Section 1: Principles of Chemistry

a) States of matter b) Atoms c) Atomic structure d) Relative formula masses and molar volumes of gases e) Chemical formulae and chemical equations f) Ionic compounds g) Covalent substances h) Metallic crystals i) Electrolysis

a) States of matter
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 1.1 understand the arrangement, movement and energy of the particles in each of the three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas 1.2 describe how the interconversion of solids, liquids and gases are achieved and recall the names used for these interconversions 1.3 describe the changes in arrangement, movement and energy of particles during these interconversions.

b) Atoms
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 1.4 describe simple experiments leading to the idea of the small size of particles and their movement including: i) dilution of coloured solutions ii) diffusion experiments 1.5 understand the terms atom and molecule 1.6 understand the differences between elements, compounds and mixtures 1.7 describe techniques for the separation of mixtures, including simple distillation, fractional distillation, filtration, crystallisation and paper chromatography.

c) Atomic structure
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 1.8 recall that atoms consist of a central nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons, orbiting in shells 1.9 recall the relative mass and relative charge of a proton, neutron and electron 1.10 understand the terms atomic number, mass number, isotopes and relative atomic mass (Ar) 1.11 calculate the relative atomic mass of an element from the relative abundances of its isotopes 1.12 understand that the Periodic Table is an arrangement of elements in order of atomic number

1.13 deduce the electronic configurations of the first twenty elements from their positions in the Periodic Table 1.14 deduce the number of outer electrons in a main group element from its position in the Periodic Table.

d) Relative formula masses and molar volumes of gases

Students will be assessed on their ability to: 1.15 calculate relative formula masses (Mr) from relative atomic masses (Ar) 1.16 understand the use of the term mole to represent the amount of substance 1.17 understand the term mole as the Avogadro number of particles (atoms, molecules, formulae, ions or electrons) in a substance 1.18 carry out mole calculations using relative atomic mass (Ar) and relative formula mass (Mr) 1.19 understand the term molar volume of a gas and use its values (24 dm3 and 24,000 cm3) at room temperature and pressure (rtp) in calculations.

e) Chemical formulae and chemical equations

Students will be assessed on their ability to: 1.20 write word equations and balanced chemical equations to represent the reactions studied in this specification 1.21 use the state symbols (s), (l), (g) and (aq) in chemical equations to represent solids, liquids, gases and aqueous solutions respectively 1.22 understand how the formulae of simple compounds can be obtained experimentally, including metal oxides, water and salts containing water of crystallisation 1.23 calculate empirical and molecular formulae from experimental data 1.24 calculate reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations 1.25 calculate percentage yield 1.26 carry out mole calculations using volumes and molar concentrations.

f) Ionic compounds
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 1.27 describe the formation of ions by the gain or loss of electrons 1.28 understand oxidation as the loss of electrons and reduction as the gain of electrons 1.29 recall the charges of common ions in this specification 1.30 deduce the charge of an ion from the electronic configuration of the atom from which the ion is formed 1.31 explain, using dot and cross diagrams, the formation of ionic compounds by electron transfer, limited to combinations of elements from Groups 1, 2, 3, and 5, 6, 7

1.32 understand ionic bonding as a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions 1.33 understand that ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because of strong electrostatic forces between oppositely charged ions 1.34 understand the relationship between ionic charge and the melting point and boiling point of an ionic compound 1.35 describe an ionic crystal as a giant three-dimensional lattice structure held together by the attraction between oppositely charged ions 1.36 draw a simple diagram to represent the positions of the ions in a crystal of sodium chloride.

g) Covalent substances
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 1.37 describe the formation of a covalent bond by the sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms 1.38 understand covalent bonding as a strong attraction between the bonding pair of electrons and the nuclei of the atoms involved in the bond 1.39 explain, using dot and cross diagrams, the formation of covalent compounds by electron sharing for the following substances: i) hydrogen ii) chlorine iii) hydrogen chloride iv) water v) methane vi) ammonia vii) oxygen viii) nitrogen ix) carbon dioxide x) ethene xi) ethane 1.40 recall that substances with simple molecular structures are gases or liquids, or solids with low melting points 1.41 explain why substances with simple molecular structures have low melting points in terms of the relatively weak forces between the molecules 1.42 explain the high melting points of substances with giant covalent structures in terms of the breaking of many strong covalent bonds 1.43 draw simple diagrams representing the positions of the atoms in diamond and graphite 1.44 explain how the uses of diamond and graphite depend on their structures, limited to graphite as a lubricant and diamond in cutting.

h) Metallic crystals
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 1.45 describe a metal as a giant structure of positive ions surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons

1.46 explain the malleability and electrical conductivity of a metal in terms of its structure and bonding.

i) Electrolysis
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 1.47 understand an electric current as a flow of electrons or ions 1.48 understand why covalent compounds do not conduct electricity 1.49 understand why ionic compounds conduct electricity only when molten or in solution 1.50 describe simple experiments to distinguish between electrolytes and non-electrolytes 1.51 recall that electrolysis involves the formation of new substances when ionic compounds conduct electricity 1.52 describe simple experiments for the electrolysis, using inert electrodes, of molten salts such as lead(II) bromide 1.53 describe simple experiments for the electrolysis, using inert electrodes, of aqueous solutions of sodium chloride, copper(II) sulfate and dilute sulfuric acid and predict the products 1.54 write ionic half-equations representing the reactions at the electrodes during electrolysis 1.55 recall that one faraday represents one mole of electrons 1.56 calculate the amounts of the products of the electrolysis of molten salts and aqueous solutions.

Principles of Chemistry
Structure of atoms
Everything is made up of atoms. Every atom contains three types of sub-atomic particle. Sub-atomic particle Proton Neutron Electron Relative mass 1 1 (very slightly heavier) 1/2000 Relative charge +1 0 -1

Protons and neutrons are located within the nucleus of the atom. The electrons orbit the nucleus in a series of clouds called shells.

The largest number of electrons which can be held in the 1st shell is 2. Nucleus Very small No charge overall Electrons Negatively charged Form a series of clouds The 2nd shell can hold 8. The 3rd shell can hold 18, though for GCSE it can be said to hold only 8.

The number of protons in an atom determines which element it is. There are equal numbers of electrons and protons in any atom, and a similar number of neutrons. Electrons can be shared or transferred between atoms in chemicals reactions to produce bonds. Atomic number: the number of protons in an atom. Mass number: the number of sub-atomic particles inside the nucleus. Ions: if an atom loses or gains some electrons in a reaction, it will have an overall charge. An atom in this charged state is an ion. Isotopes: these are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Hydrogen for example has three isotopes: Isotope Normal hydrogen Deuterium Tritium Symbol 1 H 2 H 3 H Number of neutrons 0 1 2

Isotopes of elements all have the same chemical properties but different physical properties. For example, some are radioactive. Relative atomic mass: this is the combined relative masses of the nucleons in one particular isotope or an average of several isotopes. For example, the most common isotope of chlorine is 35Cl, which accounts for around 76% of the atoms of chlorine. However, the isotope 37Cl accounts for around 24% of all chlorine atoms. Therefore, the average atomic mass of all chlorine isotopes is: 350.76+370.24=35.48 35.5 (though there is no isotope of chlorine with 35.5 nucleons).

Periodic table
The periodic table is arranged according to atomic number.

Groups: vertical columns of elements. Elements in group X will have X electrons in their outer shell of electrons. It is this shell which is involved in chemical reactions. For example, lithium is in group 1, and therefore has 1 electron in its outer shell. Periods: horizontal rows of elements. Elements in period Y will have Y shells of electrons. This affects the properties of the element. For example, bromine is in period 4, and so has 4 shells of electrons. The electron configuration of elements can be easily deduced from the periodic table: Potassium, being in group 1 and period 4, will have 1 electron in its outer shell and 4 shells of electrons. Its electron configuration is 2,8,8,1. Not all elements are as simple as this though, as Rubidium has electron configuration 2,8,18,8,1. For GCSE only the electron configurations of the first 20 elements are expected to be deduced. Elements are often written and sometimes displayed on periodic tables like so: Nucleon number (mass number) Symbol

Proton number (atomic number)

Elements, mixtures and compounds

Atoms rarely go around alone. They usually are bonded to other atoms of the same or a different element. Elements are molecules or atoms of only one type of atom Mixtures consist of several different elements or molecules that have not undergone a chemical reaction Compound consist of several different elements which have undergone a chemical reaction and bonded

Diffusion
Particles in a gas move around quickly and randomly. When a gas jar of hydrogen is put over a gas jar of air, the air molecules move up into the top jar and the hydrogen molecules into the bottom jar. Hydrogen The molecules of gas in each jar are moving rapidly, colliding with each other and the sides of the jar. Air Air Testing with a lighted splint proves that both jars now contain hydrogen. Hydrogen Mixture The rapid movement of the molecules allows the hydrogen to diffuse into the bottom jar even though it is heavier than air. Mixture

Diffusion is evidence for the kinetic theory of matter which states that matter is made of tiny, invisible particles which are in constant motion in gases and liquids.

An example of diffusion in a liquid:

Molecules in the water bump into the particles in potassium manganate (VII).

As the particles are spread out by the movement of the water molecules, the colours slowly diffuses through the liquid.

After a few days the particles have mixed completely with the water.

States of matter
Solid Particles are held tightly together in a fixed position, so solids have a definite shape. However, the particles are vibrating about their fixed positions because they have energy. Low energy particles. Liquid Particles are still held tightly together but have enough energy to move around. Liquids have no definite shape and will take on the shape of their container. Medium energy particles. Gas Particles are further apart and have enough energy to move apart from each other. Gases can expand to fill the container they are in. Gases can be compressed to form liquids by using high pressure and cooling. High energy particles.

Bonding
Atoms bond with other atoms to try to obtain the stable electron configuration (that is a configuration with 8 valency electrons). So, if a metal has two electrons in its outer shell it will try to lose them and make the previous shell (containing 8 electrons) the outer shell. If a non-metal has 7 valency electrons it will try to obtain an 8th. Hence, those metals not in D or F block can have their valencies easily determined by their group (as the number of outer-shell electrons in a metal is equal to its valency). The valencies of non-metals can also be determined by 8 minus the number of the group of the element.

Ionic bonding
Ionic bonding involves transfer of electrons between metals and non-metals. Both elements involved try to achieve complete outer electron shells. Metals lose electrons from their outer shells and form positive ions (this is oxidation) Non-metals gain electrons into their outer shells and form negative ions (this is reduction)

The ion formed from a particular element depends on the number of electrons in the outer shell. An element in group 2 has 2 electrons in its outer shell. To gain a full outer shell, it must lose these. When it does, a 2+ ion is formed. This means that when an ionic compound forms, metals give electrons to non-metals. The ions formed are attracted to each other (as opposite charges attract). Therefore, the non-metals and metals are held together by strong electrostatic forces - these are bonds. The bonding process can be represented in dot-and-cross diagrams: These two ions are now attracted to each other and so form a bond. The resulting compound is NaCl. It is the same in this case, except two electrons are transferred. The resulting compound is MgO. The bonds are stronger as there are higher charges involved. The melting and boiling points are therefore also higher. One 2+ ion can attract two 1- ions. This means that elements in group 2 can bond with elements in group 7 in a ratio of 1:2. Of course, this is known already, as elements of group 2 have valencies of 2, and those of group 7 have valencies of 1. If an ion has a 3+ charge, it can attract three ions with 1- charges:

These 3 ions are now attracted to each other, to form the compound AlF3.

Dot and cross diagrams To represent ionic formulae, dot and cross diagrams can be drawn:

Sodium chloride

Aluminium oxide

Ionic structures
Ionic compounds form giant lattice structures. For example, when sodium chloride is formed by ionic bonding, the ions do not pair up. Each sodium ion is surrounded by 6 chlorine ions, and each chlorine ion by 6 sodium ions. The ions are held firmly in place.

Chloride ion Properties of ionic compounds Hard crystals High melting points Dissolve in water Dont conduct electricity when solid Do conduct electricity when molten of in solution Explanation Strong electrostatic bonds between the ions. Strong electrostatic bonds between the ions. The water is also able to form strong electrostatic attractions with the ions. The ions are therefore plucked off the lattice structure. Strong forces between ions prevent them from moving and flowing. The strong forces between the ions are broken down and so the ions are able to flow.

Sodium ion

Covalent bonding
Covalent bonding involves electron sharing. It occurs between atoms of non-metals and results in the formation of a molecule. A single covalent bond is formed when 2 atoms each contribute 1 electron to a shared pair of electrons

For example, hydrogen gas exists as H2 molecules. In order that both atoms can fill their outer shells, each one contributes an electron to be shared. This is represented as H H. This is the displayed formula. The line represents the single covalent bond. Water also has single covalent bonds:

Sometimes double bonds are formed. In this case, 2 pairs of electrons are shared in each bond:

Further examples of covalent bonds are given below:

Chlorine (Cl2)

Hydrogen chloride (HCl)

Methane (CH4) Nitrogen (N2)

Covalent molecules
Covalent bonds are very strong. They are intramolecular bonds. Much weaker forces hold molecules together. These are intermolecular forces. Properties of simple molecular covalent substances Low melting and boiling points Dont conduct electricity Explanation Weak intermolecular forces There are no ions or free electrons present to flow. The covalent bond is too strong for the electrons to be removed from it easily.

Some elements form diatomic molecules (that is they only really exist in pairs, e.g. H2): Fluorine, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Bromine, Iodine, Chlorine [FOHN BrICl]

Macromolecules
Some covalently bonded substances exist as large structures. Diamond, for example, exists as a giant structure in which each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 4 others:

Strong bonds The structure and bonds of diamond make it incredibly strong. Its melting point is a huge 3730C and it is the hardest naturally-occurring material in the world. Its hardness and high melting point makes it ideal for use in industrial drill bits (e.g. when drilling for oil and gas). Carbon has several allotropes. These are different forms of the same element. Another is graphite:

Free-moving electrons

Weak bonds Graphite can conduct electricity because it has free-moving electrons between the layers of covalently bonded carbon atoms. The layers easily slide off, and graphite is widely used as a lubricant, or as the lead in pencils.

Metallic bonding
Metals are giant structures with high melting and boiling points. They consist of a giant structure of positive ions surrounded by a sea of delocalised negative electrons:

Metals conduct electricity because of the free electrons in the giant structures. They can easily flow. Metallic bonds are quite strong, giving metals their generally high melting and boiling points. The layers of positive ions can easily slide over each other and take up different positions. The delocalised electrons move with them so the metallic bonds are not broken; metals are malleable.

Separation Techniques
Many mixtures contain useful substances mixed with unwanted material. In order to obtain these useful substances, chemists often have to separate them from the impurities:

Filtration
Filtration is a common separation technique used in chemistry laboratories all over the world when a solid needs to be separated from a liquid. This is often done through the use of filter paper. This contains holes that, although too small to be seen, are large enough to allow the liquid molecules through but not the solid ones. The solid is therefore trapped in the filter paper while the liquid moves through it. Residue: the material left inside the paper. Filtrate: the liquid which is allowed through. An example would be the filtration of sandy water. The sand (which will become the residue) becomes stuck in the filter paper as the particles are too large to move through. The water (which is the filtrate) can move freely through the paper, as the molecules are smaller than the holes.

Chromatography
This is a way of separating solutions mixed together. Ink is placed on the X spot and the paper is put into water. As the water moves up the paper the different dyes travel different distances and so are separated on the chromatogram.

Blue Paper Black ink Water Red Purple

To identify an unknown material, it can be compared with other, known materials: In this case, X must be made up of B and C.

Simple distillation
Water out To obtain a solvent from a solution, simple distillation can be used. The solution is heated, the liquid boils and turns into a vapour, and the vapour is condensed into the pure liquid to be collected. Condenser The impurities are left behind, as they have far greater boiling points. Hard water Water in Soft water

Fractional distillation
This is used to separate a mixture of liquids with different boiling points. The mixture is boiled, and the liquid with the lowest boiling point turns to a vapour first. It then comes off, and is condensed back into a liquid at the top of the fractionating column. The next lowest boiling point comes off, and when the temperature at the top of the fractionating column is high enough, it too will reach the condenser. This continues until all desired substances have been boiled off. The thermometer can be used to tell which fraction is boiling at any time. Once the temperature reaches the boiling point of the desired fraction, it can be condensed off into a special test tube. Fractional distillation is used to separate crude oil and for collecting ethanol from the fermentation mixture. Fractionating column containing glass beads Water in Thermometer

Water out

Condenser

Ethanol Ethanol + water + yeast

Crystallisation
To purify impure salts, the method is: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Add a solvent that the desired solid is soluble in, and dissolve it. Filter the mixture to remove the insoluble impurity. Heat the solution to remove some solvent. Leave to crystallise. Filter off the crystals, wash with a small amount of cold solvent and dry them. o This is the pure solid

An example of using this technique would be separating rock salt (the impure form of sodium chloride). Water is added to dissolve the salt but leave the other solids undissolved. Filter off the insoluble impurities, warm the salt solution and leave it to crystallise to form salt crystals.

Filter off excess solid Filter

Solution of one solid, and insoluble impurity

Evaporating dish

Evaporate to reduce volume of solution

Transfer hot Crystals formed liquid to after leaving to dish cool until solution is saturated

Moles
A mole is the number of atoms in 12g of carbon-12. Avogadros constant is the number of particles in one mole of a substance. It is around 61023. Relative formula mass is the combined relative atomic masses of every element in one molecule of a compound. For example, CaCO3 has a relative formula mass (Mr) of 100.

Moles in general

Example question: How many moles are there in 72g of magnesium? Ar of magnesium = 24 Write down the formula: moles
mass molar mass

Substitute the numbers: moles

72 24

Write the answer and the units: 3 mol

Moles in gases
One mole of any gas at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.) occupies 24dm3. Therefore:

Example question: How many moles are present in 336cm3 of nitrogen gas at r.t.p.? moles moles
volume (l 24 0.336 24

Moles in solution
Many chemicals are dissolved in water to form aqueous solutions. Chemists usually measure the concentration of a solution: () Making a 1mol/dm3 solution: mol/l)

Find the mass of the container

Add 160g copper (II) sulfate: Cu + S +O4 64 + 32 + (4 26) 160g

Add copper (II) sulfate to 250ml water and stir until dissolved

Add solution to a 1dm3 volumetric flask

Make volume up to 1dm3 with water and shake flask a few times

Applying moles to molecules

Working out chemical formulae by experimentation

Find the mass of the crucible and lid

Add magnesium, and then work out mass of magnesium added Work out the mass of the magnesium oxide inside the crucible, and the mass of oxygen that has reacted

Heat the crucible gently, lifting the lid occasionally White powder After heating for 5 minutes, leave the crucible to cool for 5 minutes

The empirical formula of a compound can be calculated by experimentation. Equation: Masses: Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide 0.24g + (0.40-0.24 0.40g 0.24g + 0.16g 0.40g

The formula can then be found from these results: Symbols: Masses: Number of moles: Ratio: Empirical formula: Mg 0.24g 0.24/24 0.01mol 1 MgO : O 0.16g 0.16/16 0.01mol 1

Percentage yield
When a chemical is being made in a laboratory, the general process is: 1. Turn the reactants into products. 2. Separate out the desired product from any others. 3. Purify the product. In the process of producing the required amount of pure product there will be some loss of the product. The amount of product made is the yield.

Electrolysis
Electric current: a flow of charged particles (electrons or ions). Covalent substances dont conduct electricity because they have no free-moving ions or electrons. Ionic substances dont have free-moving charged particles when solid, but when molten or in solution there are free-moving ions. Hence, ionic substances can conduct when molten or aqueous. Electrolytes: substances that conduct electricity when molten or in solution. Non-electrolytes: substances that dont conduct electricity when molten or in solution. Determining between electrolytes and non-electrolytes To do this, a light bulb must be connected to a circuit with electrodes in. The electrodes should be in the solution that is being tested. If it is an electrolyte, the light bulb will light, and if not it wont.

Electrolysis of molten ionic compounds

A molten ionic compound has free moving ions. An example of a molten ionic compound that can be electrolysed is lead (II) bromide (PbBr2). The Br- ions are attracted to the positive anode: 2Br- Br2 + 2eBrown vapour (bromine) Carbon electrodes Silvery solid (lead) Heat The Pb2+ ions are attracted to the negative cathode: Pb2+ + 2e- Pb

When electrolysing a molten ionic compound, the metal ions always form on the cathode and the nonmetal ions on the anode.

Electrolysis of solutions
A solution of a compound has free-moving ions too. An example of a compound that can be electrolysed in solution is hydrogen chloride (HCl). When in solution, this is called hydrochloric acid. The Cl- ions are attracted to the positive anode: Colourless gas (hydrogen) Green gas (chlorine) 2Cl- Cl2 + 2eThe H+ ions are attracted to the negative cathode: 2H+ + 2e- H2 Carbon electrodes Concentrated hydrochloric acid

Predicting the products of the electrolysis of a solution is slightly more complicated: When a substance, say copper (II) sulfate, is in solution, there are actually 4 ions present. 2 are from the copper (II) sulfate: Cu2+ + SO42But 2 are from the water it is dissolved in: H+ + OHAt the anode Oxygen is produced from the OH- ion: 4OH- O2 + 2H2O + 4eUnless a halogen (Cl, Br, I) ion is present in the substance. Here, the halogen forms at the anode. In copper (II) sulfate solution, no halogen ion is present, so oxygen forms at the anode In sodium chloride solution, a halogen ion is present (chloride), so chlorine forms at the anode

At the cathode If the metal ion in the compound is of a metal more reactive than hydrogen, then hydrogen forms. If the ion is of a metal less reactive than hydrogen, it forms. In copper (II) sulfate solution, copper forms at the cathode as it is more reactive than hydrogen In sodium chloride solution, hydrogen forms at the cathode, as sodium is more reactive than hydrogen

Left in solution Any ions which do not become atoms at the electrodes are left in solution. In the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution, chlorine and hydrogen form at the electrodes, leaving sodium and hydroxide ions in solution o This is important for the chlor-alkali industry

Important Both negative and positive ions are attracted to the electrodes in the electrolysis of aqueous solutions, however not all of them will form atoms.

Faradays
A faraday is the amount of charge in one mole of electrons. This is around 96,500C. One can use this to calculate the amounts of solids or gases produced in electrolysis. Example 1 If a current of 0.5A is passed for 30minutes (1800s) then a charge of 900C (much less than a mole of electrons) has been passed. If hydrogen gas is being produced: 2H+ + 2e- H2 it is important to realise that 2 electrons are needed to produce one molecule of hydrogen or 2 faradays are needed to produce 1 mole of hydrogen (which occupies 24,000cm3 at room temperature). Hence we expect (900C 24,000cm3)/(96500C 2) = 112cm3 of hydrogen (0.0093mol). Example 2 If one did the same sort of thing to produce copper from copper (II) sulfate by electrolysis (Cu2+ + 2e- Cu) one would expect 63.5g of copper (1 mole) from the passage of 2 faradays (193000C). So from passing 0.5A for 30 minutes we would get (900C 63.5g)/(96500C 2) = 0.296g of copper.

Charges of Common Ions

Valency 1 Positive ions Sodium Potassium Silver Hydrogen Ammonium Lithium Magnesium Calcium Zinc Copper (II) Tin (II) Lead (II) Iron (II) Aluminium Iron (III) Symbol Na+ K+ Ag+ H+ NH4+ Li+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Zn2+ Cu2+ Sn2+ Pb2+ Fe2+ Al3+ Fe3+ Negative ions Chloride Bromide Iodide Hydroxide Nitrate Hydrogen carbonate Oxide Sulfide Sulfite Sulfate Carbonate Symbol ClBrIOHNO3HCO3O2S2SO32SO42CO32PO43-

Phosphate

Section 2: Chemistry of the Elements

a) The Periodic Table b) Group 1 elements lithium, sodium and potassium c) Group 7 elements chlorine, bromine and iodine d) Oxygen and oxides e) Hydrogen and water f) Reactivity series g) Tests for ions and gases

a) The Periodic Table

Students will be assessed on their ability to: 2.1 understand the terms group and period 2.2 recall the positions of metals and non-metals in the Periodic Table 2.3 explain the classification of elements as metals or non-metals on the basis of their electrical conductivity and the acid-base character of their oxides 2.4 understand why elements in the same group of the Periodic Table have similar chemical properties 2.5 recall the noble gases (Group 0) as a family of inert gases and explain their lack of reactivity in terms of their electronic configurations.

b) Group 1 elements lithium, sodium and potassium

Students will be assessed on their ability to: 2.6 describe the reactions of these elements with water and understand that the reactions provide a basis for their recognition as a family of elements 2.7 recall the relative reactivities of the elements in Group 1 2.8 explain the relative reactivities of the elements in Group 1 in terms of distance between the outer electrons and the nucleus.

c) Group 7 elements chlorine, bromine and iodine

Students will be assessed on their ability to: 2.9 recall the colours and physical states of the elements at room temperature 2.10 make predictions about the properties of other halogens in this group 2.11 understand the difference between hydrogen chloride gas and hydrochloric acid 2.12 explain, in terms of dissociation, why hydrogen chloride is acidic in water but not in methylbenzene 2.13 recall the relative reactivities of the elements in Group 7 2.14 describe experiments to show that a more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen from a solution of one of its salts 2.15 understand these displacement reactions as redox reactions.

d) Oxygen and oxides

Students will be assessed on their ability to: 2.16 recall the gases present in air and their approximate percentage by volume 2.17 describe how experiments involving the reactions of elements such as copper, iron and phosphorus with air can be used to determine the percentage by volume of oxygen in air 2.18 describe the laboratory preparation of oxygen from hydrogen peroxide 2.19 describe the reactions with oxygen in air of magnesium, carbon and sulfur, and the acidbase character of the oxides produced 2.20 describe the laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide from calcium carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid 2.21 describe the formation of carbon dioxide from the thermal decomposition of metal carbonates such as copper (II) carbonate 2.22 recall the properties of carbon dioxide, limited to its solubility and density 2.23 explain the use of carbon dioxide in carbonating drinks and in fire extinguishers, in terms of its solubility and density 2.24 recall the reactions of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide with water to produce acidic solutions 2.25 recall that sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are pollutant gases which contribute to acid rain, and describe the problems caused by acid rain.

e) Hydrogen and water

Students will be assessed on their ability to: 2.26 describe the reactions of dilute hydrochloric and dilute sulfuric acids with magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron 2.27 describe the combustion of hydrogen 2.28 describe the use of anhydrous copper (II) sulfate in the chemical test for water 2.29 describe a physical test to show whether water is pure.

f) Reactivity series
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 2.30 recall that metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on the reactions of the metals and their compounds: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver and gold 2.31 describe how reactions with water and dilute acids can be used to deduce the following order of reactivity: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, and copper 2.32 deduce the position of a metal within the reactivity series using displacement reactions between metals and their oxides, and between metals and their salts in aqueous solutions 2.33 understand oxidation and reduction as the addition and removal of oxygen respectively

2.34 understand the terms redox, oxidising agent and reducing agent 2.35 recall the conditions under which iron rusts 2.36 describe how the rusting of iron may be prevented by grease, oil, paint, plastic and galvanising 2.37 understand the sacrificial protection of iron in terms of the reactivity series.

g) Tests for ions and gases

Students will be assessed on their ability to: 2.38 describe simple tests for the cations: i) Li+, Na+, K+, Ca2+ using flame tests ii) NH4+ using sodium hydroxide solution and identifying the ammonia evolved iii) Cu2+, Fe2+ and Fe3+ using sodium hydroxide solution 2.39 describe simple tests for the anions: i) Cl, Br and I, using dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate solution ii) SO42, using dilute hydrochloric acid and barium chloride solution iii) CO32, using dilute hydrochloric acid and identifying the carbon dioxide evolved 2.40 describe simple tests for the gases: i) hydrogen ii) oxygen iii) carbon dioxide iv) ammonia v) chlorine.

The Periodic Table

Non-metals

Metals

Metals: Basic oxides Conduct electricity

Non-metals: Acidic oxides Dont conduct electricity

Groups: vertical columns of elements. Elements in group X will have X electrons in their outer shell of electrons. It is this shell which is involved in chemical reactions. For example, lithium is in group 1, and therefore has 1 electron in its outer shell. This affects its chemical reactions, and gives it a valency (or combining power) of 1. This means that elements in the same group have similar chemical properties, as all elements in the group need to lose/gain the same number of electrons in reactions to achieve stable electronic configurations and so will react with the same elements in a similar manner. Periods: horizontal rows of elements. Elements in period Y will have Y shells of electrons. This affects the properties of the element. For example, bromine is in period 4, and so has 4 shells of electrons. It has different properties to chlorine, in period 3 (namely it has a higher boiling point).

Noble gases
These are elements which already have stable electronic configurations (i.e. they have 8 electrons in their outer shell). They barely react, as gaining or losing electrons would make their configurations less stable.

Group 1 - the alkali metals

These elements have valencies of 1. They have one electron in their outer shells, so only want to lose this one electron. Lithium, sodium and potassium (the 3 members of the group widely available to schools) have the following properties: Good conductors of electricity and heat Soft metals Low densities Shiny surfaces when freshly cut with a knife, but turn dull in air Low melting points They burn in oxygen with characteristic flame colour to produce white solid oxides: o 4Li(s) + O2(g) 2Li2O(s) o The oxides are soluble

They react vigorously with water to give an alkaline solution of the metal hydroxide as well as producing hydrogen gas. Potassium + water potassium hydroxide + hydrogen 2K(g) + H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g) Relative reactivities Element Electron Reactivity Reaction with water configuration Lithium 2,1 Floats on the surface Gently fizzes Gradually reacts and disappears Doesnt produce enough heat to melt Forms colourless lithium hydroxide Sodium 2,8,1 Floats on the surface Fizzes more vigorously Melts almost at once to form a small silvery ball which dashes around the surface Hydrogen may catch fire and burn orange Forms white sodium hydroxide that dissolves quickly Potassium 2,8,8,1 More vigorous than sodium Enough heat produced to set fire to hydrogen - burns with a lilac flame Rubidium 2,8,18,8,1 Denser than water, so it sinks Violent reaction, which occurs immediately Everything is spit out Produces rubidium hydroxide solution Caesium 2,8,18,18,8,1 Explodes on contact with water Produces caesium hydroxide Increases

Reason As you move further down group one, the outer shell of electrons becomes further and further away from the nucleus. This means that in an atom of an element further down the group, the negative electron in the outer shell is less attracted to the positive nucleus than in an atom of an element higher up the group. This means that those elements lower down the group are much more able to give up their outer electron in a chemical reaction, so they react more easily and vigorously. Far from the nucleus - weak attraction.

Close to the nucleus - strong attraction.

Lithium Potassium

Group 2 - the alkaline earth metals

These elements have valencies of 2. They have two electrons in their outer shells, so only want to lose these two electrons. Magnesium and calcium (the group 2 metals available in schools) have the following properties: Harder than those in group 1 Silvery-grey when pure and clean, but quickly tarnish in air Good conductors of heat and electricity They burn in oxygen with characteristic flame colours to form solid white oxides: o 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) They react less vigorously with water: o Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH 2(aq) +H(g)

Transition metals
These are the metals in the middle of the periodic table. They have the following properties: Harder and stronger than metals in groups 1 and 2 Higher densities than metals in groups 1 and 2 High melting points (except for mercury) Less reactive Form a range of brightly coloured compounds Good conductors of heat and electricity Can be used as catalysts (like iron in the Haber process) They dont react (corrode) so quickly with oxygen and/or water They form simple ions with more than one oxidation state, i.e. they have more than one valency (Fe2+ and Fe3+)

Halogens
These non-metals have 7 electrons in their outer shell. This means they have a valency of 1. There are 3 major halogens to be aware of: Halogen Chlorine Bromine Iodine Colour Pale-green Red-brown Purple-black State at room temperature Gas Liquid Solid

General properties: Colour gets darker as you move further down the group Boiling points increase going further down the group The elements exist as diatomic molecules (Cl2) They form molecular compounds with other non-metals (HCl) They react with hydrogen to produce the hydrogen halides, which dissolve in water to form acidic solutions o H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g) o HCl(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) H+ + ClThey react with metals to produce ionic metal halides: o 2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)

Reactivity increases going up the group. Hydrogen chloride gas and hydrochloric acid Although these consist of the same elements, hydrogen chloride gas isnt split into ions, and is therefore not acidic (as it doesnt donate H+ ions). Hydrochloric acid is when hydrogen chloride has reacted in water and split up into its ions (H+ and Cl-). Hydrogen chloride is acidic in water because it dissociates into ions. This is because water is polar. In a non-polar substance such as methylbenzene, the HCl remains covalently bonded so doesnt produce the H+ ions necessary for an acidic solution. Displacement reactions of halogens If a more reactive halogen (chlorine for example) is bubbled into the solution of a salt of a less reactive halogen (like bromine) then the more reactive halogen will displace the less reactive one. For example: Potassium bromide + chlorine potassium chloride + bromine 2KBr(aq) + Cl2(g) 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq) These are redox reactions, with the bromide being oxidised and the chlorine being reduced.

Oxygen and Oxides

Nitrogen Oxygen Argon Other (mainly carbon dioxide)

Component Nitrogen Oxygen Argon Carbon dioxide

% 78 21 0.93 0.04

Experiments to determine the percentage volume of oxygen in air

Copper 100cm3 of air in syringe Air pushed across hot copper... ...into this syringe.

Heat Air is passed backwards and forwards across the copper, which turns black. The volume of air gets smaller.

Eventually the volume of air stops getting smaller.

Heat

The volume of the remaining air is measured.

The copper is in excess and uses up the oxygen to form copper oxide (CuO). All the oxygen in the air is therefore used up, and so the volume of the air decreases by about 20% (the percentage of oxygen in air). Iron Iron filings held onto boiling tube with Vaseline End water level Starting water level

The iron reacts with the oxygen in the air (it rusts). The water level therefore rises by about a fifth over several days.

Water bath

Boiling tube

Phosphorus Phosphorus pentoxide (P4O10) End water level

Phosphorus (P)

The phosphorus is lit with a hot wire. It reacts with the oxygen in the air and causes the water level in the bell jar to rise by about 20%.

Starting water level

Water bath

Bell jar

Preparation of oxygen from hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide water + oxygen H2O2(aq) H2O(l) + O2(g) The rate of decomposition is very slow without a catalyst. However, when manganese (IV) oxide powder is added to the hydrogen peroxide solution, oxygen is produced rapidly. Dropping funnel Hydrogen peroxide

Manganese dioxide Beehive shelf

Reactions of elements in air

Sulfur S8(s) + 8O2(g) 8SO2(g) Blue flame White fumes Acidic: SO2 + H2O H2SO3 [sulfurous acid]

Magnesium 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) Intense white light Basic

Carbon C + O2 2CO2 Yellow/orange flame Acidic: CO2 + H2O H2CO3 [carbonic acid]

Carbon dioxide
Higher density than that of air Sparingly soluble

Fire extinguishers Because carbon dioxide has a higher density than air, it can form a layer around a burning material and starve it of oxygen. As carbon dioxide doesnt burn, the fire is put out. It is mainly used on electrical fires. Fizzy drinks The carbon dioxide is bubbled into a liquid at a cold temperature and a high pressure (to increase its solubility). Because it is sparingly soluble, it bubbles out and produces fizz. Preparation from calcium carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Carbon dioxide Dilute hydrochloric acid Water

Marble chips

If dry gas is required, then it is passed through concentrated sulfuric acid (to dry it) and then collected as shown below. Carbon dioxide

Concentrated sulfuric acid

Formation of carbon dioxide from thermal decomposition of metal carbonates Clamp stand

Metal carbonate

Clamp Delivery tube

Test-tube Bunsen burner Limewater

To avoid suck-back the delivery tube must be lifted from the limewater as soon as heating ends. E.g. CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g) Carbonate Zinc carbonate Lead carbonate Copper carbonate Colour before heating White White Green Colour after heating Yellow when hot White when cool Yellow Black

Pollution
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are pollutant gases which contribute to acid rain. Acid rain Decreases pH of soils and lakes o Toxic substances such as aluminium and manganese can dissolve at around pH3 o These harm fish and plants Damages plant material

To prevent acid rain, emissions of gases like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides should be regulated. This can be done by use of catalytic converters: Carbon monoxide + oxygen carbon dioxide Nitrogen monoxide + carbon monoxide nitrogen + carbon dioxide Nitrogen monoxide nitrogen + oxygen Hydrocarbons + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

Hydrogen and Water

When metals such as magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron react with acids they effervesce and produce hydrogen gas. The more reactive metals react with more vigour. Hydrogen is highly flammable, and can be explosive.

Tests for water Test with cobalt (II) chloride paper o Anhydrous: blue hydrated: pink Test with copper (II) sulfate o Anhydrous: white hydrated: blue

To determine if water is pure, test the boiling point. It should be exactly 100C.

Reactivity Series
Metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on the reactions of the metals and their compounds: Metal Potassium Sodium Lithium Calcium Magnesium Aluminium (Carbon) Zinc Iron Tin Lead (Hydrogen) Copper Silver Gold Reactivity Most reactive

Least reactive

The order of reactivity can be determined by observing the reactions of the metals with acids and water: Metal Potassium (K) Reaction with water Violent reaction in cold water 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g) Forms hydrogen Vigorous reaction in cold water 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) Reacts well with cold water Ca(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH 2(s) + H2(g) Forms calcium hydroxide precipitate Only reacts with steam Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g) No reaction Reaction with acid Extremely violent reaction 2K(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2KCl(aq) + H2(g) Violent reaction 2Na(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2 Very vigorous reaction Ca(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) +H2(g) Vigorous reaction Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) Very little reaction

Sodium (Na) Calcium (Ca)

Magnesium (Mg) Copper (Cu)

The table shows the overall trend. The reactions of other metals can be predicted by their position on the reactivity series. Those metal higher up than calcium, for example, will react with water more vigorously than calcium.

Displacement reactions
Displacement reactions of metals and their compounds in aqueous solution can be used to work out the reactivity series. A more reactive metal ion in aqueous solution can displace a less reactive one. For example, adding zinc to copper (II) sulfate solution will form zinc sulfate solution and copper. This is because the zinc is the more reactive of the two, so it displaces the copper. When the experiment is carried out the blue colour of the copper ion will fade as is copper is produced and zinc ions are made.

Oxidation: gain of oxygen, loss of electrons. Reduction: loss of oxygen, gain of electrons. An oxidising agent is something that oxidises something else, and in doing so is reduced. A reducing agent is something that reduces something else, and in doing so is oxidised. In the reaction of zinc and copper (II) sulfate, zinc is a reducing agent, as it reduces the copper. The copper ion gains electrons to form copper: Zn + Cu2+ + SO42- Zn2+ + SO42- + Cu The copper here gains electrons as it is displaced by the zinc.

Rusting

When exposed to oxygen and water, iron starts to rust. Rust is an orange-red powder composed mainly of hydrated iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3.xH2O). Both water and oxygen are essential for iron to rust. Rusting is encouraged by salt. Tube 1 (control) Tube 2 Tube 3 Tube 4

Air

Dry air

Air

Pure oxygen

Rusty iron nails Distilled Anhydrous Boiled distilled water (no O2) calcium water chloride (drying agent) Physical barriers Rusting can be prevented using physical barriers to stop air or water getting to the iron. These include: Painting - lorries, cars, bridges o However, if the paint is scratched, the iron can rust Oiling/greasing - machinery o Protective film must be renewed Coating with plastic - refrigerators, washing machines Plating - food cans, bicycle handlebars Distilled water

Sacrificial protection Bars of zinc are attached to the hulls of ships and to oil rigs. Because zinc is more reactive than iron, it corrodes instead of it. It forms positive ions more readily than iron: Zn + Fe2+ Zn2+ + Fe This means that as zinc corrodes it loses electrons to iron, helping to protect it. As long as the zinc bars remain in contact with the iron structure, the structure will be protected from rusting. When the zinc runs out it must be replaced. Galvanising This is when an iron structure is dipped into molten zinc. The thin layer of zinc is a physical barrier against rust, but if it is scratched, it will continue to protect the iron through sacrificial protection. Steel dustbins are examples of galvanised objects. Alloying Iron can be mixed with other metals to produce alloys (e.g. stainless steel that dont rust.

Tests for Ions and Gases

Anions
Anion Carbonate CO32[solid or in solution] Chloride Cl- [in solution] Bromide Br - [in solution] Iodide I- [in solution] Sulfate SO4 2- [in solution] Test Add dilute acid Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add aqueous silver nitrate Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add aqueous silver nitrate Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add aqueous silver nitrate Acidify with dilute hydrochloric acid, then add aqueous barium chloride Test result Effervescence, carbon dioxide produced White ppt. Cream ppt. Yellow ppt. White ppt.

Cations
Cation Lithium Li+ Sodium Na+ Potassium K+ Calcium Ca2+ Copper(II) Cu2+ [in solution] Iron(II) Fe2+ [in solution] Iron(III) Fe3+ [in solution] Ammonium NH4+ [solid or in solution] Test Flame test Flame test Flame test Flame test Add aqueous sodium hydroxide Add aqueous sodium hydroxide Add aqueous sodium hydroxide Add aqueous sodium hydroxide then warm Test result Red Yellow-orange Lilac Brick red or orange-red Light blue ppt., insoluble in excess Green ppt., insoluble in excess Red-brown ppt., insoluble in excess No ppt. but pungent smelling alkaline gas produced on warming (ammonia - see below)

Gases
Gas Ammonia NH3 Carbon dioxide CO2 Chlorine Cl2 Hydrogen H2 Oxygen O2 Test Damp red litmus paper Bubble gas through limewater Damp litmus paper Lighted splint Glowing splint Test result Turns damp red litmus blue Turns limewater milky Bleaches damp litmus paper Gas burns with a pop Glowing splint relights

Section 3: Organic Chemistry

a) Introduction b) Alkanes c) Alkenes d) Ethanol

a) Introduction
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 3.1 explain the terms homologous series, hydrocarbon, saturated, unsaturated, general formula and isomerism.

b) Alkanes
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 3.2 recall that alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2 3.3 draw displayed formulae for alkanes with up to five carbon atoms in a molecule, and name the straight-chain isomers 3.4 recall the products of the complete and incomplete combustion of alkanes 3.5 recall the reaction of methane with bromine to form bromomethane in the presence of UV light.

c) Alkenes
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 3.6 recall that alkenes have the general formula CnH2n 3.7 draw displayed formulae for alkenes with up to four carbon atoms in a molecule, and name the straight-chain isomers 3.8 describe the addition reaction of alkenes with bromine, including the decolourising of bromine water as a test for alkenes.

d) Ethanol
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 3.9 describe the manufacture of ethanol by passing ethene and steam over a phosphoric acid catalyst at a temperature of about 300C and a pressure of about 6070 atm 3.10 describe the manufacture of ethanol by the fermentation of sugars, for example glucose, at a temperature of about 30C 3.11 evaluate the factors relevant to the choice of method used in the manufacture of ethanol, for example the relative availability of sugar cane and crude oil 3.12 describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethene, using aluminium oxide.

Organic Chemistry
Homologous series: a series of related chemical compounds that have the same functional group but differ in formula by a fixed group of atoms (e.g. -CH2-). Thus all members of a series should follow a general formula, have similar chemical properties and gradually changing physical properties. Hydrocarbon: a compound containing only hydrogen and carbon. Saturated: a carbon compound which contains no multiple (double or triple) carbon-carbon bonds. Unsaturated: a carbon compound which contains at least one multiple (double or triple) carboncarbon bond. Isomerism: the existence of compounds (isomers) that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulae. General formula: a general formula is a type of empirical formula that represents the composition of any member of an entire class of compounds.

Alkanes
Carbon monoxide is toxic. General formula: CnH2n+2 Name Methane Saturated Generally unreactive, apart from in air It is so dangerous because it cannot easily be detected - it is colourless and odourless.

Complete combustion (plentiful oxygen): produces carbon dioxide and water Incomplete combustion (not enough oxygen): produces carbon monoxide and water Molecular formula CH4 Displayed formula Boiling point (C) -162 State at r.t.p. Gas

Ethane

C2H6

-89

Gas

Propane

C3H8

-42

Gas

Butane

C4H10

Gas

Pentane

C5H12

36

Liquid

Methane can react with bromine in the presence of UV light to form bromomethane: CH4(g) + Cl2(g) UV CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

Alkenes
General formula: CnH2n Name Ethene Unsaturated Highly reactive due to carbon-carbon double bonds Complete combustion (plentiful oxygen): produces carbon dioxide and water Incomplete combustion (not enough oxygen): produces carbon monoxide and water Molecular formula C2H4 Displayed formula Boiling point (C) -104 State at r.t.p. Gas

Propene

C3H6

-48

Gas

Butene

C4H8

-6

Gas

Pentene

C5H10

30

Liquid

Alkenes can react with bromine in an addition reaction: Ethene + bromine 1,2-dibromoethane

Tests for alkenes Test Bromine water Acidified potassium manganate (VII) (Alkanes) Brown/orange (no change) Purple (no change) Alkenes Brown/orange colourless Purple brown

Alcohols
General formula: CnH2n+1OH Functional group: -OH Alcohol Methanol Formula CH3OH Structure Boiling point (C) 65

Ethanol

C2H5OH

76

Propanol

C3H7OH

97

Butanol

C4H9OH

117

Carboxylic acids
Functional group: -COOH Acid Methanoic Formula HCOOH Structure

Ethanoic

CH3COOH

Propanoic

C2H5COOH

Butanoic

C3H7COOH

Isomerism
Isomer Pentane Structure Boiling point (C) 36

2-Methylbutane

27

2,2-Dimethylpropane

11

Ethanol
To manufacture ethanol on an industrial scale, ethene and steam can be passed over a phosphoric acid catalyst at around 300C with a pressure of 60-70atm:

300C, 70atm Phosphoric acid catalyst Fermentation Ethanol can also be made by fermentation: Zymase Sugar ethanol + carbon dioxide Zymase is an enzyme from yeast. The temperature must be around 30C.

Sugar Yeast Water Water bath at 30C

Limewater containing CO2 bubbles

At the end of the fermentation process, which takes time because it is an enzymic reaction and a batch process, pure alcohol is extracted by fractional distillation: Thermometer Water out

Condenser

Fractionating column

Water in

Ethanol Ethanol Water Yeast

Heat

Comparing the two methods Fermentation Lower cost Produces ethanol slowly Sugar cane is sustainable Dehydration Ethanol can be dehydrated to ethene using an alumina catalyst with heat. Hydration Higher cost of equipment Continuous and efficient process Crude oil is a finite resource

Section 4: Physical Chemistry

a) Acids, alkalis and salts b) Energetics c) Rates of reaction d) Equilibria

a) Acids, alkalis and salts

Students will be assessed on their ability to: 4.1 describe the use of the indicators litmus, phenolphthalein and methyl orange to distinguish between acidic and alkaline solutions 4.2 understand how the pH scale, from 014, can be used to classify solutions as strongly acidic, weakly acidic, neutral, weakly alkaline or strongly alkaline 4.3 describe the use of universal indicator to measure the approximate pH value of a solution 4.4 define acids as sources of hydrogen ions, H+, and alkalis as sources of hydroxide ions, OH 4.5 predict the products of reactions between dilute hydrochloric, nitric and sulfuric acids; and metals, metal oxides and metal carbonates (excluding the reactions between nitric acid and metals) 4.6 recall the general rules for predicting the solubility of salts in water: i) all common sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble ii) all nitrates are soluble iii) common chlorides are soluble, except silver chloride iv) common sulfates are soluble, except those of barium and calcium v) common carbonates are insoluble, except those of sodium, potassium and ammonium 4.7 describe how to prepare soluble salts from acids 4.8 describe how to prepare insoluble salts using precipitation reactions 4.9 describe how to carry out acid-alkali titrations.

b) Energetics
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 4.10 recall that chemical reactions in which heat energy is given out are described as exothermic and those in which heat energy is taken in are endothermic 4.11 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as combustion, displacement, dissolving and neutralisation in which heat energy changes can be calculated from measured temperature changes 4.12 calculate molar enthalpy change from heat energy change 4.13 understand the use of H to represent molar enthalpy change for exothermic and endothermic reactions 4.14 represent exothermic and endothermic reactions on a simple energy level diagram 4.15 recall that the breaking of bonds is endothermic and that the making of bonds is exothermic

4.16 use average bond energies to calculate the enthalpy change during a simple chemical reaction.

c) Rates of reaction
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 4.17 describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of solutions, temperature and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction 4.18 describe the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of solutions, pressure of gases, temperature and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction 4.19 understand the term activation energy and represent it on a reaction profile 4.20 explain the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of solutions, pressure of gases and temperature on the rate of a reaction in terms of particle collision theory 4.21 understand that a catalyst speeds up a reaction by providing an alternative pathway with lower activation energy.

d) Equilibria
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 4.22 recall that some reactions are reversible and are indicated by the symbol in equations 4.23 describe reversible reactions such as the dehydration of hydrated copper (II) sulfate and the effect of heat on ammonium chloride 4.24 understand the concept of dynamic equilibrium 4.25 predict the effects of changing the pressure and temperature on the equilibrium position in reversible reactions.

Acids, Bases and Salts

Substances can be classified as acidic, neutral or basic.

Acids
Acids are substances which, when dissolved in water, react and produce H+ ions. For example: HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq) The H3O+ is an oxonium ion, and uses coordinate bonding to accommodate for the extra hydrogen ion (which is actually only a proton). To make it clearer, the equation can also be written like this: HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) Acids are proton donors.

Bases
Bases are proton acceptors. Alkalis are bases that can dissolve in water. They contain hydroxide ions which, when reacted with water, are released. For example: NaOH(s) + H2O(l) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) Bases are generally ionic consisting of at least one metal and one non-metal. An example of a base that isnt an alkali is magnesium oxide (MgO .

Neutralisation
Neutralisation can occur when an acid reacts with a base to produce a neutral mixture. Acid + Base Salt + Water When reacting with an alkali, an acid will give the hydrogen ion needed by the hydroxide ion of the alkali to produce water, and the non-metal in the covalently bonded acid will react with the metal in the ionically bonded alkali to produce a salt. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) When reacting with a base that is not an alkali, the hydrogen ion in the acid reacts with the oxygen in the base to form water, and again the metal and non-metal in the two substances combine to form a salt. MgO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

Important
Metal oxides are basic. Non-metal oxides are acidic. An acidic solution must contain H+ ions. Hydrogen chloride when not dissolved in water isnt acidic, as it contains no H+ ions.

The pH scale
The pH scale measures the concentration of H+ and OH- ions in a solution. It can be used to classify solutions as acidic, weakly acidic, neutral, weakly alkaline, and alkaline. It ranges from about 0 to about 14. It is a logarithmic scale, with the concentrations increasing by a factor of 10 with each increase in the pH value: pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Concentration of H+ (mol/l) 1 100 1 10-1 1 10-2 1 10-3 1 10-4 1 10-5 1 10-6 1 10-7 1 10-8 1 10-9 1 10-10 1 10-11 1 10-12 1 10-13 1 10-14 Concentration of OH- (mol/l) 1 10-14 1 10-13 1 10-12 1 10-11 1 10-10 1 10-9 1 10-8 1 10-7 1 10-6 1 10-5 1 10-4 1 10-3 1 10-2 1 10-1 1 100

Acids which fully dissociate into ions give greater concentrations of H+ ions. These are strong acids. HCl H+ + ClAcids which only partially dissociate into ions give lesser concentrations of H+ ions. These are weak acids. The partial dissociation is represented by the sign shows this. CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+ The idea is the same for alkalis, but with OH- ions instead of H+ ions.

Neutral

Indicators
Methyl orange Litmus Red in acid Blue in alkali Pink in acid Yellow in alkali

Phenolphthalein Colourless in acid Pink in alkali

Universal indicator This measures the approximate pH of a solution.

Reactions of acids
Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen M.A.S.H. Base (metal oxide + Acid Water + Salt B.A.W.S. Carbonate + Acid Water + Carbon dioxide + Salt C.A.W.C.S.

Preparation of salts
Soluble and insoluble salts Soluble Sodium, potassium and ammonium salts Nitrates Chlorides Sulfates Except sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and ammonium carbonate Except sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide and ammonia Preparation of soluble salts 1. Acid + insoluble base salt + water o H2SO4 + CuO CuSO4 + H2O 2. Acid + alkali salt + water o HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O 3. Acid + metal salt + hydrogen o 2HCl + Mg MgCl2 + H2 4. Acid + carbonate salt + water +carbon dioxide o 2HNO3 + CuCO3 Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2 In the laboratory The method below shows the production of salts using methods 1, 3 and 4 only. Filter off excess solid Insoluble Except silver chloride and lead chloride Except calcium sulfate, barium sulfate and lead sulfate Carbonates Hydroxides

Add solid (base/carbonate/metal)

Acid

Acid

Solid in excess Evaporating (salt formed in dish the solution)

Transfer hot liquid to dish Evaporate to ensure saturated solution

Crystals formed after cooling

Preparation of insoluble salts Soluble salt + soluble salt insoluble salt + soluble salt Add second soluble salt solution Damp filter paper and salt

Soluble salt solution

Insoluble salt formed as a precipitate

Filter to collect the salt

Insoluble salt Wash the residue with cold deionised water and leave to dry

Titrations
A soluble salt can be prepared by reacting an acid and an alkali using titration. Titrations can also help to find the concentration of an alkali. 1. 25cm3 of alkali is pipette into a conical flask. 2. An indicator that has a clear colour change is added (like methyl orange). 3. A 0.1 mol/dm3 is placed in the burette using a filter funnel until it is filled up to the zero mark. o The filter funnel is then removed 4. The acid is added to the alkali in small quantities while the solution in the conical flask is being stirred. 5. When the approximate end point is being approached, the acid is added even more gradually. o The solution is still being stirred 6. Once the indicator changes colour, the acid isnt added any more, and the volume that has been added is recorded.

Zero mark

Acid Burette

Tap

Alkali with indicator

From the volume of acid that was needed to neutralise the alkali, the concentration of the alkali can be calculated. To improve the reliability, the experiment should be repeated.

Energetics
Exothermic: reactions that give out heat energy. Energy is transferred from the reactants to the surroundings. The making of bonds is exothermic. Endothermic: reactions that take in heat energy. Energy is transferred from the surroundings to the products. The breaking of bonds is endothermic. In a reaction, bonds are broken and then different ones are formed. Energy needed to break bonds Overall energy change Energy released when bonds are formed If the reaction is exothermic, the energy released from forming the new bonds is greater than the energy taken in from breaking the old ones.

The amount of energy in the substances involved in the reaction therefore goes down. This is molar enthalpy. Changes in energy can be represented on energy level diagrams: Reactants Products

Energy or H

H = negative [loss of energy]

Energy or H

H = positive [gain of energy]

Products Time Exothermic

Reactants Time Endothermic

Breaking bonds requires energy, forming bonds releases energy.

H values should always be written with a + or - sign in front of them. Units are J/mol or kJ/mol. In reality, energy level diagrams look like this: The activation energy is the energy required to start the reaction. Energy or H Reactants H = Activation energy

Products Time

Calculating enthalpy change

The bond enthalpies are the amounts of energy required to break one mole of certain types of bonds. For instance, breaking one mole of C-H would require 435 kJ. To calculate how much energy is ultimately released in the reaction per mole, one must find the amount of energy required to break all the bonds, and subtract it from the amount of energy released when new bonds form. 4358 + 4985 + 3472 +6664 kJ/mol energy required to break all bonds 4648 + 8056 = -8542 kJ/mol energy change in total 8542 - 6664 = 1878 kJ/mol total energy released If you were looking for the H of this reaction, the value would be -1878 kJ/mol (its exothermic . If the H was positive (endothermic reaction , you should write the + sign in front of the value.

Calorimetry
The energy transferred in a reaction can be measured using a calorimetric technique. Temperature increases: exothermic Temperature decreases: endothermic This is a very simple type of calorimetric technique. If the amount of magnesium or sodium hydrogencarbonate used is known, then the molar enthalpy change can be calculated from the temperature change.

Magnesium ribbon Hydrochloric acid

Sodium hydrogen carbonate Hydrochloric acid

To measure the energy produced on burning a fuel, the experiment below should be carried out. The rise in temperature of the water is a measure of the energy transferred to the water. This technique wont give a very accurate answer because much of the energy will be transferred to the surrounding air. 400g of water Metal can The molar enthalpy change can be calculated from the following equation:

If in this case 2.0g of paraffin were combusted and the temperature rose by 50C, the molar enthalpy would be: Draught excluder Paraffin burner H 400 4.2 50

H 84000J per 2g of paraffin H 42kJ/g

Rates of Reaction
Collision theory
For a chemical reaction to occur, the reacting particles (atoms, molecules or ions) must collide. The energy involved in the collision must be enough to break the chemical bonds in the reacting particles, or the particles will just bounce off one another. The particles must also hit each other at the right angle for a reaction to occur. A collision that has enough energy to result in a chemical reaction is an effective collision. When explaining the effects of temperature etc. on rates of reaction, the rate of effective collisions must be referred to.

Unsuccessful

Successful

Surface area
To measure the effect of surface area on the rate of reaction, an experiment must be done. Hydrochloric acid could be added to two different test tubes, with one having large marble chips and one having small marble chips. The calcium carbonate must be in excess in both test tubes. The same amount and concentration of acid must be added to each one. The carbon dioxide gas produced could be collected for a set amount of time to determine which of the test tubes produces the gas fastest. Result The test tube containing the smaller marble chips should react faster and produce carbon dioxide faster than the other test tube. This proves that having a larger surface area increases the rate of reaction. Reasoning This is because on a large lump of calcium carbonate, the acid can only react with the outside pieces. Breaking the lump into smaller pieces with more surface area exposes a larger number of molecules that the acid can react with. There are therefore more effective collisions per second, so the rate of reaction is greater. More surface area exposed

Concentration of solutions
To measure the effect of concentration on the rate of reaction, a different experiment can be done. A piece of magnesium ribbon can be added to a solution of hydrochloric acid. The following reaction occurs: Magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + hydrogen Two experiments could be performed using different concentrations of acid (say 2.0mol/l and 0.5mol/l). Results

Experiment 1: 2.0M Experiment 2: 0.5M

This graph shows that hydrogen is produced at a faster rate when the acid is at a greater concentration. Therefore, increasing concentration increases the rate of reaction. Reasoning In the 2.0mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid solution the hydrogen ions are more likely to collide with the surface of the magnesium ribbon than in the 0.5mol/dm3 solution. This inevitably means that when the acid is more concentrated there are more effective collisions per second. Dilute solution Concentrated solution

0.5mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid Magnesium ribbon

2.0mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid Magnesium ribbon

Temperature
To determine the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction, one could perform a similar experiment to the one done when finding the effect of surface area on rate of reaction. Two test tubes with a set amount of calcium carbonate powder could be set up. The temperature could be increased to around 30C on one of them and the rates at which carbon dioxide is produced could be compared. Results Although the same amount of gas would be produced, at a higher temperature more is produced in a shorter amount of time. It can be deduced that the rate of reaction is greater at higher temperatures.

Reasoning At higher temperatures, the molecules of acid move faster, so collide with the calcium carbonate more frequently and with greater force. This gives a better chance of an effective collision, as not only are there more collisions, but each one is more likely to be successful.

20C

30C

Pressure of gases
Increasing the pressure on a reaction between gases will increase the rate of reaction. Increasing the pressure reduces the volume of gas, moving the particles closer together. If the particles are denser, there will be more collisions per second and therefore more effective collisions per second. Low pressure High pressure

Catalysts
A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction without being used up itself. The mass of the catalyst remains unchanged for the whole reaction. To explore the effects of a catalyst, there is a very effective experiment that could be done: Hydrogen peroxide water + oxygen This reaction would take a very long time to occur, or it might not occur at all. Adding a catalyst (in this case manganese (IV) oxide) will make the reaction occur. This demonstrates that the presence of a catalyst increases the rate of reaction. 1: no catalyst 2: 1 spatula of manganese (IV) oxide 3: 2 spatulas of catalyst

Reasoning Most catalysts work by providing an for the reaction, lowering the activation b . This increases the number of effective collisions per second.

Reactants Energy Activation energy with catalyst Route of reaction with catalyst Time

Activation energy with catalyst Route of reaction with catalyst

Products

Equilibria
Some reactions are reversible. This means that the reaction can easily go either way. An example is: CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O This is a dehydration reaction. The substance on the left is blue, and the one on the right is white. Another example is as follows: C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH When ethene and water are heated in the presence of a catalyst in a sealed container, ethanol is produced. As the ethene and water are used up, the rate of forward reaction decreases As the amount of ethanol increases the amount of backward reaction increases Eventually the rate of formation of ethanol will exactly equal the rate of decomposition of ethanol o The amounts of ethene, water and ethanol will be constant The reaction is said to be in equilibrium

Dynamic equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium is when the position of equilibrium can readily be changed. The position of equilibrium can be changed by changing pressure and changing temperature. This general reaction is used to help explain the effects of changing pressure and temperature: A(g) + 2B(g) 2C(g) [H = +] Changing pressure If there are more moles on one side of the equation then changing the pressure will change the position of equilibrium. Increasing pressure will change the position of equilibrium to create more of the substances on the side of the equation with fewer moles. In the case above, an increase in pressure will increase the number of moles of substance C. The position of equilibrium will be moved to the right. Changing temperature An increase in temperature will favour the endothermic reaction A decrease in temperature will favour the exothermic reaction

Every equilibrium has an endothermic and an exothermic reaction, so an increase in temperature will either favour the reaction going from left to right or from right to left (depending on which one is endothermic and which one is exothermic). In this case, an increase in temperature will favour the reaction going from left to right (this reaction is endothermic, as H = +). The position of equilibrium will be moved to the right. This is Le Chateliers principle.

Section 5: Chemistry in Society

a) Extraction and uses of metals b) Crude oil c) Synthetic polymers d) The industrial manufacture of chemicals

a) Extraction and uses of metals

Students will be assessed on their ability to: 5.1 explain how the methods of extraction of the metals in this section are related to their positions in the reactivity series 5.2 describe and explain the extraction of aluminium from purified aluminium oxide by electrolysis, including: i) the use of molten cryolite as a solvent and to decrease the required operating temperature ii) the need to replace the positive electrodes iii) the cost of the electricity as a major factor 5.3 write ionic half-equations for the reactions at the electrodes in aluminium extraction 5.4 describe and explain the main reactions involved in the extraction of iron from iron ore (haematite), using coke, limestone and air in a blast furnace 5.5 explain the uses of aluminium and iron, in terms of their properties.

b) Crude oil
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 5.6 recall that crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons 5.7 describe how the industrial process of fractional distillation separates crude oil into fractions 5.8 recall the names and uses of the main fractions obtained from crude oil: refinery gases, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil and bitumen 5.9 describe the trend in boiling point and viscosity of the main fractions 5.10 recall that incomplete combustion of fuels may produce carbon monoxide and explain that carbon monoxide is poisonous because it reduces the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen 5.11 recall that, in car engines, the temperature reached is high enough to allow nitrogen and oxygen from air to react, forming nitrogen oxides 5.12 recall that fractional distillation of crude oil produces more long-chain hydrocarbons than can be used directly and fewer short-chain hydrocarbons than required 5.13 describe how long-chain alkanes are converted to alkenes and shorter-chain alkanes by catalytic cracking, using silica or alumina as the catalyst and a temperature in the range of 600700C.

c) Synthetic polymers
Students will be assessed on their ability to: 5.14 recall that an addition polymer is formed by joining up many small molecules called monomers 5.15 draw the repeat unit of addition polymers, including poly(ethene), poly(propene) and poly(chloroethene) 5.16 deduce the structure of a monomer from the repeat unit of an addition polymer 5.17 recall that nylon is a condensation polymer 5.18 understand that the formation of a condensation polymer is accompanied by the release of a small molecule such as water or hydrogen chloride 5.19 recall the types of monomers used in the manufacture of nylon 5.20 draw the structure of nylon in block diagram format.

d) The industrial manufacture of chemicals

Students will be assessed on their ability to: 5.21 recall that nitrogen from air, and hydrogen from natural gas or the cracking of hydrocarbons, are used in the manufacture of ammonia 5.22 describe the manufacture of ammonia by the Haber process, including the essential conditions: i) a temperature of about 450C ii) a pressure of about 200 atmospheres iii) an iron catalyst 5.23 understand how the cooling of the reaction mixture liquefies the ammonia produced and allows the unused hydrogen and nitrogen to be recirculated 5.24 recall the use of ammonia in the manufacture of nitric acid and fertilisers 5.25 recall the raw materials used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid 5.26 describe the manufacture of sulfuric acid by the contact process, including the essential conditions: i) a temperature of about 450 C ii) a pressure of about 2 atmospheres iii) a vanadium (V) oxide catalyst 5.27 recall the use of sulfuric acid in the manufacture of detergents, fertilisers and paints 5.28 describe the manufacture of sodium hydroxide and chlorine by the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution (brine) in a diaphragm cell 5.29 write ionic half-equations for the reactions at the electrodes in the diaphragm cell 5.30 recall important uses of sodium hydroxide, including the manufacture of bleach, paper and soap; and of chlorine, including sterilising water supplies and in the manufacture of bleach and hydrochloric acid.

Extraction and Uses of Metals

Metals are found in the form of ores containing minerals mixed with unwanted rock. In almost all cases, the mineral is a compound of the metal, not the pure metal. The chemical method chosen to break down a mineral depends on the reactivity of the metal. The more reactive a metal is, the harder it is to break down into its compounds. Metal Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminium [carbon] Zinc Iron Tin Lead Copper Silver Gold Reactivity Very reactive Extraction method Electrolysis

Slightly reactive

Heating of oxides with carbon

Unreactive

Can be found as pure elements

Uses of aluminium and iron

Aluminium Aluminium forms an oxide coating easily in air and so it appears unreactive It has a low density It is strong

These properties allow it to be used in: Aircraft bodies (low density and strong) Food containers (doesnt corrode

Iron (in the form of steel) Can be made to be resistant to corrosion Strong but not very brittle

These properties allow it to be used in: Car bodies (low carbon) Machinery (low carbon) Rail tracks (medium carbon) Knives (high carbon)

Electrolysis of aluminium oxide

Aluminium is extracted from the ore bauxite (mainly aluminium oxide, or alumina). Aluminium oxide is insoluble, so its melted to allow the ions to move freely around.

Carbon anodes (+)

Pure aluminium oxide continually added

+
Molten aluminium tapped off

Carbon-lined cathode (-)

Electrolyte (molten cryolite and aluminium oxide)

Molten aluminium formed at cathode

Cryolite (Na3AlF6) is added to the alumina to reduce the working temperature of the cell from 2017C (the melting point of aluminium oxide) to between 800 and 1000C. It is a solvent. Cathode (-) At the cathode aluminium is formed: Al3+ + 3e- Al Reduction occurs here

Anode (+) At the anode oxygen is formed: Overall The overall reaction is: Al2O3(l) 4Al(l) + 3O2(g) 2O2- O2 + 4eOxidation occurs here

Electrodes The oxygen reacts with the graphite to form carbon dioxide at the high temperatures in the cell. The graphite electrodes need to be frequently replaced, as otherwise they would simply disappear. Cost Vast amounts of electricity are used in the process. Around 15kWh of electricity are used to produce 1kg of aluminium. The plants are often located near sources of cheap electricity, like HEP generators. It is this requirement for electricity that makes aluminium so expensive (its actually very abundant .

Extraction of iron
Iron is produced on a very large scale by reduction using carbon. The reaction takes place in a huge blast furnace. The main ore of iron is haematite, consisting mainly of iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3). Iron ore Coke Limestone Hot gas used to heat incoming air

1. Iron ore, coke and limestone are fed into the top of the blast furnace. 2. Hot air is blasted up the furnace from the bottom. 3. Oxygen from the air reacts with coke to form carbon dioxide: o C(s) + O2(g) O2(g) 4. Carbon dioxide reacts with more coke to form carbon monoxide: o CO2(g) + C(s) O(g) 5. Iron oxide is reduced to iron: o Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) F (l) + 3CO2(g) o The carbon monoxide is a reducing agent 6. Dense molten iron runs to the bottom of the furnace and is run off. It contains impurities. 7. Limestone is broken down by heat to calcium oxide: o CaCO3(s) O(s) + CO2(g)

Hot air blast Molten slag run off

Hot air blast

Molten iron run off

8. Calcium oxide reacts with impurities like sand (silicon dioxide to form slag: o CaO(s) + SiO2 O3(l) o The liquid slag falls to the bottom of the furnace and is tapped off

Iron from the blast furnace is brittle and it corrodes easily because it contains a large percentage of carbon from the coke.

Steel
When making steel, some of the carbon is removed to enhance the properties. Molten pig iron is mixed with smaller amounts of scrap iron and steel. Limestone is added and the whole mixture is melted. Oxygen is blasted through to produce carbon monoxide and therefore lower the percentage of carbon in the iron. This is done using a water-cooled which introduces oxygen at 5-15atm. 2C + O2 2CO Other impurities are also removed: Silicon is oxidised to silicon (IV) oxide Phosphorus is oxidised to phosphorus pentoxide o Calcium oxide (lime) is added to remove these impurities as slag o This can then be skimmed off the surface

Stainless steels are made by adding other metals such as chromium or nickel. Exit for waste gases Tap hole Water cooled oxygen pipe (lance) Furnace lining

Pouring position of furnace

Hot molten pig iron and lime

Alloying
The properties of metals can be changed by alloying. By the addition of other elements (usually other metals), metals can be tailor-made to have specific characteristics. These properties are achieved by there being different sized atoms of the other element wedged inbetween the atoms of the original metal:

Metal atoms

Other atoms

This wedging changes how the metal responds under pressure and heat by altering how the atoms move together.

Crude Oil
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons.

Fractional distillation of crude oil

Fractional distillation is used to separate crude oil into fractions. It is done in a fractionating column. Fraction (number of carbon atoms) Refinery gases (1-4) Uses

Gasoline (5-8) Gases bubble up Liquid falls down 65C Naptha (9-12) 170C Kerosene (10-14) 250C Diesel (14-20) 340C Lubricants and waxes (20+) 500C

Preheated crude oil Bubble cap Over 500C

Fuel oil (20+) Bitumen (20+)

Trends Boiling points increase as the sizes of the molecules increase Viscosity increases as the sizes of the molecules increase

Catalytic cracking
Example formula CH4 C6H14 C10H 22 C12H26 C16H 34 C20H 42 % in North Sea oil 2 8 10 14 21 45 % in Middle East oil 2 5 9 12 17 55 % product demand 4 22 5 8 23 38

Fractional distillation produces large amounts of long-chained alkanes, but there is a great demand for some short-chained hydrocarbons.

To produce more short-chained hydrocarbons, larger molecules are cracked. Cracking is thermal decomposition. The conditions required for large scale industrial cracking are: Silica/alumina (Al2O3) catalyst 600-700C

Combustion of fuels
If there is a good oxygen supply, alkanes will burn to produce CO2 and H2O. If there is a poor oxygen supply, alkanes will undergo incomplete combustion, forming carbon monoxide: 2CH4 + O2 CO + 3H2 Carbon monoxide is poisonous as it is colourless, odourless (undetectable by humans) and toxic. It reduces the capacity of the blood to store oxygen as it bonds far more readily with haemoglobin. Car engines In car engines, the temperature produced from the combustion of gasoline is high enough to allow the nitrogen from the air to react with oxygen: N2 + O2 2NO This nitrogen monoxide then reacts with more oxygen to form other nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen dioxide is a brown acidic gas that causes harmful pollution. The problem can be improved through the use of catalytic converters, which convert pollutant gases into less harmful ones (like CO2) by using catalysts.

Synthetic Polymers
Macromolecule is the term used to describe very large molecules made up of smaller molecules joined together. The smaller molecules are called monomers and the larger ones polymers. The changing of monomers to polymers is called polymerisation.

Addition polymers
An addition polymer is formed by joining up many monomers. An example is the creation of poly(ethene) from ethene:

The double bond of ethene opens up and the ethene molecules can join together in one long chain using single carbon-carbon bonds. Polymers are drawn using a special displayed formula. Some examples are shown below: Name of monomer Ethene Displayed formula of monomer Name of polymer Displayed formula of polymer Uses of polymer

Poly(ethene)

Buckets Bowls Plastic bags

Chlorothene

Poly(chloroethene)

Plastic sheets Artificial leather

Phenylethene

Poly(phenylethene)

Yoghurt cartons Packaging

Tetrafluoroethene

Poly(tetrafluoroethene)

Non-stick coating in frying pans

Condensation polymers
A condensation polymer is formed from 2 different molecules joining together using reactions between the different reactive groups on the molecules. Nylon is a condensation polymer. It is made from: A molecule with a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) A molecule with an amine group (-NH2)

These react to form amide links:

Nylon is a polyamide. The formation of a condensation polymer is accompanied by the release of a small molecule such as water of hydrogen chloride. In the case of nylon, it is water. Condensation polymerisation is used for man-made fibres for clothes, ropes etc. Examples include nylon and terylene.

Plastics
Plastics are made from addition polymers. By changing the atoms or groups of atoms attached to the carbon-carbon double bond, a whole range of different polymers can be made.

Thermoplastic plastic: can be melted and remoulded. Thermosetting plastic: cannot be melted, as the whole structure breaks down on heating.

The Industrial Manufacture of Chemicals

The Haber process
Ammonia is manufactured in the Haber process. The nitrogen used comes from the fractional distillation of liquid air The hydrogen used comes from either: o Reacting methane or other hydrocarbons with steam o The cracking of hydrocarbons Air Natural gas and water Nitrogen 200 atm 450C Iron catalyst Ammonia

Hydrogen 72% of the material doesnt react 1st time and is recycled

The overall reaction is: N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) [H = -92kJ/mol] Recycling

because so much material isnt converted, it must be recycled. This is done by cooling the reaction mixture at the end to liquefy the ammonia. The nitrogen and hydrogen can then be easily removed and fed back into the process. This is possible because ammonia has a much lower boiling point than nitrogen or oxygen. Conditions The greatest yield of ammonia would be obtained using a low temperature (the reaction is exothermic), but this would make the rate of reaction too slow. The temperature of 450C is a compromise. The iron catalyst increases the rate of the reaction. High pressure increases both the rate and the yield, but having the pressure to high wouldnt be cost effective. Again, a compromise is reached at 200atm. The rate of reaction here would be too slow

The pressure here would be too expensive

Uses of ammonia Manufacture of nitric acid Production of fertilisers o Plants need nitrogen-containing compounds - they cant get nitrogen directly from air o Nitrogen compounds are needed to make proteins in plants o Ammonia is very soluble, and can leach into rivers and cause environmental damage

Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid is made in multiple stages, one of which is the contact process: Concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Air oleum (H2S2O7) reactor 4 Reaction 2 is the contact process Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) reactor Water Substances which are underlined: raw materials required.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) reactor

Sulfur trioxide (SO3) reactor

Sulfur

1. Sulfur + oxygen sulfur dioxide o S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) 2. Sulfur dioxide + oxygen sulfur trioxide o 2SO2(g) + O2(g) SO3(g) o H = -192kJ/mol - exothermic 3. Sulfur trioxide + sulfuric acid (concentrated oleum o SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l) o The sodium trioxide is dissolved into the sulfuric acid 4. oleum + water sulfuric acid o H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)

Sulfuric acid

It would seem simpler to make sulfuric acid by adding sulfur trioxide straight to water to avoid steps 3 and 4: H2O + SO3 H2SO4 However, this is dangerous as it is very exothermic and an Contact process Step 2 is the contact process. Certain conditions are required for optimum productivity: 450C: this is hot enough to ensure a good reaction rate, but not too hot so as to decrease the yield (as the reaction is exothermic) 2atm: higher pressures would produce more silicon trioxide but this would be unnecessarily expensive because of the equipment used Vanadium (V) oxide catalyst: this increases the reaction rate (though not the yield) is made.

Uses of sulfuric acid Detergents Fertilisers Paints

Electrolysis of brine
The large-scale manufacture of chlorine, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide by the electrolysis of brine (concentrated sodium chloride solution) involves collecting the 3 substances and ensuring that they as they are produced in the electrolytic cell. The membrane/diaphragm cell Chlorine out Hydrogen out

Brine pumped in Water in (providing both H+ and OH-)

Unused brine pumped out Sodium hydroxide solution

Anode (titanium)

Ion exchange membrane (lets Na+ through to meet the OH- in the right hand side of the cell)

Cathode (nickel)

Anode At the anode, chlorine gas is formed: 2Cl- Cl2 + 2eCathode At the cathode, hydrogen gas is formed: 2H+ + 2e- H2 Uses of sodium hydroxide Manufacture of bleach Manufacture of paper Manufacture of soap Purifying natural gas Sewage treatment Degreasing metals Uses of chlorine Sterilising water supplies Manufacture of bleach Manufacture of hydrochloric acid Manufacture of paints

Summary
Photosynthesis Combustion

Combustion

Carbon dioxide and water Combustion

Combustion Oxidation

Carboxylic acids

Hydrogenation Fractional distillation Hydrogen Nickel catalyst 150C Alkanes Cracking Silica/alumina catalyst 600-700C Polymerisation Alkenes

Hydration Water Phosphoric acid catalyst (H3PO4) 300C, 70 atm Dehydration Alumina catalyst Heat High temperature and pressure

Potassium manganate (VII) Sulfuric acid catalyst Purple colourless Alcohols Fermentation Anaerobic conditions Zymase (enzyme in yeast) 37C Sugars

Crude oil

Plastics