Inaugural IEEE PES 2005 Conference and Exposition in Africa Durban, South Africa, 11-15 July 2005

Conductor Optimisation for Overhead Transmission Lines

Dipeen Dama, Dzevad Muftic and Riaz Vajeth
Eskom Enterprises, Capital Expansion Department, Trans-Africa Projects P.O.Box 6583, Halfway House, Midrand, 1685, South Africa Phone: +27-11-205 9456, Fax: +27-11-205 9442, Email: dipeend@taprojects.co.za

Abstract Continuous changes in the cost of suitable (conductive) material for bare overhead conductors, changes in electrical and mechanical requirements, and improvements in manufacturing technology, have resulted in the development of a variety of possible applications or options for overhead transmission lines. In the early days, simple copper wire or copper based bare conductors were used but nowadays, more cost effective solutions, such as aluminium and variations of aluminium alloy conductors are used extensively in the power system. The conductor of an overhead power line is considered as the most important component of the overhead line since its function is to transfer electric power, and its contribution towards the total cost of the line is significant. The conductor costs (material and installation costs) associated with the capital investment of a new overhead power line can contribute up to 40% of the total capital costs of the line. Furthermore, power losses in the lines account for the bulk of the transmission system losses, which in South Africa is about 1200MW at peak load. These are critical economic factors which need careful analysis when selecting a conductor for a new overhead line, which will be in operation for an excess of 25 years. Choosing a larger conductor configuration will have higher up front capital costs, but this may lead to lower overall life cycle cost. Consequently, much attention has to be given to the careful selection of a conductor configuration to meet the present and predicted future load requirements. A process needs to be followed to optimally choose a conductor and tower configuration. This paper presents a procedure which has been formulated and tested to optimise the selection of the conductor and tower configuration from an overall system point of view. The paper will also highlight the significance of incorporating planning and load forecast considerations, power quality constraints, voltage collapse studies, corona and audible noise, induction and transposition studies, line performance studies, and life cycle cost of maintenance for the different options, in the optimisation algorithm. The methodology and results of an actual case study are presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed procedure. The paper will provide a valuable guide to assist with the selection of conductor and tower configurations for new overhead transmission lines.

A new overhead line will form part of an interconnected transmission system and hence will affect power flow through the integrated network. Hence, it is extremely important to consider and evaluate different conductor and tower configurations from an overall system point of view. If a conductor is not optimally selected, this would result in unnecessary system losses and poor voltage regulation. Choosing a larger conductor configuration will have higher up front capital costs, but this may lead to lower overall life cycle cost. Furthermore, the choice of a conductor affects the insulation, hardware, structures, foundations and towers for a specific line. Thus, a process needs to be followed to optimally choose a conductor and tower configuration. In this paper, the authors have developed a procedure which has been successfully tested on numerous overhead transmission line projects and has resulted in savings in the investment of the capital costs. II. CONDUCTOR OPTIMISATION PROCESS

The following 16 step procedure has been systematically formulated and tested to optimise the selection of a conductor and tower configuration for an overhead transmission line from an overall system point of view. The first 6 steps of the optimisation process evaluate the different possible configurations from a line life cycle costing point of view. After analysing the line life cycle costing results, a few options are selected for detail system analysis in steps 7 to 16. Step 1: Obtain the Planning Requirements such as the line length, voltage and expected reliability levels of the new overhead power line. The designer must also consider the loading requirements for the life cycle of the line, based on the planners load forecast and any step load changes during the life cycle of the line. The need for an emergency rating and its duration also need to be accounted for. Possible applications of optical fibre ground wire (OPGW) need to be determined. The generation pattern, scaling of generation and new generation points also need to be taken into account for the system studies. Step 2: Determine the field effect (EMF) and corona limits (radio interference and audible noise) for the conductor and tower configurations that can meet the above planning requirements. The intended use of power line carriers, and

I.

INTRODUCTION

The conductor costs associated with the capital investment of a new overhead transmission line accounts for approximately a third of the total capital costs. Consequently, much attention was given to the careful selection of a conductor configuration to meet the present and predicted future load requirements.

0-7803-9327-9/05/$20.00 2005 IEEE

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the effect of the line design, especially transposition towers, need to be considered. Step 3: Ascertain any design limitations from an environmental perspective. For example, there could be a servitude problem for different tower types when running the new line parallel to another existing line, with towers adjacent to each other. Step 4: Select a combination of options, each with a suitable conductor bundle and tower type, based on the line loading and corona and field effect limits, and thereafter estimate the capital investment cost (CIC) for each option. The capital cost estimates must take into account changes which can occur after the line profiles and soil conditions are obtained in the detail design phase. Step 5: Calculate the electrical line parameters (resistance (R), reactance (X) and susceptance (B)) for each option in both actual and per unit (p.u.) values. These parameters are required for modelling purposes using a suitable simulation package. Step 6: Based on the line loading forecast, calculate the total cost of line losses (TCO) for each option for the entire life cycle of the line. Thereafter perform a line life cycle costing analysis (LCC) for the different options (i.e., LCC = CIC + TCO). The line life cycle cost of a transmission line consists of the initial capital investment plus the cost of line losses over the life cycle of the line. It is necessary to calculate over the life of the line, the present value of the line losses, using the net discount rate prescribed by the utilitys financial guidelines. From a line life cycle costing point of view, the most economic conductor configuration will be that which gives the minimum cost in the following equation: Capex + (1+d)-n x [cost of line losses in year n]
n=1 25

Step 9: The new overhead power line will be part of an interconnected transmission system. Hence, it is also essential to consider the losses from an overall system point of view. Thus, in order to make a better decision regarding conductor selection, detailed system analysis studies should be performed in order to calculate the cost of system losses for each option for the entire life cycle of the line. It is necessary to calculate over the life of the line, the present value of the savings in system losses (minus value), using the net discount rate prescribed. Step 10: For short lines, the thermal limits need to be considered. Thermal capacity will be directly proportional to the size of the conductor, or cross-sectional area (mm2). Depending on operational conditions, thermal limits can be decisive in the selection of a conductor. For example, if operation in emergency conditions requires a power transfer significantly above the normal operation, then the selection of the configuration will be dictated by thermal limits rather than by the economical loading. Permanent operation close to or at thermal limits will always be significantly above economical loading, because of very high losses amounting, in total, to much more than the cost of construction. Step 11: Calculate the impact on fault levels for the various options. This could be an important factor for a weak part of the network. Step 12: One of the main purposes of the new line is to extend the power transfer margin. The power transfer margin is dependent on the voltage collapse limits, which are related to the surge impedance of the line. Surge impedance loading (SIL) is a measure of the power that can be transferred without reactive compensation. SIL depends on the conductor bundle and line configuration. Different sizes of conductor and bundle will give different SIL and the price that must be paid for a possible increase of SIL must be evaluated. There is a cost benefit for having a higher voltage collapse or power transfer margin, as this will allow more load to be added on to the network without the need for further reinforcement. This implies that options with a larger margin will be beneficial. It is difficult to place an exact monetary value on this benefit, but for the purposes of this discussion, the cost of adding shunt capacitor banks to make up for the lost power transfer margin can be calculated to compare the different cases. Thus, the benefits of higher surge impedance loading need to be verified by performing voltage analysis or voltage collapse studies. This will allow for the benefits of a higher surge impedance loading to be quantified, which is relevant for long overhead power lines which are voltage rather than thermally constrained.

(1)

where: d - net discount rate. n - year under consideration until the end of the economic life of the line (say, 25 years). Step 7: Select three to five most suitable conductor and tower options for detail system analysis studies. Step 8: For long overhead power lines (>150km) or shorter but highly loaded lines, perform unbalance studies to determine the need for phase transposition or phase optimisation for parallel lines.

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III.
Add suitable size capacitor bank to match power transfer of the black option
1.05 1.00 0.95 Voltage (p.u) 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75

CASE STUDY

The following is an example of an actual conductor optimisation exercise which was carried out for a new overhead power line in South Africas integrated power system network. The names of substations have been kept confidential to protect the end customers. The 400 kV line was to be constructed between Substation A and Substation D. The following highlights the process which was followed to optimise the conductor and tower selections. Step 1: The following inputs were provided by System Planners: The line length was estimated at 96 km and the operating voltage was 400 kV. It is extremely difficult to predict future line loading due to the fact that there is a lot of uncertainty in any load forecast exercise. However, based on historical demand, and based on high short term load growth, growth rates for specific substations in the area of investigation were estimated. Planning also envisaged changes in the generation and network patterns during the life cycle of the line. These changes were considered during the system studies. Based on the anticipated load growth in the area of investigation, and the anticipated network changes, the following line loading (shown in Figure III) was predicted over a 25 year planning horizon for the A-D 400 kV line (all simulations were performed using the software PSS/E).
Forecasted Line Loading Data

0.7

10

20

30

40

50

Power Transfer (MW)

Fig. I. Graphical description of the purpose of voltage collapse studies.

Step 13: Consider the operating and maintenance costs and the need for live-line maintenance for each conductor and tower configuration. Step 14: Consider the need for high reliability and the differences in reliability for each option. Step 15: Consider the need for flexibility in terms of ease to uprate in the future and the cost and outage times for such uprating. This could include retensioning, real time monitoring, voltage upgrade or addition of another conductor in the bundle to change, for example, from triple tern to quad tern. Step 16: Incorporate all the factors discussed above into an appropriate technology index to determine the optimum option, based on the cost/benefit or weighting of each of the above factors. The above procedure has been summarized in the flowchart below.

1400 1300 1200

MVA

1100 1000 900 800 700

20 05 20 07 20 09 20 11 20 13 20 15 20 17 20 19 20 21 20 23 20 25 20 27 20 29

Year
Normal Loading

Emergency Loading

Fig. III. Forecasted line loading data.

In the year 2013, a new 400 kV line is anticipated and hence a drop in the line loadings when compared to the year 2012. Steps 2, 3 and 4: Based on the above line loading requirements, field effect and corona limits, and environmental limitations, the conductor and tower configurations shown in Table I were compiled as a list of workable solutions. Field effect and corona are important

Fig. II. 16 Step conductor optimisation process.

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factors, which need to be carefully considered for 400 kV operation at high altitudes.
Table I. Suitable conductor and tower configurations.

conservative approach to the estimates was used in order to take into account changes which can occur after the line profiles and soil conditions are obtained in the detailed design phase.
Table III. Capital costs (in millions of rands).

Case 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Configuration 4 x PELICAN 3 x KINGBIRD 3 x TERN 2 x BERSFORT 2 x IEC800 3 x BERSFORT 4 x TERN 3 x IEC800 4 x BERSFORT

Overall / Core diameter of individual conductor (mm) 20.70/4.14 23.88/4.78 27.00/6.75 35.56/9.96 37.6/7.52 35.56/9.96 27.00/6.75 37.6/7.52 35.56/9.96

Tower CRS CRS CRS CRS CRS CRS CRS CRS CRS

Case 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Configuration 4 X Pelican 3 x Kingbird 3 X Tern (570mm) 2 X Bersfort 2 X IEC 800 3 X Bersfort 4 X Tern 3 X IEC 800 4 X Bersfort

Tower Types 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A

Total (Rm) R 95.43 R 93.16 R 107.51 R 115.90 R 120.26 R 134.85 R 130.56 R 148.17 R 162.56

(Note: CRS refers to the flat phase configuration; standard cross rope suspension tower 524A). All the conductors selected above are of the ACSR (less steel) type since they have proved to be the most effective in our practice. Other possible options, such as AAAC or ACAR, can be considered in broader optimisation exercises. Step 5: Using a suitable software package (Alternate Transients Program (ATP)), the electrical line parameters (resistance (R), reactance (X), and susceptance (B)) of the different conductor and tower configurations have been calculated as shown in Table II below.
Table II. Line parameters for conductor and tower combinations.
Conductor 4 X Pelican 3 X Kingbird 3 X Tern (570mm) 2 X Bersfort 2 X IEC 800 3 X Bersfort 4 X Tern 3 X IEC 800 4 X Bersfort Tower 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A Per Unit Pos Sequence R X B 0.0018 0.0153 0.6959 0.0018 0.0167 0.6369 0.0015 0.0159 0.6688 0.0013 0.0179 0.5961 0.0012 0.0180 0.5943 0.0009 0.0156 0.6846 0.0011 0.0150 0.7082 0.0008 0.0156 0.6830 0.0007 0.0141 0.7581 Per Unit Zero Sequence R X B 0.0197 0.0626 0.4039 0.0197 0.0640 0.3834 0.0194 0.0633 0.3947 0.0192 0.0652 0.3682 0.0191 0.0653 0.3675 0.0188 0.0629 0.4001 0.0190 0.0624 0.4081 0.0187 0.0629 0.3996 0.0186 0.0614 0.4240 Rating @ 60 Degrees C MVA MVA Normal Emergency 1693.3 2175.5 1533.9 1984.9 1629.5 2059.8 1550.5 1992.6 1635.1 2251.7 2325.8 2988.8 2172.7 2746.3 2452.6 3377.5 3101.1 3985.1

Based on the line loading forecasts, the impedances of the different conductor and tower configurations, and the cost of generation (i.e. R/kWh), the total cost of line losses (TCO) was estimated for each combination over the life cycle of the line. The life cycle costing (LCC) for each option was thereafter calculated (LCC = CIC +TCO). The table below summarises the results of the life cycle costing analysis.
Table IV. Results of line life cycle costing.
Case 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Configuration 4 X Pelican 3 x Kingbird 3 X Tern (570mm) 2 X Bersfort 2 X IEC 800 3 X Bersfort 4 X Tern 3 X IEC 800 4 X Bersfort CIC (Rmil) 95.43 93.16 107.51 115.9 120.26 134.85 130.56 148.17 162.56 TCO (Rmil) 122.15 122.55 99.32 89.31 78.1 60.07 74.89 52.87 45.66 LCC (Rmil) 217.58 215.71 206.83 205.21 198.36 194.92 205.45 201.04 208.22

A graphical description of the above results are shown below.

Conductor Optimisation: A-D 400 KV LINE
600.00

1293 (max)
500.00

884 (Ave)

All the parameters were calculated on a 100 MVA base for the entire length of the line (i.e. 96 km). A templating temperature of 60C was used to cover cases of high ambient temperature and moderate loading. It also allows for more flexibility for future upgrades. Steps 6 and 7: The next step is to perform a line life cycle costing analysis for each assumed configuration. As mentioned earlier, the line life cycle cost of an overhead power line consists of the initial capital investment plus the cost of line losses over the life cycle of the line. The capital investment cost (CIC) or initial cost of construction for the various cases is shown in Table III. A

400.00

780(min)

L C C (R m il)

2 BERSFORT 2 IEC800 3 BERSFORT 3 IEC800

300.00

Zoomed
200.00

3 KINGBIRD 3 TERN 4 BERSFORT 4 PELICAN

4 TERN

100.00

0.00 0 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 Pmean (MVA) 960 1080 1200 1320 1440 1560 1680

Fig. IV. Graphical analysis of line life cycle costing results.

As can be seen from the above figure, for the average loading of the line (i.e., 884 MVA), the life cycle costing curves indicate that the 3 x Bersfort option is the cheapest and hence

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is ranked first. This option is followed closely by 2 x IEC800/3 x IEC800 options, then by 2 x Bersfort/4 x Tern/3 x Tern options, then by 4 x Bersfort, and lastly by 4 x Pelican. Based on these results, the configurations shown in the table below were filtered through for detailed system analysis.
Table V. Options selected for detailed system analysis.
Case 3 6 7 8 9 Configuration 3 x TERN (570mm) 3 x BERSFORT 4 X TERN 3 X IEC800 4 x BERSFORT Tower CRS CRS CRS CRS CRS

Step 9: The A-D 400 kV line will be part of an interconnected transmission system and hence will affect the power flow (magnitude and direction) in the network. Hence, it is important to consider the losses from an overall system point of view. Thus, in order to make a better decision regarding conductor selection, PSS/E was used to perform detailed system analysis studies. The results of these studies are shown in Table VI below.
Table VI. Results of system losses studies.
Case Configuration Capital Life Cycle Benefit of Cost reduced MW losses (Rmil) (Rmil) R 561.20 R 607.70 R 595.41 R 616.04 R 628.43 Capital Cost minus Benefit from Reduced Losses (Rmil) -R 453.69 -R 472.85 -R 464.85 -R 467.87 -R 465.87

Step 8: The effects of voltage unbalance can be detrimental to equipment such as induction motors, power electronic converters, and adjustable speed drives (ASDs); hence it is extremely important to perform unbalance studies to determine the extent of voltage unbalance that would exist on a line (NRS048-2 limit is 2% for voltage unbalance in a transmission network); and to determine the best phase sequencing and transposition swap sequence in order to minimize the voltage unbalance. The unbalance investigations revealed that a 2.54% voltage unbalance was expected at the end of the A-D 400kV line if no transposition was considered. This value exceeded the limit specified in the NRS048-2 power quality standard. Hence 2 transposition points were thereafter considered to reduce the voltage unbalance to within acceptable limits. The investigations showed that the voltage unbalance was reduced to approximately 0.09% having implemented two transpositions at the following locations: - Transposition point 1 37km from Apollo Substation; and - Transposition point 2 74km from Apollo Substation.
DIgSILENT

3 6 7 8 9

3 X Tern (570mm) R 107.51 3 X Bersfort 4 X Tern 3 X IEC 800 4 X Bersfort R 134.85 R 130.56 R 148.17 R 162.56

From the above table, it can be seen (from a life cycle benefit point of view) that the 4 x Bersfort configuration offers the best life cycle benefit of reduced system losses. Over the 25 year life cycle of the line, approximately R628m will be saved using this configuration. The next best MW losses reduction is achieved with the 3 X IEC 800 configuration (R616m) and this is followed closely by the 3 x Bersfort configuration (R607m). After taking into account the capital investment costs for each option, the most suitable configuration to use is the 3 x Bersfort option. This option is followed closely by 3 x IEC 800, 4 x Bersfort and the 4 x Tern configurations (in that order). Steps 10 and 11: Detail system analysis showed that the loading of the line throughout its 25 year life cycle is within the thermal limits for each configuration. More importantly, the differences in fault level at the end of the line are similar for each configuration and hence no comparative monetary benefit was attached to each option. Step 12: As mentioned previously, the main purpose of the new line is to extend the power transfer margin and this is dependent on the voltage collapse limits of each option. PSS/E was used to perform the voltage collapse studies for the different options. The capacitor bank sizes for the different options were thereafter calculated in order to match the power transfer capabilities of the different options. The cost of adding the shunt capacitor banks in order to make up the lost power transfer were thereafter estimated. The results of these studies have been captured in Table VII below.

Apollo 400
18km Tower 520B

19km

Tower 524A

TRANSPOSITION POINT 1

37km

Tower 524A

TRANSPOSITION POINT 2

10km

Tower 524A

25km

Tower 520B

Red White Blue

Dinaledi 400

Phase Voltages: (L-G)

Red White Blue 206.615 kV 206.341 kV 206.387 kV

Fig. V. Results of transposition investigations.

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Table VII. Results of voltage collapse studies.

Case Configuration Tower Capital Cost (Rmil) 107.51 134.85 130.56 148.17 162.56 Max. Power Cap Bank Size (in Cost to make Max. Power Relative up lost Transfer (with 100 MVAR) required to Transfer for Power transfer with MVAR Cap bank) match power worst N-1 Transfer shunts for worst N-1 transfer of 4 x (MW) (MW) Bersfort (Rm) (MW) 1391.066 1428.991 1436.085 1419.027 1462.024 -70.96 -33.03 -25.94 -43.00 N/A 1469.348 1495.890 1498.883 1494.395 N/A 90.64 49.38 41.31 57.05 N/A 8.16 4.80 4.02 5.55 N/A

3 6 7 8 9

3 X Tern (570mm) 3 X Bersfort 4 X Tern 3 X IEC 800 4 X Bersfort

524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A

performance of the different conductor and tower configurations such that the reliability levels and performance of the different options can be distinguished; and thereafter attach a monetary benefit to better reliability and performance levels. Step 15: The ease by which the line can be upgraded (in terms of current only) needs to be determined. The towers selected for the various cases under study all have mechanical limitations. However, in a case where a line is built using towers designed for the 4 x tern configuration and strung with 3 x tern to cater for low loading scenarios, then it is possible in the future to add another tern conductor to the 3 x tern bundle to create a 4 x tern bundle to cater for future higher loading situations. This process may, however, take a few months of construction time. It is these limiting factors (outage times, construction time) which may strongly influence the final decision of the optimisation process. Step 16: From a line life cycle costing point of view, 3 x Bersfort was the best option to choose for this particular line. 2 x IEC800 was the next best option, but the line life cycle costing analysis shows that it was R3.44m more expensive than the 3 x Bersfort option. From a system life cycle costing point of view (which only includes capital costs and benefit of reduced system losses), 3 x Bersfort was the best solution. This configuration is closely followed by the 3 x IEC 800 option which ranked second by approximately R5m when compared to 3 x Bersfort. The voltage collapse studies show that the best power transfer capability for the worst N-1 contingency was achieved with 4 x Bersfort. The next best power transfer capability is achieved with the 4 x Tern configuration, and this is followed closely by the 3 x Bersfort option. All the factors discussed above have been ranked in Table VIII below.
Table VIII. Overall ranking table.
Case Configuration Tower Initial Total Capital Cost (Rm) Life Cycle Cost to make benefit of up lower Power Overall reduced Transfer margin Rank system with Shunts (Rm) Losses (Rm) (Rm) -561.20 -607.70 -595.41 -616.04 -628.43 8.16 4.80 4.02 5.55 N/A -445.54 -468.05 -460.83 -462.32 -465.87 Overall Rank Normalised (Rm) Position

Notes: 1. The main motivation for this new line is to extend the power transfer capability. 2. The voltage collapse or power transfer margin was calculated using PSS/E 3. TAP changers and switched shunts were locked for the purpose of this study. 4. Voltage collapse point was taken as 10% before actual collapse. 5. Assumed an 88 kV cap bank installed at Substation D for additional power transfer studies with cap banks. 6. The following cap bank costs were assumed for the purposes of this investigation.
Size (MVAR) 16 36 72 100 COST (Rm) Rm/MVAR 4 0.25 5 0.14 7 0.10 9 0.09

It is clear from the above tabulated results that the optimum power transfer capability under the worst N-1 contingency was achieved with the 4 x Bersfort configuration. The next best power transfer capability was achieved with the 4 x Tern configuration; and this was followed closely by the 3 x Bersfort option. The cost to add shunt capacitor banks to the other cases to match the power transfer capability of the 4 x Bersfort configuration are also shown in the above table. Step 13: It is obvious that different conductor and tower configurations will yield different maintenance costs, since some configurations require more complex line hardware. The maintenance costs of the newer tower configurations are expected to be higher, since the personnel are not familiar with the fastest, safest procedures to carry out the maintenance. Furthermore, performance statistics have shown that the chances of the thinner conductors tangling and creating vibration related problems is higher than the thicker conductors. Research is currently being carried out to formulate a methodology for determining the operating and maintenance costs of the different conductor and tower configurations. For the purposes of this study, the maintenance costs were disregarded in the optimisation process. However, it is imperative that the maintenance costs be quantified and considered for future conductor optimisation studies. Step 14: The planning requirement was that the A-D 400 kV line be built to the same or better reliability levels than the better performing nearby line (Q-R 400 kV line). The A-D 400 kV transmission line will be constructed in the same area as the Q-R 400 kV line. Thus, the new line will be subjected to similar environmental conditions. Thus, a statistical analysis of the existing line can be used to define the new line performance expectations. The different conductor and tower configurations are assumed to have a similar performance (from a fire, lightning and insulator pollution related faults point of view). However, future research needs to carried out in order to formulate a methodology for assigning factors to the

3 6 7 8 9

3 X Tern (570mm) 3 X Bersfort 4 X Tern 3 X IEC 800 4 X Bersfort

524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A 524 A

107.51 134.85 130.56 148.17 162.56

22.51 0.00 7.21 5.73 2.18

5th 1st 4th 3rd 2nd

The above conductor optimisation results indicate that the 3 x Bersfort option is the cheapest. This option is followed closely by the 4 x Bersfort, 3 x IEC 800 and 4 x Tern configurations in that order. Hence, based on the above system analysis results, it was decided that the 3 x Bersfort (570 mm sub conductor spacing) configuration be used for the A-D 400 kV line. The 570 mm sub-conductor spacing

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was chosen over the 450 mm sub-conductor spacing since a bigger surge impedance loading, and hence power transfer margin, can be achieved with a bigger sub-conductor spacing. As can be seen, the design of conductors for EHVAC are optimised with regard to the capital investments costs for the line and the operation costs for the losses. For EHVAC lines, the resistive losses determine the conductor cross section. For HVDC lines, the selection of conductor cross section with regard to the resistive losses should be done in a similar way as with EHVAC. When comparing HVDC and EHVAC lines with regard to power losses, the main difference is that corona losses of HVDC lines are much less sensitive to variations in weather conditions. IV. CONCLUSION

A variety of possible options of bare conductors for application on overhead power lines gives the designer the opportunity to optimise the design solution in terms of cost, functionality and performance. As was shown, there is no straight forward answer to the question of optimal conductor selection for specific operating requirements in a specific environment. The methodology outlined in this paper can be used as a guide for further conductor optimisation case studies. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors wish to thank IEEE for accepting the paper as part of the conference proceedings and all colleagues who provided technical advice and support. REFERENCES
[1] The Planning, Design and Construction of Overhead Power Lines, Eskom Power Series, Vol. 1, Chapter 15, February 2005. [2] R. Vajeth and D. Dama, Conductor Optimisation for Overhead Transmission Lines, Proceedings of IEEE Africon Conference, Gaborone, September 2004.

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