Materials revolution

Material science includes the science of how materials work coupled with improving the performance of those materials.

Electronegativity
Electronegativity can be described as an atoms ability to attract bonding pairs of electrons in a covalent bond. The most electronegative atom is fluorine, followed by oxygen. Chlorine and nitrogen too are highly electronegative. Electronegativity tends to increase as you go across a period because of the size of the nuclei increases and then decreases down the group. In a covalent bond between 2 atoms, the bonding pairs of electrons are attracted more to the electronegative atom, making the bond polar. Some elements can have similar electronegativities and are essentially non polar. In polar A dipole is a difference in charge bonds, the difference in electronegativities between the 2 atoms between 2 atoms caused by an results in the dipole charge. The greater the difference of inequality in the sharing of electronegativities between 2 electrons in a covalent bond. A polar bond is one where there is a atoms, the more polar the bond separation of charge between one will be. end and another. Whether a molecule has a permanent dipole depends on the shape. If the polar bonds are arranged to that they point in opposite directions, they cancel each other out and the molecule is non-polar. But if they are roughly in the same direction, the molecule is then polar.

Intermolecular forces
Intermolecular forces are forces between molecules. Theyre a lot more weaker than covalent, ionic or metallic bonds. The 3 different types include: Permanent dipole- Permanent dipole bonding: the slightly + & - charges on polar molecules cause weak electrostatic forces of attraction between molecules.

Instantaneous dipole induced dipole bonding: at any one time electrons in an atom can move to a particular side and cause one part to be more negative than the other. This creates a temporary dipole. This dipole can cause another

temporary dipole in another atom causing the 2 atoms to bond together in the weakest electrostatic bonding. Hydrogen bonding: this happens when hydrogen is covalently bonded to either: fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen. Theyre all electronegative so they draw away the bonding electrons from the hydrogen atom. This is the strongest type of intermolecular bonding.

Structure and properties of polymers

Most polymers have a mixture of crystalline and amorphous structures.

Crystalline regions have regularly arranged chains. They run either in the same direction or fold up neatly next to each other. This means intermolecular bonds in these structures are greater making polymers stronger.

Amorphous regions have irregularly or randomly arranged chains running in all the different directions. This means the intermolecular bonds between the chains are weak

The longer the chain the more tangles within the polymer chains and more intermolecular bonds can be made making the polymer stronger and less flexible. An increase in intermolecular bond and strength as the chain gets longer means more difficulty in the polymer chains sliding over each other. *flexibility of a polymer depends on the ability of the polymer chains to slide over each other. Temperature can affect the intermolecular bonds. - All thermoplastics have a set melting point (Tm). If the thermoplastic polymer is heated beyond this point, the plastic will soften and then melt. The heat energy disrupts the intermolecular bonds holding the polymer chain together making it easier to slide over each other and change the shape. - All thermoplastics also have a glass transition temperature (Tg). If the thermoplastic is cooled below this point it strengthens the intermolecular bonds that hold the

chain together so the plastic becomes very rigid. If the plastic is bent the polymer chains wont slide over each other but it will eventually snap.

How can properties of polymers be modified to strengthen it?

Modifier Copolymerisation Explanation This involves introducing different monomer molecules with different side groups into the original polymer that youre trying to make more flexible. The side groups push the polymer chain further so that the bonds a weakened and its more flexible. (reduces Tg) Adding plasticisers makes the polymer bendier. The plasticiser molecules get between the polymer chains and push them apart reducing the strength of intermolecular forces. This allows them to be able to slide more freely. (reduces Tg) This increases crystallinity in polymers. It involves pulling amorphous polymer chains out so that they become more straight and regularly arranged. This increases the intermolecular bonds within the polymer chains and also makes it more rigid. (reduces Tg)

Adding plasticiser

Cold-drawing

You have to be aware that properties of materials are dependent on by the structure and bondings of the molecules.

Amines
Amines are deriviatives of ammonia. Ammonia is made up of a nitrogen atom with 3 hydrogen atoms surrounding it. In an amine, the hydrogens surrounding the nitrogen can be replaced by alkyl groups. There are 3 different types of amines; primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary: this is were only 1 of the hydrogen has been replaced by an alkyl group. Secondary: this is were 2 of the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by an alkyl group. Tertiary: this is were all 3 of the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by an alkyl group.

Ammonia molecule Primary amine

Secondary amine

Tertiary amine

Properties of amines
The lone pair of electron on the nitrogen in an amine is respoensible for many of its properties but the presence of akyl groups means its modified. Acting as a base: amines can accept hydrogen and form a dative covalent bond using its lone pairs of electron to bond with it. You can neutralise an amine by reacting it with a base to form an ammonium salt

Amines can form ligands: Amines can donate their lone pairs of electron and form dative covalent bonds with a central atom to form a complex. Amines solubility in water: Amines are soluble in water because their lone pair of electrons can form hydrogen bonds to water. However, amines with large alkyl groups are less soluble because the alkyl group disrupts the hydrogen bond. Amine as nucleophiles: amines can be involved in a A nucleophile is a molecule or nucleophilic sunstitution reaction. Primary amines react with negatively charged ion or atom with halogenoalkanes to form secondary amines. In this reaction, a one of more lone pair of electrons hydrogen atom from the amine is always removed. The that attacks a positive region of secondary amine can then go on to react with a another molecule. halogenoalkane. And also eventually a tertiary amine too. The process by which the hydrogen atom is constantly being replaced is called alkylation.

Amides
Amides have the functional group: CONH

Primary amide

Secondary amide

Amides can be formed by acylation. This is were an acyl group has been added to an amine group. When an amine is reacted with acyl chloride, one of the hydrogen atom is substituted for the acyl group and a chlorine atom is removed. This reaction is very vigorous because acyl chloride is a very reactive, even at room temperatures. The CN bond in an amide can be broken by a molecule of water in a process known as hydrolysis. This process is all heated under reflux and can be carried out either in the presence of moderated concentrations of an acid or alkali. Using an acid or alkali results in different products formed.

If you use an acid, the resulting products is carboxylic acid and an ammonium ion. This carboxylic acid comes about because the OH molecules from the water has been donated to it. An hydrogen atom from the water molecule has been transferred to the nitrogen atom and remembering that it can also act as a base, a hydrogen ion from the acid is donated to it. If you use an alkali, the resulting product is a carboxylate ion and an amine. A carboxylate ion is the result because after the OH molecule from the water has been accepted. Because carboxylic acid is formed and its in the presence of a base, it has a tendency to get rid of its hydrogen and donate it to the alkali.

Addition polymerisation
An addition reaction is one where 2 or more molecules combine to form a single product. Addition polymers are made from alkenes. During addition polymerisation, the double bonds in the alkenes open up and join together. The individual small alkenes are called monomers.

Condensation polymerisation
A condensation reaction involves an addition reaction then elimination. Condensation polymers often involve 2 different types of monomers. Each monomer has at least 2 functional groups on either side of the molecule to be able to form a bond. Polymers made by condensation polymerisation includes adding many monomers to react and form a large chain of polymer and also a by product of a small molecule, usually water.

Recrystallisation
This is a way of purifying a solid. These are the processes: Add the impure solid to a solvent, heat it, allowing the solid to dissolve. This will give a saturated solution of the impure product. The solution is then left to cool down and crystals of the useful product start to form. The impurities stay in the solution. They take longer to crystallise because it is in smaller amounts. The useful crystal products are removed by filtration and washed. They are then dried.

It is very important you use the right kind of solvent. The solid impurity must be soluble enough to dissolve in the solvent. If the solid isnt soluble, it wouldnt dissolve at all. If the solid is too soluble, it would remain in the solution even after cooling and when you filter it, you can lose most of your product and have a very low yield.

Green chemistry
Recycling
There are ways in which plastics can be recycled and reused to avoid damage to the environment and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. 1. Recycling plastics, especially thermoplastics which are easily recyclable because they can be easily remoulded. However there are some problems which come with this. One major one is how expensive it is to separate and sort out the different types of polymers collected. A better source of plastics for recycling is waste from factories where the plastics are being primarily developed. These types are often one type of plastics, so sorting out isnt needed. 2. You can crack the polymer and break it into smaller units called monomers which can be fed back into the feedstock in chemical industries to be reused. 3. The use of more biodegradable plastics such as -Bipolymers (made by living organisms and broken down by bacteria) -Synthetic biodegradable plastics (broken down by bacteria) -Photodegradable plastics (broken down by sunlight) All these kind of plastics can be broken down when theyre in the environment, but the speed of the process is still problematic.

Burning
Burning plastics can reduce the amount of plastics going on to landfill sites and also provides heat energy that can be used to generate electricity. However, this process can release a lot of carbon dioxide as well as wasting valuable energy.

Reduced carbon dioxide emissions

Energy consumed in producing a set amount of plastics from recycled material is much lower than the energy consumed in producing that same amount from new raw materials- fossil fuels. If less fossil fuel is burned, it would lead to a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. The life cycle assessments are beginning to prove useful to chemists when evaluating the impact of producing materials. It gives them an insight to the amount of carbon dioxide that is produced in every step of making a product; from getting the raw materials to its disposal.

Minimising hazardous waste

Using reactant molecules that are as safe and environmentally friendly as possible. Use as few other materials as possible. Renewable raw materials should be used as much as possible. Catalysts are a good thing to use to minimise the amount of energy usage. The processes shouldnt generate waste products that are hazardous to human health or environment.