermediate furnace mi"ing. #hat not only reduces associated piping costs but also permits the use of a close*coupled bac3 pass and eliminates the tunnel section that would otherwise be re6uired. #he primary differences in furnace construction and size are estimated to result in '4 to 4 greater overall boiler cost for sliding*pressure designs. (or a % !* C0 unit, this differential amounts to about M% million to M? million, including materials and erection. #his cost differential is due to only the tube circuitry, intimate support, erection, and overall furnace size differences. -t does not include further potential differences in tube materials. tunnel pass elimination. cycling design re6uirements. and steel, building, or foundation differencesWall of which lead to even greater costs for a typical sliding*pressure design.

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:.,

Is It #orth It= Can the additional capital investment in a sliding*pressure plant be recovered

by operating cost advantagesX 0ith uncertainty about long*range load dispatching, the efficiency of new plants at low loads becomes important for considering a plant5s paybac3 of capital and, indeed, for dispatch competition. Cany people have been under the impression that sliding*pressure units offer better efficiency ;lower heat rate< than constant*pressure units at reduced loads. #he e"tent to which this is true depends greatly on the turbine control mode, and so a closer review of heat rate differentials is in order. #hough old, throttle* control turbines at constant pressure indeed suffer in efficiency at part loads. comparative data from turbine manufacturers indicate that modern, nozzle*control turbines at constant pressure have nearly the same efficiency as at sliding pressure across the load range.

(igure ?.%8 #he chart shows a simple )!*year present value of operating cost savings with sliding pressure on % !C0 unit. #his is mainly due to the se6uential use of the turbine admission valves, and at several loads ;the Lvalve best pointsL< the remaining valves are fully open and there is negligible throttling loss before the first turbine stage. Using differential heat rate data from turbine manufacturers, heat rates were evaluated for both constant* and sliding*

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pressure systems, with both throttle and nozzle control. +lant operating costs were evaluated at all loads for each turbine control mode using a detailed economic model including fuel, reagent, and emissions costs. /ven assuming a nightly load reduction to 7 4 to >!4 every night over an entire )!*year evaluation period, the present value of the difference in operating costs is calculated to be only M!. million for +2: coal firing and less than M1 million for high*sulfur bituminous coal firing of a modern % !*C0 unit with nozzle control. As (igure ?.% ma3es clear, the present value of )! years of operating cost savings is not nearly enough to Eustify the additional M% million to M? million capital investment re6uired for the sliding*pressure steam generator. Ceanwhile, the sliding* pressure turbine cost savings are reportedly estimated to be on the order of M!. million and would be partly offset by any additional feed water heater and steam generator costs to handle sliding pressure and any associated load and pressure cycling. :.2 6le)i+le Operation for Multiple Coal Type 6iring #he combustion of different types of coals with varying combustion properties leads to different heat absorption profiles in the furnace, and hence different fluid conditions through the boiler. #his creates a challenge in designing the steam temperature control system when multiple types of coals must be considered. #he differences in steam profiles for the firing of coals with different combustibility
properties are shown in (igure ?.?.

Fue to furnace e"it gas temperature e"cursions and heat absorption due to differences of coal characteristics, main steam temperature control is important to maintain constant steam conditions and protect the turbine. #he only method available to control main steam temperature on the AC boiler is super heater spray attermperation, because the evaporation point is fi"ed at the drum and the furnace fluid conditions are adEusted accordingly by natural circulation.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

(igure ?.?8 (luid #emperature Fistribution in :oiler System #he principal control method of main steam temperature is water to fuel ratio in the furnace, and the super heater spray attemperation is used only for the adEustment of heat absorption characteristics due to variation in coal properties. #herefore, the boiler is more fle"ible for future use of other types of fuels ;i.e. high sulfur, +2:, pet co3e, etc< than AC boiler.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

Chapter >
;d/antages
#he boiler plays a leading role due to its 3ey function in the waterDsteam cycle and its large contribution to investment costs. #he transition from sub critical to supercritical steam pressure significantly increases process efficiency, with a considerable decrease in fuel costs. #he effect of low fuel consumption on electric power generation costs is greater than the only slightly higher investment costs for the power plant. Cost effectiveness in high output steam power plants is determined by investment costs, process and component efficiencies, availability, and maintenance costs. Cain advantages of supercritical boiler are8 1. -ncreased /fficiency ). Simple separator 7. Bower &perating Costs '. 1reater &perational (le"ibility . #hermal efficiency %. &perations characteristics ?. Acid cleaning interval >. (le"ible operation for multiple coal type firing >.1 Increased .fficiency +lants that employ today@s generation of supercritical boilers can operate at cycle efficiencies in e"cess of ')*' 4 ==G ;''*'?4 B=G<. As efficiency is increased, less fuel is consumed per 3ilowatt*hour ;30h< with a corresponding decrease in emissions per 30h. :ecause these units do not have thic3*walled steam drums, their start*up times are 6uic3er, further enhancing efficiency and plant economics. >.2 Si$ple Separator A 3ey design feature of supercritical boilers is once*through design, which facilitates higher steam temperature and pressure parameters. Supercritical conditions
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Study of Supercritical Boilers

occur when the boiler pressure increases above the critical pressure of ))1.) bar ;7,)!> psi.< Above this point, the two phases of water and steam cease to e"ist, and are replaced by a single supercritical fluid. #his eliminates the need for waterDsteam separation in drums during operation, and allows a simpler separator to be employed during start up conditions. >.3 &o'er Operating Costs Bower fuel consumption is a direct conse6uence of higher efficiencies. (uel costs are a power plant@s largest operating cost item. :ecause the capital cost of supercritical plants is close to those of sub critical plants, overall life cycle costs are often reduced. >. ?reater Operational 6le)i+ility #oday@s mar3et realities demand that units are not only designed for base load operation, but are capable of cycling andDor two shift operation. Units must be designed for rapid response times. &nce through supercritical boilers have the ability to respond and adEust to changes in demand while maintaining tight control of steam temperaturesX Supercritical boilers operate in the sliding pressure mode, where pressure is reduced with load. #his allows the maintenance of relatively constant turbine temperature, reducing the thermal stress on Components as the unit is cycled. Bess stress translates into less maintenance and higher availability. #oday@s generation of supercritical boilers boast high availabilities, comparable to those of sub critical units, as well as improved plant efficiency at lower loads. Unli3e drum boilers, once*through units do not have a fi"ed evaporative point8 the final evaporation occurs in the furnace wall systems with steam that is leaving the furnace walls being superheated to a certain degree. Since the evaporation point is not fi"ed, heat duties can be shifted between the furnace and the super heaters, allowing for adEustment to changing slagging and fouling conditions caused by changing fuel properties.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

>.,

Ther$al .fficiency #he figure >.1 shows the improvement of heat rate due to turbine efficiency

for various steam parameters, for sub critical and supercritical power plants. Under the same performance conditions ;i.e. fuel properties, ambient temp, flue gas temp at air heater outlet, etc<, there is no difference in the boiler efficiency between sub critical and supercritical steam Conditions. #he improvement in plant efficiency by using supercritical cycle results in fuel consumption savings and reduced flue gas emissions.

(igure >.1 Supercritical vs. Sub critical =eat 2ate comparison >.2 Operations Characteristics #able >.1 shows a comparison of operation characteristics between a sub critical AC boiler and supercritical boiler. Smaller heat storage of tubes and application of start up recirculation system results in improvement of operation characteristics. -n addition to shorter start*up time, the boiler can perform load changing at faster rates, and provide shorter time of forced cooling operation during an emergency shut down. #herefore, fuel cost can be saved and forced outage rates can be shortened compared with the AC boiler.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

(or the AC boiler, it is difficult to control drum level during load upsets such as run*bac3 operation due to fan trip. -n contrast, the boiler can achieve fle"ible and stable operation without such restriction from the drum.

#able >.18 Comparisons of &peration Characteristics >.: ;cid Cleaning Inter/al Fue to the application of &0# in the supercritical boiler, it is not necessary to perform periodic acid cleaning because tube inner scaling is controlled to a minimum rate. =owever for the AC :oiler, period acid cleaning is re6uired. A sample calculation of the cost benefit is summarized in #able >.).

#able >.)8 Cost Comparisons of Chemical Cleaning

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

>.>

6le)i+le Operation for Multiple Coal Type 6iring #he combustion of different types of coals with varying combustion

properties leads to different heat absorption profiles in the furnace, and hence different fluid conditions through the boiler. #his creates a challenge in designing the steam temperature control system when multiple types of coals must be considered. #he differences in steam profiles for the firing of coals with different combustibility properties are shown in (igure >.).

(igure >.)8 (luid #emperature Fistribution in :oiler System Fue to furnace e"it gas temperature e"cursions and heat absorption due to differences of coal characteristics, main steam temperature control is important to maintain constant steam conditions and protect the turbine. #he only method available to control main steam temperature on the AC boiler is super heater spray attermperation, because the evaporation +oint is fi"ed at the drum and the furnace fluid conditions are adEusted accordingly by natural circulation. (or the boiler, the principal control method of main steam temperature is water to fuel ratio in the furnace, and the super heater spray attemperation is used only for the adEustment of
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Study of Supercritical Boilers

heat absorption characteristics due to variation in coal properties. #herefore, the boiler is more fle"ible for future use of other types of fuels ;i.e. high sulfur, +2:, petcoc3, etc< than AC boiler.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

Chapter 9
Conclusion
Supercritical technologies for coal*fired boilers have improved in reliability since their first introduction in the 19%!s. #hese improvements have been realized through design improvements based on operating e"periences with a vast variety of different fuels around the world, and through advancements in materials. #he increasing re6uirements to further improve thermal efficiency and reduce plant emissions have resulted in trends towards supercritical steam parameters for coal* fired plants. Although the earlier installed units had e"perienced various operation and maintenance problems, the units supplied around the world over the past years have been operating with high efficiency performance and trouble*free high availability. +roblems caused by the special combustion properties of coals have been investigated, and the appropriate design counter measures can be considered in new supercritical boiler designs.

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Study of Supercritical Boilers

*eferences@
1. 2eliability of supercritical boilers and its advantages. 2ichardson Car3, Yoshio Shimogori, YuEi (u3uda ). Smith $.0., :abcoc3 and 0ilco", &hio, U.S.A. 7. Fesign and &perating /"perience of Supercritical +ressure Coal (ired +lant, +aul Armstrong, =itachi America Btd., #oshihi3o Sasa3i, =itachi, Btd., =itachi, $apan, $unichiro Catsuda, :abcoc3*=itachi ,.,., ,ure, $apan '. Gertical tube, variable pressure furnace for supercritical steam boilers. ,im S. S., U.S. Fepartment of /nergy, Aational /nergy #echnology Baboratory, +ittsburgh, +ennsylvania, U.S.A. . CcFonald F.,, the :abcoc3 9 0ilco" Company, :arberton, &hio, U.S.A. . www.power.alstom.com.

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