CHAPTER 10

Elections and Campaigns

0OBJECTIVES
This chapter focuses on the process of campaigning involved in each type of election. After reading and reviewing the material in this chapter, the student should be able to do each of the following:0 10. Demonstrate the differences between the party-oriented campaigns of the nineteenth century and the candidate-oriented ones of today, contrasting the ma or elements of successful campaigns. !0. Discuss the importance of campaign funding to election outcomes, the ma or sources of such funding under current laws, and how successful reform legislation has been in removing improper monetary influences from "nited #tates elections. $0. %utline the processes for electing presidents and for electing members of &ongress, and discuss how the ma or differences between the two types of contests shape who runs and how it affects their campaign strategy. '0. Describe what the Democrats and (epublicans each must do to put together a successful national coalition to win an election. )0. %utline the ma or arguments on either side of the *uestion of whether elections do or do not result in ma or changes in public policy in the "nited #tates.

0OVERVIEW
+olitical campaigns have become increasingly personali,ed, with little or no connection to formal party organi,ations. +arty influence has decayed as a result of the widespread adoption of the direct primary, the increasing influence of the media, and the wor-ings of campaign finance law. Today, candidates face the problem of creating a temporary organi,ation that can raise money from large numbers of small donors and mobili,e enthusiastic supporters. they must win the nomination by appealing to the party faithful while not losing their ability to recruit moderate and independent voters in the general election. /lection outcomes can have important effects on public policy, especially during critical, or realigning, elections. %n these occasions, new voters enter the electorate in large numbers, old party loyalties wea-en, and0or a crucial issue splits the ma ority party.

0CHAPTER OUTLI E WITH !E"E#$I

10.

RESOURCES0

&ampaigns, then and now A0. Then: &ampaigns for the nomination were nearly none2istent. 10. 3ineteenth century: congressional members from party caucus pic-ed candidate !0. After nominating conventions replaced caucuses, local party leaders or bosses selected candidate. 40. 3ow: &andidates must orchestrate a highly structured campaign 10. (un by large staff: a05 6edia consultants create advertisements and buy air time from media outlets.

Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

!.

b05 Direct-mail firms design and produce promotional materials for fund-raising purposes. c05 +olling firms survey voters on their attitudes toward issues and candidates and run focus groups. d05 +olitical technology firms supply services such as web site design, online advertising, online fund-raising, and voter-targeting. To pay for this help, candidates must raise and spend large sums of money. a5 &andidates for the '$) 7ouse races spent 81 billion. b5 &andidates for #enate races spent 8'00 million c5 &andidates for president spent 81.9) billion. d5 The amount spent by presidential candidates has e2ploded since 1:9;, with most of the money going to fund various forms of media, including T<, radio, newspapers, yard signs and the 1nternet.

=argely based on media advertising e05 =arge amount of money spent on media advertising f05 Advertisements appeal largely to emotions, such as fear, patriotism, or community pride. &0. Are campaigns better or worse> 10. &andidates use polling data to determine voter opinions, positions !. 1n !00?, both presidential campaigns made e2tensive use of micro-targeting software to reach sets of voters. $0. +arties emphasi,e get-out-the-vote activities '0. &andidates rely heavily on advice of political consultants ) @&ampaigningA has become synonymous with @fund-raisingA D0. &ampaigns, in the "nited #tates and abroad 10. Differences in how candidates secure party nominations a05 1n America, the nomination is determined by individual effort b05 1n /urope, the nomination is determined by party leaders !0. Differences in how nominees secure electoral victory a05 1n America, largest role of parties is to provide individual candidates with label for voters b05 1n /urope, elections are largely contests between parties, not between individual candidates 110. +residential versus congressional campaigns A0. Differences 10. 6ost obvious difference is si,e: more voter participation in presidential campaign, so candidates must wor- harder and spend more !0. +residential races are more competitive than 7ouse races. $0. =ower turnout in off years means that candidates must appeal to more motivated and partisan voters. '0. 6embers of &ongress can do things for their constituents that the president cannot. )0. 6embers of &ongress can run as individuals, distancing themselves from @the mess in BashingtonA. presidents cannot. a05 7owever, members of &ongress may feel voter anger about national affairs, particularly the economy. b05 +residential coattails do not have the value they once had. some scholars argue they do not e2ist anymore. ;0. &ongressional elections are now substantially independent of the presidential election.

Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

40. (unning for president 10. Cetting mentioned a05 David 4roder: @The Creat 6entionerA b05 =et it be -nown to reporters @off the recordA that you are considering running. c05 Travel around the country ma-ing speeches d05 7ave a famous name DEohn Clenn5 e05 4e identified with a ma or piece of legislation f05 4e the governor of a big state !0. #etting aside time to run0 a05 (eagan: si2 years. 6ondale: four years b05 6ay have to resign from office first DDole in 1::;5, though many campaign while in office $0. 6oney0 a05 1ndividuals can give 8!,000. +A&s can give 8),000 in each election to each candidate. b05 &andidates must raise 8),000 in twenty states in individual contributions of 8!)0 or less to *ualify for federal matching grants to pay for primary campaigns. '0. %rgani,ation0 a05 A large Dpaid5 staff b05 <olunteers c05 Advisers on issues: position papers )0. #trategy and themes0 a05 1ncumbents defend their record. challengers attac- incumbents. b05 #etting the tone Dpositive or negative5 c05 Developing a theme: @trust,A @confidence,A @compassionate conservatismA. in !00?, 4arac- %bama developed the themes @&hange you can believe inA and @Fes, we canA. d05 Eudging the timing Dearly momentum versus reserving resources for later5 e05 &hoosing a target voter: Bho is the audience> Bho will change his or her vote> &0. 000Cetting elected to &ongress0 10. 1ncumbents with e2traordinary advantageGand &ongress has no term limits !0. /ach state has two senators. number of 7ouse representatives based on state population, as determined by the census $0. 7ouse members are now elected from single-member districts. '0. District boundaries can affect election outcomes. two enduring problems have characteri,ed congressional electoral politics. a05 6alapportionment: districts have very different populations, so the votes in a less-populated district @weigh moreA than do those in a more-populated district. b05 Cerrymandering: boundaries are drawn to favor one party rather than the other, resulting in odd-shaped districts. )0. +roblems associated with 7ouse elections:00 a05 Total si,e of the 7ouse, which &ongress decided in 1:11 b05 Allocating 7ouse seats among the states00 Dstates gain and lose seats following the census5 c05 Determining the si,e of congressional districts within the states, which states have decided in -eeping with stringent #upreme &ourt rulings d05 Determining the shapes of congressional districts within the states, which states have decided in -eeping with stringent #upreme &ourt rulings D0. Binning the congressional primary0 10. 6ust gather voter signatures to appear on the ballot for a primary election

Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

!0. Bin party nomination by winning the primary electionGparties have limited influence over these outcomes $0. (un in the general electionGincumbents almost always win: @sophomore surgeA due to use of office to run a strong personal campaign '0. +ersonali,ed campaigns offer members independence from party in &ongress /0. #taying in office 10. 7ow members get elected has two conse*uences0 a05 =egislators are closely tied to local concerns b05 +arty leaders have little influence in &ongress, because they cannot influence electoral outcomes. !0. Affects how policy is made: members gear their offices to help individual constituents while securing committee assignments that will produce benefits for their districts. $0. 6embers must decide how much to be delegates Ddo what district wants5 versus trustees Duse their independent udgment5. 1110. +rimary versus general campaigns DT7/6/ A: 7%B &A6+A1C3# A(/ &%3D"&T/D50 A0. +rimary and general campaigns 10. Bhat wor-s in a primary election may not wor- in a general election, and vice versa. a05 Different voters, wor-ers, media attention in different types of elections b05 6ust mobili,e activists who will give money, volunteer, and attend caucuses c05 Activists are more ideologically stringent than are the voters at large. !0. 1owa caucuses0 a05 7eld in Hebruary of presidential election year b05 &andidates must do well or be disadvantaged for media attention, contributor interest c05 Binners tend to be most liberal Democrat and most conservative (epublican $0. The balancing act0 a05 4eing conservative enough or liberal enough to get nominated b05 %nce nominated, move to center to get elected c05 Apparent contradictions can alienate voters from all candidates. '0. /ven primary voters can be more e2treme ideologically than average voters: Ierry too- more e2treme positions in !00' primaries, bac-ed away from them after winning Democratic nomination. 40. Two -inds of campaign issues0 10. +osition issues: issues in which rival candidates have opposing views and voters are divided. a partisan realignment may result0 a05 +osition issues in !000: social security, defense, public school choice systems b5 1n !00? 6c&ain favored ta2 cuts, whereas %bama favored increasing ta2es for people earning over 8!00,000 c5 Creat party realignments De.g., 1?:0s, 1:;0s5 have been based on position issues !0. <alence issues: issues on which nearly everyone agrees Dstrong economy, low crime rates, health-care reform50 a05 <oters select candidate who seems most closely lin-ed to universally shared view b05 1ncreasingly important because television leads to a reliance on popular symbols and admired images c5 The !00? campaign relied on both valence and position issues. 4oth %bama and 6c&ain supported @reformingA the health care system to ma-e it @affordable.A &0. Television, debates, and direct mail0 10. +aid advertising Dspots50

Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

a05 =ittle--nown candidates can increase name recognition through the fre*uent use of spots De2ample, &arter in 1:9;5 b05 +robably less effect on general than primary elections, because most voters rely on many sources for information !0. 3ews broadcasts D@visualsA50 a05 &ost little b05 6ay have greater credibility with voters c05 (ely on having television camera crew around d05 6ay actually be less informative than spots and therefore ma-e less of an impression $0. Debates0 a05 "sually an advantage only to the challenger b05 (eagan in 1:?0: reassured voters by his performance c05 !00? 4arac- %bama and Eohn 6c&ain: no clear winner. not li-ely to have affected the election results '0. (is- of slips of the tongue on visuals and debates0 a05 Horces candidates to rely on stoc- speechesGcampaign themes and proven applause-getting lines b05 #ell yourself as much as or more than ideas )0. (oss +erotJs campaign depended on television0 a05 &33 appearances b05 1nfomercials c05 Televised debates with ma or party contenders ;0. 1n 1::;, ma or networ-s gave free time to @ma orA candidatesGand denied it to minor third-party nominees 90. The 1nternet0 a05 6a-es direct-mail campaigns possible b05 Allows candidates to address specific voters via direct mail c05 6ailing to specific groups, so more specific views can be e2pressed d05 7oward DeanJs !00' campaign based on 1nternet appeals ?0. The gap between running a campaign and running the government has been growing. a05 +arty leaders had to worry about their candidatesJ reelection, so campaigning and government were lin-ed. b05 TodayJs consultants wor- for different people in different elections and do not participation in governing. 1<0. 6oney DT7/6/ 4: 6%3/F 13 /=/&T%(A= &A6+A1C3#50 A0. The sources of campaign money0 10. +residential primaries: part private, part public money0 a05 Hederal matching funds for all individualsJ donations of 8!)0 or less b05 Cives candidates an incentive to raise money from small donors c05 Covernment also gives lump-sum grants to parties to cover convention costs !0. +residential general elections: all public money up to a legal limit of ma or party candidates and part of the costs of minor party candidates if they receive ) to !) percent of the vote. D$0. &ongressional elections: mostly private money0 a05 Hrom individuals, political action committees, and political parties b05 6ost money comes from individual small donors D8100K8!00 a person5 40. &ampaign finance rules0 10. 1n 1:9!, the Batergate scandal and illegal donations from corporations, unions, and individuals cataly,ed change.

Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

!0. 4rought about the 1:9' federal campaign reform law and Hederal /lection &ommission DH/&5 $0. (eform law0 a05 #et limit on individual donations D81,000 per candidate per election5 b05 (eaffirmed ban on corporate and union donations . . . c05 . . . but allowed them to raise money through +A&s d05 +A& re*uirements:0 D150 6ust have at least fifty voluntary members D!50 6ust give to at least five federal candidates D$50 =imited to giving 8),000 per election per candidate, or no more than 81),000 per year to any political party e05 +rimary and general election counted separately for donations f05 +ublic funding for presidential campaigns:0 D150 6atching funds for presidential primary candidates, who meet fund-raising stipulations D!50 Hull funding for presidential general campaigns, for ma or party candidates D$50 &andidates may decline public funding: in !00', Ceorge B. 4ush, Eohn Ierry, and 7oward Dean did not accept public funding and ran on money they had raised privately D'5 1n !00?, Eohn 6c&ain declined public financing for the primaries but accepted it for the general election. 4arac- %bama relied entirely on his own funds to support his campaign in the primaries and general election. D)50 +artial funding available for minor party presidential candidates in the general campaign if they won at least ) percent of the vote in the previous election. D1n !000, the (eform +arty and Creen +arty candidates, +at 4uchanan and (alph 3ader, respectively, each received some funding. neither was eligible in !00'.5 3o minor party won more than ) percent in either !00' or !00?, so no one got public support. '0. The 1:9$ reform produced two problems: a05 1ndependent e2penditures: an organi,ation or +A& can spend as much as it wishes on advertising as long as it is not coordinated with a candidateJs campaign. b05 #oft money: unlimited amounts of money may be given to a political party as long as a candidate is not named. this money can then be spent to help candidates with voting drives and so on. DAppro2imately half a billion dollars in soft money was spent in !000 and again in !00'.5 &0. A second campaign finance law0 10. Hollowing !000 election, desire to reform the 1:9' law led to the 4ipartisan &ampaign Hinance (eform Act, which enacted three changes:0 a05 4anned soft money contributions to national parties from corporations and unions after !00! election b05 (aised the limit on individual donations to 8!,000 per candidate per election c05 #harply restricted independent e2penditures. corporations, unions, trade associations, and nonprofit organi,ations cannot use their own money for an advertisement referring to a candidate by name for thirty days before a primary and si2ty days before a general election. !0. 1mmediately challenged in court as restriction of free speech D McConnell v. Federal Election Commission, !00!5. #upreme &ourt upheld almost the entire law D0. 3ew sources of money 10. )!9 organi,ations: a new source of money under the 4ipartisan &ampaign (eform Act

Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

a05 Designed to permit the -ind of soft-money e2penditures once made by political parties b05 &an spend their money on politics so long as they do not coordinate with a candidate or lobby directly for that person !0. Democratic )!9 organi,ations: a05 The 6edia Hund b05 America &oming Together c05 America <otes Dand many others5 $0. (epublican )!9 organi,ations: a05 +rogress for America b05 The =eadership Horum c05 America for Eob #ecurity Dand many others5 '0. 1n !00', )!9 organi,ations raised and spent over one-third of a billion dollars. /0. 6oney and winning0 10. +residential candidates have similar funds because of federal funding. !0. During peacetime, presidential elections are usually based on three factors: a05 +olitical party affiliation Dthe !0 percent of voters who swing between the parties5 b05 The state of the economy D150 %ften called @poc-etboo- votingA D!50 3ot clear whose poc-etboo- is being voted, though: the individualJs or that of the country as a whole> c05 &haracter: personal characteristics or social0religious values $0. %ther factors whose influence on the presidential campaign is usually overstated:0 a05 <ice-presidential nominee b05 +olitical reporting c05 (eligion of the presidential candidate d05 Abortion as a single issue '0. &ongressional racesGmoney has a decisive effect0 a05 &hallenger must spend to be recogni,ed b05 Eacobson: big-spending challengers do better c05 4ig-spending incumbents do better than low-spending ones0 )0. Advantages of incumbency, in fund-raising0 a05 &an provide services to constituency b05 &an use fran-ed mailings c05 &an get free publicity by sponsoring legislation or conducting investigations <0. Bhat decides elections>0 A0. +arty0 10. 3ot so simple as it seems: most people identify as Democrats, but the Democrats lost si2 of nine presidential contests between 1:;? and !000. !0. Democrats are less wedded to their party than are (epublicans. $0. (epublicans tend to do better among independents. #ince 1:;0, (epublicans have won the independent vote seven times. the Democrats won it five times. '0. (epublicans have higher turnout. 40. 1ssues, especially the economy0 10. <. %. Iey: most voters who switch parties do so in their own interests0 a05 They -now what issues affect them personally b05 They have strong principles about certain issues Dfor e2ample, abortion5 !0. (elatively few voters vote prospectively.0 a05 Those voters -now the issues and vote accordingly b05 6ost common among activists and special interest groups $0. 6ost voters vote retrospectively. decides most elections0

Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

a05 <oters udge the incumbentJs performance and vote accordingly. b05 7ave things gotten better or worse, especially economically> c05 /2amples: presidential campaigns of 1:?0, 1:?', 1:??, 1::!, !00? d05 "sually helps incumbent, unless economy has gotten worse e05 6idterm elections: voters tend to turn against presidentJs party &0. The campaign0 10. &ampaigns do ma-e a difference.0 a05 They reawa-en votersJ partisan loyalties. b05 They let voters see how candidates handle and apply pressure. c05 They let voters udge the character and core values of the candidates. !0. &ampaigns tend to emphasi,e themes over details.0 a05 True throughout American history b05 Bhat has changed is importance of primary elections. c05 /mphasis on themes gives more influence to single-issue groups with loyal members who vote as a bloc D0. Hinding a winning coalition0 10. Bays of loo-ing at various groups0 a05 7ow loyal are groups to the candidate or party> b05 7ow important are groups to the candidate or party> !0. Democratic coalition0 a05 African Americans most loyal b05 Eews almost as loyal as African Americans c05 7ispanics loyal, though somewhat mi2ed because of underlying ethnic differences0 D150 &ubans tend to vote (epublican D!50 6e2icans and +uerto (icans strongly Democratic D$50 Turnout among 7ispanic voters still *uite low d05 &atholics, southerners, unionists departing the coalition $0. (epublican coalition0 a05 +arty of business and professional people who are very loyal De2ception: 1:;'5 b05 Harmers are often (epublican, but are *uic- to change parties. '0. Bhen ma-ing demands on party leaders or presidential candidates, representatives of different groups within the coalition stress loyalty or numbers but can rarely claim both. <10. The effects of elections on policy DT7/6/ &: /=/&T1%3# A3D +A(T1#A3 A=1C36/3T#50 A0. The broad trends in winning and losing 10. 1?9;K1?:;: Democrats and (epublicans hotly competitive !0. 1?:;K1:$!: (epublicans dominant party $0. 1:$!K1:)!: Democrats dominant party '0. 1:)!Kpresent: power has changed hands fre*uently 40. Argument: +ublic policy remains more or less the same no matter which official or party is in office.0 10. Depends on the office and the policy !0. <oters must elect numerous officeholders. $0. +arties have limited ability to build coalitions of officeholders. '0. Binning coalitions may change from policy to policy. &0. &omparison: Creat 4ritain, with parliamentary system and strong parties, often sees mar-ed changes, as in 1:') and 1:)1. D0. &onclusion: 6any American elections do ma-e differences in policy, though constitutional system generally moderates the pace of change. /0. Bhy, then, the perception that elections do not matter>

Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

10. 4ecause periods of rapid change alternate with periods of consolidation. !0. 6ost elections are not @criticalA. instead, they are retrospective udgments about the incumbent president and the current congressional ma ority.

0WEB RESOURCES
American Association of +olitical &onsultants: www.theaapc.org American <otes, +residential &ampaign 6emorabilia: http:00scriptorium.lib.du-e.edu0americavotes &enter for (esponsive +olitics: www.openscrets.org Hederal /lection &ommission: www.fec.gov The =iving (oom &andidate: http:00livingroomcandidate.movingimage.us +ro ect <ote #mart: www.vote-smart.org

0I%PORTA T TER%S
527 organization blanket primary closed primary coattails %rgani,ation that, under #ection )!9 of the 1nternal (evenue &ode, raises and spends money to advance political causes A primary election in which each voter may vote for candidates from both parties A primary election in which voting is limited to already registered party members The alleged tendency of candidates to win more votes in an election because of the presence at the top of the tic-et of a better--nown candidate, such as the president An election held to choose candidates to hold office Drawing the boundaries of legislative districts in bi,arre or unusual shapes to favor one party +erson currently holding an elective office #pending by political action committees, corporations, or labor unions that is done to help a party or candidate but is done independently of them Drawing the boundaries of legislative districts so that they are une*ual in population A primary election in which voters may choose for which party to vote as they enter the polling place A committee, set up by a corporation, labor union, or interest group, that raises and spends campaign money from voluntary donations An issue about which the public is divided and on which rival candidates or political parties adopt different policy positions An election held to choose candidates for office <oting for a candidate because the voter favors his or her ideas for handling issues <oting for a candidate because the voter li-es his or her past actions in

general election gerrymandering incumbent independent expenditure malapportionment open primary political action committee position issue primary election prospective voting retrospective voting

Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

office runoff primary soft money sophomore surge valence issue A second primary election held when no candidate wins a ma ority of the votes in the first primary Hunds obtained by political parties that are spent on party activities, such as get-out-the-vote drives, but not on behalf of a specific candidate An increase in the votes congressional candidate usually en oy when they first run for reelection An issue about which the public is united and on which rival candidates or political parties adopt similar positions in hopes that each will be thought to best represent those widely shared beliefs