Dr. Md.

Quamrul Islam, Sir’s Class notes (05 Batch)

QIS Class – 01 Date: 29-03-09

Five sections:
1. Dimensional analysis
a. Prototype
b. Model
c. Dimensions
2. Compressible fluid
a. Mach number
b. Flow through nozzles
3. Real fluid flow (actual fluid and viscous fluid flow)
a. Frictional losses
b. Minor losses
4. Boundary layer theory
a. Skin friction
5. Open channel flow
a. Different types of channels

Fluid equation:
Energy equation

Continuity equation

Momentum equation

Assumptions of Bernoulli’s equation:

# Irrotational - free form angular rotation

# Steady – no parameter changes with respect to time

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QIS Class – 02 Date: 30-03

03-09

Dimensional analysis:
Dimensional analysis are reduces the number of variables in a fluid phenomena by combining
some variables to from non dimensional parameters. Instead of observing the effect
effect of individual
parameters the effect of the non-dimensional
non dimensional parameters are studied.

Fluid flow problems

Theoretical analysis Experimental analysis Combination of both

Advantages of dimensional analysis:

i) By applying
ing dimensional analysis no. of experiment can be reduced
ii) Dimensional analysis helps us to make experiments to air or water and then applying the
results to a fluid which is less convenient to work with such as gas, steam or oil
iii) Cost can be reduced by doing experiments with models of the full size apparatus
iv) Performance of the prototype can be determined from test on the model

Example:
xample:
Models are used for ships, airplanes, pumps, turbines, river channels, rockets, missiles etc

Model:
May be bigger or smaller or same as prototype

# Flow in a carburetor may be studied in a large model

# model same as prototype: racing car, tennis

tennis racket etc

Limits and dimensions:

Primary/Fundamental (ID)

Physical quantities
Secondary or Derived
(more than ID)

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Mass (M), length (l) and time (τ) or force (F), length (L) and time (τ) are considered as
fundamental quantities. Other physical quantities can be expressed by this expression / quantities.

Example:
Velocity (V) can be obtained by dividing length (L) with time (τ).

ρ
V d
µ

Head loss per unit length of a pipe depends on viscosity (µ), density (ρ), average velocity (v) of
flowing fluid and diameter (d) of pipe. This statement can also be stated by saying that for
incompressible flow to a pipe friction factor depends on Reynolds number

Physical quantities are expressed by FLT or MLT systems. These systems of dimensions are related by
Newton’s second law of motion.

Newton’s 2nd law:

Force = mass x acceleration

 F=Mx

 M=

Dimensions of various quantities:

Geometrical characteristics FLT systems MLT systems

Length (dia/height/breadth etc) L L
Area
volume

Fluid mechanics:
Geometrical characteristics FLT systems MLT systems
Mass (m) M

Density (ρ)

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Specific weight (γ)

Kinematic viscosity (υ)

Dynamic viscosity (µ)

Velocity (V)

Acceleration (a)

Pressure (P)

Force (F) L

Shear Stress (τ)

Flow rate (Q)

Torque and moment FL

Mass flow rate

There are two methods for solving the problems with dimensional analysis

1. Rayleigh’s method’s
2. Buckingham π – theorem

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QIS Class – 03 Date: 31-03-09

Dimensional analysis:

a) Rayleigh’s method:
Example: (problem solved by dimensional analysis)

Let, is the drag force of a smooth sphere of diameter D, moving through a viscous
incompressible fluid with velocity V. others variables involved are m, ρ, µ.

Solution:

: drag force

D: diameter of sphere

µ: viscosity of fluid

ρ: density of fluid

V: velocity of fluid

Drag force may be considered as the function of these variables:

i.e.: = f (D, V, ρ, µ)

To find relations between the variables the dimensions of both sides of the equations
will have to be considered.

= µ

Where is a dimensional constant putting correct dimensions according to MLT

systems:

= 1. ( ) ( ) ( )

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 =

To satisfy dimensional homogeneity the exponents of the each dimension must be identical of
both sides of the equations.

Then,

For M: 1= c + d

For L: 1= a + b -3c –d

For T: -2 = -b –d

Solving for a, b, c in terms of d we get:

a=2–d

b=2–d

c=1–d

Thus, = µ
And grouping variables according to their exponent:

= ( )( )

It may be noted that the quantity is the Reynolds number. Thus the previous equation can

be written as:

/
= ( )
/
Or, = ( )

Coefficient

The results indicate that the drag on a sphere is equal to some coefficient times where the
coefficient is the functions of the Reynolds numbers. This process of analysis is known as Rayleigh’s
method.

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Without dimensional analysis With dimensional analysis

ρ,µ - const ρ-const,µ - vary ρ-vary,µ-const

D D D

b) Buckingham π- theorem :

This theorem states that if there are n dimensional variables in a dimensionally homogenous
equation described by m fundamental dimensions, they may be grouped in (n-m) dimensionless groups.

Thus in the previous example:

n=5 and m=3 (M, L and T) and (n-m) = 2

Parameters --- (a)

Parameters --- (b)

These dimensionless groups as π- terms.

Advantages of π- theorem are that it tells one ahead of time, how many dimensionless groups
are to be expected.

Applying the π- theorem to the previous example one would proceed as follows:

= f (D, V, ρ, µ) here n= 5

m= 3

So, n-m = 2

Thus we can write Q ( , ) = 0.

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QIS Class – 04 date: 05-04-09

Buckingham π- theorem:
Q( , )=0

The problems in to find π’s by arranging the fine parameters into 2D groups. Taking ρ, D, V as
the primary (repeating) variables, the π-terms are:

( , , , , µ) five parameters

= µ

= µ
Since the π’s are dimensionless, they can be replaced by

Considering , =( ) ( ) ( )

For M: 0= +

L: 0 = −3 + + −

T: 0= - -

Solving for ,

=− , =− , =−

Thus = µ

Or, ( ) =

Any π-term may be replaced by any power of that term including negative as well as fractional
powers. For example, may be replaced by ( ) or may be replaced by ( ) , may be

replaced by etc

So, = =

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Similarly, =

Finally, Q ( , ) = 0 may be expressed as

= ′( )

= "( )

Or, = "( )

Or, = "( )

It should be emphasized that dimensional analysis does not provide a complete solution to fluid
problems. It provides partial solutions only.

The most suitable repeating variables are those which contain the flow characteristics (such as
velocity, mass density etc).

A geometric property (such as length), fluid property (such as mass, density) and a flow
characteristic (such as velocity) are generally most suitable as reciprocating variables.

Dimensionless groups in fluid mechanics:

The following variables are important in the fluid phenomenon:

1. Length, L
2. Acceleration due to gravity, g
3. Mass density, ρ
4. Velocity, V
5. Pressure, P
6. Viscosity, µ
7. Surface tension, σ
8. Velocity of sound, c

The following dimensionless groups can be formed from these variables:

1. Reynolds number, Nre

2. Froude number, Fr
3. Euler number, E
4. Mach number, M
5. Weber number, W
(i) Reynolds number (Nre):
The ratio of inertia force and viscous force.
Inertia force = mass x acceleration

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=ρ = ρ =ρ
Viscous force = area x shear stress
= A.τ = µ =µ

Nre = =
Here L is knows characteristics length (hydraulic diameter)

This number is important where viscous force is predominant.

Hydraulic diameter, D =

=d

Example:

Incompressible fluid flow through pipes, flow through venturimeter, orifice meter,
nozzle etc.

(ii) Froude number, Fr:

The ratio of inertia force and gravity force.

Gravity force = mass x acceleration due to gravity

=ρ g

And inertia force = ρ

So, Fr = =

This number is important when gravitational force is predominant.

Example:

Open channel flow, flow over notches and weirs (weirs motion created by waters etc)

(iii) Euler number, E:

The ratio of pressure force and inertia force

Pressure force = pressure x area = P

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And inertia force = ρ

E= = =

This number is important when pressure predominant.

Example: flow through pipe, flow through submerged body

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QIS Class – 05 date: 06-04-09

(iv) Mach number, M:

Square root of the ratio of inertia force and elastic force
Elastic force = E = ρ where C is the velocity of sound
(The pressure waves moves at a velocity equal to that of velocity of sound through the
fluid

So, C = or E=ρ )

M= ( ) = =

Mach number is important when the value of M exceeds 0.4

Examples: supersonic aircraft, rocket, missiles etc.

(v) Weber number, W:

The ratio of inertia force and surface tension force

Surface tension force = σL

And inertia force = ρ

W= =
Examples: capillary tube flow, human blood flow etc.

Similitude:

D’

1 C 1’ C’

2 2’

Model prototype

The similarity relation between a prototype and its known as similitude.

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3 types of similarities exist for complete similitude between a model and its prototype.

These are:

1. Geometric similarity
2. Kinematic similarity
3. Dynamic similarity

Two flows will be similar if they are geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar.

Geometric similarity:
A model and its prototype are said to be in geometric similarity if the ratios of their
corresponding linear dimensions are equal (such as: length, breadth, width etc)

For geometric similarity, the corresponding areas are related by the square of the length scale
ratio and corresponding volume by the cube of the length scale ratio.

Length scale ratio = = = =

( ℎ ) = =( ) =( ) =( )

( ℎ ) = =( ) =( ) =( )

Where , , are linear dimensions of a model and , , are dimensions of prototype.

Kinematic similarity:
A model and its prototype are said to be kinematically similar if the flow patterns in the model
and the prototype for any fluid motion as geometric similarity and if the ratio’s of the velocity as well as
accelerations at all corresponding points in the flow is the same.

Velocity ratio = =

Acceleration ratio = =

V1, V2 ---- velocities of fluid in prototype in points 1 and 2

v1, v2 ---- velocities of fluid in model at corresponding points 1 and 2

A1, A2 ----acceleration of fluid in prototype in points 1 and 2

a1, a2 ---- acceleration of fluid in model at corresponding points 1 and 2

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Dynamic similarity:
A model and its prototype are said to be dynamically similar if the ratio of the forces acting at
the corresponding points are equal.

Geometric and kinematic similarities exist for dynamic similarity systems.

i.e.: =

Where, F1, F2 ---- forces acting in prototype at points 1 and 2

f1, f2 ---- forces of fluid in model at corresponding points 1 and 2

Problem 1:
Show that power supplied by pump depends on specific weight, flow rate and total head of
water.

Solution:
Let, P: - power supplied by pump

Γ: - specific weight of water

Q: - water flow rate

H: - total head

Now, let,

P = f (γ, Q, H)

Or, P=K ---------------------- (i)

Where k is a constant.

Putting the dimensions according to FLT systems in equation (i)

=( ) ( ) ------------------ (ii)

Satisfy dimensional homogeneity the exponents of each dimension must be identical on both
sides of equation (ii).

Thus,

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For F: 1=a

L: 1 = -3a + 3b + c

T: -1 = -b

Solving equation,

a = 1, b = 1, c=1.

So, from equation (i) we have

P = KQγH (Proved)

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QIS Class – 06 Date: 07-04-09

Problem 2:
Velocity of sound depends on air pressure, density and viscosity. Find an expression of velocity
of sound.

Solution:
Let, C: velocity of sound

P: air pressure

ρ: density of air

µ: viscosity of air

Now, velocity of sound

C = f (P, ρ, µ)

Or, C = K’ µ ------- (i)

According to MLT system putting the dimensions in equation (i)

=( ) ---------------- (ii)

To satisfy dimensional homogeneity the exponents of each dimension must be identical on both
sides of equation (ii)

For M: 0 = a + b +d

L: 1 = -a -3b –d

T: -1 = -2a –d

Solving the equation,

d = 0, b = - , a =

Putting the values in equation (i)

C = K’

Or, C= , where K is a constant.

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Problem 3:
Force (P) required to drive a propeller is known to depend on

D: Diameter of propeller]

V: velocity

ρ: fluid density

N: RPM

µ: viscosity

Prove that, P =ρ ,

Solution:
Let, P = f (D, V, ρ, N, µ)

Or, P = f1 µ

= f1 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

To satisfy dimensional homogeneity the exponents of each dimension must be identical on both sides of
equation. Thus, now:

For M: 1=c+e

L: -1 = a + b – 3c – e

T: -2 = -b –d – e

Solving the equation with respect to e and d:

So, c = 1 – e, b = 2 – e – d, a=2–e+d

Putting the values, now:

P = f1 µ

Or, P = f1 ( )

Or, P= , (proved)

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Problem 4:

Kinematic viscosity of 1st liquid, = 0.02 x 10

Velocity of 1st liquid, = 5 m/s

Diameter of pipe for 1st liquid, = 20 mm

Kinematic viscosity of 2nd liquid, = 0.029 x 10

Diameter of pipe for 2nd liquid, = 20 mm

To find:

 Velocity of 2nd liquid, if dynamic similarity is to be observed.

Solution:

When fluid flows through pipes, viscous and inertia forces are important and Reynolds number
is the criteria for similarity.

Now for dynamic similarity,

Reynolds number for 1st liquid = Reynolds number of 2nd liquid

= =

Or, =

OR, =

.
=
.

= 1.81 m/s (answer)

Problem 5:
A 1:15 model of a boat is to be tested in testing containing salt water. If the prototype moves at
a speed of 6 m/s, at what velocity should the model be toned for dynamic similarity. The prototype boat
is subjected to wave resistance only.

Scale ratio, =

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Speed of prototype, =6

To find:

 Velocity of model,

Solution:
For wave resistance Fr number is to dominant. Equating Fr for model and prototype for
similarity, we have,

Or, = here =

Or, =

Or, =

Or, =

Or, =6

Or, = 1.55 (answer)

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QIS Class – 07 Date: 11-04-09

Problem 6:
Given data:

Diameter of prototype pipe, = 1.25 m

Viscosity of oil, µ = 3 Ns/

Specific gravity of oil = 0.85

Diameter of prototype pipe, = 150 mm

Viscosity of oil, µ = 3 Ns/

Flow rate through prototype pipe, = 2900 l/s

To find:

- Velocity of water for model,

- Flow rate of water for model,

Solution:
Density of water, = 1000 kg/

Density of oil, = 0.85 x 1000 kg/

For flow through pipes viscous force is predominant; So Reynolds number is important.

Equating Reynolds number for model and prototype,

850 1.25 1.1

= = = 2.597 = 2.6
1000 .150 3

Velocity of the pipe, = = 2.36

Therefore, = 2.6 = 2.6 x 2.36 = 6.136

Flew rate of water for model, = = = 108.5 (answer)

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Problem 7:
Given data:

Scale ratio: =

Drag force acting on the metal, = 50

Wind velocity in wind tunnel, = 45

Velocity of prototype, =6

Density of air for model, = 1.2

Density of sea water for prototype, = 1030

To find:

- Drag force on the prototype,

A 1:60 model of a ship experiences a drag force of 50 N when testing in a wind tunnel at
a velocity of 45 m/s. Calculate the drag force on the prototype if it moves at a velocity of 6 m/s
in sea water. Density of air and sea water is 1.2 and1030 respectively.

Solution:
To find the drag force on prototype equating Euler number for model and prototype,

Or, = = 2.75 10 (answer)

Problem 8:

The discharge over a spillway is 200 . Calculate the corresponding discharge over 1:30
scale ratio model.

Scale ratio: =

Discharge over prototype, = 200

To find:

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- Discharge over the model,

Solution:
For flow over spillway Froude number is predominant and considering Froude number
for model and prortotype.

Or, =

Or, =

Or, =

Or, = 0.183

Now, =

= 0.041 (answer)

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QIS Class – 08 Date: 12-04-09

Problem 9:

Given data, = 1030 = 0.012

= 1.24 = 0.016

Scale ratio: =

= 10

To find:

-
-

The ratio of length of submarine and its model is 30:1. The speed of submarine is 10
m/s. the model is to be tested in a wind tunnel. Find the speed of air in wind tunnel. Determine
also the ratio of drag forces between the prototype and model.

Solution:

Considering Reynolds number between model and prototype.

Or, =

Or, = 400 (answer)

Considering Euler number,

Or, = = 467.24 (answer)

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Problem 10:
Given data:

Scale ratio: =

= 1024

Force on prototype, = 5886

Velocity of prototype, = 20

To find:

- Speed of model,
- Resistance on model,

A 1:15 model of a flying board is load through water. The prototype is moving in
sea water of density of a velocity of 20 m/s. find the corresponding speed of the model.
Determine also the resistance due to waves on model of the resistance due to wave on
the prototype is 5886 N.

Solution:
Considering Froude number between prototype and mode

Or, = = 5.16 (answer)

Considering Euler number between model and prototype

Or, = = 1.7 (answer)

Problem 11:

Scale ratio: =

Wave resistance on model, = 0.36

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Velocity of model, = 1.25

To find:

- Prototype wave resistance,

- Power requirement for the prototype and model

A 1:60 model of a boat as a wave resistance on 0.36 N when operating 1.25 m/s. find
the corresponding prototype wave resistance. Find also the power requirement for the
prototype and model.

Solution:
Considering Froude number prototype and model,

Or, = = 60 --------------------(i)

Or, = 9.68

Considering Euler number, we have

Or, = = 77.76

Power required for the model = = 0.45 (answer)

Power required for the prototype = =752.72 x 10 = 752.72 (answer)

Compressible Flow
Compressibility or elasticity of a fluid, E:

dv

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dp – increase in pressure in a unit volume of fluid

dv – decrease in volume

1
=

Or, =1

Differentiating,

+ =0

Or, =−

It is expressed by bulk modulus of elasticity.

Now, E =

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QIS Class – 09 Date: 13-04-09

Compressibility:
Example: consider the application of 100 psi to 1 of water

= 300000 (2068 )

¥
d¥ = = =

So, applications of 100 psi to water under ordinary conditions cause it, volume
to decrease by 1 part in 3000.

Standard atmosphere:
Temperature, T = 15*C =28 K

Density, = 1.22

Specific gravity of air, = = 11.9682

R = 287 J/kgK

Pressure = 760 mm of Hg = 10.3 m of water = 101.31 KN/

K= = 1.4

= 1000

For, incompressible flow, density, = constant, flow in which the density of the
fluid does not remain constant during flow.
∆
i.e.: if > 0.05 the effect of compressibility must be consider.

The change of density is accompanied by the changes in pressure and temperature. So

thermodynamic relation have to taken into account.

Classification of compressible:

Mach number, M =

If M ≤ 0.3 , the flow of fluid is considered as incompressible.

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No Types of flow Mach no Examples

a) Subsonic M ≤ 0.3 Fan, blower’s
incompressible flow
b) Subsonic 0.3<M<1 Aircraft, turbo
compressible flow machine
c) Transonic flow 0.9<M<1 Compressor blades
d) Sonic flow M=1
e) Supersonic flow M > 1 upto 3 Mig 21 flight
f) Hypersonic flow M>3 Rockets, missiles

Fundamental equations for compressible fluid flow:

i) Continuity equation
ii) Energy equation
iii) Momentum equation
iv) Thermodynamic relation (P,V,T relations)
v) Equation of state (P = RT)
vi) − =
vii) =

Velocity of wave propagation in gaseous medium:

Y

Piston Rigid pipe Pressure wave

X x y

P Control volume

P+dp

x y

C c+dc

≈ ( )

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Nomenclature:
Let us, consider a rigid long pipe of uniform cross sectional area fitted with a piston.

Let, the pipe is fit with a compressible fluid which is at rest initiative. The piston is
moved towards right and a distribution is created in the fluid. Thus disturbance is in the form of
pressure wave which travels in the fluid with the velocity of sound.

A: Cross sectional area of pipe

C: Velocity of fluid at section x-x

P: Pressure of fluid at section x-x

: Density of fluid at section x-x

c + dc: Velocity of fluid at section y-y

P + dp: Pressure of fluid at section y-y

+ d : Density of fluid at section y-y

Example:

1) Measuring of the depth of the ocean

2) Sound detection of submarine

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