Languages in Education Languages for Education

Language Policy Division

DG IV / EDU / LANG (2009)11 [April 09]

READING

Language Policy Division www.coe.int/lang

This text has been pro uce !or the Platform of resources and references for lur!l!n"ual and !ntercultural educat!on by
Laila Aase" #i$e %le&ing" 'ig&un (ngsta " )rene Pieper an %lorentina 'a&ihaian

Ad-hoc coordination group for the platform #

Laila AA'*" +ean,-lau e .*A--(" #ichael ./0A#" #arisa -A1ALL)" Daniel -('T*" Alexan ru -0)2A3" #ichael %L*#)34" (livier #A0ADA3" 'ig&un (34'TAD" )rene P)*P*0" %lorentina 'A#)5A)A3" 5el&ut 1(LL#*0 an Piet,5ein 1A3 D* 1*3

Editorial board:
+ean,-lau e .*A--(" #ichael ./0A#" Daniel -('T* an #ichael %L*#)34

READING
This section o! the plat!or& provi es an overview o! rea ing as a $ey i&ension o! language as sub6ect. )t consi ers issues relate to what 7rea ing8 &eans" particularly in the school context an a resses so&e o! $ey tensions that have to be !ace when constructing an teaching the curriculu&. The section en s with a series o! 79uestions !or consi eration8 in or er to help rea ers re!lect critically on their own policy an practice.

List of contents Introduction...................................................................................................................5 Connections between reading and writing................................................................5 Learning to read...........................................................................................................6 Learning to read in plurilingual contexts...................................................................6 Reading development..................................................................................................7 Reading literacy and reading strategies....................................................................8 Reading for different purposes...................................................................................8 ariety of texts and genres ! c"oice of text..............................................................# Literature.....................................................................................................................$% Reading as text&reception.........................................................................................$' (uestions for consideration.....................................................................................$'

Language Policy Division

Introduction Reading has long been considered a key area within language as subject. It has gained more prominence since the PIS !studies o" the #$%D. %urricula usually "ocus on reading as a speci"ic area o" learning or domain o" competences& o"ten ne't to writing& speaking and listening& re"lection upon language. Since the ()*+s there has been an increasing awareness o" the broad conte'ts o" reading within li"e ,in school and beyond- and it has become an aim o" "ormal schooling to cover a wide range o" te'ts. .hus& the domain o" reading covers an introduction to the use and understanding o" various "orms o" te'ts& including e'pository and literary te'ts& the media and a wide range o" genres. It has& there"ore& been acknowledged that the range o" te'ts goes beyond subject boundaries. It has also been recognised that the act o" reading always takes place in conte'ts/ what are the aims o" readers0 what are the e'periences connected with reading0 how can the development o" motivation to read be supported and how can we describe the process o" 1learning to read2 within the process o" socialisation in a culture0 Reading can be described as a cognitive constructive process3 it is not enough to describe making meaning when reading a te't simply as te't reception but it is the result o" a comple' te't!reader!interaction. 4ood readers bene"it "rom meta!cognition that allows them to monitor their understanding. lso& e'perience with the 5written world6 is crucial& not least "or the development o" "avourable attitudes and dispositions. Research on socialisation in reading and on the ac7uisition o" reading competences has pointed out that there are various agencies that in"luence the process o" becoming a reader. .he "amily is considered a very important environment "or decisive encounters with te't "rom a very early age. 8evertheless& "ormal reading instruction largely takes place in school and it is within language as subject that the aim o" sound abilities in the area o" reading comprehension is most e'plicitly addressed. s with writing& language as subject thus has a key "unction in helping students ac7uire competences they need across the curriculum ,language in other subjectswhich o" course will also be addressed within subjects themselves. Connections between reading and writing lthough writing is o"ten seen as a speci"ic competence or set o" competences within the area o" literacy& it is closely connected to reading. .hrough reading te'ts similar to the ones they are e'pected to master in writing& learners can actually learn more than the description o" the task re7uirement can tell them. te't is richer in its speci"ic semiotical character than a set o" rules can ever be. .his is due to the "act that a number o" special traits o" te'ts like style& tempo variation and nuances in vocabulary are di""icult to e'plain and thus to teach. 9odel te'ts may convey this implicitly which may have an impact on the reader. $ven more e""icient "or learning however is a methodology using te't models "or pointing out e'plicitly traits or details o" importance in the speci"ic te't. .he model te'ts thus serve as e'amples& and pointing out details gives an impression o" the range o" possibilities in writing within a genre. 9ethodologies based on interaction between receptive and productive language acts are commonly used in language as subject classrooms

Language Policy Division

Learning to read .e't and media are all around us in our societies and thus children make contact with signs and symbols long be"ore school. Research in early reading and writing ac7uisition stresses speci"ic insights into communication via written te't that pupils may bring along and that help them when getting introduced to "ormal reading instruction/ ; "irstly& pupils are aware o" letters being symbols that somehow represent spoken language and thus have a notion o" a distinction between the spoken and the written ; secondly& pupils discover the communicative "unction o" written language ,e.g. via 1writing2 letters; thirdly& pupils already know speci"ic letters& can read and write their name and possibly more. <hether pupils already bring in these insights very much depends on "amily background and e'periences in kindergarten and pre!school. <here children are read to regularly& it is more likely that conceptions o" the written language can be built upon and that pupils already have some genre knowledge& e.g. an implicit knowledge o" genres& the notion o" rhythm in poetry. .he competence to structure words one hears into syllables and phonemes = phonological awareness = is a very important prere7uisite "or reading ac7uisition. .o o""er support to children in these areas seems help"ul "or ensuring a good start in school. >arious models have been created to describe the development o" learning to read. <hat is usually stressed within early reading ac7uisition is the necessity to decode words& either via an alphabetic strategy that reads letter by letter or by decoding whole words via sight& a process that is even more comple' "or children whose "irst language is not the language o" schooling. ccordingly& various methods e'ist "or the "irst phase o" learning to read that have to take into account the speci"ics o" a language ,correspondence o" graphemes and phonemes-& e.g. analytical methods that start with letters?phones3 synthetical methods that start with sentences or whole words3 analytical!synthetical methods. @owever& discussions about which method o""ers best results can be con"using. $mpirical studies do not show clear advantages o" one method over others. Aactors that are less easily "i'ed ,but not dependent on the speci"ics o" the relation between spoken and written language in a language- are important/ .he personality o" the teacher& the students6 ways o" thinking and learning and the way the methods are applied are crucial. .aking a broader perspective on the learner and his or her aims& a balance between an approach that trains skills and an approach that o""ers encounters with meaning"ul te'ts o""ers good learning opportunities "or most children. <ithin this line o" argument an integrative approach o" learning to read and learning to write is o"ten recommended. $arly reading ac7uisition should normally take place within the "irst two or three years o" schooling = i" not in pre!school& the aim being the ability to decode automatically and to read "luently. @owever& within the last decade the awareness that learning to read is a process that reaches well into secondary education ,or even longer- has grown. .hus& many international curricula and other programs deal with reading ac7uisition well beyond the early stages o" school in their attempt to ensure reading literacy. Learning to read in plurilingual contexts It has long been pointed out that students should all be entitled to sound reading and writing competences. @owever& "or students whose "amily language is not the language o" schooling& 7uestions o" how to support their ac7uisition process are not easily answered. In one way this is

Language Policy Division

not surprising since the methodological considerations do not o""er a clear picture even "or monolingual children. Still& children who grow up with more than one language may learn the written language o" the standard language in a di""erent way. International studies on outcomes like PIS have pointed out that especially children with a lower socioeconomic background o"ten do not bene"it enough "rom institutional education. #ne consensus is that the "irst area o" support "or these learner groups concerns the pre!school!period/ they would bene"it "rom conte'ts that allow "or insights into the sign!system and the communicative "unction o" the written language. much debated 7uestion concerns encouragement o" not only bi! or plurilingualism but pluriliteralism as well. Arom a languages o" education perspective the acknowledgement o" pupils6 repertoire is an important value = as well as its development and enrichment via schooling. 9odels that develop more than one language in reading and writing could answer to that demand. Research points out that such an approach also supports the cognitive development o" the students and their language awareness. "ruit"ul approach would coordinate the ac7uisition processes in both = or more = languages which points to the demand o" cooperation in school and teacher training. 9oreover& teachers o" the standard language bene"it "rom sound insights into the various language "amilies present in their schools. .his will help them in diagnosing the so called 1"aults2 children make and see their steps more clearly. @owever& in some countries more than C+ di""erent "irst languages will sometimes be present in one classroom which hints at the organisational di""iculties involved. #" course& not only the 7uestion o" 1which language,s- is ? are aimed at2 needs to be considered. gain& the way teaching is arranged and methods are applied is crucial. .hus& programs that aim at a respect"ul acceptance and awareness o" multicultural and plurilingual learning conte'ts that manage to cross boarders also o" milieus and overcome de"icit approaches have been developed. Reading development reading!curriculum has to care "or the development o" content knowledge ,genres but also content related to language in a broader sense-& the ac7uisition o" procedures and strategies and the development o" dispositions and attitudes over the years. .he bridge between pre!school and primary and between primary and secondary education needs special attention. %ooperation o" the various institutions should allow "or smoothing the transition processes by e'plicitly addressing competences and their ac7uisition in a cumulative way. @owever& modelling progression within language as subject is a comple' matter/ to arrange a reading curriculum in a cumulative manner depends on care"ul diagnosis and task management. In general the thematic scope as well as the comple'ity o" the te'ts which are read will di""er and broaden. @owever& te't comple'ity again depends on conte't and includes "actors related to/ ! interest and motivation o" the reader ! prior knowledge o" the reader ! comple'ity o" the theme covered ! comple'ity o" te't presentation& o" tasks and the aims "ollowed. #ne way o" 7uali"ying the comple'ity o" tasks is to distinguish between/ ! reproduce ! link knowledge items and connect ! re"lect and evaluate.

Language Policy Division

gain& the comple'ity o" the procedures will depend on te't and conte't "actors. $'amples o" "ascinating interactions on comple' literary te'ts even in primary education illustrate how mani"old the criterion 1te't comple'ity2 is. .his strongly a""ects the possibility o" assessing outcome through summative assessment. Reading literacy and reading strategies $specially since PIS the notion o" reading literacy has been prominent in $urope and beyond/ Reading literacy is understanding, using and reflecting on written texts, in order to achieve one's goals, to develop one's knowledge and potential, and to participate in society. D#$%D?PIS E ccordingly& reading literacy has been named a key!competence within knowledge!based societies. .he ac7uisition o" knowledge is very o"ten based on the use o" te't in a broad sense = including multi!modal te'ts that operate with di""erent sign systems ,combination o" te't and diagrams& o" te't and picturesF-. competent reader is = according to the PIS !de"inition = able to make use o" te't with regard to goals she or he sets hersel"?himsel" including the development o" knowledge. She or he can make use o" te'ts so as to be able to participate in society and culture. .he conte'ts o" reading are "ormulated in an abstract manner. .heir speci"ic "orm will depend on individual tasks. narrow approach which isolates reading strategies "rom the 1what2 and 1what "or2 does not cover the whole "ield o" reading literacy. It is especially within language as subject that a broad spectrum o" reading activities is aimed at. .he training o" reading strategies has become a prominent "ield within the teaching o" reading& partly in response to unsatis"actory achievements especially with disadvantaged learner groups. .he term 1strategy2 is used in various ways "or di""erent methodological approaches to te'ts such as activating prior knowledge& keeping attention to headlines& skim! and scan!reading& marking key!terms while reading& summarising essentials. @owever& schematic strategies do not automatically lead to su""icient understandings o" te'ts/ a central task within the teaching o" reading strategies is to enable students to use them in accordance with speci"ic te'ts and reading goals which have to be set. #ne o" the hardest issues is to work out which tool to use "or which purpose. .hus& metacognition& which o""ers access to e'perience previously made and to actual behaviour& plays a key!role and some programs even address metacognitive strategies/ how to deal with di""icult parts& how to secure understanding. <ithin the current conte't it might be worthwhile pointing out that applying strategies is not an aim in itsel". It should serve the purpose o" the construction o" meaning& o" making use o" te'ts "or other purposes and o" allowing "or learning via reading. .hus& the balance that was argued "or in the "irst paragraph = o""er training and opportunities "or meaning"ul encounters with te't with respect to goals and aims = is rein"orced. .he notion o" reading literacy again points to the key "unction o" language as subject/ speci"ic language teaching with regard to language activities across the curriculum. .he methodological approach to reading should help learners to deal with di""erent te'ts in various conte'ts. Still& there are limits to the contribution o" language as subject in this "ield which concern the domain speci"ics o" learning. Language as subject cannot provide the content nor the critical prior subject speci"ic knowledge which in"luences the reading process a great deal. Reading for different purposes Learning to read is o"ten linked to encouraging a range o" reading activities beyond school conte'ts. It is generally accepted that within the subject attempts should be made to encourage
Language Policy Division

students6 reading beyond school and "or pleasure. .hus& in primary and secondary education pupils should be encouraged to read a wide range o" te'ts both "or pleasure and study. .hey should gain independence in their choice o" books as well as in their reading. Support "or reading "or personal enrichment also re"lects the conviction that reading motivation is an important "actor "or entering into the process o" constructing meaning "rom te't and "or the development o" reading competences. .his also means that a wide range o" te'ts should be o""ered with regard to both theme and "ormal "eatures. .hus& it could well be argued that aiming at both pleasure and studying is more ade7uate as a learner!sensitive approach. It is via emotional and a""ective responses to a large e'tent that we develop attitudes and dispositions towards reading and other areas o" competences. .hese dispositions and attitudes will o"ten be crucial "or pupils6 per"ormances. Depending on their purposes students will read in di""erent ways. Reading modes include an instrumental and selective way o" dealing with te'ts "or in"ormation as well as an intimate way o" becoming immersed in a "ictional world. ariety of texts and genres ! c"oice of text Introducing students to various genres is a common aim o" reading education and should enable them to tackle te'ts in mani"old conte'ts and "or mani"old purposes more and more independently. Such a variety also re"lects the plurality o" ways students make use o" various media. distinction between literary and e'pository te'ts does not yet cover this plurality. Looking closely at te'ts in the new media can o""er insight into di""erent communicative "unctions& the in"ormative "unction being one among others. %onte'ts o" use will have to be considered in order to work out the genre and an ade7uate mode o" reading it. 9aking students aware o" genre!speci"ics is an important aspect o" reading education "rom primary onwards. @owever& a central task is to avoid schematic use o" genre!knowledge that does not take into account implications "or the communicative& e'pressive or poetic "unction and thus does not help the understanding or interpretation o" te'ts. #""ering a variety o" genres can serve as one criterion "or the choice o" te't. .his criterion also concerns reading competences as a demand across the curriculum/ <ithin a languages o" education approach it is necessary to communicate te'tual demands and genre "eatures "rom 1outside2 language as subject and at the same time address other subjects to share in the e""ort o" introducing students to the di""erent and more or less domain speci"ic te'tual genres e'plicitly. #ther criteria concern learners6 "ields o" interest ,possibly gender!speci"ic- and thematic aspects. .hen te't choice should consider modality and should cover multi!modal te'ts& too. 1Reading2 in this "ield is a metaphorical denominator o" what students do when dealing with "ilms and other media within school/ understanding is an important aim and tools "or analysis will di""er considerably "rom reading strategies in other conte'ts. In a similar way as it is the case with reading literature the process also includes aesthetic perceptions and their development to a large e'tent. In multi!modal te'ts that combine pictures and writing the interplay o" the di""erent semiotic systems contributes to the making o" meaning. traditionally important criterion concerns literary education within the domain o" reading and the 7uestion o" the canon. Ai'ed canons are o"ten not "elt as being appropriate within a multicultural and pluralistic society. @owever& to introduce students to culture,s- via literary reading o" classic and non!classic te'ts is a valuable contribution to their development and Bildung. nother important criterion& o"ten di""icult to describe& concerns the diagnosis o" the reading demands a te't might pose and the notion o" progression.

Language Policy Division

Literature Literature stands as a core o" language as a subject& but it is a dynamic "ield that does not e'clude conceptual and methodological tensions. .hese include/ the di""erent visions determining educational policies which may de"ine the role o" teaching and learning literature in various ways3 the di""erent ways in which teachers themselves understand and approach literature3 the proportion between linguistic and literary content elements in the language as subject curriculum3 or even the option to split the language as subject curriculum into two di""erent subjects ,one "or language and another "or literature-. ll these are part o" older or recent debates in this domain. Literature is mainly associated with reading& but reading encompasses more than literature ,5literary te'ts6 or "iction- and aims at developing the competence o" reading to address a much wider scope. .his may include multimodal te'ts& media or cultural products such as theatre& "ilms or plastic works. @owever broad we conceive it& literature is meant to bring in opportunities "or cultural encounters& "or understanding di""erent e'periences or di""erent ways o" communicating them& "or evaluating ideas& "or reaching a more pro"ound understanding o" the world and o" onesel". Studying literature helps learners to develop the strategies "or understanding te'ts and "or interpreting them& keeping di""erent perspectives in view. Literature is also associated with speaking about the particular te't students are reading or with listening to their classmates6 opinions about that same te't. .he comprehension and interpretation o" a literary te't is also connected to writing about the te't or to developing creative writing activities. <e can say that discussing a te't is an opportunity "or developing skills o" oral and written communication competences. Pieces o" literature are also a basis "or re"lection on language/ it is sometimes argued that literature encapsulates language in its most subtle and intricate "orms where nuances o" meaning and ambiguity have to be embraced. Hut teaching and reading literature is more than developing competences. Reading literature can be a challenge& a source o" pleasure and a stimulus to personal development. ims "or teaching and learning literature in school .he goals "or teaching and learning literature in school have a dual purpose/ institutional learning should develop reading literacy so that students are capable o" reading literary te'ts among others3 it should besides o""er opportunities o" participating in cultural li"e and o" e'periencing literature as personally relevant. Aor reaching the "irst goal& language as subject aims to develop di""erent categories o" skills/ oral skills ,participating in discussion& presenting? interpreting literary te'ts-3 reading skills ,understanding content o" written te'ts& interpreting and re"lecting upon literature o" all genres& understanding and analysing a broad spectrum o" te'tual "orms& communicating reading e'periences& learning "rom written te'ts-3 writing skills ,composing te'ts "or presenting thoughts and meaning& developing a spectrum o" writing strategies "or di""erent genres and situations-. Aor the second goal& the aims are/ consideration o" 5the other63 critical thinking and sound judgement3 "le'ibility in thinking and argumentation3 courage to e'press personal opinions3 e'pressing understanding and e'periences3 e'ploring one6s own thinking and values. n integrated aim& including both cognitive and attitudinal dimensions is re"lection on language or culture& which may be especially signi"icant in the secondary education.
Language Policy Division

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ll these aims contribute to Bildung/ learning with literature should allow "or personal development within a cultural conte't. .he students should be introduced to the cultural li"e o" society and they should be o""ered opportunities to participate. .o o""er opportunities to participate then& should include e'periences o" cultural li"e in present time and in all parts o" society. In this perspective& studying literature means/ being able to read and understand a diversity o" te'ts and to bene"it "rom literature "or personal development& enjoying reading and participation in the cultural li"e. .o conclude& a key goal o" teaching literature is to develop li"elong readers& and participate in cultural li"e. recent document issued by the Parliamentary ssembly o" the %ouncil o" $urope ,LI8I/ Promoting the teaching o" $uropean literature& C++G- hints at Bildung in a transcultural perspective o" $uropean citiJenship& stressing the chance to 5inculcate $uropean citiJenship6 through o""ering students at all levels a 5transversal approach to $urope6s heritage& highlighting the common link o" respect "or cultural diversity6 and moving beyond an approach to the teaching o" literature that is mainly oriented towards the national heritage. .he recommendation in this document is 5to present the teaching o" $uropean literature as an integral part o" education in $uropean citiJenship& having regard to cultural diversity& in accordance with the $uropean %onvention on @uman Rights& and to the linguistic pluralism o" our continent6. %urriculum approaches .he curriculum approaches concerning the study o" literature in school derive "rom two main approaches/ learning about literature& in which the cultural heritage and the discourse about literature are dominant& and learning with literature& with a strong orientation towards the process o" reading and towards the reader& who has an important role in the construction o" meaning. .here are at least "our di""erent approaches that can be tackled in the process o" teaching and learning literature/ ! the cultural approach& aiming at the student6s cultural development on the basis o" the cultural heritage,s- ,understood as valid perspectives on the knowledge o" li"e and humanity-3 ! the linguistic approach& which emphasiJes the autonomy o" the literary te't and is oriented towards the stylistic analysis and the structure o" the te't3 ! the social approach& aiming at developing the students6 social awareness through literature& understood as part o" reality3 ! the personal development approach& which is reader oriented& and in"ormed by the reception theory& stimulating re"lection and autonomy o" thinking about the te't. .he "our approaches as theoretic models are not to be seen as e'clusive. .he dominant perspective or the main "ocus is important in a curriculum& because it guides the methodological approach o" te'ts in the classroom. .he dominant perspective is also important "or the te'ts6 selection. Representative te'ts "rom literary history is speci"ic to the cultural model3 te'ts relevant "or certain genres "it the aesthetic approach3 and the thematic selection o" te'ts is appropriate "or the social model and "or the personal development model. tendency to reshape the traditional domain o" literature is obvious in recent curriculum developments that promote te't diversity = also with regard to cultural diversity = and are mostly reader oriented& "ocusing on the process o" reading during which students can develop

Language Policy Division

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reading skills and interioriJe positive attitudes towards reading and interest "or the cultural li"e. progression "rom learning with literature to learning about literature is "ound in many curricula. Learning about literature is an approach "ound more o"ten in the secondary level o" education& where the cultural competence or the ability to conte'tualiJe the literary works and artistic movements becomes important. di""erent "ocus through the years o" school in the "ield o" reading may take the "ollowing route/ a "ocus on te'ts that can be related to students6 e'perience in the primary& a "ocus on te't variety ,such as genres& types o" discourse- in lower secondary& and a "ocus on cultural representations in upper secondary. Deciding on the dominant approach to literature has underlying theoretical and political implications and has implications "or the way the literary canon is viewed ,see the study on The iterary !anon" i#plications for the teaching of language as sub$ect-. Reading as text&reception s with other aspects o" language as subject& the knowledge& skills attitudes and abilities "or reading competence need to be viewed in an integrated way. .hey are presented here separately in order to show the di""erent dimensions.
subject/ language as subject knowledge Skills ,speci"ic methods and strategiesreading ,te'ts and mediacontent related to te't ,various genres3 pragmatic and non! pragmatic3 various cultural backgrounds3 te'ts "rom various domains o" knowledge3 multi! modal te'ts- ! including a broader knowledge o" language ,grammar and vocabularyreading strategies and methods "or te't reception in a variety o" conte'ts and "or a variety o" aims an inclination to reading creatively and with enjoyment3 an in7uiring& active and critical approach to reading attitudes and values learning to learn ,methods and strategies3 sel" assessmenttrans"erable procedures based on using communication in learning metacognition

(uestions for consideration

Is su""icient attention given to reading "or pleasure with the language as subject curriculum0 re primary teachers trained to understand strategies to develop advanced reading skills and are secondary teachers trained to support the development o" basic reading0 Does the language as subject curriculum embody a su""iciently broad concept o" reading& including a range o" genres and te'ts& and the development o" reading strategies0 Is literature part o" a coherent?

Language Policy Division

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balanced language as subject curriculum0 curriculum0

re literature and language? communication integrated in the

re the aims "or teaching and learning literature clearly stated in the curriculum& embracing values as well as knowledge and skills0 Is literature approached in an open "le'ible manner in the curriculum& so that to leave choices to teachers in choosing te'ts and methodology0 re teachers and students supported to deal both with literature as a source "or insights into the development o" a national heritage as well as "or providing into the plurality o" cultures& their di""erences& similarities and interconnectedness0 Is there any progression in the curriculum regarding the literary competence o" students0 Does the curriculum enhance metacognition in students as well as re"le'ion with respect to personal attitude development0

Language Policy Division

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