Mader Inquiry into Life, Thirteenth Edition Chapter Outline

CHAPTER 12: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

12.1 The Blood Vessels The cardiovascular system has three types of blood vessels: the arteries, the capillaries, and the veins. The Arteries An arterial wall has three layers including a layer of smooth muscle that can contract to regulate blood flow and blood pressure. Smaller arteries branch into a number of arterioles. The Capillaries Capillaries join arterioles to venules. They are extremely narrow and have thin walls. The exchange of substances takes place in the capillaries. The Veins Veins and venules take blood from the capillary beds to the heart. Veins often have valves that prevent blood from flowing backward when closed. 12.2 The Human Heart The heart is a cone-shaped, muscular organ about the size of a fist. The major portion of the heart, called the myocardium, consists largely of cardiac muscle tissue. Internally, the heart has four chambers: two thin-walled atria, and two thick-walled ventricles. Path of Blood through the Heart There is a specific pathway whereby blood flows through the heart such that oxygen-poor blood never mixes with oxygen-rich blood. The pumping of the heart sends blood out to the rest of the body under pressure. The Heartbeat When the heart beats, first the two atria contract at the same time; then the two ventricles contract at the same time. Then all the chambers relax. The word systole refers to contraction of heart muscle, and the word diastole refers to relaxation of heart muscle. Intrinsic Control of Heartbeat The rhythmic contraction of the atria and ventricles is due to the intrinsic conduction system of the heart. Nodal tissue, which has both muscular and nervous characteristics, is located in two regions of the heart. Extrinsic Control of Heartbeat The body also has extrinsic ways to regulate the heartbeat. A cardiac control center exists in the medulla oblongata of the brain. Hormones can also stimulate the heart. The Electrocardiogram The electrocardiogram is a recording of the electrical changes that occur in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle. Body fluids contain ions that conduct electrical currents. 12.3 The Vascular Pathways The cardiovascular system includes two circuits: the pulmonary and the systemic circuit. The Pulmonary Circuit The pulmonary arteries take oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and the pulmonary veins return oxygen-rich blood to the left atrium. The Systemic Circuit The systemic circuit includes all the arteries and veins that feed the head, chest, arms, and lower body regions.

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Blood Pressure Systolic pressure results from blood being forced into the arteries during ventricular systole, and diastolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries ventricular diastole. A blood pressure reading consists of these two example, 120/80 (systolic/diastolic).

12.4 Blood Blood has transport functions, regulatory functions, and protective functions. It consists of plasma, the liquid portion of the blood, and the formed elements. Plasma Plasma contains a variety of inorganic and organic substances dissolved or suspended in water. The Red Blood Cells Mature red blood cells dont have a nucleus and are biconcave disks. Their shape increases their flexibility for moving through capillary beds and their surface area for diffusion of gases. Red blood cells carry oxygen. The White Blood Cells White blood cells differ from red blood cells in that they are usually larger, have a nucleus, lack hemoglobin, and without staining appear translucent. They fight infection and play a role in the development of immunity. The Platelets and Blood Clotting Platelets are fragments of certain large cells and are involved in the process of blood clotting. There are at least 12 clotting factors in the blood that participate in the formation of a blood clot. Blood Clotting There are several steps involved in blood clotting. First, platelets clump at the site of the puncture. This and the damaged tissue activate several factors that result in a cascade of enzymatic reactions, eventually resulting in a fibrin clot. Hemophilia Hemophilia is an inherited clotting disorder caused by a deficiency in a clotting factor. Bone Marrow Stem Cells A stem cell is a cell that is ever capable of dividing and producing new cells that go on to differentiate into particular types of cells. Bone marrow contains multipotent stem cells. Capillary Exchange Two forces primarily control movement of fluid through the capillary wall: osmotic pressure and blood pressure. 12.5 Cardiovascular Disorders Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of untimely death in Western countries. Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis is an accumulation of soft masses of fatty materials beneath the inner lining of arteries. Heart Valve Disease A narrowing of the aortic valve opening is the most common heart valve malfunction. Faulty valves are repaired or replaced. Stroke, Heart Attack, and Aneurysm A stroke results when a small cranial arteriole bursts or is blocked. If a coronary artery becomes blocked, a portion of the heart muscle dies due to lack of oxygen and a heart attack occurs. An aneurysm is a ballooning of a blood vessel.

Coronary Bypass Operations During this operation, a surgeon bypasses an obstructed coronary artery with a segment from another blood vessel. Clearing Clogged Arteries In angioplasty, a cardiologist uses a catheter to open a clogged artery. Dissolving Blood Clots Tissue plasminogen activator is converted into an enzyme that dissolves blood clots. Heart Transplants and Artificial Hearts Although heart transplants are usually successful, the need for hearts is greater than the supply. Only a few patients have received a total artificial heart. Hypertension Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is sometimes called the silent killer because it may not be detected until a stroke or heart attack occurs. Hypertension is most often due to a narrowing of the arteries.