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4.4.1.1.

Time Orientation

Every culture makes assumptions about the nature of time and has a basis orientation toward the past, present or future (Redding & Martyn Jones, 1979). Understanding a groups assumptions about time allows us to know the culture of that group from a better perspective. Time is one such commodity that is totally at the disposal of individual, but to a large extent either wrongly utilized or under utilized. Time cannot be stored and has to be spent. But, at the same time it is not retrievable, thus making it a scarce commodity. The time orientation has critical relationship to how an individual looks at his / her work activities (past, present and future). Acoording to Sied (1995), the individuals with past orientation tend to put off today what they can do tomorrow and as a result, spend lot of time responding to crisis or deadlines that pop up suddenly. . In contrast, the individuals with future orientation take charge of the day and accomplish what they set out do. Knowledge of time orientation can provide us with insights into the importance that individuals give to deadlines, whether long term planning is widely practiced the length of job assignments, and what constitutes lateness. Kanungo (1994) feels, most individuals life physically in the present, but psychologically in the past, and are unconcerned about the future. Emphasis on the past and a lack of futuristic orientation leads to lack of planning while achieving the goals. Thus, jobs are handled as they come up, and problems are seldom anticipated well ahead of time for making adequate preparation to solve them. Without prior preparation to solve anticipated problems, most solving behaviour is chaotic, unplanned and unorganized. Making the unpredictable and uncontrollable economic and political environment existing in the developed countries responsible. Kanungo (1994) says the time orientation in these countries accentuates a past and present orientation, and the action focus requires a short-term perspective (Triandis, 1984). Kluckhon and Strodtbeck (1961), in their comparative study of several cultures, found that some were predominantly orientated toward past (traditional China), some toward the present (Spanish Americans in the United States South East), and some toward near future (contemporary United States). 4.4.1.1.1.1 Time Orientation and its Consequences Large amount of research is already done on the time orientation and its impact on individuals (personality, values and behaviour) and also on organizations (reward systems, performance, etc.). Frederickson, Charles G (1988) examined the relationship between measures of temporal orientation (past, present, and future) and pace and their influence on behaviours. influences on behaviour. Results demonstrate the importance of both successive and durative components in determining temporal

4.4.1.1.2

Age Variations and Time Orientation

Dawson, Kim A (1992) tested the hypothesis that as biological age increases, important psychological experiences may simultaneously collect in the past and be removed from the future. Age was positively related to the number of distant past experiences recalled by the college students. 4.4.1.1.3 Time Orientation Construct

Nuri, Jari-Erik (1982) discusses problems of time and future from the viewpoint of cognitive psychology and the theory of action. Empirical research on the individuals time orientation and future orientation involves 2 problems: (1) The concept of time orientation in ambiguous, and (2) methods of measurement display a large variation from one study to another. It is suggested that human time orientation is developed in relation to cognitive activities resulting in the elaboration of motives and values into temporally structured goals, plans, and strategies. The ideal objects of motives and values involve a future-orientation. 4.4.1.1.4 Operational Definiton of Time Orientation

For the purpose of present study, time orientation is defined in the following way. Time orientation is the tendency of individual/s to attribute significance to either past or future. 4.4.1.2 Reward Orientation As discussed in the last chapter, subscribe of the individual and the dependents (family) in one of the critical meanings that individual derives from work. Apart from subsistence, individual desires that his work to be recognized. Reward is a form of recognition or worth of an activity. Rewards may be in the economic and non-economic forms. But, reward plays a significant role in the organizations, as it is one of the powerful tools in the hands of management to motivate employees. Individuals may have different expectations about rewards from the work activities carried out by them. The disposition about rewards of different kinds is what is called as reward orientation. Apart from some significant research on the needs of individuals (Maslow, 1954; Herberg, 1966), in last few decades, specific researches (Adams 1965; Lawler, 1971; Dyer and Parker, 1976; Guzzo, 1976; Kanungo and Hartwick, 1987) were conducted to analyze the reward orientation of individuals and its effect on organizations. Herzberg popularized two-factor theory (1966) consisting of: Intrinsic rewards (autonomy, recognition and challenging assignments) and Extrinsic rewards (pay, benefits and praise from the supervisor or boss).

4.4.1.2.1

Reward Orientation and Age

A large number of studies conducted in this area prove the point that Younger people tend to give more importance to extrinsic rewards whereas the older generation is more inclined towards intrinsic rewards. 4.4.1.2.2 Reward Orientation and Sex

The research studies conducted on reward orientation have varies results. According to Singh, Satvir (1994) the women appeared to be more interested in making money, more involved in their work, more enthusiastic, more socially bold, more opinionated, and more tense. The men were more interested in seeking higher level jobs and a better standard of living, more aware of social status, more emotionally stable, more assertive, more experimental, more socially precise, and more autonomous. According to de Vaus, David; McAllister, lan (1991) who measured intrinsic and extrinsic work orientations of men and women concluded that the women are more intrinsically oriented that their male counterparts. 4.4.1.2.3 Reward Orientation and Educational Background

Studies by Brenner (1996) reveal that generally people with higher qualifications show a greater desire for intrinsic job aspects, independence and the opportunity to perform managerial activities. According to him these men looked towards attaining status, money, than their female counterparts looked towards recognition. 4.4.1.2.4 Operational Definition of Reward Orientation

In the present study, reward orientation was defined as: Individuals preference for either intrinsic or extrinsic rewards. 4.4.1.3 System Salience System or the organization of which the individuals is a part decides the critical relationship the individual has with the system or the organization. An individuals understanding about the relation that one has with the system has critical dimensions as to how the individual works in the organization. Individuals may fall in two broad categories, the ones who believe individual as dominant or primordial and the other system as primordial to individual. Tonnies (1968) has come out with a typology of individuals, whether they are Geminishaft (low individualism) or Geselleschaft (high individualism): Hofstede Geert (1980) based on his research on culture across nations has come out with a typology of individualism and collectivism. According to Hoftede (1980), the norm prevalent in a given society as to the degree of individualism / collectivism expected from its members will strongly affect the nature of relationship between a person and the organization to which he or she belongs.

The concepts of individualism or collectivism are based on self-concept. Parsons and Shils (1951) describe individualism as orientation to self and collectivism as orientation to common goals and objectives. According to them the high frequency in which there is a disharmony of interests creates the problem of choosing between action for private goals on behalf of collective goals. Merton (1968) came out with a similar typology as individualism / collectivism. Merton

differentiates between locals versus cosmopolitans. According to him, the local type is largely preoccupied with problems inside the organization and cosmopolitan maintains a minimum set of relations with the organization. The present study is taking up the typology of individual salience versus system salience. Individual salience is the importance the individual attaches to himself or herself in contrast to the importance he or she attaches to the system. System here cannotes organization. 4.4.1.3 Operational Definition of System Salience In the present study system salience is defined as the relative importance that an individual attributes to the system / organization against the individual (including himself) towards the sustenance of the organization / system. 4.4.1.4 Locus of Control Locus of control I s the third dimension chosen for this study, and which forms part of the assumptions of individuals related to work. Individuals beliefs about the controllability of what happens to them is a core element of their understanding of how they life in the world (Shapiro, Schwartz, & Astin, 1996). Locus of control discusses the individuals belief regarding what controls s/he, whether inside the self (internals locus of control or internality) or outside the self (external locus of control or externality). The review of literature on this concept gives us a distinct ideological favour towards internal locus of control. In fact, Rotter (1975) cautioned practitioners to avoid falsely assuming that characteristics of individuals with an internal locus of control are all positive and qualities of individuals with an external locus of control are all negative. This caution notwithstanding, research and practice in the area has been biased by the popular assumption that a belief in internal control is more desirable than a belief in external control (Evans, Shapiro, & Lewis, 1993; Furby, 1979). 4.4.1.4.1 Socio-cultural Influences on the Concept

According to Lawrence I Marks (1998) western culture has always place a high value on personal autonomy, and this value has influenced the development of the locus of control concept. In turn, the continued concentration within psychology on personal control is parallel to societys preoccupation with independence (Furby, 1979; Stam, 1987). Embedded in Rotters concept is the

Protestant ethic, which argues that there is a correlation between hard work and social achievement. It is an ethic of individual effort and has little if anything to say about external, structural impediments to achievement (Sampson, 1983). Indeed, researchers have shown internality to be related to the Protestant ethic and traditional American values (Fink & Hjelle, 1973; Mirels & Garrett, 1971; Rotter, 1975). This bias is resounded in Lefcourts (1982) assertion, Man must come to be more effective and more able to perceive himself as the determiner of his fate if he is to life comfortable with himself. Furthermore, Wong and Sproule (1984) contended, Since the early 1960s, control psychologists have been busy demonstrating the importance of internal control. Their main practical concern is how to enhance a persons belief in self-efficacy or internal control (p. 354). The emphasis on internality served to reinforce and perpetuate the unchanging view of and assumptions about locus of control. According to Gurin, Gurin and Morrison (1978), the bias toward internality was present in the 1960s as locus of control attained a distinction with the rise in new social programs and interventions. Belief in external control was viewed as a potentially critical problem among the lower socioeconomic and minority groups who were the primary targets of these intervention (Gurin et al., 1978). In fact, these authors asserted that it is simply a coincidence that Rotters lucus of control concept (and scale) became avaialbe at the same time social scientists were interested in the role of powerlessness in certain societal phenomena. A more appropriate measure may have assessed individuals ideological control (described below), a distinct aspect of external locus of control. Explaining social problems from a control perspective placed responsibility for managing social problems in the hands of those who perceived themselves as having more power, or an internal locus of control. Those who could provide opportunities eventually developed programs for those with physical handicaps, for those in minority groups, and for individuals with other disadvantages (Lefcourt, 1992). Driven by the belief that internality is more desirable than externality, researchers have continually found confirming evidence for their hypotheses. For example, Duke and Nowicki (1974) reported internality in male college juniors to be positively related to achievement. Nowicki and Duke (1983) saw a theme in their sample of research that internality and positive social characteristics were related. Internal locus of control for academic achievement was positively related to achievement scores for a sample of school children, even when controlling for gender, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity (Young & Shorr, 1986). According to a review by Renn and Vandenberg (1991), employees with an internal locus of control were rated higher than those with an external locus of control on important job variables, such as performance or satisfaction. Even among mental health professional, those with a greater sense of internal beliefs reported higher satisfaction with their jobs and life and expected more favourable outcomes for their clients (Koeske & Kirk, 1995).

4.4.1.4.2

Locus of Control and Gender Differences

A large number of studies (Kunhikrishna, K; Stephen, P.S, 1992; Lee VictoriaL; Dengerink, Harold A, 1992; Peter B Smith; Shaun Dugan; Fons Trompenaars, 1997; Kuther, Tara L, 1998) conducted to analyze the differences in locus of control based one differences in gender have got varied results based on cultural and national differences. Overall women are found with more externality than their male counterparts. 4.4.1.4.3 Experience & its Relationship with Locus of Control

According to the meta-analysis of 12 studies conducted to determine the cumulative relationship between locus of control and tenure among teachers by Sadowski, Cyril J (1993) longer tenure was moderately associated with an internal locus of control orientation. 4.4.1.4.4 Locus of Control & Extrinsic and Intrinsic Needs

The existing research (Cravens & Worchel, 1977; Dailey, 1978; Spector, 1992; Feehan, Gregory G.; Enzle, Michael E, 1991) on locus of control and its relationship with the intrinsic and extrinsic motivating factors suggests that extrinsic needs are associated with external locus of control. 4.4.1.4.5 Locus of Control and Time Orientation

Brannigan, Gary G.; Shahon, Amy J.; Schaller, Juli A. (1992) Results support the hypothesis that externals are more past oriented than internals. 4.4.1.4.6 Locus of Control and Job Satisfaction

Studies (Tarver, David; Canada, Richard, Lim, Mee-gaik, 1999) conducted in the area of understanding a relationship between locus of control and job and work satisfaction suggested of a strong positive correlation between internality and satisfaction with the job or work. 4.4.1.4.7 Locus of Control and Indian Studies

According to Kanungo (1994), in India across organizations individuals suffer from high externality which are acquired primarily through socialization practices related performance non-contingent reward allocation in the family, school, work organization or other social institutions. Kanungo also feels that because of high externality individuals tend to become insecure and demonstrate a strong need for dependence on other to alleviate their feeling of insecurity.

4.4.1.4.8

Conceptualization of Locus of Control

The design of studies of locus of control and subsequent interpretations or results by researchers and practitioners are influenced by differing conceptualizations of the construct. Probably the most variability in conceptualization comes from the different dimensions that have been hypothesized concerning locus of control. Initially, Rotter (1966) conceived locus of control as being multidimensional; howere, later her operationalzed locus of control as being unidimensional. He did not look for other factors empirically because previous findings yielded only one factor (Coombs & Schroeder, 1988). Assessing the multidimensionality of locus of control is supported by factor analyses of lucus of control scales (e.g., Coombs & Schroeder, 1988; Ganellen & Blaney, 1984; Garza & Widlak, 1977; Lefcourt, 1982; Mirels, 1970). In general, these studies have revealed more than one factor and have revealed that certain factors (i.e., aspects of external control) may be better predictors of specific dependent variables. A current multidimensional view is Levensons (1974, 1981; Levenson & Miller, 1976) separation of external beliefs into control by powerful others and fate or chance control. According to Ganellen and Blaney (1984), Levenson followed other investigators who suggested separating external control into dimension of powerful others and chance or luck. In fact, Rotter et al. (1962) had previously suggested that there are four kinds of beliefs in external control: belief that events occur because of luck or chance, belief that events occur because of fate, belief that events are controlled by powerful others, and belief that the world is too complex to be predicted. Levenson (1974, 1981) hypothesized that beliefs in control by powerful others lead to different thoughts and behaviours than beliefs in control by chance. According to Levensons (1981) conceptualization, externality may reflect a belief in control by powerful others that may express a genuine appraisal of certain sociopolitical situations and not a maladjusted personality. For example, after a period of democratization in Poland, Polish university students scored slightly more internal or over all locus of control, and significantly more internal on a political control subscale compared to a matched sample of Polish students surveyed before the political changes began (Tobacyk, 1992). Thus, studies that use Rotters (1966) unidimensional scale may be missing important factors that could be revealed with Levensons scale. Similar multi dimensional approach towards locus of control is taken by Pareek (1996) who after factor analyses of his 31 item scale found that the external locus of control combines together two dimensions, namely chance and others. A useful conceptualization of locus of control is provided by Gurin et al (1978; Gurin, Gurin, Lao, & Beattie, 1969) who proposed a differentiation between personal control, which refers to individuals beliefs about the potential for control in their society at large. Gurin et al. (1978) found that this distinction was made by all of their samples and was especially prominent in individuals of lower socioeconomic status and in African Americans. Specifically, they insisted that these groups high

external scores were a function of personal control beliefs resulting from their experience with discrimination, not their beliefs about the effect of a persons effort in society. Gurin et al (1987) argued that scores of greater externality on measures of locus of control among minority groups were incorrectly altered, when in fact their sense of low personal control reflected a correct perception of a harsh environment over which they had control. That is, early evaluations did not distinguish between personal and ideological aspects of control; thus, it was not possible to demonstrate which factors actually accounted for the observed differences in external control. In their examination of locus of control, Wong and Sproule (1984) offered valueable contributions to this literature. First, they noted the importance of realism and idealism. When locus of control was assessed, respondents reality considerations tended to account for external scores and their ideals seemed to underlie internal scores. Second, the authors conceptualization of locus of control involved a dual dimensional view. Dual control, or shared responsibility, was described in terms of internal and external control compared with internal versus external control. They labeled the unstudied group of individuals who understand control to be from both internal and external sources as bilocals. That is, bilocals are individuals who strike a healthy balance between their beliefs in internal and external control. Although individuals falling in the middle of the locus of control continuum were distinguished as a notable group by Roter et a. (1962), the possible meaningfulness of this group has been largely ignored. Wong and Sproule (1984) hypothesized that bilocals cope more effectively because they observe an optimal mix between personal responsibility (internal control) and faith in appropriate outside resources (external control). Emphasizing the importance of both internal and external aspects of control instead of focusing only on the benefits of being internal or the distresses associated with being external is a sensible alternative to prevailing views of locus of control. With this multidimensional focus has come the perspective that to have external control beliefs is not necessarily dysfunctional. An external belief may be derived from powerful others, in which a potential for control exists, as opposed to chance, as in Levensons (1981) description. Similarly, Guin et als (1978) personal control, in which the individual is making accurate judgments about situations as opposed to ideological control, may account for an external belief moreover, bilocals may be better adjusted than controllers (those with internal control beliefs) and controllers (those with external control beliefs) in many ways (Wong & Sproule, 1984). Alternatively, an external locus of control may be reflecting cultural values or beliefs as described above. Having an external locus of control may be an effective or adaptive way of believing and functioning in certain situations or cultures.

In an interesting analysis of control in Americal and Japanese cultures, Weisz et al. (1984) offered a distinction between primary and secondary control. In primary control, individuals influence existing realities, whereas in secondary control, individuals accommodate to existing realities. Weisz et al. described forms of secondary control: predictive (preparing for future events and their impact), vicarious (enchancing ones sense of control by aligning with powerful others), illusory (enhancing acceptance of chance of fate), and interpretive (altering perspectives of reality in order to understand the meaning of events). They demonstrated the emphasis on primary control in American-Western culture and the reliance on secondary control in Japanese culture, and they noted both positive and negative connotations of each from of control in the cultures. Primary control in America, for example, was associated with autonomy and self-expression, but also self-absorption and loneliness. Secondary control in Japan was associated with self-discipline and attentiveness but also with excessive conformity and oversensitivity. The parallel between primary and secondary and internal and external is evident. Primary and internal control places the person as having responsibility for acting on the einvorioment. Secondary and external control has the person adjust to being acted upon by the environment. Although Weisz et al. suggested that both forms of control are important, they did not escape the Western bias discussed earlier. Labeling external control as secondary seems to connote an inferior way of being (Shapiro et at., 1996). A final and important consideration for practitioners with respect to the conceptualizations of locus of control is whether it is used as a generalized expectancy or applied in specific situations. Rotter (1966) noted the worth of developing precise measures for specific situations, especially in practical applications. Using measures tailored for certain populations with special concerns is preferable for maximizing predictions rather than using global assessments (Lefcourt, 1982, 1991; Rotter, 1975). Schulz, Heckhausen, and Locker (1991) suggested that generalized locus of control remains relatively stable over the life course, but perceptions of control over specific domains may change (cf Gatz & Karel, 1993). 4.4.1.4.8 Operational Definition of Locus of Control

The present study considers locus of control as a unidimensional concept and the following operational definition is arrived at.: locus of control is a general tendency to attribute success or failure either to oneself or to causes outside the self. 4.4.2 Values

According to operation definition of work culture in this study, values form the second layer of work culture. Thus, values regarding work aspects a group of individuals within an organization or across organizations are supposedly are formed on the basis of the basic assumptions discussed above and many more. According to Schein (1985) all cultural learning ultimately reflects

someones original values, their sense of what ought to be as distinct from what is. Table 4.1. gives number of definitions of values. TABLE 4.1 DEFINITIONS OF VALUES Author Klukhohn, 1951 Definitions Value as a conception of what is desirable or implicit, distinctive characteristic of an individual or a group which influences the selection from available modes, means, and ends of an action. Rokeach, 1972 Values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence Lau, 1979 Values are things, ideas, beliefs and acts that are regarded as good or bad, right or wrong, desirable, beautiful or ugly, contributing o detrimental to human welfare and so on. Manford, 1981 Values are peoples belies on what is desirable and undesirable

Parameswaran EG & Values are general and directed. They indicate what one is looking for Beena, 1988 Ravi Paturi, 1991 and what one want to achieve. Value is the basis which helps for selecting between dualities

Form the above listed definitions of values, it could be said that values are beliefs or preferable modes of conducts and ideal goals or end states of existence, underlying attitudinal or behavioural processes. Once established, values act as built-in, normative guides to behaviour. 4.4.2.1 Work Values Values in the context of work simply mean the rewards and end states for which the individuals would strive for. George & Jones in their article on Experiencing work have referred to Nord, Brief, Ateih & Dohertys (1990) definition of work values as: Desired end-states that a person things he/she should be able to realize through working and desired modes of behaviour at work.

It is important to recognize that peoples work values determine the meaning that work, jobs and organizations have for them. Moreover, as values have motivational properties, it is understood that work related values include all those motivationally relevant factors that energize, direct and sustain human behaviour at work. 4.4.2.2 Review of Literature on Work Values Douglas (1920) conducted one of the early studies on work values when he studies 2,844 high school seniors, who mentioned several reasons for preferring a particular job. Kornhauser (1936) and Centers (1949) are some of the other early studies on work values. According to Elizur, Dov; Koslowsky, Meni, (1996) three main stream of research were identified in the field of work values. 4.4.2.3 Factors Influencing Work Values The significant among the factors influencing work values are (1) individual factors, (2) organizational factors, and (3) social & other factors. 4.4.2.3.1 Individual Factors

At the individual level, each person possesses a unique set of personal values that are relevant to multiple life areas, with some especially appropriate to the work context, which are referred to as individual work values (Sage & Elizur, 1996). The work value systems that are developed by individuals are dependent on the demographic characters of the individuals along with several other factors. Here we have considered a few demographic variables that are possible causative factors in the development of individual work values. These are: * * * Age Gender Education

4.4.2.3.1.1 Work values and Age Several studies have been conducted on an individuals age as a deciding factor of his/her work value system. These studies reveal that age has a direct positive effect on the work value systems of individuals. 4.4.2.3.1.2 Work values and Gender Traditionally, two broad approaches have been used to explain gender differences in work values: the gender socialization model and the social structural model. Proponents of the gender socialization model argue that observed differences in work values (e.g., mens greater emphasis on pay and career advancement and womens greater concern for social aspects of their work) reflect traditional patterns of gender socialization Surveys (Elizur, Dov, 1994; Rowe, Reba; Snizek, William

E, 1995; Mason E Sharon) conducted on the effect of gender differences on work values reveal that there is hardly any differences in the work values of male and female employees. Instead, the findings suggest that regardless of gender, ones preference for a given work value depends, in large part, on ones age, education, and occupation prestige. 4.4.2.3.1.3 Work Values and Education Work values of people with different educational backgrounds are said to show variations with respect to the type of work related aspects they consider important. 4.4.2.3.2 Influence of Organizational Factors on Work Values

In organizations, work values develop through a variety of ways.

There are a few

charismatic leaders in some organizations, through their relationship with their subordinates establish some guides to behaviour, build some work values. In other cases, the work values of the original founders are inculcated into the work life of the firm. In the

day-to-day working of the organization, the work values come to light in the form of certain shared set of values that are exhibited by the various groups and individuals within the organization. Company (often referred to as organizational or institutional) level work values are said to exist when the groups and individual members within the company, share a common set of values with regard to their functioning. These unique company level values stem from such factors as management policy, leadership style, organizational culture, organizational learning, reward systems, selection processes and formal and informal intra & extra organizational communication (Goodman, Olivera & Ramanjujam, 1997; Pratt & Kleiner, 1989; trice & Beyer, 1993). The typology of an organization & its technology base, are some of the other factors that are responsible for the value systems of organizations.

4.4.2.3.3 Influence of Social Factors on Work Values The individual, group and company are subject to forces outside their control like society and nation at large. These forces have their own unique cultures that some work values to become more important and compelling than others. Some of these forces influencing the formation of specific work values are as follows: * * Family influence Group influence

4.4.2.3.3.1

Family and Work Values

The family systems are a source of significant influence in the development of specific types of work value systems that lead to specific behaviours in individuals. Studies conducted in this area by Watanbe Shimichiro & Kiyoshi Takahashi (1997) and Sheldon Zedeck et al (1997) indicate that specific facets of work and family are responsible for specific behaviours of people at work. Likewise, the type of family builds specific value systems in individuals i.e. to say, the work value systems of individuals who are part of a joint family systems are different from those who are part of nuclear or for that matter atomic families, and vice-versa. However, it is not possible to say that the value systems of one type of family are better than the other. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages in shaping the right kind of value systems in people.

4.4.2.3.3.2

Group Influences & Work Values

Every individual is a member of some group or the other. Group-level work values are developed from the interactions of people within these groups and value systems they bring them into the group. The groups in turn influence the formation of specific work values in individuals. According to Klein, Dansereau & Hall (1994), although interpersonal difference in the work values are inevitable, the values are relatively homogeneous within the group. This means that the group members are more similar, with regard to their work values, than they are dissimilar. The teamwork, collective decision-making, social loafing, etc. all re responsible for the generation of certain type or work values in individuals, that lead to specific behavioral outcomes. A lot of work in this area has been done by Ravlin Medlino & Adkins (1991); Shaw (1981); Vecchio (1995) and others. 4.4.2.3.4 Consequences of Values

In the above discussion, an attempt is made to explain regarding various factors influencing the development of specific work values in individuals. All these work values guide the behavior and thought processes of individuals with regards to the work they do. For the effective functioning of an organization, a certain level of congruency is a must, between the individual and the organizational work values. Incongruence beyond a certain level will lead to situations that will affect the individual as well the organization. It is therefore essential for an organization to provide the proper atmosphere in the work place that will maximize the congruence between the organizational and individual work values.

4.4.2.3.5

Operational Definitions of Work Values

For the purpose of present studying values, the framework adopted by Sinha(1991) from the Work Importance Study is taken. Values are studied in terms of the importance given by the individuals and the chance that they perceive for fulfilling these values. As for as typology is concerned values are studied under three heads namely work oriented values, people oriented values, and self-oriented values. The following are the operational definitions of these three types of values. 4.4.2.3.5.1 Work Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)

Values that express the individuals desire to excel at work place and do the best kind of work.. 4.4.2.3.5.2 People Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Change for Satisfaction)

Values that express the individuals desire to be associated with people working with him/her at the work place. 4.4.2.3.5.3 Self Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)

Values that individuals desire to achieve a sense of fulfillment through work 4.4.3 Orientations

English and English (1958) have stated that orientation is cognitive when it consists chiefly in knowing the situation; positively or negatively or cathective when it consists primarily in feelings; evaluative when comparisons are made and relations of the situation to personal goals are brought out. According to Tinbegen (1951) orientation id property of the innate disposition that it directs the conditioning to special parts of the receptual field. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1951) singled out five crucial that is common to all human groups not only influencing work activities but also all the other non-work activities. These are: Human nature orientation dealing with the character of innate human nature. Man-nature orientation dealing with the relation of the man with nature. Time orientation dealing with temporal focus of life. Activity orientation dealing with modality of human activity. Relational orientation dealing with the modality of mans relationship to other men.

Pareek (1997) discusses about action orientation. He sees it as integral part of personal efficacy. According to him, an action-oriented person shows some amount of self-discipline, or what McClelland (1975) has called activity inhibition. He works hard, denies himself opportunities for

immediate gratification of some of his desire, sticks to his schedules, spends long hours on job and so on. Sinha (1990) had studied job clarity and time salience as orientations relating to work. The present stud has taken up task orientation and self-role integration as orientation towards work. Teaching being a role is considered while self-role integration is chosen to understand the amount to which the teaching staff in educational organizations see their self being closer to the roles that they are (supposed to be) playing, i.e. seeing themselves in the role/s they are performing. Task orientation is chosen to understand to see the contrast that the teaching staff understands with regard to role and vice versa. 4.4.3.1 Task Orientation:

Tasks are bits and pieces forming part of work activities. The tasks that are in the form bits pieces combine together to make a large work activity or a combination of activities. Having an understanding (cognition) how these tasks make part of work activities is task orientation. The task orientation further has two dimensions. The first dimension is the task darity, and other is the task focus. 4.4.3.1.1 Operational Definition of Task clarity

Task clarity is the understanding the individuals have about the details making part of task and how they are related to each other. 4.4.3.1.2 Operational Definition of Task focus

Task focus is individuals disposition to focus or concentrate on work until it is completed.

4.4.3.2

Self-role Integration

Self and role are one of the widely discussed, but the same time one of the most complex areas in the literature or organizational behavior literature. Concept of self is discussed widely both by philosophers as well as psychologists. Concept of self often is synonymously used with words such as ego person. 4.4.3.2.2 Self

Bobby Turnaisky & Paul A Hare (1998) define self as the sum of individual beliefs or knowledge about his or her personal qualities, and social identity as the part of the self-concept that comes from the group membership. Rosenberg (1979) defines self as the totality of individuals thoughts and feeling having reference to himself as an object. Turner (1968) defined it as typical himself

conception. Esptein (1973) suggests that self concept can be viewed as a theory that a person held about himself as experiencing and functioning being in interaction with the world. Self concept seems to link individual with other social structures like family, work organization, etc. on one hand and with his activities and positions that the carries. Role is one such concept, which is total interwoven with the concept of self. 4.4.3.2.2 Role

Role is often confused with position in the office. These two are separate concepts. According Kart and Kohn (1964), position is a relational concept and role is obligational concept. Keith Devis (1998) defines role as the pattern of actions expected of a person in activities involving others. Role reflects a persons position in the social system, with its accompanying rights and obligations, power and responsibility. For Pareek (1997) role is the position one occupies in a social system, and is define by the functions one performs in response to the significant members of a social system, and ones own expectations from that position in the office. The concept of role is vital in integrating the individual with the organization. The concept of role widens the meaning of work and the relationship of the worker with others in the system. Individuals perceive role conflict when others have different perceptions or expectations of a persons role. According to Pareed (1993), for resolving the role conflict, the individual needs to develop role clarity and shopped strive towards achieving self role integration. While elaborating self-role integration, Pareek (1997) suggests that the individuals should try to be aware of their unique strengths, experiences, technical training, special skills, and contributions by putting all these into use in the role. Many a time there will be a gap between the self and the role and with the increase in the distance between the role and the self feels more and more role conflict. The reduction of distance between the self and the role will eventually lead to self-role integrating resulting in meaningfulness of the role activities. The present study is mainly concerned with understanding this dimension self-role integration and the spread of such an orientation among the teaching staff working in educational organizations. 4.4.3.2.3 Operational Definition of Self-role Integration

In the present study self-role integration was defined as: individuals disposition of seeing one self in the role-played by she while being at work. 4.4.4 Behaviours

As is already mentioned one of the key dimensions of work culture is the behaviour or the activity. This behavior could be manifested in any form. A Variety of such manifestations are recorded (Etzioni 1961, Ouchi, 1981, Sinha, 1990, Kanungo, 1993). According to Etzioni (1961) work culture is exhibited in the form of workers commitment to the identification with the group and the organization as well as their sense of involvement with their work assignments. For Super (1982, the

involvement, interest and the engagement show the activity of work behaviour. Ouchi (1981) strong believes the work culture is to be seen in the form of commitment and productivity of the work group. Sinha (1990) sees time distribution as the critical variable of activity dimension of work culture. Taking cue from Super & Nevill (1986) Sinha has made an effort to measure the activity component or the extent of participation in the work role by asking how much time one devotes in working compared to the other life roles. As Sinha sees this time distribution measure suffering from constraint of incapable of measuring the resultant quality of work, uses hard work (1990) as another dimension to measure the activity component. The present research would study work commitment and performance satisfaction as behavioral (activity) measures. 4.4.4.1 Work Commitment Since Perry (1968) has conducted one of the early comprehensive works on commitment and gave first indication that commitment is an observable phenomenon and can be subjected to empirical investigation. Numbers of studies are conducted on organizational commitment (Modway, Porter & Steers, 1982: Reichers, 1985; Salancik, 1977; Scholl, 1081; Staw; 1977); career commitment (Card, 1978); union commitment (Michael E Gordon, John W Philpot, Robert E Burt, Cynthia A Thompsom, and William E Spiller, 1980); occupational commitment; and work commitment. All these studies on commitment may be classified under two heads, (1) with studies focused on commitment of an individual with regard to an entity (organization, union), activity (work and job) or an issue (career, occupation) under one category and (2) the studies based on how commitment as construct is understood (ex: attitude, behaviour, and response set). Among the first category of studies on commitment, organizational commitment is the most explored one. 4.4.4.1.2 Commitment: What it is? Commitment is one among those topics in organization studies which is researched quite extensively and hence difficulty in coming to a consensus in defining the term. According to Modway et all (1982), researchers from various disciplines ascribed their meaning to the topic thereby increasing difficulty in understanding the construct. The complexity of understanding the meaning of the term commitment increases with related terms such as allegiance, loyalty, identification, involvement, and attachment. As organization culture and work culture are used synonymously, many scholars would use organizational commitment (Allen & Mayaer, 1998) when they actually mean work commitment or other way. In fact, in iarge amount of literature on commitment the phrase work commitment is used to denote a plethora of commitments related to work activities, like organizational commitment, occupational commitment, and career commitment and many other attitudinal and

behavioural attributes (Morrow, Paula C; McElroy, james C, 1987; Kubes, Marian, 1990; Randall, Donna M; Cote joseph A, 1991; Bastos Antonio V. 1992 Cohen Aron, 1993). Morrow, Paula C; McElroy, james C. (1987), tested four measures of work commitment (job involvement, organizational commitment, work ethic endorsement, and intention to remain). Kubes, Marian (1990) investigated the discriminant validity of 3 measures of work commitment (job involvement, career commitment, and organizational commitment) in 93 research workers (mean age 38 yrs). Randall, Donna M; Cote, Joseph A. (1991) presented a model of work commitment which specifies multivariate relationships among organization commitment, career salience, work group attachment, job involvement, and the Protestant work ethic. Bastos, Antonio V. (1992) studied the discriminant validity of instrument measuring workers relationship to 4 aspects of the work environment: (1) organization, (2) Union, (3) profession, and (4) job. Cohen, Aaron (1993) assessed how forms of work commitments (job, occupational, union, and organizational commitment) are related to withdrawal intentions and union effectiveness, studied four facets of work commitment (occupation, value, organization, and job). Ogasawara Etsko (1997) studied the relationship between job satisfaction and work commitment among the Japanese and American Collegiate coaches adopting Blau, Paul, and St. Johns (1993) general index of work commitment which contained 31 items to measure four facets of work commitment: organizational commitment, occupational commitment, job involvement, and value of work. It was observed that most of the above-mentioned studies could not take work commitment as a distinct construct from that of organization commitment. As alredy mentioned, work commitment is different from all the other kinds of commitment, especially organizational commitment. Organizational commitment is the commitment to an entity called organization, whereas work commitment is commitment of an individual towards the activity called work. Thus an independent operational definitional definition work commitment is developed for the purposed of present study. But, the spirit from the definition of organizational commitment given by Modway & Porter (1982) is adopted for this definition. 4.4.4.1.2 Operational Definition of Work Commitment

According to the definition for the purpose of present study, work commitment is defines as: individuals strong belief in the intrinsic worth of the activities and willingness to put considerable effort. 4.4.4.2 Performance Satisfaction

As a resultant behaviour ar as an outcome variable, conventionally job satisfaction, role satisfaction and performance satisfaction are studied. The present study has chosen to study performance satisfaction, as teaching is not just a job, work or even a task. It is more a role, and that too a role to

made and not to be taken. It is for this reason the measure performance satisfaction is chosen. It is to be noted here that teaching is some thing like a sports, acting where performance means presenting oneself in totally in that role. A teacher role does not end with taking few sessions each day and conducting examinations to the students. Brayfield and Croketts (1955) assumption that employee satisfaction directly affects job satisfaction permeates the literature on the relationship between performance and satisfaction. According to Pestonjee DM (1991), since an initial study in 1932, by Kornhauser and Sharp numerous studies have considered relationship between these two variables. Some studies have tried to establish that satisfaction leads to performance, though, this logic was questioned by Vroom (1964) and Organ (1976). Some other think other wise. According to Porter and Lawler (1968) satisfaction rather than a cause, is an effect of performance i.e., good performance results in satisfaction. Though, some studies (Cherrington, Reitz, and Scott, 1971; Greene, 1973) argue of rewards as mediating role between performance and satisfaction, some other studies talk of a significant, direct and strong causal relationship between performance and satisfaction. A large-number of studies (Haney, Colleen J.; Long, Bonita C. 1995; Waung, Marie, Maurya; Vancae, Robert J, 1995; Schul, Yaacov; Schiff, Miriam, 1995; Boyd, Michael; John, 1994) especially conducted on sportsmen prove the point that performance results into satisfaction. A study conducted by Mossholder, Kevin W; Bedean, Arthur G.; Niebuhr, Robert E.; Wesolowski, Mark A(1994) on dyadic duration and impact of performance on satisfaction, as anticipated, in shorter duration dyads, subordinate performance was positively associated with satisfaction with the nature of work, characteristics of supervision and more so in cases where role become important as in case of teaching staff working in educational organizations. 4.4.4.2.1 Operational Definition of Performance Satisfaction

In the present study, performance satisfaction is defined as: pleasurable and positive emotional state resulting out of a perception of performing to ones expectations. Thus, the following are the dimensions that were taken up as the dimensions of work culture under this study. Assumptions: Time orientation (Past Future) Reward Orientation (Extrinsic Intrinsic) System Orientation (System Salience Individual Salience) Locus of Control (External Internal)

Values Work Oriented Values Importance & Perceived Chance for Satisfaction People Oriented Values Importance & Perceived Chance for Satisfaction Self Oriented Values Importance & Perceived Chance for Satisfaction

Orientation Task Clarity (Synergetic Non-Synergetic) Task Focus (Confused Distracted) Self Role Orientation (Integration Distance)

Behaviours Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction

4.4.1 4.4.1.1

Dependent Variables Organizations:

One of the independent variable for this study is educational organizations operating at college level. The demographic factors of teaching staff working in these organizations will be studied as factors affecting work culture. The following factors would be taken up for study as organization related factors. Age of the organization Management type Student categories as three different factors. Age of Educational Organizations

4.4.1.1.1

Educational organization were categorized as new educational organizations (10 years and below), middle aged educational organizations (between 10-20 years), and old educational organizations (25 years and above).

4.4.1.1.2

Management Type of Educational Organizations

Educational organizations were categorized as entrepreneurial education organizations (those started with profit motive, under privatization of education), trust educational organizations (which are basically non-profit trusts established for public cause), government and quasi government educational organizations (University constituent colleges come under the quasi government educational organizations), and minority educational organizations (educational organizations established as religious minority educational organizations). 4.4.1.1.3 Educational Organizations based on Type of Students (Sex)

Educational organizations were categorized as girls educational organizations, boys educational organizations, and co-educational organizations. 4.4.1.2 Teaching Staff Working in Educational Organizations Teaching staff working in educational organizations form another part of independent variable. The following demographic factors of these staff chosen for the present study Age of the Staff Sex of Staff Work Experience of the Staff Monthly Salaries of the Staff Monthly Family Income Subject Focus of the Staff

4.4.1.2.1

Age of Staff

Based on age, the staff was categorized as (1) below 30 years; (2) between 30 40 years; (3) between 40 50 years; and (4) above 50 years. 4.4.1.2.2 Sex of Staff

The variations in work culture between men and women staff was selected for the study. 4.4.1.2.3 Work Experience of Staff

Based on work experience, the staff was categorized as (1) less than 5 years; (2) between 5 10 years; (3) between 10 15 years; and (3) above 20 years.

4.4.1.2.4

Monthly Salaries of Staff

Based on monthly salaries, the staff was categorized as those getting (1) less than Rs. 5000; (2) between Rs. 5000 10000; (3) between Rs. 10000 15000; and (4) more than 15000 4.4.1.2.5 Monthly Family Income of Staff

Based on monthly family income, the staff was categorized as having (1) less than Rs. 1000; (2) between Rs. 10000 15000; (3) between Rs. 15000 20000; (4) more than Rs. 20000. 4.4.1.2.6 Subject Focus of Staff

Based on subject focus, the staff was categorized as those teaching (1) general subjects; (2) technical subjects; and (3) professional subjects. 4.5 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

The present study basically rests on the primary data (especially in case of dependent variable) collected with the help of a detailed questionnaire items measuring all the above mentioned dimensions. 4.6 TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION

A through review of the existing instruments was done to suit to the above-mentioned operational definitions and to be adopted for the purpose of the present study. The review of literature helped to locate two existing questionnaires to measure work culture (Sinha, 90; Sandhu & Daas, 96). As the dimensions to be measured under the present study are to a large extent different from the ones mentioned in the above-mentioned questionnaire, effort is made to develop a suitable Work Culture Questionnaire (WCQ) for the purpose of the present study. Review of literature of existing questionnaires is done before listing out the items for each of the dimensions. Though there are questionnaires measuring some of the dimensions under study, like locus of control, work commitment, time orientation and three work values (importance and satisfaction), necessity of an independent and suitable questionnaire was seen for the present study. Some of the items from already existing (Pareek, 1998) questionnaires are adopted. 4.6.1 Development of the Work Culture Questionnaire (WCQ)

The entire process of questionnaire development is done in four stages. In the first stage, items for various dimensions under the study were developed. In the second stage the face validity is established. In the third stage, test-retest reliability is established. In the fourth stage reliability using Cronbach Alpha.

4.6.1.1 Stage: 1 Developing Items for the Questionnaire Statements (items) which represent the meanings of each of the work culture dimensions based on the following operational definitions were listed. For each of the dimension statements ranging between 10 to 15 were written some of these items were taken from the earlier scales falling under the respective that this study is interested in, especially in case of locus of control. 4.6.1.1.1 4.6.1.1.1.1 Assumptions Time Orientation

Time orientation is the tendency of individuals to attribute significance to either past to future. 4.6.1.1.1.2 System Salience

System salience is the relative that an individual attributes to the system/ organization against the individual (including himself) towards the sustenance of the organization/ System. 4.6.1.1.1.3 Reward Orientation

Individuals preference for either intrinsic or extrinsic rewards. 4.6.1.1.1.4 Locus of Control

Locus of control is a general tendency to attribute success or failure to oneself or to causes outside the self. 4.6.1.1.2 4.6.1.1.2.1 Work Values Work Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)

Values that express the individuals desire to excel at work place and do the best kind of work. 4.6.1.1.2.2 People Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)

Values that express the individuals desire to be associated with people working with him/her at work place. 4.6.1.1.2.3 Self Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)

Values that express the individuals desire to achieve a sense of fulfillment through work 4.6.1.1.3 Orientations

4.6.1.1.3.1

Task Focus

7Task clarity is the understanding the individuals have about the details making part of task and how they are related to each other. 4.6.1.1.3.2 Task Clarity

Task focus is individuals disposition to focus or concentrate on work until it is completed. 4.6.1.1.3.3 Self-Role Integration

Individuals disposition of seeing one self in the role-played by she while being at work. 4.6.1.1.4 4.6.1.1.4.1 Behaviours Work Commitment

Individuals strong belief in the intrinsic worth of the activities and willingness to put considerable effort. 4.6.1.1.4.2 Performance Satisfaction

Pleasurable and positive emotional state resulting out of a perception of performing to ones expectations. For example statements such as pass is the most significant that the future in individuals life, the experience of ones early leave an irreversible mark on ones life are written to represent past time orientation and statements such as there is no meaning in continuing in a job unless it gets sufficient salary, having job security is more important than whether the work interests us or not are written to represent extrinsic reward orientation. 4.6.1.2 Stage: II (A) Face Validity Experts The 10 to 15 items mentioned above along with the operational definitions of these dimensions on the top portion of these items were given to five experts (noted behavioral scientists) for the purpose of face validity. 4.6.1.2.1 1. The experts made the following comments

To go for a forced choice as far possible in case of polar dimensions like time orientation (past orientation future orientation), reward orientation (Extrinsic rewards Intrinsic Reward), system salience (individual Salience System salience), and locus of control (Internal locus of control external locus of control).

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Some items are to be deleted, as they seem to have got a place under different dimensions Rating is better than ranking Task clarity should not be equated with task synergy A clear distinction needs to be made between generic and generic and self-items. For locus of control, loco inventory of Rotter of Pareek could be used. In case of work commitment, some items of the Modway scale could be adopted. Language and grammatical errors must be removed.

Apart from the above suggestions, doubts were expressed regarding of certain items suitability to the operational definition. Some of the suggestions could be followed for the inherent related to those suggestions. For Example: Rotter or Pareeks scale could not be used for locus of control, as the number of item too large which makes the questionnaire longer and may create problems for the respondents. Based on these suggestions the items were redrafted and certain new items were added. 4.6.1.3 After following the suggestions of the experts and making necessary corrections, a tentative Work culture Questionnaire (WCQ) was drafted using rating method. The items are arranged on a Lickerts five point scale ranging between strongly agree to disagree in case of assumptions and always to never in case of orientations and behaviours. For values Four point scale ranging between 1 and 4. This tentative WCQ was circulated among the senior most the heads of educational organizations. These heads of educational organizations were asked to give their comments on the suitability of items and also their nativity (Whether or not suitable specifically to educational organizations). These senior academics were not asked to respond to the items in the questionnaire. 4.6.1.3.1 1. 2. 3. These experts gave the following comments

Ambiguity in some of the items must be removed The items may be too many for the respondent to answer Grammatical and typographical errors must be removed

Based on these suggestions corrections were once again carried out. 4.6.1.4 Stage: III (A) Test Re-test Reliability

Corrections are carried on the basis of suggestions given by the senior Principals of the educational organizations and the WCQ was given to a sample of 18 respondents in one of the educational organizations (Degree College) essentially considering that these are the subjects for a test-retest. All the instruments were coded for the convenience of data analysis. The respondents were asked to help in by giving suggestions regarding the ambiguity in the language, grammatical and typographical errors and also mention the time taken for filling in the instrument. They were also asked to mention their comfort/ discomfort regarding the closeness of the items to their work life The respondents expressed some problems like the ambiguity in some items and also mentioned regarding the typographical errors. Most of the respondents mentioned that the items reflected their thoughts and feelings regarding their work life. A large number of respondents mentioned about the inconvenience in the time taken for filing in the questionnaire. According to them 30 minutes to 2 hours were taken for completing the instrument. 4.6.1.4.1 1. 2. 3. The following are the major suggestions given by the respondents:

To reduce the number of items, if possible to make it more convenient for answering To give the code for answering on all pages of the questionnaire. To remove the grammatical errors.

These corrections were not carried, as the questionnaire to be given to the same respondents for test-retest so that any external influence could be avoided on the respondents. The instruments (coded) were once again given to the same respondents after a period of three weeks to mainly see the stability in the response pattern. 4.6.1.5 Stage: III (B) Reliability Test

The instruments were given to a cross section of respondents (teaching staff) (30) from different colleges. These respondents were asked to mention their suggestions regarding the ambiguity, grammatical and typographical errors and also to tell how much time was taken by them to fill the instrument. The data from these questionnaires was analyzed under two different heads. 1. 2. Test Retest Reliability General Reliability

4.6.1.7 Test-Retest Reliability Peron product moment co-related for each of the dimension to see consistency in the response pattern from the first attempt to the second attempt. Dimension Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction Past Orientation Present Orientation Self-role Integration Internal Locus of Control External Locus of Control Task focus Task Clarity Extrinsic Reward Orientation Intrinsic Reward Orientation System Salience Individual Salience 0.56 0.45 0.65 0.87 0.78 0.67 0.76 0.67 0.71 0.67 Co-relation Co-efficient(P<0.001) 0.56 0.78 0.61

The co-relation co-efficient have proved that exists a consistency in the response pattern to the items from the first attempt to the second attempt and has proved that the questionnaire is reliable. 4.6.1.2 The reliability Coefficients for the entire Sample

TABLE 4.2 RELIABILITY OF WORK CULTURE DIMENSIONS CRONBACH ALPHA S.No. Work Culture Dimension No. of Cronbac Items 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Time Orientation Reward Orientation Locus of Control System Salience Work Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction Work Oriented Vales Importance People Oriented Values Importance People Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction Self Oriented Values Importance Self Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction Task Clarity Task Focus Self-role integration Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 Alpha 0.67 0.59 0.64 0.64 0.76 0. 69 0.75 0.82 0.76 0.74 0.76 0.69 0.57 0.78 0.67

4.6.3

Calculating the Responses to WCQ

In the WCQ, four dimensions representing assumptions (time orientation, system salience, reward orientation, and locus of control) contain eight items. 5 point Lickert type scale was used ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. In case of assumptions, each of the dimension has two poles, i.e. for time orientation past orientation and future orientation, for system salience

individual salience and system salience, for reward orientation extrinsic reward orientation and intrinsic reward orientation, and for locus of control internal locus and external locus. Thus, of the eight items representing each of these dimensions, four are for one pole and four for another. For example, in the case of time orientation, four items represent future time orientation and four the past orientation. In all the four dimensions there is a desirable pole, i.e. for time orientation future orientation in the desirable, for system salience system salience is the desirable, for reward orientation intrinsic reward orientation is the desirable, and for locus of control the internal locus of control (internality) is the desirable one. Keeping this in view, calculation of the scores of these dimensions was done. Score of each of the four dimension is calculated with the help for a ration of the desirable state being the numerator and the undesirable state as the denominator and is multiplied by 10 (10 has particular significance, but for coming out with a number). For example if the score of future orientation is 20 and past orientation is 4, then time orientation = 20/4X10=50. Thus the maximum possible score for each of the dimensions representing assumptions is 50 and the minimum possible score (calculated as the above) is 2. Three dimensions representing orientations (task focus, task clarity and self-role integration) also contain eight items each. Here again 5-point Linckert scale is used with strongly agree and strongly disagree being the extremes and behavours (work commitment and performance satisfaction). In case of values (work oriented, people oriented, and self-oriented) both in terms of importance and chance seven items are taken. For values four point scale is used from frequently to never in case of chance and great deal to in case of importance. Thus each item score ranges from 4 to 1. The Work Culture Questionnaire (WCX) is given in the appendix:1 4.7 4.7.1 SAMPLE Educational Organizations A list of educational

All the educational organizations selected for the study (satisfying the above-mentioned criterion) are located within twin cities of Hyderabad and surrounding suburbs. organizations operating at graduate level involved in general education, professional education (medicine), and technical education (engineering) was collected and keeping in view the scope of the study, educational organizations are selected on basis of representative sampling and satisfying the three organizations related factors (age of organizations, types of management, and types of student base on sex). For the purposes of possibility and plausibility, fifteen educational organizations are selected which take care of at least two dimensions of the sample. For example an educational organization not only represents organization based on the gender of the students, but also represents an old aged organization. Table 4.2 gives brief details on the sample education organizations.

TABLE 4.3 COMPOSITION OF EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS REPRESENTING THE SAMPLE 4.7.2 Staff Working in Educational Organizations

All the teaching staff working in the above mentioned fifteen educational organizations were given the Work Culture Questionnaire (WCQ) of which, maximum possible were returned. The final number considered for data analysis were 302 thus making the sample size (N = 302). 4.8 TOOLS FOR STATISTICAL ANALYSES

The analyses of the data call for an examination of differences and relationships among variables. In view of this, ANOVA for tests of variance and t test to assess the significant differences was employed. Pearson product moment correlations are applied for assessing the relationship among the variables.

Chapter 5 UNDERSTANDING WORK CULTURE IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

An attempt is made to arrive at an understanding of work culture in educational organizations. With the help of mean scores, standard deviations and the calculations of WCX, a overall picture of work culture in educational organizations is given. An attempt is made to give brief summary on each of the major dimension of work culture like assumptions. Variations in work culture in educational Organizations based on the variations in individual factors like age of staff and organization related factors like age of the organization are mentioned. Major findings of the present study are given.

Understanding Work Culture in Educational Organizations In previous chapter, a detailed explanation was given on the research strategy and also on the process of developing the 98-item Work Culture Questionnaire (WCQ) to measure various dimensions of work culture under study. This chapter focuses on the analysis and interpretation of data collected from the respondents and to arrive at an understanding of their pattern of work culture. 5.1 SNOITAZINAGRO LANOITACUDE NI ERUTLUC KROW FO NRETTAP LLA REVO To arrive at an understanding of overall pattern of work culture in educational organizations, mean scores and. standard deviations were calculated for four major dimensions (assumptions, values, orientations, and behaviours) and sub-dimensions of the work culture among the total sample (N = 301). The results are given in table: 5.1 TABLE 5.1 MEAN SCORES SDS OF WORK CULTURE VARIABLES *
Sl. No. DIMENSIONS ASSUMPTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. Time orientation System Salience Locus of control Reward orientation VALUES 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Work oriented values importance Work oriented values chance People oriented values importance People oriented values chance Self oriented values importance Self oriented values chance ORIENTATIONS 11. 12 13 Task clarity Task Focus Self role integration BEHAVIOURS 14 15. Work commitment Performance satisfaction 8.00 6.00 40.00 30.00 31.06 (4.91) 21.00 (3.41) 77.65 70.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 40.00 40.00 40.00 32.93 (4.75) 30.15 (4.46) 27.31 (3.53) 82.32 75.37 68.27 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 28.00 28-00 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00 22.25 (3.08) 18.01 (3.62) 20.32 (3.22) 17.87 (3.65) 21,44 (3,53) 17.73 (3.63) 79.46 64.28 75.57 63.82 76.57 63.32 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 50.00 50.00 50.00 50.00 13.03 (4.04) 11.12 (3.48) 12.22 (3.67) 13.28 (4.83) 26.06 22.24 24.44 26.56 Min. Pos Score Max. Pos Score Actual Mean Scores & SD Percentage

*Details of the method of calculations are given in the previous chapter. (4.6.3) From the mean scores and percentages of these scores against the maximum possible score for each of the ension the following observations are made.

5.1.1

Assumptions

Time orientation, reward orientation, system salience and locus of control were the components of assumptions part of work culture, i.e. belief systems. 5.1.1.1 Time orientation ) may give an impression that

The mean score given in table 5.1 against time orientation (

the staff working in educational organizations are future oriented. In fact, if the mean score at = 10.00 is the line deviating between the past and future orientations (if the scores for past and future orientations are equal, if use formula of arriving at time orientation the scores stand at 10.00. The details are given in the previous chapter while explaining the scoring method) and as = 13.03 is just on the edge and only 26.06% of the maximum possible score. Thus, though apparently the subjects appear to be future oriented, in reality this does not appear to be so. These subjects appear to be more different from other sections of society in not been highly future oriented, if not largely past oriented. This tendency seems to similar to other sections of society, as earlier researches (Kanungo, 1994; Triandis, 1984) point out that across organizations Indians are oriented towards past. 5.1.1.2 Reward orientation ) as against

Mean score of reward orientation are given in table 5.1 is also on the edge (

the minimum possible score ( =10.00) and only 26.56% of the maximum possible score. Therefore it may be interpreted that across educational organization, staff share an extrinsic reward orientation. This means that in educational organizations people attribute more importance to the extrinsic rewards such as salary, promotion than intrinsic rewards such as recognition. 5.1.1.3 System salience ) as against the

Mean score of system salience given in table 5.1 is also on the edge ( minimum possible score ( possible score (

) against this dimension which is only 22.24% of the maximum ). Hence, it may be concluded that across educational organizations the

staff share an individual salience, i.e. an orientation of considering individual more important than the system. 5.1.1.4 Locus of control ) as

Mean score of locus of control as can be seen from table 5.1 is also on the edge ( against the minimum possible score ( score (

) which is only 24.44% of the maximum possible

) of this dimension. Thus it may be interpreted that the subjects share an external

locus of control orientation. i.e. believing that mechanisms external to one self control one's success or failure.

5.1.1.5

Summary

The mean scores of all the four dimensions representing assumptions show that staff working in educational organizations share past time orientation, extrinsic reward orientation, and external locus of control. The past research (Iraindis, 1983; Kanungo, 1990; Kanungo, Mishra and others, 1996) on these dimensions show that these three dimensions are interrelated and the results of this study confirm this. The significant variation seems to be that of individual salience. According to the mean scores of system salience, the staff working in educational organization seems to be sharing individual salience. According to previous research on cultural variations, individualism is noticed in industrial societies such as USA as these nations also share a Protestant work ethic and are future oriented. Internals, and believe in intrinsic worth of work activities. Whereas according to the findings of the present study, the staff working in educational organizations are individual salient in spite of being past oriented, externals and extrinsic reward oriented. Pearson Product moment correlation's were calculated to observe the inter relationship among these four dimensions. The subjects appear to be futuristic oriented and intrinsically reward oriented, though not very high, appears to be result of the Western oriented education system and perhaps even the social desirability and stereotyped perceptions. To observe the interrelationship among these four dimensions. Pearsons Product moment correlations are calculated, and are given in Table 5.2 TABLE: 5.2 PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATIONS AMONG ASSUMPTIONS
Sl. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Dimensions Time orientation System Salience Reward Orientation Locus of Control Time Orientation 1.00 0.09 o.22*** 0.16** 1.00 0.96 0.12* 1.00 0.15** 1.00 System Salience Reward Orientation Locus of Control

Significance Level:

* = P<0.05

** = P<0.01

*** = P<0.001

The Pearson product moment correlation's among the four dimensions given above confirm that there is strong correlation among time orientation. locus of control. and reward orientation (P<0.05 - 0.001). The table given above confirms the point that system salience has significant variations from that of other dimensions representing assumptions. These findings are a little unexpected. An attempt is made to explain these in later part of this chapter. 5.1.2 Values

Work oriented values, people oriented values and self-oriented values both in terms of their importance as well as perceived chance of satisfying these values represent value dimension of work

culture in this study. Following is an overview of the pattern of these dimensions among the subjects.. 5.1.2.1 Work oriented values - Importance ) as against

The mean score given in table 5.1 for work oriented value importance ( maximum possible score (

) is 79.46%. Therefore it may be interpreted that importance

given to work oriented values such as utilizing knowledge and skills at work, doing innovative things at work is high among the subjects. 5.1.2.2 Work oriented values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction

The mean score given in table 5.1 for work oriented values - perceived chance for importance ( ) as against maximum possible score ( ) is 64.28%. Therefore it may be

interpreted that perceived chance of fulfilling work-oriented values such as utilizing knowledge and skills at work, doing innovative things at work is moderate among the subjects. 5.1.2.3 People Oriented Values - Importance ) as against

The mean score given in table 5.1 for people oriented value importance ( maximum possible score (

) is 72.57%. Therefore it may be interpreted that importance

given to people oriented values such as helping colleagues at work, being interested in maintaining relationships with others while being at work high among the subjects. 5.1.2.4. People Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction

The mean score given in table 5.1 for people oriented values - perceived chance for satisfaction ( ) as against maximum possible score ( ) is 63.82%. Therefore it may be

interpreted that perceived chance of fulfilling people oriented values such as helping colleagues at work, being interested in maintaining relationships with others while being at work is moderate among the subjects. 5.1.2.5 Self Oriented Value - Importance ) as against

The mean score given in table 5.1 for people oriented value satisfaction ( maximum possible score (

) is 76.57%. Therefore it may be interpreted that importance

given to self-oriented values such as being independent at work, improving personally, and earning recognition through work is high among the subjects. 5.1.2.6 Self Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction

The mean score given in table 5.1 for people oriented values - perceived chance for satisfaction = 17.73) as against maximum possible score ( = 28.00) is 63.32%. Therefore it may be interpreted

that perceived chance of fulfilling self-oriented values such as being independent at work, improving personally, and earning recognition through work is moderate among the subjects. 5.1.2.7 Summary

Further to above analyses, following observations are made with regard to all the three categories of work values in general. It appears that as reported by the subjects, the three types of values are of equal importance, none of the three more important than the others. Further, it is interesting to notice that the perceived chance of satisfaction for all the three types of values are also consistently low. Thus, there appears to be a gap between the attributed importance and perceived chances of satisfaction. Perhaps, to some extent there appears the degree of alienation generally reported among the college staff and also our finding that the levels of self-role integration in the group rather low. TABLE 5.3 PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATIONS AMONG VALUES
Sl. NO. 1. 2. 3. Dimensions Work Oriented Values Importance Self Oriented Values Importance People Oriented Values - Importance 1 1.00 0.53*** 0.58*** 1.00 0.60*** 1.00 2 3

Significance Level:

*= P<0.05

**= P<0.0I ***= P<0.001

Pearson Product moment correlation's were calculated (table 5.3) to observe the inter relationship three kinds of values. From the results, strong correlation was observed between all the dimensions and hence reflecting strong positive relationship. 5.1.3 Orientations

Task clarity, task focus, and self-role integration are three dimensions, which are representing orientations of work culture in this study. 5.1.3.1 Task Clarity = 32.93) as against the maximum possible score

The mean score given in table 5.1 for task clarity ( (

= 40.00) is 82.23%. Thus, it may be interpreted that the task clarity is very high among the staff

working in educational organizations, which means the subjects understand the details of various tasks given to them and the interrelationships among them.

5.1.3.2

Task Focus = 30.15) as against the maximum possible

From mean score given in table 5.1 of this dimension ( score (

= 40.00) which is 75.37%, it may be interpreted that task focus is high among the subjects.

Thus, it may be interpreted that the subjects focus on to their tasks until they are completed. 5.1.3.3 Self-role Integration

From mean score of this dimension ( = 27.31) given in table 5.1 as against the maximum possible score ( = 40.00) which is 68.27%, it may be interpreted that the subjects share a moderate

self-role integration, which means that the subjects do not see their skills and competencies being totally utilized in their work roles and thus resulting in distance between the self and the role. The expressed high task focus indicates a keenness to complete the task on hand and get rid of it. The fact that there is very low level of self-role integration suggests such an interpretation. A low level of self-role integration leads to a low level of involvement and consequently a low degree of intrinsic motivation. The result being a felt need and almost urgency to complete the tasks. One wonders, a concept of role emerges at all among these staff. To understand the interrelationships among these three dimensions representing orientations, Pearson product moment correlation's are calculated and are given in table SA .. A strong positive co-relation was observed between all the three dimensions representing orientations of work culture. TABLE 5.4 PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATIONS AMONG ORIENTATIONS Sl.No. 1. 2. 3. Dimensions Task clarity Task focus Self-role integration Task Clarity 1.00 0.57*** 0.44*** **= P<0.0 I ***= P<0.001 1.00 0.37*** 1.00 Task Focus Self-role integration

Significance Level: *= P<0.05 5.1.4 Behaviours

Work commitment and performance satisfaction, are the two dimensions which represent behaviours. in this study. 5.1.4.1 Work Commitment

Work commitment indicates individual's willingness to make a strong effort. From mean scores given in table 5.1 of this dimension ( = 31.06) as against the maximum possible score ( = 40.00) which

is 77.65%, it may be interpreted that work commitment among the subjects is high. These results

indicate that the subjects are willing to exert more than required effort in their work activities. 5.1.4.2 Performance Satisfaction = 21.00) given in table 5.1 as against maximum possible

From mean scores of this dimension (

score ( = 30.00) which is 70%, it may be interpreted that performance satisfaction among the subjects is high. These results show that the subjects are satisfied with their performance. The correlations among the three orientations do not appear to be very high. The low level of correlation between self-role integration and the other two dimensions as well as the low value of self-role integration clearly indicate that while subjects are clear about the tasks, they are not very clear about the roles. Perhaps, for these the concept of role does not exist. Many educationists have reported that the college teachers do not take interest in the work and do not get involved. While these may be a fact, the reason for this is to be looked. This situation read along with earlier findings about the low perceived chances of satisfying the three values naturally results in poor self-role integration. Logically speaking such a situation should result in a lower level of performance satisfaction, whereas the expressed performance satisfaction of the subjects reads other way. Perhaps, this leads us to the conclusion that performance is looked at as of a task or a job than as a role. Pearson product moment correlation's are calculated (table 5.5) to understand relationship between performance satisfaction and work commitment. Significantly positive correlation. between these two dimensions shows that there exists a strong positive relationship between these two. TABLE 5.5 PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATIONS AMONG BEHAVIOURS Sl.No. 1. 2. Dimensions Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction Work Commitment 1.00 0.42*** 1.00 Performance Satisfaction

Significance Level: * = P<0.05 ** = P<0.01 *** = P<0.001 5.1.5 Overall Summary To understand the interrelationships among all the work culture dimensions Pearson product moment correlations are calculated for all the fifteen dimensions. The results are given in table 5.6

TABLE 5.6 PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATIONS AMONG ALL WORK CULTURE DIMENSIONS
Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Dimensions Time orientation System Salience Reward orientation Locus of control Work oriented values importance Work oriented value chance People oriented values importance People oriented values - chance Self oriented values importance Self oriented values - chance Task Focus Task Clarity Self-role Integration Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction 1 1.00 0.01 0.22** 0.16* 0.03 0.06 0.01 0.10* 0.11* 0.12* 0.22** 0.25** 0.04 0.28** 0.27 1.00 0 0.1 0.16* 0.01 0.16* 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.06 1.00 0.15* 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.05 0.11* 0.22 0.08 0.30** 0.09 1.00 0.11 0.08 0.04 0.05 0.14* 0.09 0.19** 0.21** 0.03 0.13* 0.10* 1.00 0.44*** 0.58*** 0.40*** 0.60*** 0.41*** 0.29** 0.35*** 0.15* 0.27** 0.19** 1.00 0.31** 0.61*** 0.39*** 0.65*** 0.22** 0.24** 0.22* 0.16* 0.18* 1.00 0.43*** 0.53*** 0.38** 0.12* 0.18* 0.06 0.17* 0.21** 1.00 0.30*** 0.90*** 0.20** 0.23* 0.12* 0.26*** 0.18* 1.00 0.37** 0.30 0.33** 0.12* 0.22** 0.29** 1.00 0.24** 0.27** 0.09 0.26** 0.19** 1.00 0.57*** 0.39*** 0.30** 0.31** 1.00 0.44*** 0.34** 0.33** 1.00 0.10* 0.20** 1.00 0.42*** 1.00 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Significance Level: = *P<0.05 = **P<0.0I

= ***P<0.00I

From this table, it was observed that strong correlation exists independently among dimensions representing assumptions, values, orientations and behaviours. Correlation between dimensions representing assumptions and the dimensions representing values is not strong and in many cases there was a negative correlation. This shows that clusters are forming at different levels. Hofstede (1990) found similar results in his measurement of organization culture. Many a times, assumptions may not get reflected in values and in turn in orientations or behaviours. Many factors control at different levels of cultural manifestation may cause this kind of variation. In a traditional setup, one would normally expect past time orientation, external locus of control, and extrinsic reward orientation as dominant features. Given the pattern one would expect a tendency towards system salience rather than individual salience. However, present findings show that in the present sample, this is not the case and the individual salience is high. A possible explanation to this has already been offered (5.1.1.5). VARIATIONS IN DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES: WORK CULTURE IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS In the earlier section, an attempt was made to arrive at an overall picture of the work culture of the sample of teachers was studied. However, while one may arrive at an overall picture, there can be variations among differences of groups based on certain individuals, demographic and socioeconomic 5.2

factors or factors related to the organization as a whole. This section therefore attempts to examine whether work culture profile is significantly influenced by individual related factors and organization related factors. The first part deals with an analysis of the variations resulting from individual factors. The following factors were selected.

Variations in Age Variations in Sex Variations in Monthly Income Variations in family Income Variations in Subject focus

The analyses of impact of demographic variables on work culture of staff working in educational organizations, starts with age variations. 5.2.1 Age Variations of Staff

Based on age variations subjects were divided into four categories, namely (I) staff aged below 30 years, (2) staff aged between 30 - 40 years, (3) staff aged between 40 -50 years and (4) staff aged more than 50 years. ANOVA was employed to examine significant differences among the above four groups. Table 5.7 gives distribution of mean scores, standard deviations, 'f'-ratio and its level of significance. Significant variance was observed in among time orientation (P<0.05), system salience (P<0.001), locus of control (P<0.05), self oriented values - importance (P<0.05) and work oriented values importance (P<0.01). Further 't' test was employed to examine significant differences in mean scores of time orientation, locus of control, system salience, work oriented values - importance, and self oriented values importance between staff based on age variations. Results of the 't' test are provided in table 5.8

TABLE 5.7 WORK CULTURE IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: VARIATIONS IN AGE OF STAFF


No Dimensions Staff Teaching General Subjects Mea ASSUMPTIONS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Time Orientation Reward Orientations System Salience Locus of Control VALUES Work Oriented Values - Importance Work Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction People Oriented Values - Importance People Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction Self Oriented Values - Importance Self Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction ORIENTATIONS Task Clarity Task Focus Self role Integration BHAVIOURS 14 15 Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction 31.02 21.08 4.92 3.25 29.82 20.86 5.64 4.35 31.91 20.60 4.40 3.76 1.40 0.40 NS NS 22.35 17.96 20.27 17.76 21.47 17.70 3.05 3.64 3.19 3.63 3.58 3.61 22.73 17.82 20.82 18.00 20.65 17.00 3.41 4.45 3.57 4.49 2.88 4.27 22.04 18.37 20.28 18.35 21.71 18.22 3.05 3.05 3.27 3.34 3.53 3.37 0.53 0.28 0.3 0.49 0.71 0.87 NS NS NS NS NS NS 12.7 13.15 11.14 12.26 3.46 4.7 3.41 3.74 13.18 12.37 9.71 11.97 4.3 4.71 3.23 3.73 14.65 14.45 11.69 12.12 5.76 5.45 3.8 3.29 4.61 1.82 2.5 0.08 *** NS NS NS SD Staff Teaching Profession Subjects Mea SD Staff Teaching Technical Subjects Mea SD ANOVA

F' Stat

Sig.

11 12 13

32.93 30.25 27.17

4.77 4.55 3.33

31.34 29.95 27.95

5.78 4.58 4.73

33.73 29.71 27.68

3.81 3.95 3.94

1.92 0.30 0.80

NS NS NS

Significance Level: *= P<0.05

= **P<0.01 = ***P<0.001

TABLE 5.8 COMPARISON OF MEAN SCORES OF WORK CULTURE DIMENSIONS: VARIATION IN AGE OF STAFF
Sl No. Groups / Dimensions Time Orientatio n t' Value 1. 2. 3, 4. 5. Below 30 years Vs Between 30-40 years Below 30 years Vs Between 40-50 years Below 30 years Vs More than 50 years Between 30-40 years Vs Between 40-50 years Between 30-40 years Vs More than 50 years 2.61 1.85 0.70 0.07 1.37 Sig. ** NS NS NS NS System Salience t' Value 1.14 3.55 3.09 2.35 2.04 Locus of Control t' Value 1.06 1.66 1.53 0.83 2.89 Self Oriented Value Importanc e t' Value 1.59 1.03 0.98 2.41 2.31 Sig. NS NS NS ** * Work oriented Value Importanc e t' Value 0.76 2.82 2.75 1.78 1.83 Sig. NS ** ** NS NS

Sig. NS *** *** * *

Sig. NS NS NS NS *

Significance Level: = *P<0.05

= **P<0.01

= ***P<0.001

5.2.1.1.

Time orientation

Results of 't' test given in table 5.8 show significant difference in the mean scores between the subjects aged less than 30 years and those between 40 - 50 years (P<0.0I). From Table 5.7, it was observed that the time orientation increases from the subjects aged below 30 years ( ) to those aged between 40 - 50 years ( ). ) and then coming down among the subjects having more than 50 years age (

This means that in educational organizations time orientation (towards future) comparatively is lower among staff aged below 30 years and significantly higher among those between 40 - 50 years. These results may look somewhat different from normal perception that young people would be future oriented and with the increase in age people would get past oriented. The results in the present study being contrary to above mentioned popular notion may be interpreted more as a concern of older staff members about the future more than being 'futuristic'. Staats, Sara; Partlo, Christie; Stubbs, Kathy (1993) say that, the perceived future orientation is due to the future apprehension. Romel, Eric (1991) makes similar interpretations his study titled 'time orientation and University Graduates'. He says" any a times the future orientation may be indicative of the concern that senior students have about the future". 5.2.1.2 System Salience

Results of 't' test given in table 5.8 show that system salience is significantly different among all age groups of the subjects. Mean scores of system salience are significantly different between staff groups of (I) below 30 years and 40 - 50 years (P<0.00I); (2) below 30 years and more than 50 years (P<0.001); (3) 30 - 40 years and 40 - 50 years (P<0.01); (4) 30 - 40 years and above 50 years (P<0.01). From the table 5.7, it was observed that system salience (individual salience) is significantly low (P < 0.00 I) among subjects below 30 years age ( years ( ( ). ) compared to staff aged between 40 - 50 ). It was also observed that the individual salience is increasing consistently with

the increase in the age among staff until they reach 50 years and stabilizing thereafter

Comparatively higher system salience among the staff members who are in the 40 and above age group may be interpreted as manifested helplessness with regard to individual capability of influencing system. The younger staff members may be having some hope that individually they can influence the system. Yet another possibility is that most colleges being bureaucratic, people tend to become system oriented rather than system salient. Any thing that 'controls' is perceived as salient. "The giant is always perceived as big".

5.2.1.3

Locus of Control

Significant difference in mean scores of locus of control (towards internality) was observed between (I) 3 0 - 40 years age group and more than 50 years age group (P<0.01), and (2) 40 - 50 year age group and more than 50 years age group (P < 0.0 I). From Table 5.7, it was observed that internal locus of control is increasing from subjects aged below 30 years ( = 11.96) to those aged between 30 - 40 years ( = 12.55) and 40 - 50 years ( = 13.10) and then coming down among the subjects aged more than 50 years ( more than 50 years. 5.2.1.4 Work Oriented Values - Importance = 11.21). This means that

internality is higher among the subjects' aged between 30 - 50 years as compared to subjects' aged

Significant difference in mean scores of work oriented values - importance was observed between (I) group aged below 30 years and group aged 40 - 50 (P<0.01) and (2) group below 30 years and group aged more than 50 years (P<0.01). From Table 5.7, it was observed that mean scores of importance for work oriented values come down with the increase in age. From subjects aged below 30 years ( 30 - 40 years ( = 22.50) to one between 40 - 50 years ( subjects aged more than 50 years ( = 22.83) to staff aged between = 21.56) and falling down further among

= 21.46). This shows that among subjects' importance to work

oriented needs such as getting good results at work, getting ahead in career is significantly high among those who are below 30 years as compared to the staff aged 40 years and above. 5.2.1.5 Self Oriented Values - Importance

Significant difference in mean scores of 'self oriented values - importance' was observed between (I) group aged 30 - 40 years and 40 - 50 years (P<0.01); (2) 30 - 40 years and ones crossing 50 years (P<0.05). From table 5.7, it was observed that subjects aged between 30 - 40 years give significantly higher importance to self oriented values ( 20.79). It appears that teaching staff's age as it moves beyond 40, there is decline in the importance that they give to self oriented values. This may be due to two factors. One the one hand, this may be a result of disillusionment and disappointment resulting from cumulative inability to achieve personal improvement, being independent of others and other self-oriented needs. On the other hand, it may be due to general stereotype pattern in the Indian society, where beyond middle age, one is expected to be "god oriented" and religious preparing for the next life rather than the present. In this self and self-oriented values become less significant. One is expected to be "selfish" in the sense that the concern ones own self needs be brought down. = 22.19) as compared to subjects aged 40 and above ( =

5.2.1.6

Summary On Age Variations

Further to the above analyses on pattern of work culture of staff working in educational organizations in terms of their age variations, following observations are made: 1. Age variations among the subjects appear to have a certain and significant influence on some of the critical dimensions of work culture. Especially there exist significant differences in dimensions that represent assumptions (time orientation, locus of control, and system salience) and also on some of the values (self-oriented values - importance and work oriented values - importance) of work culture 2. A significant pattern was observed on the impact of age variations on the above mentioned dimensions. In case of time orientation, locus of control, and system salience it was observed that the mean scores are increasing with the increase in the age of subjects until they reach 50 years and then sliding downwards. 5.2.2 Variations Between Men &Women Staff

An attempt was made to examine whether there were any significant differences between women and men respondents on various dimensions of work culture. From table 5.9, significant difference in mean scores of locus of control (P<0.05), task focus (P<0.05) and people oriented value importance (P<0.05) were observed. 5.2.2.1. Locus of Control According to results of 't' test given in table 5.9, women subjects are less internal ( compared to their men counterparts ( 5.2.2.2. Task Focus According to results given in table 5.9 women subjects are having higher task focus ( compared to their men counterparts ( = 19.55). = 30.66) as = 11.66). = 11.84) as

5.2.2.3. People Oriented Values - Importance People oriented values - importance expresses individual's degree of concern with people. The results show that importance given to the people oriented values by women subjects lower ( 19.96) as compared to their men counterparts ( = 20.73). =

TABLE 5.9 WORK CULTURE IN EDUCATIOAL ORGANIZATIONS: VARIATIONS AMONG MEN & WOMEN OF THE STAFF
Sl. No. Dimensions Male Mean ASSUMPTIONS 1 2 3 4 Time Orientation Toward Orientation System Salience Locus of Control VALUES 5 6 7 8 9 10 Work Oriented Values - Importance Work oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction People Oriented Values - Importance People Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction Self Oriented Values - Importance Self Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction ORENTATIONS 11 12 13 Task Clarity Task Focus Self-role Integration BEHAVIOURS 14 15 Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction 31.33 20.84 4.89 3.35 30.84 21.13 4.94 3.47 0.86 0.74 NS NS 32.84 29.55 26.95 4.90 4.32 3.82 33.06 30.66 27.61 4.64 4.53 3.25 0.3 2.06 1.61 NS * NS 22.22 17.63 20.73 17.51 21.64 17.44 3.25 3.59 3.24 3.73 3.40 3.67 22.28 18.33 19.96 18.17 21.26 17.97 2.93 3.62 3.18 3.57 3.64 3.59 0.18 1.69 2.16 1.56 0.93 1.26 NS NS * NS NS NS 12.90 13.78 11.11 12.66 3.57 4.88 3.43 3.95 13.14 12.85 11.12 11.84 4.33 4.76 3.53 3.38 0.53 1.67 0.01 1.96 NS NS NS * SD Female Mean SD t' Test t value Sig.

Significance Level:

* = P<0.5

** = P<0.01

*** = P<0.001

5.2.2.4.

Summary on Variations among Men &Women Staff

It was observed, though the 't' test suggests that there are differences among the locus of control, task focus and people oriented values - importance, the differences in the mean scores between the men and women staff members are marginal with differences being as low as 0.3 to 0.5 5.2.3. Variations in Work Experience of Staff

Based on variations in years of work experience, the subjects were categorized under four heads, namely staff (I) having less than 5 years experience; (2) having 5 - 10 years experience; (3) having 10 I5 years experience and (4) having more than I5 years experience. ANOVA was applied to examine pattern of work culture. Table: 5.10 gives distribution of mean scores, standard deviations, 'F'-ratio and its level of significance. Significant variation was observed (table 5.2.4) in system salience (P<0.05) and work oriented values - importance (P<0.01).

TABLE 5.10 WORK CULTURE IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: VARIATIONS IN WORK EXPERIENCE


Sl. No. Variable Below 5 years Mean ASSUMPTIONS 1 2 3 4 Time Orientation Reward Orientation System Salience Locus of Control VALUES 5 6 7 8 9 10 Work Oriented Values - Importance Work Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction People Oriented Values - Importance People Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction Self Oriented Values - Importance Self Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction ORIENTATIONS 11 12 13 Task Clarity Task Focus Self-role Integration BEHAVIOURS 14 15 Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction 31.37 21.25 5.55 3.10 31.01 21.28 4.26 3.78 30.16 19.95 4.82 2.73 31.17 21.05 6.69 3.88 0.61 1.59 NS NS 32.17 30.44 27.69 5.08 4.94 3.87 33.44 30.60 27.23 5.12 4.43 3.33 33.45 29.59 27.42 3.92 4.61 3.20 33.13 29.73 26.90 4.40 3.80 3.45 1.34 0.86 0.82 NS NS NS 22.59 17.93 20.26 17.78 21.49 17.54 2.46 3.23 2.86 3.65 3.59 3.64 22.11 18.33 20.02 17.56 21.79 17.52 3.89 3.57 3.34 3.07 3.32 2.93 23.59 18.38 21.04 18.71 22.28 18.80 2.60 4.49 3.36 4.07 3.84 4.00 21.36 17.68 20.26 17.82 20.72 17.60 2.96 3.64 3.45 3.86 3.38 3.88 5.87 0.57 0.91 0.93 2.31 1.44 ** NS NS NS NS NS 12.84 13.26 10.60 12.06 3.85 4.89 3.01 3.93 12.91 13.66 10.76 12.25 3.34 4.85 3.78 3.37 13.12 13.20 10.95 13.00 3.48 4.92 2.73 4.53 13.29 13.05 12.05 11.99 4.81 4.77 3.88 3.10 0.23 0.21 3.22 0.82 NS NS * NS SD Between 5 -10 years Mean SD Between 10 - 15 years Mean SD More than 15 years Mean SD ANOVA F' Stat Sig.

Significance Level: P<0.001

* = P<0.05

** = P<0.01

*** =

Further to this 't' test was employed to examine significant differences in the above mentioned dimensions between staff groups based on their experience. Results of the 't' test are provided in table 5.11

TABLE 5.11 COMPARISON OF MEAN SCORES OF WORK CULTURE DIMENSIONS: VARIATIONS IN WORK EXPERIENCE
Sl. No. Work oriented value Importance t' value 0.90 2.13 3.09 2.40 1.33 4.38 Sig. NS * ** ** NS ***

Groups

System Salience t' value Sig. NS NS ** NS * NS

1 2 3 4 5 6

Below 5 years Vs Between 5 - 10 years Below 5 years Vs Between 10 - 15 years Below 5 years Vs More than 15 years Between 5 1- years Vs Between 10 - 15 years Between 5 - 10 years Vs more than 15 years Between 10 - 15 years Vs More than 50 years

0.29 0.67 2.85 0.31 2.10 1.87

Significance Level: 5.2.3.1. System Salience

* = P<0.05

** = P<0.01

*** = P<0.001

Significant difference was observed (table 5.11) in mean scores of system salience between staff with experiences (I) less than 5 years and more than 15 years (P<0.01) and those who have (2) 5 - 10 years experience and more than 15 years experience (P<0.05). From table 5.10, it was observed that system salience is significantly low among subject with less than 5 years experience ( = 10.60) compared to the subjects with more than 15 years experience ( = 12.05). The system salience was observed to be increasing consistently with the increase in the work experience of the subjects. 5.2.3.2 Work Oriented Values - Importance

Significant difference was observed in mean scores of work oriented value importance between staff with experiences (I) less than 5 years and those who have 10 - 15 years experience (P < 0.05); (2) below 5 years experience and more than 15 years experience; (3) 5 - 15 years experience and 10 -15 years experience (P < 0.0 I); (4) 10 - 15 years experience and more than 15 years experience (P < 0.00 I). From table 5.10, it was observed the staff with more than 15 years work experience give significantly lower importance to work oriented values ( = 21.36) as compared to significantly higher = 23.59). In fact, the importance given to these values by staff with 10 - 15 years experience ( compared to the staff with more than 15 years experience.

importance given to these values is higher among the subjects with less than 15 years experience

5.2.3.3. Summary for Variations in Work Experience Further to the above analyses on pattern of work culture of staff working in educational organizations in terms of variations in experience, following observations are made: 1. System salience increases consistently with the increase in experience of the subjects. 2. Importance given to work oriented values is high among staff with less than 15 years work experience compared to the staff with more than 15 years experience. 5.2.4 Variations in Monthly Salary of Staff The entire sample was divided into four categories namely, staff getting (monthly) (I) less than Rs. 5000; (2) getting between Rs. 5000 - 10000; (3) getting between Rs. 10000 - 15000; and (4) getting more than Rs. 15000. ANOVA was employed to examine significant variations of work culture dimensions among these four groups. Table: 5.12, gives distribution of mean scores, standard deviations, 'F' ratio and its level of significance. Significant variation was observed in system salience (P<0.01) and task clarity (P<0.05). TABLE 5.12 WORK CULTURE IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: VARIATIONS IN MONTHLY SALARIES
Sl. No. Variable Less than Rs. 5000 Mean ASSUMPTIONS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Time Orientation Reward Orientation System Salience Locus of Control VALUES Work Oriented Values Importance Work Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction People Oriented Values Importance People Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction Self Oriented Values - Importance Self Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction ORIENTATIONS Task Clarity Task Focus Self-role Integration BEHAVIOURS Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction 31.33 21.02 4.17 3.02 30.36 21.19 5.84 3.13 31.27 21.02 4.38 3.84 33.06 19.26 4.71 4.97 1.70 1.41 NS NS 12.52 13.47 10.44 12.31 22.59 17.93 19.82 17.58 21.22 17.37 31.96 30.58 27.01 3.48 4.51 2.73 4.48 2.83 3.32 2.74 3.28 3.58 3.42 5.09 5.15 3.59 13.22 13.11 11.28 12.07 22.16 17.82 20.29 17.49 21.84 17.65 33.69 30.24 27.77 3.62 5.13 3.90 2.90 3.24 3.67 3.31 3.48 3.38 3.48 4.56 4.29 3.59 13.61 13.04 11.31 12.46 22.00 18.38 20.78 18.65 21.17 18.17 33.23 30.11 27.07 4.92 4.38 3.59 3.69 3.20 3.75 3.45 4.09 3.65 3.93 4.49 3.75 3.48 12.04 14.56 13.48 11.27 22.00 17.93 21.40 18.40 21.46 18.33 32.40 28.18 27.33 3.66 4.71 3.84 1.99 2.80 4.66 4.03 4.32 3.70 4.40 4.40 3.97 2.94 1.52 0.50 3.84 0.52 0.64 0.40 1.94 1.92 0.74 0.82 2.59 1.14 0.95 NS NS ** NS NS NS NS NS NS NS * NS NS SD Between Rs. 5000-10000 Mean SD Between Rs. 10000-15000 Mean SD More than Rs. 15000 Mean SD ANOVA F' Stat Sig.

Significance Level:

* = P<0.05

** = P<0.01

*** = P<0.001

Further 't' test was employed to examine significant differences in the mean scores of system salience and task clarity. Table 5.13gives results of 't' test.

TABLE 5.13 COMPARISON OF MEAN SCORES OF WORK CULTURE DIMENSIONS: VARIATIONS IN MONTHLY SALARIES
Sl. No. Groups System Salience t' value 1 2 3 4 5 6 Below Rs. 5000 Vs Between Rs. 5000-10000 Below Rs. 5000 Vs Between Rs. 10000-15000 Below Rs. 5000 Vs. More than Rs. 15000 Between Rs. 5000-10000 Vs. Between Rs. 10000-15000 Between Rs. 5000-10000 Vs. More than Rs. 15000 Between Rs. 10000-15000 Vs. More than Rs. 15000 1.80 1.80 3.50 0.06 2.42 2.36 Sig. NS NS ** NS * * Task Clarity t' value 2.58 1.79 0.35 0.69 1.06 0.66 Sig. ** NS NS NS NS NS

Significance level: * = P<0.05 5.2.4.1 System Salience

** = P<0.01

*** = P<0.001

From results of 't' test given in table 5.13 significant difference in the mean scores of system salience was observed between staff getting monthly salary of (I) below Rs. 5000 and more than Rs. 15000 (P < 0.0 I); (2) between Rs. 5000 - 10000 and more than Rs. 15000 (P<0.05); (3) Rs. 10000 - 15000 and more than Rs 15000 (P<0.05). From table 5.12, it was observed that system salience increases among the subjects with increase in their monthly salaries. System salience is significantly high among subjects getting more than Rs.15000 Rs. 10000 - 15000 5.2.4.2 ( = 13.48) compared to subjects getting less than Rs. 15000 a month, with =10.44; between Rs. 5000 - 10000; = 11.28; and for mean scores for less than Rs. 5000 being = 11.31

Task Clarity

Significant difference in the mean scores of task clarity (table 5.13) was observed among staff members getting less than Rs. 5000 monthly salary and the ones getting between Rs. 5000 - Rs. 10000 (P < 0.0 I). From Table 5.12, it was observed that the mean scores of the task clarity increasing from the staff getting less than Rs. 5000 ( salary ( 5.2.4.3 = 33.69). Summary on Variations in Monthly Salaries = 31.96) to the staff getting between more than Rs. 5000 monthly

The variations in the monthly salary's of the subjects are found to be having the following impact on work culture dimensions 1. Individual salience increases with the increase in the monthly income of the subjects.

2. There is a significant difference in the task clarity of subjects getting less than Rs 5000 and more than Rs, 5000, with the former having lesser task clarity than the latter. 5.2.5 Variations in Family Monthly Income of Staff

The entire sample was divided into four categories namely, staff with family income (monthly) of (I) less than Rs. 10000; (2) between Rs. 10000 - 15000; (3) between Rs. 15000 - 20000; and (4) more than Rs. 15000. ANOVA was employed to examine mean score differences among the I5-work culture variables. Table: 5.14 gives distribution of mean scores, standard deviations, F-ratio and its level of significance. TABLE 5.14 WORK CULTURE IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: VARIATIONS IN MONTHLY FAMILY INCOME
Sl. No. Dimensions Less than Rs. 10000 Mean SD 12.59 13.66 1057 13.07 3.71 4.68 2.95 4.69 Between Rs.10000-15000 Mean SD 12.85 12.80 11.07 11.92 3.62 4.95 3.58 3.25 Between Rs.15000-20000 Mean SD 13.61 12.46 11.23 12.03 4.92 4.64 3.12 3.87 More than Rs. 20000 Mean SD 12.04 14.30 11.48 12.09 3.66 4.85 4.00 2.99 ANOVA F' Stat 0.72 2.32 0.80 1.35 Sig. NS NS NS NS

ASSUMPTIONS 1 2 3 4 Time Orientation Reward Orientation System Salience Locus of Control VALUES 5 6 7 8 9 10 Work Oriented Values - Importance Work Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction People Oriented Values - Importance People Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction Self Oriented Values - Importance Self Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction ORIENTATIONS Task Clarity Task Focus Self-role Integration BEHAVIOURS 14 15 Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction 31.91 20.69 3.70 1.90 30.25 20.67 4.82 3.25 31.19 21.40 5.10 3.70 31.25 21.35 5.55 4.13 1.49 0.90 NS NS 22.94 18.15 19.89 17.23 21.37 17.20 3.04 3.42 2.80 3.00 3.66 3.31 22.02 18.27 20.12 17.83 21.09 17.78 3.26 3.73 3.35 3.74 3.40 3.67 22.15 18.12 20.61 18.05 22.06 18.02 3.01 3.79 3.01 3.74 3.48 3.89 22.11 17.51 20.60 18.22 21.32 17.80 2.92 4.66 3.53 3.91 3.61 3.60 1.25 0.71 0.84 0.90 1.08 0.85 NS NS NS NS NS NS

11 12 13

32.15 29.84 26.66

5.39 3.34 3.73

32.95 29.39 27.49

4.93 4.59 3.76

33.02 30.76 26.88

4.36 4.36 3.57

30.68 30.68 27.97

4.17 4.16 2.97

0.78 1.81 2.04

NS NS NS

Significance Level:

* = P<0.05

** = P<0.01

*** = P<0.001

No significant variation was observed (Table 5.14) among the four categories of staff with respect to their family incomes. Thus, it may be interpreted that family income (monthly) of the staff working in educational organizations is not influencing any of the dimensions of work culture. 5.2.6. Variations in Subject Focus of the Staff

Based on variations in the subjects taught, the staff working in educational organizations were divided into three categories, namely staff teaching (I) general subjects; (2) professional subjects; and (3) technical subjects.

ANOVA was employed to observe significant variation in the work culture variables based on the above variations. Table 5.15 gives distribution of mean scores, standard deviations, 'F' - ratio and its level of significance. Significant variation was found in time orientation (P<0.01). TABLE 5.15 WORK CULTURE IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: VARIATIONS IN SUBJECTS FOCUS
Sl. No. Dimensions Staff Teaching General Subjects Mean SD 12.7 13.15 11.14 12.26 3.46 4.70 3.41 3.74 Staff Teaching Profession Subjects Mean SD 1308 12.37 9.71 11.97 4.30 4.71 3.27 3.73 Staff Teaching Technical Subjects Mean SD 14.65 14.45 11.69 12.12 5.76 5.45 3.80 3.29 ANOVA F' Stat 4.61 1.82 2.50 0.08 Sig. *** NS NS NS

ASSUMPTIONS 1 2 3 4 Time Orientation Reward Orientation System Salience Locus of Control VALUES 5 6 7 8 9 10 Work Oriented Values - Importance Work Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction People Oriented Values - Importance People Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction Self Oriented Values - Importance Self Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction ORIENTATIONS Task Clarity Task Focus Self-role Integration BEHAVIOURS 14 15 Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction 31.02 21.08 4.92 3.25 29.82 20.86 5.64 4.35 31.91 20.60 4.40 3.76 1.40 0.40 NS NS 22.35 17.96 20.27 17.76 21.47 17.70 3.05 3.64 3.19 3.63 3.58 3.61 22.73 17.82 20.82 18.00 20.65 17.00 3.41 4.45 3.57 4.49 2.88 4.27 22.04 18.37 20.28 18.35 21.71 18.22 3.05 3.05 3.27 3.34 3.53 3.37 .053 0.28 0.30 0.49 0.71 0.87 NS NS NS NS NS NS

11 12 13

32.93 30.25 27.17

4.77 4.55 3.33

31.34 29.95 27.95

5.78 4.58 4.73

33.73 29.71 27.68

3.91 3.95 3.94

1.92 0.30 0.80

NS NS NS

Significance Level:

* = P<0.05

** = P<0.01

*** = P<0.001

Further to this, to examine significant difference in mean scores of time orientation among organizations based on their subject focus, 't' test was employed. Results of ' t' test are provided in table 5.16 TABLE 5.16 COMPARISON OF MEAN SCORES OF WORK CULTURE DIMENSIONS: VARIATIONS IN SUBJECT FOCUS OF STAFF
Sl. No. 1 2 3 Groups Time Orientation t' value Staff teaching General Subjects Vs Staff teaching Technical Subjects Staff teaching General Subjects Vs. Staff teaching Professional Subjects Staff teaching Professional Subjects Vs. Staff teaching Technical Subjects 2.19 0.52 1.18 Sig. * NS NS

Significance Level:

* = P<0.05

** = P<0.01

*** = P<0.001

5.2.6.1

Time Orientation

From results of 't' test given above, significant difference in mean scores of time orientation are found, between staff teaching general subjects and technical subjects (P < 0.05). From table 5.17, it was observed that staff teaching technical subjects comparatively have a higher future time orientation ( = 14.65) than those teaching general subjects ( = 12.70).

5.2.6.2

Summary on Variations in Subject Focus Staff

The subject focus of the staff does not seem to be influencing any of the work culture dimensions, except in case of time orientation.

5.2.6.2

Overall Summary on Variations in Demographic Factors: Work Culture in Educational Organizations

From the analysis of variations in demographic factors, such as age, experience, monthly salary, monthly family income, and subject focus and the pattern of work culture, the following observations are made.

1.

It appears that among all the demographic variables under study, age of the subjects emerges as a significant factor as variations are observed in many critical dimensions like time orientation, locus of control, system salience, work oriented values - importance, self oriented values - importance with respect to variations in age of subjects. The findings in case of time orientation, with variations in age appear to be little surprising where with the increase the age the future time orientation appears to be increasing. (a possible explanation is offered).

2.

However, in case of system salience, other demographic factors like experience and monthly salary also appear to bring about changes.

3.

It appears that variations in monthly family income of the staff working in educational organizations do not cause any variations in pattern of work culture.

5.3

VARIATIONS IN ORGANIZATION RELATED FACTORS: WORK CULTURE IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

To understand pattern of work culture in terms of organization related features, the following factors are chosen. Variations in age of organizations Variations in management type of organizations

5.3.1

Variations in students sex studying in educational organizations Variation in Age of Educational Organizations

Based on age, educational organizations were divided into three categories. namely (I) new organizations (less than 10 years old); (2) middle aged organizations (between 10 - 20 years old) and (3) old organizations (more than 25 years old). ANOVA was applied to check significant variation in work culture variables. Distribution of mean scores, standard deviations, 'f'-ratio and its level of significance are given in table 5.17 Significant variation was observed in reward orientation (P< 0.00 I), locus of control (P< 0.00 I), task focus (P<0.0 I), people oriented values - Perceived chance for satisfaction (P<0.05), self oriented values - Perceived chance for satisfaction (P<0.0 I), work oriented value importance (P<0.0 I) and Work values - Perceived chance for satisfaction (P < 0.00 I). Further 't' test was employed to examine the significant difference in the mean scores of the above mentioned seven dimensions. The results of I t' test are provided in table 5.18. TABLE 5.17 WORK CULTURE IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: VARIATIONS IN AGE OF ORGANIZATIONS
Sl. No. Dimensions Below 10 Years Mean ASSUMPTIONS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Time Orientation Reward Orientation System Salience Locus of Control VALUES Work Oriented Values - Importance Work Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction People Oriented Values - Importance People Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction Self Oriented Values - Importance Self Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction ORIENTATIONS Task Clarity Task Focus Self-role Integration BEHAVIOURS 14 15 Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction 32.01 21.29 4.21 2.80 30.54 20.54 5.66 3.08 30.70 20.94 5.04 3.59 2.32 0.68 NS NS 23.14 18.76 20.32 18.31 21.93 18.32 2.59 3.46 3.03 3.35 3.61 3.31 21.81 16.83 19.72 16.37 21.27 16.24 3.09 2.97 3.19 3.33 3.72 3.25 21.90 17.88 20.54 17.96 21.23 17.74 3.22 3.75 3.31 3.80 3.44 3.78 5.34 4.00 1.24 3.87 1.18 4.32 ** *** NS * NS ** 12.50 14.60 1093 11.87 3.16 4.43 3.41 2.60 12.62 14.13 11.61 14.22 3.89 4.98 3.89 5.29 13.38 12.45 11.10 11.97 4.36 4.84 4.34 3.60 0.39 6.67 0.14 6.68 NS *** NS *** SD Between 10 - 20 Years Mean SD More than 25 Years Mean SD ANOVA F' ratio Sig.

11 12 13

33.76 31.34 27.60

4.75 4.77 3.65

32.13 28.81 26.67

4.28 4.18 3.07

32.68 29.84 27.38

4.82 4.24 3.55

2.11 5.36 1.95

NS ** NS

Significance Level:

* = P<0.05

** = P<0.01

*** = P<0.00 I

TABLE 5.18 COMPARISON OF MEAN SCORES OF WORK CULTURE DIMENSIONS: VARIATIONS IN AGE OF ORGANIZATIONS
Sl. No. Reward Orientation Locus of Control People oriented value Chance t' Value 2.96 Self oriented values Chance t' Value 3.25 Work oriented values Importance t' Value 2.37 Work oriented values Chance t' Value 3.14

Groups

Task Focus

t' Value 1 Below 10 years Vs Between 10-20 years Below 10 years Vs. more than 25 years Between 10-20 years Vs. more than 25 years 0.49

Sig.

t' Value 2.58

Sig.

t' Value 2.96

Sig.

Sig.

Sig.

Sig.

Sig.

NS

**

***

**

***

**

3.59

***

0.27

NS

1.71

NS

0.77

NS

1.25

NS

3.35

***

1.88

NS

1.88

NS

1.47

**

2.33

2.57

**

2.58

**

0.18

NS

1.86

NS

Significance Level:

* = P<0.05

** = P<0.01

*** = P<0.00I

5.3.1.1. Reward Orientation From results of 't' test given in table 5.18, significant difference in mean scores of reward orientation was observed between staff working in new educational organizations and those working in old educational organizations (P<0.00I). From Table 5.17, it was observed that the subjects working in new educational organizations share significantly higher intrinsic reward orientation ( educational organizations ( =14.60) compared to staff working in old = 12.45). The higher intrinsic reward orientation, i.e. their orientation

towards recognition, creative work, etc. appears to be due to new and innovative courses run by these colleges. It also may be due to highly qualified and young staff members who aspire for recognition, creative work climate, etc. Perhaps another factor may that many of these new educational organizations are run and managed by forward looking, highly educated and young entrepreneurs compared to the old educational organizations where management will be bureaucratic in nature. 5.3.1.2 Locus of Control

From results of the 't' test given in table 5.18 significant difference in mean scores of locus of control was observed between staff of (I) new educational organizations and middle aged organizations (P<0.0 I) and between staff of (2) old educational organizations and middle aged educational organizations (P < 0.0 I). From Table 5.17, it was observed that externality is higher among the staff working in new educational organizations ( = 11.87) and old educational organizations ( = 14.22). = 11.97) as compared to the middle aged organizations (

5.3.1.3

Work Oriented Values - Importance

From results of 't' test given in table 5.18, significant difference in mean scores of work oriented values - importance was observed between staff working in new educational organizations and middle aged educational organizations (P< 0.00 I). From Table 5.17, it was observed that the staff working in new educational organizations give significantly higher importance to the work oriented values ( working in middle aged educational organizations ( = 23.14) as compared to the staff = 21.81). Thus, the staff working in new

educational organizations give higher importance to the needs such as utilizing all their knowledge and skills, doing the quality work, etc. as compared to staff working in middle aged and old educational organizations. 5.3.1.4 Work Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction

From results of 't' test given in table 5.18, significant difference in mean scores of work oriented values - perceived chance for satisfaction was observed between staff working in new educational organizations and middle aged educational organizations (P <0.00 I). From table 5.17, it was observed that the staff working in new educational organizations perceive higher chance to satisfy work oriented values ( middle aged educational organizations ( = 18.76) than their counterparts working in = 16.83). Thus, the staff working in new educational

organizations perceive higher chance for satisfying work oriented needs such as utilizing all their knowledge and skills, doing the quality work compared to staff working in middle aged and old educational organisations. 5.3.1.5 People Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction

From results of 't' test given in table 5.18, significant difference in mean scores of people oriented values perceived chance for satisfaction was observed between staff working in (I) new educational organizations and middle aged educational organizations (P<0.00I) and between staff working in (2) middle aged educational organizations and of old educational organizations(P<0.0 I). From Table 5.17, it was observed that the staff working in new educational organizations perceive higher chance for satisfying people oriented values ( educational organizations ( = 18.31) compared to the staff working in old = 17.96). = 16.37) and middle aged educational organizations (

Thus, the staff working new educational organizations perceive higher chance for satisfying their needs such as having good peer relationships than staff working in middle aged and old educational organizations.

5.3.1.6 Self Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction From results of 't' test given in table 5.18, significant difference in mean scores of self oriented values - chance was observed between staff working in (I) new educational organizations and middle aged educational organizations (P<0.00 I) and between staff working in (2) middle aged educational organizations and old educational organizations (P<0.0 I). From Table 5.17, it was observed that the staff working in new educational organizations perceive higher chance for satisfying self oriented values ( and middle aged educational organizations ( = 18.32) than the staff working in old (X = 16.24) = 17.74). Thus, the staff working in new educational

organizations perceive higher chance for satisfying their needs such as developing themselves personally, getting recognition at work than their counterparts working in middle aged educational organizations. 5.3.1.6 Task Focus

From results of 't' test given in table 5.18 significant difference in mean scores of task focus was observed between staff working in (I) new educational organizations and middle aged educational organizations (P<0.00 I) and between staff working in (2) middle aged educational organizations and old educational organizations (P<0.05). From Table 5.17, it was observed that task focus of staff working in new educational organizations is higher (8 = 31.34) as compared to the staff working in middle aged educational organizations ( = 28.81). 5.3.1.7 Summary on Variation in Age of Organizations

Further to the above analysis on pattern of work culture based on variations in the age of the educational organizations. the following observations are made. 1 The work culture in new educational organizations emerges as significantly different from that of the middle aged and old educational organizations. The staff working in new educational organizations appear to share a intrinsic reward orientation, higher importance to work oriented values, higher apperceived satisfaction from the work oriented values, people oriented values,. and self oriented values, and higher task focus compared to the staff working in middle aged and old educational organizations. 2. One significant deviation, from the above mentioned findings appear to be emerging in new educational organizations, where the staff working in these organizations share a higher externality as compared to the staff working in middle aged and old educational organizations.

5.3.2

Variation in Organizations Based on Management Type

Based on type of management, educational organizations were divided into three categories, namely ( I) entrepreneurial educational organizations; (2) government / quasi government educational organizations; (3) minority educational organizations and (4) trust educational organizations. ANOVA was employed to observe the significant variation in various dimensions of work culture. Distribution of mean scores, standard deviations, 'f'-ratio and its level of significance are given in table 5.19. Significant variation was observed in reward orientation (P<0.0 I), locus of control (P<0.0 I), work oriented value importance (P<0.05); task focus (P<0.0 I), and work commitment (P<0.05).

TABLE 5.19 WORK CULTURE IN EDUAIONAL ORGANIZATION VARIATIONS IN TYPE OF MANAGEMENT


Sl. No. Dimensions Entrepreneur Educational Organization Mean ASSUMPTIONS 1 2 3 4 Time Orientation Reward Orientation System Salience Locus of Control VALUES Work Oriented Values Importance Work Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction People Oriented Values Importance People Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction Self Oriented Values Importance Self Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction ORIENTATIONS Task Clarity Task Focus Self-role Integration BEHAVIOURS 14 15 Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction 32.16 21.45 4.27 2.84 30.50 20.94 5.28 4.02 29.84 21.43 7.03 3.54 31.15 20.49 3.72 3.28 2.63 1.47 * NS 12.30 14.77 10.81 11.85 3.21 4.40 3.35 2.72 13.40 13.02 11.35 11.95 5.24 5.14 3.73 3.70 12.87 11.51 11.85 13.96 4.11 4.43 3.56 4.89 13.41 13.11 1086 11.91 3.41 4.84 3.34 3.48 1.41 4.86 1.17 4.21 NS NS NS ** SD Govt/Quais Govt. Educational Organization Mean SD Minority Educational Organization Mean SD Trust Educational Organization Mean SD ANOVA t' Stat

Sig.

5 6 7 8 9 10

23.13 18.78 20.12 18.45 21.92 18.50

2.70 3.49 3.07 3.35 3.63 3.22

21.94 17.72 20.80 18.04 21.17 17.72

3.43 3.93 3.43 3.96 3.51 3.83

22.08 17.95 19.95 17.65 21.36 17.65

2.84 3.15 2.90 3.58 3.41 3.70

21.87 17.64 20.29 17.40 21.29 17.17

3.10 3.64 3.33 3.66 3.53 3.70

3.06 1.75 0.85 1.33 0.70 2.02

* NS NS NS NS NS

11 12 13

33.86 31.48 27.36

4.83 4.92 3.49

32.54 19.61 27.28

4.79 4.21 4.09

33.13 30.54 27.10

4.06 4.56 3.10

32.38 29.32 27.38

4.90 3.98 3.36

1.66 4.17 0.07

NS ** NS

Significance Level: P<0.001

* = P < 0.05

** = P<0.01

*** =

Further 't' test was employed to examine significant difference in mean scores of the above mentioned dimensions, The results of ' t' test are provided in Table 5.20 TABLE 5.20 COMPARISON OF MEAN SCORES OF WORK CULTURE DIMENSIONS VARIATIONS IN TYPES OF MANAGEMENTS
Sl. No. Groups Reward Orientation t' Value 1 2 3 4 5 6 Entrepreneurial Vs. Govt / Quasi Govt. Entrepreneurial Vs. Minority Entrepreneurial Vs. Trust Govt / Quasi Govt. Vs. Minority Govt / Quasi Govt. Vs. Trusts Minority Vs. Trusts 2.25 3.28 2.42 1.70 0.11 1.97 Sig. * *** ** NS NS * Locus of Control t' Value 0.18 2.69 0.12 2.38 0.08 2.57 Sig. NS ** NS ** NS ** Task Focus t' Value 2.53 1.08 3.20 1.11 0.47 1.57 Sig. ** NS ** NS NS NS Work Commitment t' Value 2.12 2.03 1.67 0.55 0.90 1.19 Sig. * * NS NS NS NS Work oriented Values - Importance t' Value 2.37 2.03 2.94 0.24 0.14 0.41 Sig. ** * ** NS NS NS

Significance Level: 5.3.2.1

* = P<0.05

** = P<0.01

*** = P<0.00 I

Reward orientation

From results of 't' test given in table 5.20, significant difference in mean scores of reward orientation was observed between staff working in (I) entrepreneurial educational organizations and government I quasi government educational organizations (P<0.05); (2) entrepreneurial educational organizations and minority educational organizations (P<0.00 I); (3) entrepreneurial educational organizations and trust educational organizations (P<0.0); and (4) minority educational organizations and trust educational organizations (P<0.05). From Table 5.19, it was observed that the staff working in entrepreneurial educational organizations share a higher intrinsic reward orientation ( reward orientation is moderate ( = 14.77) compared to the lowest intrinsic reward orientation ( = 11.51) among staff working in minority educational organizations. The intrinsic = 13.02 and 13.11) among staff working in government. I quasi government educational organizations and trust educational organizations. Thus, the staff working in entrepreneurial educational organizations is more oriented towards intrinsic rewards such as freedom at work, recognition than their counterparts working in educational organizations having other types of managements. This finding confirms the point the staff working in new educational organizations are more intrinsically reward oriented than the staff working in middle aged and old educational organizations as almost all the new educational organizations happen to be entrepreneurial educational organizations. 5.3.2.2 Work Oriented Values - Importance

From results of 't' test given in table 5.20, significant difference in mean scores of reward orientation was observed between staff working in (I) entrepreneurial educational organizations and

government. I quasi government. educational organizations (P<0.0I); entrepreneurial educational organizations and minority educational organizations (P< 0.05); and (3) entrepreneurial educational organizations and trust educational organizations (P < 0.0 I). From the Table 5.19, it was observed that the staff working in entrepreneurial educational organizations give higher importance to work oriented values counterparts working in trust educational organizations ( educational organizations ( organizations ( = 23.13) compared to their =21.87). Staff working in minority

= 22.08) and also in government. I quasi government. educational

= 21.94) have given a moderate importance to the work oriented values such as

utilizing knowledge and skills at work place ete. These results confirm the earlier findings that the staff working in new educational organizations give more importance to the work oriented values than their counterparts working in other categories of educational organizations. It is to be noted here that these results are also in line with the variation in work oriented values based on subjects age. According to these variations, it was found that the staff aged below 30 years give higher importance to the work oriented values than staff aged above 30. It is to be noted here that almost all the staff working in entrepreneurial educational organizations or new educational organizations happen to fall in the age group of below 30. 5.3.2.3 Work Commitment From results of 't' test given in table 5.20, significant difference in mean scores of work commitment was observed between staff working in (I) entrepreneurial educational organizations and government / quasi government educational organizations (P<0.05); and entrepreneurial educational organizations and minority educational organizations (P<0.05). From Table 5.19 it was observed that the staff working in entrepreneurial educational organizations have a higher work commitment ( - 32.16) compared to a lower work commitment ( = 29.84) among staff working in minority educational organizations. It was further noted that the staff working in trust educational organizations and government and quasi government educational organizations share a moderate work commitment ( 5.3.2.4 = 31.15 and 30.50).

Summary on Variations in Management Type

The variations in the management type of the organizations have the following major impact on the pattern of work culture. The staff working in entrepreneurial educational organizations exhibit a higher intrinsic reward

orientation, task focus, importance to work oriented values, and also work commitment compared to the staff working in government / quasi government, trust, and minority educational organizations. 5.3.3 Organizational Variations Based on Student Type (Based on Sex)

Based on variations in sex of students studying, educational organizations were divided into three categories, namely (I) boy's educational organizations; (2) co-educational organizations; and (3) girls educational organizations. ANOVA was employed to observe the significant differences among staff working in these three categories of organizations. Distribution of mean scores, standard deviations, 'F'-ratio and its level of significance are given in table S.21. Significant variation was observed in reward orientation (P<0.001), locus of control (P<0.0S), people oriented values - chance (P<0.0S); task focus (P<0.0S), and self-role integration (P<0.0S). TABLE 5.21 WORK CULTURE IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: VARIATIONS IN TYPES OF STUDENTS (SEX DIFFERENCES)
Sl. No. Dimensions Co-Education Mean ASSUMPTIONS 1 2 3 4 Time Orientation Reward Orientation System Salience Locus of Control VALUES Work Oriented Values Importance Work Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction People Oriented Values Importance People Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction Self Oriented Values - Importance Self Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction ORIENTATIONS Task Clarity Task Focus Self-role Integration BEHAVIOURS 14 15 Work Commitment Performance Satisfaction 31.60 20.91 4.71 3.68 30.91 21.21 5.30 2.93 30.32 21.02 4.98 3.22 2.12 0.14 NS NS 13.04 1415 11.12 12.15 4.22 5.13 3.62 3.11 12.7.3 13.19 11.14 13.43 4.01 4.11 2.65 4.82 13.15 12.01 11.09 11.77 3.66 4.41 3.61 3.77 0.17 6.19 0.00 3.34 NS *** NS * SD Boy's Mean SD Girl's Mean SD ANOVA t' Stat Sig.

5 6 7 8 9 10

22.53 18.27 20.66 18.14 21.79 17.94

3.26 3.95 3.40 3.71 3.58 3.56

21.97 17.32 20.13 16.67 21.13 16.73

3.02 3.31 3.31 3.73 3.60 4.02

21.96 17.92 19.88 18.00 21.05 17.82

2.80 3.19 2.85 3.45 3.40 3.51

1.30 1.27 1.92 3.01 1.54 2.05

NS NS NS * NS NS

11 12 13

33.35 30.44 27.62

4.25 4.25 3.83

31.71 28.60 26.21

4.79 4.45 3.08

32.84 30.41 27.34

4.67 4.67 3.18

2.12 3.29 2.83

NS * *

Significance Level:

* = P<0.05

** = P<0.0I

*** = P<0.00 I

Further 't' test was conducted to find out significant difference in mean scores of the five dimensions mentioned above among staff with respect to sex of students studying in educational organizations. Results of ' t' test are given in table 5.22 TABLE 5.22 COMPARISON OF MEAN SCORES OF WORK CULTURE DIMENSIONS VARIATIONS IN TYPES OF STUDENTS (SEX DIFFERENCES)

Sl. No.

Groups

Reward Orientation t' Value Sig. NS *** NS

Locus of Control t' Value 1.70 0.83 2.06 Sig. NS NS *

Task Focus t' Value 2.47 0.05 2.24 Sig. ** NS **

Self Role Integration t' Value 2.56 0.64 2.04 Sig. ** NS *

People oriented values Chance t' Value 2.36 0.33 2.05 Sig. * NS *

1 2 3

Co-educational Vs Boy's Co-educational Vs Girl's Boy's Vs. Girl's

1.30 3.55 1.57

Significance Level:

* = P<0.05

** = P<0.01

*** = P<0.00 I

5.3.3.1 Reward Orientation From results of 't' test given in table 5.22, significant difference in mean scores of reward orientation was observed between staff working in co-educational organizations and girls educational organizations (P<0.00 I). From Table 5.21, it was observed that staff working in co-educational organizations share a higher intrinsic reward orientation ( = 14.15) than staff working in girls

educational organizations ( = 12.0 I). Thus, the staff working in co-educational organizations prefer for freedom at work, recognition to higher salary, promotions, etc. when compared to staff working in co-educational organizations. 5.3.3.2 Locus of Control From results of 't' test given in table 5.22, significant difference in mean scores of reward orientation was observed between staff working in boy's educational organizations and girls educational organizations (P<0.05). From Table 5.21, it was observed that the staff working in boy's educational organizations are more internals ( educational organizations ( = 13.43) when compared to the staff working in boy's

= 11.77). Thus, it may be said that the staff working in boy's educational

organizations consider themselves to be responsible for their success and failures compared to the staff working in boy's and girls educational organizations.

5.3.3.3

People Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction

From results of 't' test given in table 5.22, significant difference in mean scores of people oriented values - perceived chance for satisfaction was observed between staff working in (I) co-educational organizations and boy's educational organizations (P<0.05); and (2) boy's educational organizations and girls educational organizations (P<0.05). From table 5.21, it was observed the staff working in co-educational organizations and those working in girls educational organizations perceive higher chance for fulfilling their people oriented values ( = 18.14; 18.00) when compared to staff working in boy's educational organizations ( = 18.00).

Thus, it may understood that the staff working in both co-educational and girls educational organizations perceive higher chance for satisfying needs such as having good collegial relationships than the staff working in boy's educational organizations. 5.3.3.4 Task Focus From results of 't' test given in table 5.22, significant difference in mean scores of task focus was observed between staff working in (I) co-educational organizations and boy's educational organizations (P< 0.0 I); and (2) boy's educational organizations and girls educational organizations (P<0.0 I). From Table 5.21, it was observed that the staff working in co-educational organizations and girls educational organizations have a higher task focus ( educational organizations ( = 28.60). = 30.44; 30.41) than staff working in boy's

5.3.3.4

Self-role Integration

From results of 't' test given in table 5.22, significant difference in mean scores of self-role integration was observed between staff working in (I) co-educational organizations and boy's educational organizations (P<0.0 I); and (2) boy's educational organizations and girls educational organizations (P<0.05). From table 5.21, it was observed that staff working in co-educational organizations and girls educational organizations share higher integration of self with role ( to the staff working in boy's educational organizations ( = 26.21). = 27.62; 27.34) as compared

5.3.3.5

Summary on Variations in Organizations Based on Student Sex

On the basis of the above analysis on various dimensions of work culture based on variations in

educational organizations based on students sex, it was found that the work culture in co-educational organizations is emerging as significantly different as compared to the boy's and girls educational organizations. The staff working in co-educational organizations found to be having higher intrinsic reward orientation, internal locus of control, perceived chance for satisfying their people oriented values, task focus, and also their self role integration than staff working in other two categories of educational organizations.

5.3.2

Overall Summary on Variations in Organization Related Factors: Work Culture in Educational Organizations

Compared to the demographic factors organization related factors seem to have significant influence on the pattern of work culture in educational organizations 1. A pattern seem to be emerging where the new educational organizations, which are also entrepreneurial educational organizations have similar variations in some of the dominions of work culture like reward orientation, work oriented values - importance, thus further confirming the findings. 2. Co-educational organizations seem to be significantly different from that of the girls and boy's educational organizations, as a distinct pattern of work culture is emerging in these organizations. 5.4 MAJOR FINDINGS & INTERPRETATION

5.4.1 Past Orientation, Externality, Extrinsic Reward Orientation On the whole, barring occasional variations in relation to demographic or organizational characteristics, the picture emerging is that past orientation, extrinsic reward orientation external locus of control and individual salience are the conspicuous features of work culture of the teachers working in educational organizations. A look at the above indicates clearly that work culture is vary characteristic of a traditional and under developed society. Past orientation has always has been identified as typical characteristic of underdeveloped (non- industrial) societies along with external locus of control. Arguing for a strong association between external locus of control and past orientation in Indian society. Kanungo (1994) laments that' emphasis on past and a lack of futuristic orientation leads to lack of planning while trying to achieve task goals. Thus jobs are handled as they come up, and problems are seldom anticipated ahead of time for making adequate preparation to solve them'. This according to Kanungo leads to a passivity and helplessness and thus leading to externality in the individuals.

However, the one surprising factor is that the sample studied here includes college lecturers, who represent the cream of the society and has been exposed to a system of education very much patterned after western system of education. Further, as already mentioned the demographic and organizational variables do not appear to lead to significant variations. However, there appears to be one significant deviation in that individual salience rather than system salience emerges as a characteristic. One may attempt an explanation of this phenomenon. The most obvious explanation may be that education seems to have a very little influence on the cultural characteristics. This view of higher education has been expressed quite often and it has been stated that the present system of education while adding to knowledge and skill of the individual, still remains an isolated influence and has no impact on the views of the individuals. 5.4.2 Low Level of Self-role Integration

In our country, education is the only sector, where the targets to be achieved in plan period (both one year as well as five year) are not clear. Vagues expressions are used to represent the achievable targets in a stipulated time period. This lack of clarity at a national level sance a perspective of man power planning both at macro and micro levels is percolating down the layers and the educational organizations at all levels (primary, secondary. and higher education). Lack of a role perspective at the level of educational organizations seem to be influencing the individuals operating in these systems hence a lack of role clarity. This seem to be the cause for a low level of self-role integration among the staff. It may be said that "scratch the so-called educated Indian. you will still find that he is still traditional". Perhaps the existing system of education is looked at essentially as a means to achieve economic independence. The result is that the so called educated Indian is no different from his uneducated counterpart in the society. 5.4.3 Seemingly an Aberration

The emergence of individual salience rather than system salience may be explained as follows: However. there is one significant feature in that the individual salience emerges as a characteristic rather than system salience in many cases. This goes against the familiar picture of a traditional culture, which holds that collectivism rather than individualism as the characteristics feature of such cultures. Here, one may state that the term 'system' is different in connotation from the term 'collectivism'. One possible explanation for this feature may be that given the manner in which educational institutions function in our country justify this. The management in most educational institutions is bureaucratic or autocratic or contingent. where important decisions are taken by a few people. A few individuals matter and others do not matter. The working of the college depends on what a few

individuals find convenient to be. The general experience is one or few individuals taking all the decisions. Perhaps. this experience is reflected in the higher 'individual salience' as compared to 'system salience'. In a sense it appears that the respondents are equating the term 'system' with that' establishment' If this is so, then the other findings of the present study fit into that of the findings of system salience. One has to look into the proceedings of the decision making bodies at all levels including that of universities, here the participants may be more than 200, but the individuals influencing the decisions are not more than 10. The vice-chancellor who presides over the meeting issues commandments to be followed. When one comes to the level of the college, it is the management committee consisting of not more than 6 to 8 people take all the decisions (whether academically sound or not; whether logical or not; whether justifiable or not). It appears to hazard the explanation the higher degree of 'individual salience' is implication of this setup rather than a genuine individualistic orientation. Another significant pattern observed in the results of this study is that in case of all dimensions where the respondents are expected to express their satisfaction or outcomes from the work, the mean scores are towards lower side. The chance available to satisfy all the three values (work oriented values, people oriented values and self oriented values), self role integration and performance satisfaction. In case of those work culture dimensions like the importance given to the three values (work oriented values, people oriented values, and self oriented values), task clarity. task focus, and work commitment, where the respondents are expected to respond about they have and do towards work the mean scores are towards higher side.

Chapter 6 Conclusion

Overall Picture of the present study along with a brief on scope for future research is given.

Suggestions for improvement of work culture in educational organizations are given based on the findings of the study and trying to have a gestalt view of the work culture. A brief on scope for further research in this are is given. The limitations in the present are also mentioned.

CHAPTER 6

Summary and Conclusions

6.1

BRIEF BACKGROUND OF THE PRESENT STUDY

Work culture especially a synergetic work culture is strongly needed for a country like India, which has abundance of human resources and requires developing itself towards the needs and demands of the 21st century. Facilitating right kind of work culture could be done only if we can understand the explicit and implicit, manifested or tacit dimensions of the existing work culture and its pathologies. The present study is undertaken as an initial step towards this and is done to understand the variation in the pattern of work culture associated with different characteristics of individuals and also organizations. The present study is focusing on the of the critical sectors which is responsible for guiding and harnessing the human potential, i.e. the education sector, which according to many a scholars is plagued with a soft or even a non-work culture.

6.2

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT STUDY

Specific objective of this study was to attempt an understanding the nature of work culture obtaining in a select group of educational organization and see whether there is a common and dominant web of work culture characteristic of educational organizations as such, as in the case of manufacturing organizations. which this study was taken up. The following are the specific objectives with

1.

Is there a common work culture characteristic of educational organizations if so, what are its distinct features?

2.

How do factors like type of management, age of the organization, the categories of students (based on sex) influences the work culture in these organizations?

3.

How individual and demographic factors such as age, experience, monthly salary, monthly family income lead to variation in work culture.

6.3

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF WORK CULTURE

According to the operational definition adopted for the present study, work culture is a a pattern of shared assumptions, values, orientations and behaviours related to work among people working in the same organization or a cross section of organizations.

6.4

THE SAMPLE

6.4.1 Educational Organizations All the educational organizations selected for the study (satisfying the above-mentioned criterion) are located within the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad and also A list of educational organizations operating at graduate level

surrounding suburgs.

involved in general education, professional education (medicine), and technical education (engineering) was collected and keeping in view the scope of the study, educational organizations are selected on basis of representative sampling and satisfying the three organization related factors (age of organizations, management type of educational organizations, and student type based on sex). For the purpose of possibility and plausibility, fifteen educational organizations were selected which would cover at least two dimensions of the sample. For example, an educational organization shall not only represent organization based on the gender of the students, but also represent an old aged organization.

The sample consisted of three new educational organizations, three middle aged educational organizations, and nine old educational organizations (organizational age); thee

entrepreneurial educational organizations, four government / quasi government educational organizations, five trust educational organizations, and minority educational organizations (type of management); three boys educational organizations, three girls educational, and nine coeducational organizations (type of student in terms of sex).

6.4.2 Individual Sample All the teaching staff working in all the above mentioned educational organizations were given the questionnaires. Of the total teaching staff of these educational organizations, three hundred and two (302) were returned and were taken as the final sample size.

6.4

METHOD ADOPTED

The present study to a large extent is based on primary data collected with the help of a detailed questionnaire having items measuring all the four major dimensions (assumptions, values, orientations, and behaviors) and their sub dimensions. Time orientation, reward orientation, system salience, and locus of control for assumptions, work oriented values, people oriented values, and self oriented values (importance and perceived change for satisfaction), task clarity, task focus and self-role integration for orientations, and work commitment and performance satisfaction for behaviours were selected.

6.4.1 Development of Work Culture Questionnaire (WCQ) A thorough review of the existing instruments was done to suit to the above-mentioned operational definition of work culture and to be adopted for the purposes of the present study. The review of literature helped to locate two existing questionnaires to measure work culture (Sinha, 90; Sandhu & Dass, 96). As the dimensions to be measured under the present study are to a large extent different from the ones mentioned in the above-mentioned questionnaires, effort was made to develop a suitable Work Culture Questionnaire (WCQ) for the purposes of the present study.

Face validity, reliability, and retest reliability were established in a three stage process. Face validity was established in a two-stage process with experts (behavioural scientists and subjects). Test-retest reliability was established with a sample of 18 subjects and subjects were asked to repond to the questionnaire twice with a gap of three weeks. Reliability was established using Cronbach Alpha. The Cronbach Alpha for the fifteen sub-dimensions of work culture range between 0.64 to 0.82.

6.5

STATISTICAL TOOLS

ANOVA for tests of variance and t test to assess the significant differences were employed, Pearson product moment correlations were applied for assessing the relationship among the various dimensions of work culture.

6.6

OVERALL SUMMARY ON WORK CULTURE IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZTIONS

It was observed that staff working in educational organization share past time orientation, extrinsic reward orientation, and external locus of control. These results coincide with the findings of past research (Traindis, 1983; Kanungo, 1990; Kanungo, Mishra and others, 1996) on these dimension. The significant variation from the earlier research seems to be that of individual salience. According to the findings of this study, the staff working in educational organization share an individual salience. An attempt is made to interpret this seemingly abberated findings of the present study by analyzing the scenario that exists in our educational organizations. In a tradition setup, one would normally expect past time orientation, external locus of control, and extrinsic reward orientation as dominant features. Given the pattern one

would expect a tendency towards system salience rather than individual salience. However, present findings show that in the present sample, this is not the case and the individual salience is high.

Here, one may state that the term system is different in connotation from the term collectivism. One possible explanation for this feature may be that given the manner in which educational institutions function in our country justify this. The management in most educational institutions in bureaucratic or autocratic or contingent, where important decisions are taken by a few people. A few individuals matter and others do not matter. The working of the college depends on what a few individuals find convenient to be. The general experience is one or few individuals taking all the decisions. Perhaps, this

experience is reflected in the higher individual salience as compared to system salience. In a sense it appears that the respondents are equating the term system with that establishment if this is so, then the other findings of the present study fit into that the findings of system salience.

6.6.1 Variations in Demographic Factors: Work Culture in Educational Organizations It appears that among all the demographic variable under study, age of the subjects emerges as the significant variable. Significant variations were observed in time orientation, locus of control, system salience, work oriented values important, self oriented values importance in terms of variations in age of staff. Except in case of time orientation, in case of all the above dimension, the younger staff members (less than 30 years) were fond to be more internals, individual salient, and giving more importance to the work oriented and self oriented values than the senior staff members (more than 30). The findings in case of time orientation, with variations in age appear to be little surprising where with the increase the age the future time orientation (towards future) appears to be increasing. This was interpreted as not a futuristic orientation increasing with age, but a concern and apprehensions about future.

6.6.2 Variations in Organization Related Factors: Work Culture in Educational Organizations A distinct pattern of work culture seems to be emerging in new educational organizations (incidental all these are also entrepreneurial educational organizations). These new /

entrepreneurial educational organizations have a distinct variation in reward orientation, and work oriented values importance compared to the other categories of educational organizations. The staff working in new/entrepreneurial educational organizations are more intrinsically reward oriented and give more importance to work oriented values such as utilizing knowledge and skills at work, than those working in other educational organizations.

These features of the new / entrepreneurial educational organizations seem to be due to the new and creative courses being offered which facilitate a creative and positive work climate and the young and entrepreneurial leadership available with these educational organizations compared to the other educational organizations. The young and highly qualified staff working in these new / entrepreneurial educational organizations also seem to be facilitating a positive work culture.

6.7

IMPLICAITONS

Higher education is perhaps one of the weakest links in our social and development systems. A number of Committees and commissions have been appointed to tone up the quality, making the system dynamic, making it functional, etc. to mention some of the jargon found in the reports of different commissions. University Grants Commission in its own wisdom or lack of it initiated a number of reforms, very often have to lead to deformation rather than reformation. Revised pay scales, merit promotions, career advancements,

autonomous colleges are some of the pearls of the University Grants Commissions wisdom and their pearls have turned out to be plastic ones. Every one of the brain waves of the University Grant Commission seems to have failed in spite of very lengthy reports by the so-called eminent educationists including vice-chancellors. The question now arises as to where does the fault lie. Attempts at peace meal reforms not only failed, but miserably failed. Incentive schemes appear to have reinforce only incompetence, inefficiency, and indifference. Perhaps the answer is not far too seek. It is in this belief that the present study on work culture was undertaken.

In the opinion of the investigator any amount or types of reforms are bound to fail the questions of creating a proper work culture is addressed to. Our findings clearly show that work culture in our institutions of higher education is any thing but satisfactory and conducive to effective learning. If the proper work culture is created, then perhaps damned reforms and dammed changes may not be necessary. It has emerged from the study that three dominant elements of work culture in educational organizations are, past orientation, external locus of control, and extrinsic reward orientation. A pattern which has been found to be typically and consistently in conducive for effective performance in a variety of organizations (manufacturing, service, etc.). This pattern work culture is all the more

damaging and deleterious, in a work setup where the production is human products, the resource is human resource, and the strategy is human effort. In view of this, it is

necessary to take the necessary steps to create, nurture, and sustain a positive work culture which is future oriented (growth oriented, one own professional growth, the growth of ones product), intrinsic reward oriented (not the salary, increments, and promotions), a culture where one while being assured of satisfaction of minimum requirements, looks for intrinsic satisfaction like a sense of meaning and purpose in ones work, a sense of

achievement probably vicarious through the achievement of one own wards, and a sense of fulfillment, a continuously increasing fulfillment. The existing work culture is the anti-thesis of this. Mere committee reports, Prime Ministers addressees, and Chief Ministers The work culture should be created, nourished and

exhortations cannot achieve this.

sustained by forces within the organization like by effective leadership, effective work climate, and a system of values.

It is here that the implication or the significance of the present study comes in. It is not claimed that the present study is error free, nor is it claimed that this pattern of work culture is true of all educational organizations in India. But this is a signal and if one may call it in the language of stress management an alarm signal. It is necessary to create a proper work culture. One may ask the question as to what type of work culture should be created. Perhaps no specific and categorical answer can be given to this except saying that the present work culture in our colleges should be effaced if necessary even by closing down some of the sick colleges.

The existing past orientation can be encashed by changing it from an individualistic past orientation to an organizational and national past orientation by creating a sense of pride in our traditions and values, which have been existing from time immemorial, creating a climate of outstanding performance which everybody would like to look back as a proud past. It is here that organizational engineering, cultural engineering, and value engineering all these come in to operation. Unfortunately, so far there has been only corruption

engineering, incompetence rewarding.

The present study if nothing else, given an idea of sick culture, a sickly culture prevailing our colleges and utter callousness and indifference of agencies in-charge of management of higher education, including University Grants Commission (UGC), All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), and Association of Indian Universities, the bureaucracy dealing with education, and those at the organizational level including, the Vice Chancellors, Principals, and others. Well, if some body has to raise the question as to whether effective work culture engineering can be initiated on the basis of the findings of the present study, the answer is a

categorical NO. The present study has opened up a channel for further research and inquiry. Some of the directions of such research are:

6.8 1.

SCOPE FOR FUTURE RESEARCH A replication of the present investigation in different regions of the country and at other levels of higher education.

2.

A more systematic study of investigate the relationship between work culture and integrated performance of educational organizations. The term integrated performance is used very emphatically to indicate that performance does not merely mean success at examinations or the number of alumni in high positions, or the worst of all the ability to get government grants. It is very unfortunate in our bureaucratic system, too much of emphasis is based on the ability to raise resources rather than utilization or resources. It is often found that rants are offered if an institution is able to raise 50% of the resources. It is very obvious that even if organizations have a sound work culture and perform well may not be in a position to raise resources. A policy which rewards ability to raise resources is certainly going to destroy these good educational organizations (with good work culture). One therefore sees a need to change the support systems for educational organizations taking into account the work culture and performance of the organizations. One should also make haste to say that

assessment of the performance and the work culture should be made totally in a different way from the one adopted by custodians of higher education like University Grants Commission (UGC). A system of evaluation which is not

bureaucratic and does not rely simply on information provided in a printed proforma should be devised.

3.

Another major direction of research is to initiate action research in select education organizations and make them research laboratories and demonstration centers. The demonstration strategy has been very successful in our country in the field of agriculture. A similar approach should be adopted. Such research should be designed only after a clear understanding and specifications of the most desirable work culture elements. Of course, one has heard the term model

institutions particularly in school education. Here, the concept of model is one of compliance to government norms, but we are talking here model in terms of good performance.

4.

This takes us to next point of answering what is a sound work culture. This has to be answered not merely on the basis of the so-called export opinions, but on the basis of an in-depth study of some of the high performing educational organizations. In spite of the miserable picture, there are islands of excellence in our world of higher education. A clear study of the work culture profiles of these organizations has to be undertaken.

6.7

LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT STUDY

Every research investigation suffers from limitations, conceptional limitations, strategic limitations, tactical limitations, and inferential limitations. The present study has mostly been based on a conceptual definition of work culture defined from Western studies and because of lack of indigenous studies. To some extent this might have affected the total validity of the findings. The survey technique based on questionnaires has its own limitations related to sampling limitations, limitations of the instrumentation, so on so forth. As indicated in the study, the instrument was developed specifically for the study and no claim can be made that it is error free and that it is perfect. The analysis of the data in many instances in simple and has not gone into depths, as it was not relevant for the purposes of present today. The researcher, however hopes that the present study would generate an interest and initiate some thinking on work culture in Indian colleges and institutions of higher learning. While, no claim is made that the study is perfect, at the same time from the sense of satisfaction, it has been possible to undertake and complete a doctoral research in an area relatively unexplored, but substantially very relevant and timely. Knowledge is not mere information A mere knowledge is not wisdom and Collective wisdom in synergetic

PARAMESWARANEG

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