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1 Authors address:

Klaus Brauer, University of Osnabrck,


Department of Mathematics & Computer cience, !pplie" ystems cience
D#$%&'% O(!B)*CK, +ermany
,hone- .$%#/$1#%'%0/%1
eMail- kbrauer2usf3uni#osnabrueck3"e
4nternet- http-556663usf3uni#osnabrueck3"e57kbrauer
The Korteweg-de Vries Equation:
History, exact Solutions, and graphical epresentation
!y Klaus "rauer, #ni$ersity o% &sna!r'c()*er+any,
-ay .///
8ravelin9 6aves as solutions to the Korte6e9#"e :ries e;uation <K":= 6hich is a non#linear ,artial
Differential >;uation <,D>= of thir" or"er have been of some interest alrea"y since 1/& years3
8he author?s aim is to present an analytical e@act result to the K": e;uation by means of elementary
operations as 6ell as by usin9 BAcklun" transform3 pecial interest is "evote" to non#linear
superposition of several 6aves, the so calle" olitary Baves or olitons 6hich is performe" by
BAcklun" transform too3
8he "erivation of the e@act solutions follo6s the presentation of :ve"enski <1%%0=3
4t is fascinatin9 that these e@act solutions 6hich involve a lot of calculations can be "one 6ith the
help of the Computer !l9ebra ystem Mathematica <see Bolfram <1%%%=, not only presentin9
analytical e@pressions but in a""ition CD#,lots, Contour ,lots, an" 0D#,lots for "iscrete values of
time, finally animatin9 these 0D#,lots an" presentin9 these plots as 6ell as the solution formulae
at an 4nternet pa9e3
!nother aim of the author has been to apply numerical "iscrete metho"s to non#linear ,D>s3 Bith
the help of the e@act solutions 9aine" here an e@cellent possibility is 9iven to test the ;uality of the
numerical metho"s by checkin9 the numerical results a9ainst the e@act solution3
0 ,: Historical "ac(ground
! nice story about the history an" the un"erlyin9 physical properties of the Korte6e9#"e
:ries
e;uation can be foun" at an 4nternet pa9e of the Derriot#Batt University in >"inbur9h
<cotlan"=,
see >ilbeck <1%%1=3 8he follo6in9 te@t is taken from that pa9e-
Over one hun"re" an" fifty years a9o, 6hile con"uctin9 e@periments to "etermine
the most
efficient "esi9n for canal boats, a youn9 cottish en9ineer name" Eohn cott )ussell <11&1#
1110=
ma"e a remarkable scientific "iscovery3 Dere his ori9inal te@t as he "escribe" it in )ussell
<11$/=-
I was observing the motion of a boat which was rapidly drawn along a narrow channel by
a pair
of horses, when the boat suddenly stopped - not so the mass of water in the channel which
it had
put in motion; it accumulated round the prow of the vessel in a state of violent agitation,
then
suddenly leaving it behind, rolled forward with great velocity, assuming the form of a large
solitary elevation, a rounded, smooth and well-defined heap of water, which continued its
course
along the channel apparently without change of form or diminution of speed. I followed it
on
horseback, and overtook it still rolling on at a rate of some eight or nine miles
an hour,
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 2
ut <x, t = _ _ u<x, t =
_ t
F ux < x, t = _ _ u<x, t =
_ x
F uxx < x, t = _ _ 0 u< x, t =
_ x 0
F uxxx <x, t = _ _ C u< x, t =
_ x C
preserving its original figure some thirty feet long and a foot to a foot and a half in height.
Its
height gradually diminished, and after a chase of one or two miles I lost it in the windings
of the
channel. uch, in the month of !ugust "#$%, was my first chance interview with that
singular and
beautiful phenomenon which I have called the &ave of 'ranslation3
8his event took place on the Union Canal at Dermiston, very close to the )iccarton campus
of
Deriot#Batt University, >"inbur9h3
8hrou9hout his life )ussell remaine" convince" that his solitary 6ave <the GGBave of
8ranslationHH=
6as of fun"amental importance, but nineteenth an" early t6entieth century scientists
thou9ht
other6ise3 Dis fame has reste" on other achievements3 8o mention some of his many an"
varie"
activities, he "evelope" the I6ave lineI system of hull construction 6hich
revolutioniJe"
nineteenth century naval architecture, an" 6as a6ar"e" the 9ol" me"al of the )oyal ociety
of
>"inbur9h in 11CK3 De be9an steam carria9e service bet6een +las9o6 an" ,aisley in 11C$,
an"
ma"e the first e@perimental observation of the IDoppler shiftI of soun" fre;uency as a
train
passes3 De reor9aniJe" the )oyal ociety of !rts, foun"e" the 4nstitution of (aval
!rchitects an"
in 11$% 6as electe" Lello6 of the )oyal ociety of Mon"on3
De "esi9ne" <6ith Brunel= the I+reat >asternI an" built itF he "esi9ne" the :ienna )otun"a
an"
helpe" to "esi9n BritainHs first armoure" 6arship <the IBarriorI=3 De "evelope" a
curriculum for
technical e"ucation in Britain, an" it has recently become kno6n that he attempte" to
ne9otiate
peace "urin9 the !merican Civil Bar3
4t 6as not until the mi" 1%'&Hs 6hen applie" scientists be9an to use mo"ern "i9ital
computers to
stu"y nonlinear 6ave propa9ation that the soun"ness of )ussellHs early i"eas be9an
to be
appreciate"3 De vie6e" the solitary 6ave as a self#sufficient "ynamic entity, a Ithin9I
"isplayin9
many properties of a particle3 Lrom the mo"ern perspective it is use" as a constructive
element
to formulate the comple@ "ynamical behaviour of 6ave systems throu9hout science-
from
hy"ro"ynamics to nonlinear optics, from plasmas to shock 6aves, from torna"os to the
+reat )e"
pot of Eupiter, from the elementary particles of matter to the elementary particles of
thou9ht3
Lor a more "etaile" an" technical account of the solitary 6ave, see Bullou9h <1%11=3
8he phenomenon "escribe" by )ussell can be e@presse" by a non#linear ,artial
Differential
>;uation of the thir" or"er3 8o remin"- ! partial "ifferential e;uation <,D>= is a
mathematical
e;uation 6hich contains an unkno6n function of more than one variable as 6ell as
some
"erivatives of that function 6ith respect to the "ifferent in"epen"ent variables3 4n
practical
applications 6here the ,D> "escribes a "ynamic process one of the variables has the
meanin9 of
the time <hence "enote" by t= an" the other <normally only up to C= variable have the
meanin9 of
the space <hence "enote" by x, y an" (=
Be consi"er the simplest case in only one space variable x3 o 6e are lookin9 for a
function u
"epen"in9 on the variables x an" t, i3e3 u<x,t= 6hich "escribes the elon9ation of the 6ave at
the
place x at time t3
Usin9 the typical short "enotations as
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 3
ut <x, t = _ ' u<x, t = ux <x, t = _ uxxx < x, t = _ &
u< x, t = _ (< x ___ t = _ ( < _ =
___
d(
d _ _ ' ( d(
d _ _
d C (
d _ C _ &
the problem can be formulate" as-
<1=
8his is the Korte6e9#"e :ries >;uation <K":= 6hich is nonlinear because of the pro"uct
sho6n
in the secon" summan" an" 6hich is of thir" or"er because of the thir" "erivative as
hi9hest in
the thir" summan"3 8he factor ' is Nust a scalin9 factor to make solutions easier to "escribe3
8he aim here is to fin" 9eneral e@act solutions to <1=, i3e3- here 6e have neither initial
con"itions
nor boun"ary con"itions3 8he solutions to <1= are calle" olitons or olitary waves3
8he Korte6e9#"e :ries is a hyperbolic ,D> in the 9eneral sense of the hyperbolicity
"efinition3
Lrom that it follo6s that it "escribes a reversible "ynamical process3
8he author?s interest for analytical solutions of <1= stems from the fact that in applyin9
numerical
metho"s to non#linear ,D>s, the K": e;uation is 6ell suite" as a test obNect, since havin9
an
analytical solution statements can be ma"e on the ;uality of the numerical solution in
comparin9
the numerical result to the e@act result3
8he main part of the subse;uent "e"uction of an analytical solution to <1= is taken
from
:ve"enskii <1%%0=, 6ho has sho6n ho6 to fin" an e@act solution to the K": e;uation an"
6ho
has use" the tool of BAcklun" transform to obtain an analytical solution an" 6ho # in
a""ition to
that # performs non#linear superposition of t6o, three an" more solutions correspon"in9 to
t6o,
three or more olitons 6aves by usin9 BAcklun" transform a9ain3
0 .: Exact Solution to the KdV Equation
Be remember that the simplest mathematical 6ave is a function of the form u< x, t = _ f < x _ c
t =
6hich e393 is a solution to the simple ,D> 6here c "enotes the spee" of the 6ave3 ut _ c ux _ &
Lor the 6ell kno6n 6ave e;uation the famous "?!lembert solution lea"s to utt _ c 0 uxx _ &
t6o 6ave fronts represente" by terms an" 3 f < x _ c t = f < x _ c t =
Dence 6e start here 6ith a trial solution
<0=
Nust "enotin9 the parameter c above by _ here an" the function f by (3
ubstitutin9 the trial solution <0= into <1= 6e are le" to the Or"inary Differential >;uation
<C=
4nte9ration can be "one "irectly since <C= is a form of a total "erivative3 4t follo6s from
<C=-
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 4
(
&
d __ 0 _ _ &
d_
s - _ 1
0 _ sech 0 w
__ ( _ C ( 0 _
d 0 (
d _ 0 _ c1
__ ( d(
d _ _ C ( 0 d(
d _ _
d 0 (
d _ 0 _
d(
d _ _ c1
d(
d _
_ ___ ( d( _ C ( 0 d( _
d 0 (
d _ 0
d( _ c1 d(
_ _0
( 0 _ ( C _
1
0
d(
d _
0
_ c1 ( _ c0
d(
d _
0
_ ( 0 < __ 0 (=
<$=
6here is the constant of inte9ration3 4n or"er to obtain a first or"er e;uation for (
a c1
multiplication 6ith is "one, i3e3- d(
d _
4nte9ration on both si"es <6ith as the constant of inte9ration= lea"s to c0
</=
(o6 it is re;uire" that in case 6e shoul" have 3 x _ O_ ( _ &, d (
d _ _ &, d 0(
d _ 0 _ &
Lrom these re;uirements it follo6s 3 c1 _ c0 _ &
e+ar(:
More 9eneral solutions can be foun" for other choices of an" 3 8hese solutions can be c1
c0
represente" in terms of elliptic inte9rals, for "etails see DraJin <1%1C=3
Bith e;uation </= can be 6ritten as c1 _ c0 _ &
<'=
By separation of variables 6e may 6rite
<K=
8he choice of & for the lo6er inte9ration limits "oes not brin9 any loss of 9enerality since
the
startin9 point can be transforme" linearly3
8he inte9ration of the left han" si"e of <K= can be "one by usin9 a transformation
<1=
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 5
_ _ _ 0_ sech _ 1 0 (
_ _ (< _ = _ _0
sech 0 < )
0 _ =
u<x, t = _ _0
sech 0 _0
< x _ _ t =
s - ___ 1
0 _ csch 0 w
_ _ 0 ___ _ <1 _ sech 0 w= _ _ tanh0 w
d _ dw ___ _ sinh w
coshC w
w _ sech _ 1 0 (
_
_____
0
_
w
&
1
sech 0w _ tanh w _
sinh w
coshCw
dw ___
0
_
w
&
cosh0w _ cosh w
sinh w _
sinh w
coshCw
dw
_ _____
0
_
w
&
dw ___
0
_ w
8he role of s here is playe" by the variable _ an" 6e obtain
<%=
since the relation hol"s3 Lurthermore 6e have cosh0 w _ sinh0 w _ 1
<1&=
8he upper inte9ration limit of the left han" inte9ral in <K= "ue to <1= is transforme" to
<11=
ubstitutin9 <%=, <1&=, an" <11= into <K= 6e 9et
Bith <1= the transform back to _ is "one an" 6e obtain-
(o6 6e use <0= an" 6e finally 9et
<10=
e+ar(s:
4n or"er to have a real solution the ;uantity _ must be a positive number3 !s it is easily seen
from
<10= for _ P & the solitary 6ave moves to the ri9ht3 8he secon" point is that the amplitu"e is
proportional to the spee" 6hich is in"icate" by the value of _ 3 8hus lar9er amplitu"e solitary
6aves move 6ith a hi9her spee" than smaller amplitu"e 6aves3
8o perform superpositions later <see Q$= 6e consi"er the follo6in9- 4f # instea" of <1= # 6e
select
the transformation
<1C=
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 6
u< x, t = ___ 0
csch 0 !0
<x _ t =
vtx " ' vx vxx " vxxxx _ # # vt " C v 0
x " vxxx _ &
vt " C v 0
x " vxxx _ f < t =
Simplify $ PDEKdV $ sol1, x, t% True
Simplify $ PDEKdV $ sol2, x, t% True
x _ t _ & & t _ 1
!
x
PDEKdV ' u_, x_, t_( :) * t u ' x, t( + 6 u ' x, t( * xu ' x, t( + * , x,3- u ' x, t( . 0
sol1 ' x, t( :)0/2
Sech 1 2 / 3
x 4 /
t5 2 6 2
sol2 ' x, t( :)74 /2
Csch 1 2 / 3
x 4 /
t5 2 6 2
then in the same 6ay as 6e obtaine" the solution <10= 6e 6ill obtain another solution
6hich is-
<1$=
8he solution <1$= is an irre9ular solution to the K": >;uation3 4t has a sin9ularity for
vanishin9
ar9ument of the cosech#function, i3e3 for the line in the x-t#plane 6ith
8he proof that both functions <10= an" <1$= are solutions to the ori9inal K": >;uation can
be
easily verifie" 6ith the help of Mathematica as sho6n in the se;uel
(e@t these solutions sol1 an" sol2 are inserte" into PDEKdV-
0 1: Exact Solution with "2c(lund trans%or+
Be are no6 9oin9 to construct a solution to <1= 6ith the help of BAcklun" transform since
this
techni;ue is use" later for non#linear superposition3 Be intro"uce a function v 6ith the
property vx 8 u
an" it follo6s from <1=-
<1/=
4nte9ration 6ith respect to x yiel"s
<1'=
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 7
v< x, t = 8 0 9 tanh :0
<x ; 0 9 t =
Rv< x, t = < 0 9 coth :0
<x ; 0 9 t =
vt = C v 0
x = vxxx < &
v >?< v ;
t
f < s= ds
S v@A<_; vx = 9B; 1
0
<v ; S v =0
S vCD<_; vt = <v ; S v = <vxx ; S v@E= ; 0<v 0
x = vx S v@= S v 0 @=
F < x F GH< t
vx <9B; 1
0
v 0
vt < v vxx ; 0 v 0
x
6here the function on the ri9ht han" si"e is the inte9ration function3
8he ne6 function is intro"uce" 6ith v >
8he solution u to <1= 6ill be obtaine" from the solution v to <1'= an" since there is no v >x < vx
nee" for a "istinction bet6een an" v3 o 6e may set f J & 6ithout loss of 9enerality3 v > (o6
our purpose is to solve the ,D>
<1K=
! BAcklun" transform 6hich leaves an e;uation invariant is calle" !uto-*+cklund
transform3 8his
!uto#BAcklun" transform is 9iven by the follo6in9 set of e;uations-
<11=
8he parameter 9 is the so calle" BAcklun" parameter, for "etails 6e refer to :ve"enskii
<1%%0=,
chapter %3
Be no6 may 9enerate a non trivial solution by applyin9 <11= to the trivial solution <6hich
clearly
fulfills <1K==3 Bith the first t6o lines of <11= result into S v J &
<1%=
8he first formula in <1%= may easily be inte9rate" an" be inserte" into the secon"3 86o
types of
solutions fulfill <1%=-
<0&=
4t is easy to verify that both functions <0&= "o fulfill <1%= an" <1K=3 8he secon" function has
a
sin9ularity for vanishin9 ar9ument of coth3 8his irre9ular solution here an" in future is
"enote"
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 8
u<x, t = < vx <x, t = <9 sech 0 :0
<x ; 0 9 t =
Ru<x, t = < Rvx < x, t = <_;9 csch 0 :0
< x ; 0 9 t =
soluK x_, t_
L :
M K x,t
L N !
SimplifyK DSoleK PDE1K , x,t
L , K x,t
L , O x, t
P L Q1R soluK x, t
L S 2 S T TanhU S T V x W2CX 1Y X tY Z S 2 [
spec \ C] 1 ^ ] t ^ _ ! DSole] PDE2] solu,x, t
^ ,C] 1
^ ] t^ ,t
^ ` 1a tbdc Ce 1f spec0 \ spec _ !C] 1^ g 0
tb
Simplify h PDE1 h solu, x, t i True
Simplify h PDE1 h solu j ! "#$h k Coth, x, t i True
PDEo%i l _, x_, t_m :n o t l x, tm p 3 q o x l x, tm r 2 p o s x,3t l x, tm u 0
PDE1 l _, x_, t_m :n o x l x, tm uwvyx
1
2
l x, tm 2
PDE2 l _, x_, t_m :n o t l x, tm u l x, tm o s x,2t l x, tm x 2 q o x l x, tm r 2
6ith a bar3 (o6 it is easy by inte9ratin9 6ith respect to x to "e"uce from <0&= t6o solutions
<a
re9ular one an" an irre9ular one= to the K": e;uation <1=3 8hese solutions are-
<01=
!9ain 6e are le" to the same solution 6e alrea"y foun" 6ith <10= an" <1$=3 8he only
"ifference
is the parameter3 4f 6e "enote the parameter z in <01= by an" compare it 6ith the parameter z|{ z
from <10= an" <1$= then the relation hol"s3 Be may verify the steps 6ith Mathematica- z|{?} ~0
Bith DSole 6e may obtain a solution 6ith the follo6in9 "elaye" function-
8ypically the arbitrary function is "enote" by C&1'&t'3 4nsertion into PDE1 is "one an"
the
attempt is ma"e 6hether the Coth#function instea" of the 8anh#function fulfills PDE1-
Both the functions fulfill <1%=, first e;uation3 (o6 the secon" e;uation is solve" by-
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 9
x soluspec1 C x, t . Sech . . . . x . 2 t . .
.
2 .
2
x soluspec2 C x, t
. . Csch . . . . x . 2 t . .
.
2 .
2
Simplify . PDE2 . soluspec1, x, t. True
Simplify . PDE2 . soluspec2, x, t. True
Simplify . PDEo%i . soluspec1, x, t. True
Simplify . PDEo%i . soluspec2, x, t. True
soluspec1. x_, t_. : solu. x, t. . ! t C. 1. . t. . t spec0 , C. 1. . t. . spec0. soluspec2. x_,
t_. :soluspec1. x, t. . ! "#$h . Coth
soluspec1. x, t. . 2 . . Tanh . . . . x . 2 t . . . 2 . soluspec2. x, t. . 2 . . Coth . . . . x . 2 t . . . 2 .
6here the inte9ration constant has been set to Jero3 Bith this result 6e "efine the t6o
functions-
Both these functions clearly fulfill the secon" e;uation of <1%= an" the ,D> <1K=-
Linally the solution to the K": e;uation is 9iven by the first "erivative 6ith respect to x-
8hou9h the irre9ular solution is not acceptable in physical sense it 6ill be use" to construct
hi9her
or"er solutions by usin9 the non#linear superposition principle3
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 10
. < . 0, . 1 = . . < . 1, . 0 = . -
. x <. 1 = . . x <. 0 = .. 1 ._. 0 . 1
0
< . <. 1 = . . <. 0 = = . < . <. 1 = . <. 0 = . 0 . =
. x <. 1 = . . x <. 0 = .. 0 ._. 1 . 1
0
< . <. 1 = . . <. 0 = = . < . <. 1 = . <. 0 = . 0 =
. x < . 1 = ._. . x _. 1 . 1
0
< . . . < . 1 = =0
. x < . 0 = ._. . x _. 0 . 1
0
< . . . < . 0 = =0
. x < . 0, . 1 = ._. . x < . 1 = _. 0 . 1
0
<. < . 1 = . . < . 0, . 1 = =0
. x < . 1, . 0 = ._. . x < . 0 = _. 1 . 1
0
<. < . 0 = . . < . 1, . 0 = =0
0 3: 4on-linear superposition
Met . be any solution to <1K= an" let be a solution obtaine" from . by applyin9 the . < . =
BAcklun" transform 6ith the BAcklun" parameter
. 3 8o remin" 6hat 6e "i"- Be ha" chosen the
trivial solution . & an" from that 6e receive" <0&= as a solution to <1K=3
Be no6 consi"er t6o solutions an" obtaine" by applyin9 the BAcklun" transform . < . 1 = . < . 0 =
to . 6ith parameters an" 5 . 1 . 0
Lrom <11= 6e have <only the first line is use"=-
<00=
Met be the solution obtaine" from . by successive application of <11=, first line # first . < . 0, . 1 =
step 6ith parameter an" secon" step 6ith parameter 3 8hen 6e have . 1 . 0
<0C=
4n the same 6ay let be the solution by first applyin9 an" after6ar"s 3 . < . 1, . 0 = . 0 . 1
4nstea" of <0C= 6e then have
<0$=
Be no6 "eman" that
<0/=
an" try to solve <0C= an" <0$= for 3 ubtraction of the secon" line in <00= from the first
yiel"s-
<0'=
ubtractin9 <0$= from <0C= en" usin9 <0/= lea"s to
<0K=
By eliminatin9 the left#han" si"es in <0'= an" <0K= 6e 9et-
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 11
. 1 ._. 0 . 1
0
< . <. 1 = . . <. 0 = = . < . <. 1 = . <. 0 = . 0 . =
.. 0 ._. 1 . 1
0
< . <. 1 = . . <. 0 = = . < . <. 1 = . <. 0 = . 0 =
0< . 1 ._. 0 = . < . . = < . <. 1 = . . <. 0 = =
. . 0 1 0 < 1= < 0=
xx < 1 = xx < 0 = 1
0
< x < 1 = x < 0 = = < < 1 = < 0 = 0 =
1
0
< < 1 = < 0 = = < x < 1 = x < 0 = 0 x =
t C 0
x xxx t xxx
0 < 1 _ 0 = t < 1 = t < 0=
< < 1 = < 0= =0 C x 0< 1 _ 0 = x < 1 = x < 0=
< < 1 = < 0= =0
0
0 < 1 _ 0 = xxx < 1= xxx < 0 =
< < 1= < 0 ==0 10 < 1 _ 0 = < x < 1 = x < 0= =C
< < 1 = < 0= =$
10 < 1 _ 0 = < x < 1 = x < 0= = < xx < 1= xx < 0 ==
< < 1= < 0 ==C
t C 0
x xxx 10 < 1 _ 0 =0 < x < 1= x < 0 ==0
< < 1= < 0 ==$ 10 < 1 _ 0 = < x < 1= x < 0 ==C
< < 1= < 0 ==$
' < 1 _ 0 = < x < 1 = x < 0= =0 < < 1= < 0 = 0 =
< < 1 = < 0= =C
<01=
Be have to sho6 no6 that the function from <01= in"ee" is a solution to <1K=-
8he e@pression <01= is "ifferentiate" 6ith respect to x an" to t an" three times 6ith respect
to
x an" is inserte" into <1K=3 8he result is-
<0%=
8he secon" "erivates 6ith respect to x in <0'= are forme" resultin9 in-
<C&=
8he formula <C&= has to be inserte" into the last summan" in <0%= thus eliminatin9 the
secon"
"erivatives3 4f 6e "o so an" keep in min" that each of the functions are , < 1 =, < 0 =
solutions to <1K= then 6e 9et from <0%=-
<C1=
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 12
lim
< x 0 t= O
v< x, t = lim
<x 0 t = O
0 tanh 0
< x 0 t = O 0
<x, t =
0 < 1 _ 0 =
v < 1, x, t = Rv< 0,x, t =
F 0 P 1
< 1, ,x, t =
0 < B_ 1 =
v< ,x, t = Rv < 1, x, t =
F 1 P
R < 0, , x, t =
0 < 0 _ =
v< 0,x, t = v < , x, t =
(o6 from <0'= the e@pression is calculate" an" inserte" into the last < 1 = < 0 = 0 term of
<C1=3 !fter some rearran9ement the sum of the terms on the ri9ht#han"#si"e of <C1= is Jero
thus sho6in9 that the function is in"ee" a solution to <1K=3
8he main formula for constructin9 further solutions is <01=3 4f 6e take & 6hich clearly is a
solution to <1K= an" if 6e take the re9ular an" the irre9ular solutions <0&= 6hich fulfill <1K=,
then
these t6o solutions play the role of an" in <01=3 < 1 = < 0 =
Usin9 t6o re9ular solutions <first solution of <0&= 6ith t6o "ifferent values of = 6oul" lea"
to
an irre9ular solution by usin9 <01=3 8his can be seen as follo6s from <0&=, first e;uation,
6ith
a fi@e" value for the parameter -
<C0=
ince the function v is continuous there 6ill al6ays be one value of the ar9ument for 6hich
the
"enominator in <01= is Jero, lea"in9 to a sin9ularity in 3
o 6e use both, the re9ular an" the irre9ular solution from <0&= to construct a re9ular
solution
by usin9 <01=3 8he solutions from <0&= are "enote" by an" analo9ous to 6hat 6e v< 1 = Rv< 0
=
"i" here before, the bar a9ain "enotes the irre9ular solution3 8he t6o BAcklun" parameters
are
chosen as 3 8his ensures that the "enominator in <01= "oes not vanish for any values of 0 P 1
the ar9uments3 8hus 6e 9et a superpositione" function-
<CC=
ince the function from <CC= is a solution to <1K= it has to be inte9rate" 6ith respect to x to
obtain a superpositione" solution to the ori9inal K": e;uation3
8his process of supositionin9 a re9ular an" an irre9ular solution to <1K= can be iterate"3 Be
have
to apply <01= a9ain to C solutions3 4nstea" of in <01= 6e no6 take the re9ular solution from
<0&=
6ith a BAcklun" parameter 6hich is "ifferent from an" an" name it 3 8he role 1 0 v< , x, t =
of the function in <01= is no6 playe" by the function from <CC= for the t6o BAcklun" < 1 =
parameters an" an" thus is name" as 3 1 < 1 , ,x, t =
<C$=
8his solution is re9ular, a correspon"in9 irre9ular solution <"enote" by a bar= then is 9aine"
by
combinin9 t6o re9ular solutions as mentione" above-
<C/=
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 13
KdV (#l_, x_, t_ : (loc) , , *, supe%pos2, supe%pos3,
+%%, ,e-, Solutio$ ,
Cle#% x, t .
xx_, tt_, _ : 2 "#$h 2
xx 2 tt.
* xx_, tt_, _ : 2 Coth 2
xx 2 tt.
supe%pos2 xx_, tt_, 1_, 2_ :
2
1 2
xx, tt, 1 * xx, tt, 2
.
+%% xx_, tt_, 2_, _ :
2
2 xx, tt, 2 xx, tt,
.
,e- xx_, tt_, 1_, _ :
2
1
xx, tt, * xx, tt, 1
.
supe%pos3 xx_, tt_, _, 1_, 2_ : xx, tt,
2
1 2
,e- xx, tt, 1, +%% xx, tt, 2,
.
So%t (#l .
+f /e$-th (#l 1, Solutio$ x x, t, ! _ 1
,
+f /e$-th (#l 2, Solutio$ xsupe%pos2 x, t, 1, 2!
1 1
, 2 2
,
Solutio$ _ xsupe%pos3 x, t, , 1, 2 !
1
, 1 2
, 2 3

< x, t = v< ,x, t =
0 < 1 0 =
< 1, ,x, t =
R < 0, ,x, t =
8he t6o functions of the "enominators of <C$= an" <C/= are a9ain the solutions <0&=3
4f 6e combine the t6o functions of <C$= an" <C/= 6e 6ant to 9et a re9ular solution for a C#
olitons solution3 4t is necessary then that it hol"s 3 8o9ether 6ith the re9ularity 0 P 1
con"ition in <C$=5ri9ht 6e then have as a re9ularity con"ition3 0 P 1 P Linally accor"in9 to
<01= the ne6 C#olitons solution is
<C'=
!9ain <C'= is a solution to <1K=, it has to be inte9rate" 6ith respect to x to 9et a solution to
the
ori9inal K": e;uation3
,rincipally by superposition a re9ular n#olitons can be constructe" from a pair of irre9ular
an"
re9ular <n#1=#solutions3
0 6: Mathematica code %or one, two and three solitons
8he solutions from <01= as 6ell as the solutions 9ot from <CC= an" <C'= are co"e" in
Mathematica
as follo6s-
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 14
KdV0p u_ : t u 6 u x u x,3 u
0$e KdV 1 , x, t Sech 1 x 2 t
1
2
2
1
Simplify KdV0p 0$e 0
"*o KdV 1, 2 , x, t

2 1 2 Sech _
1 _ x_ 2 t
_
1_ _ 2 _
2 _ 1 _ Csch _ _
2 _ x_ 2 t
_
2_ _ 2 _
2 _ 2
_
_ _
2 Coth _ _
2 _ x_ 2 t
_
2_ _ 2 _ _
_ 2 _ _
2
_
_ 1 Tanh _ _
1 _ x_ 2 t
_
1_ _ 2 _
2
Simplify _ KdV0p _ "*o_ _ 0
"h%ee _ KdV _ _ _ 1, _ 2, _ 3_ , x, t_
Sech _ _ _
1 _ x _ 2 t
_
1 _
_
2 _ 2
_
1 _
_
_
2 _ _
2 _ _
3 _
_
_
_
2 _ _
1 _ _
2 _ _
_
Sech _! "
1 # x$ 2 t
"
1% & 2 '
2 ( 1 ) Csch *,+ "
2 # x$ 2 t
"
2 % & 2 '
2 ( 2-. /
0 132
2 Coth *,+ "
2 # x$ 2 t
"
2 % & 2 ' 2 ( 2 ) 2
2
2 ( 1 Tanh *,+ "
1 # x$ 2 t
"
1% & 2 ' -.
2 )
2 4 1 ( 1 ) ( 3 5 /
0 1
Sech *,+ "
1 # x$ 2 t
"
1% & 2 '
2 ( 1 ) Sech *,+ "
3 # x$ 2 t
"
3 % & 2 '
2 ( 3 -. /
0 1 2
2
2 ( 1 Tanh * + "
1 # x$ 2 t
"
1% & 2 ' ) 2
2
2 ( 3 Tanh * + "
3 # x$ 2 t
"
3 % & 2 ' -.
2 -
.
-
.
6
8he first parameter of this block is a list3 4f it contains one element a one#olitons solution
is
calculate", if it contains t6o or three elements 0# or C#olitons solutions are calculate"3 4t is
ensure" in the co"e that the con"ition is not violate"3 7 0 P 7 1 P 7 Calls, results, an" proofs are-
Lor three solitons an analytical solution 6as obtaine", but Mathematica 6as not able to
verify that
it truly fulfills the K": e;uation-
Klaus Brauer: The Korteweg - de Vries Equation 15
8
9
2 : ; 1 < ; 2 =
<?> 2 Coth @BA C
2 D xE 2 t
C
2F G2 H > ; 2 J> 2 > ; 1 Tanh @,A C
1 D xE 2 t
C
1 F G2 H
<
2 : < ; 1 ; 3 =
< > 2 > ; 1 Tanh @A C
1 D xE 2 t
C
1 F G2 H > 2 > ; 3 Tanh @A C
3 D xE 2 t
C
3 F G2 H
K
L
^ 2
4t is easy no6 to 6rite C a""itional blocks in Mathematica to pro"uce a CD plot, a contour
plot,
an" a se;uence of 0D plots 6hich can be animate"3 8he co"e is strai9htfor6ar", the results
are
not sho6n here but may be seen visitin9 Brauer <0&&&=, further information is 9ot by
visitin9
>ilbeck <1%%1=3
8hese analytical solutions are very helpful 6hen applyin9 numerical metho"s since a
comparison
is possible, see "e Lrutos & anJ#erna <1%%K= an" chiesser <1%%$=3 ! "ifferent approach
in
obtainin9 solutions to the K": e;uation is sho6n by :arley & eymour <1%%1=3
e%erences
Brauer, K3 <0&&&=3 http,--www.usf.uni-osnabrueck.de-.kbrauer-solitons.html
Bullou9h, )3K3 <1%11=3 /'he &ave par excellence/, the solitary, progressive great wave of
e0uilibrium
of the fluid - an early history of the solitary wave. 4n olitons <M3 Makshmanan, >"3=, prin9er
eries in (onlinear Dynamics, 1/&#011, (e6 Tork, Berlin, Dei"elber9 etc3- prin9er3
DraJin, ,3+3 <1%1C=3 olitons3 Mon"on- Cambri"9e University ,ress <Mon"on Mathematical ociety,
Mecture (ote eries 1/, 4( &&K'#&//0=3
>ilbeck, C3 <1%%1=3 http,--www.ma.hw.ac.uk-.chris-scott1russell.html
"e Lrutos, E3F anJ#erna, E3M3 <1%%K=3 !ccuracy an" conservation properties in numerical
inte9ration- the
case of the Korte6e9 # "e :ries e;uation3 2um. Math. K/, $01 # $$/3
)ussell, E3 3 <11$/=3 )eport on Baves3 3eport of the "%th meeting of the *ritish !ssociation for the
!dvancement of cience, 4ork, eptember "#%%, pp C11#C%&, ,lates UM:44#M:44=3 Mon"on3
chiesser, B3>3 <1%%$=3 Metho" of lines solution of the Korte6e9 # "e :ries e;uation3 5omp. 6
Maths.
with !ppls. 01, 1$K # 1/$3
:arley, >3F eymour, B3)3 <1%%1=3 ! imple Derivation of the (#oliton olutions to the Korte6e9
# "e
:ries >;uation3 I!M 7ournal on !ppl. Math3 /1, %&$#%113
:ve"enskii, D3 <1%%0=3 8artial 9ifferential :0uations with Mathematica3 Bokin9ham <>n9lan"=
etc3-
!""ison#Besley3
Bolfram, 3 <1%%%=3 'he Mathematica *ook3 Cambri"9e <UK=- Cambri"9e University ,ress3

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