EEB326 Electrical Machines I

Lectures Weeks 1-3

Magnetic Circuits

Magnetic fields

a) Unlike poles attract

b) Like poles repel

Terms and symbols

Magnetic flux (crossing a surface of area A m2) [Weber , abbreviated Wb] Magnetomotive force Fm = NI (Amperes ) where N is number of turns and I is current. Magnetic field strength or magnetising force
H NI l Where N is number of turns, I is current, l is length.

Example 1: An I electromagnet of square cross section produces a flux density of 0.45 T when the flux is 720 Wb. Determine the dimensions of the cross section.

l= mean length

d2 d

720* 10 B 0.45 0.04 m

m2

Example 2: A coil of 750 turns is uniformly wound on a circular magnetic circuit of mean diameter 30 cm. Find the current in the coil when the magnetising force is 8000 A/m.

Solution
Hl I N 8000* * 30 *10 750 10.0531 A

Magnetic Flux Density B=H [Tesla (T)] where is permeability of the material =r0 where r is relative permeability of the material, and 0 = 4 x 10-7 H/m is permeability of free space. flux densityin material r flux densityin vacuum Notes: 1T = 1 Wb/m2. B=/A Example 3: A magnetic pole face has a rectangular section of 300 mm by 150 mm. Calculate the flux density when the total flux from the pole is 300 Wb. Solution: B = (300*10-6 Wb)/(300*10-3*150*10-3 m2)=0.0066667 T =6.6667 mT

Example 4: An iron ring of mean diameter 10 cm is uniformly wound with 2000 turns of wire. When a current of 0.25A is passed through the coil a flux density of 0.4 T is set up in the iron. Find (a) the magnetising force and (b) the relative permeability of the iron under these conditions.

a.

l = d = 10 cm = 10 10-2 m, N = 2000 turns, I = 0.25A and B = 0.4 T

b. B = 0rH, hence

Reluctance
F =NI= Magneto Motive Force or MMF = # of turns * Current passing through it F = NI = Hl (why!) or

l
or

NI

or

NI

NI l /( A)

or

NI

l A

= Reluctance of magnetic path

Example 5: Find (a) The reluctance of a piece of mumetal of length 150 mm and cross-sectional area 1800 mm2 when the relative permeability is 4000. (b) The absolute permeability of the mumetal.

= 0r

= =

(4 10-7)(4000) 5.027 10-3 H/m

Example 6: A mild steel ring has a radius of 50 mm and a cross-sectional area of 400 mm2. A current of 0.5A flows in a coil wound uniformly around the ring and the flux produced is 0.1 mWb. If the relative permeability at this value of current is 200 find (a) the reluctance of the mild steel and (b) the number of turns on the coil.
l = 2r = 2 50 10-3 m, A = 400 10-6 m2, I = 0.5A, = 0.1 10-3 Wb and r = 200

from which m.m.f. = S i.e. NI = S Hence, number of turns

Composite series magnetic circuits

For a series magnetic circuit having n parts the total reluctance is the sum of the individual reluctances. This is similar to the series connection of resistances
Example 7: A closed magnetic circuit of cast steel contains a 6 cm long path of cross-sectional area 1 cm2 and a 2 cm path of cross-sectional area 0.5 cm2. A coil of 200 turns is wound around the 6 cm length of the circuit and a current of 0.4A flows. Determine the flux density in the 2 cm path, if the relative permeability of the cast steel is 750.

Total circuit reluctance S

= = =

S1 + S2 (6.366 + 4.244) 105 10.61 105/H

Flux density in the 2 cm path,

Electric and magnetic circuit similarities

Electric and magnetic quantities correspondences

Electric quantity Current I Current density J Conductivity Electromotive force = resistance x I Electric field intensity E Conductance = 1/resistance Resistance =l/A Magnetic quantity Magnetic flux Magnetic flux density B Permeability Magnetomotive force = reluctance x Magnetic field intensity H Permeance = 1/reluctance Reluctance =l/A

Magnetic circuit laws

Consider a magnetic circuit with an air gap. Note that the fringing at the air gap increases the effective cross sectional area.

F H c lc

Ni Bc
c

H c lc lc
c c

H g l g Where Ac lc
c Rc

H g lg

Bg
0

lc
0

Ag

lg

Rg

From Gauss' s law in magnetics B.da 0 T herefore

c g

and Whichis analogousto Kichholfsvoltagelaw

F
nr

R c Rg
ns

Rk
k 1

k l 1

Fl Wheren r and n s are numbersof reluctance s and sources respective ly

Magneticenergy densitystoredin air gap W0

2 Bg

Consider movingone of thesurfaces away a dist anceof d by a force P N. T headditionalmagneticenergystoredin t headditionalvolumeof air gap of Ag d is due to the work done. T headditionalenergy W P d W0 V
2 Bg

Ag d

T headditionalenergyis relatedto theincreasein t hevolumeof theair gap. T heforcerequired to increase theenergy P

2 Bg Ag

Tutorial: Lifting electromagnet design.

The yoke of a lifting electromagnet is made up of 20 laminations each 1.5 mm thick. Each lamination is cut from a 80 mm x 35 mm rectangular plate. A portion 40 mm x 15 mm is cut out of the plate so that each pole face is 20 mm wide. The coil of N turns is wound on the yoke. The supply to the coil will be 0.5 Amps DC. The electromagnet is to lift a mild steel block of mass 0.5 kg and dimensions of 100 mm length, 20 mm width and 30 mm depth. The air gap can have a maximum value of 1 mm. Determine the number of turns when the air gap is 0.1 mm. Use the BH curves provided.

Lifting electromagnet design

Liftingelectromag net design procedure 1 Determine dimensionsof liftingelectromag net. 2 Determinemass to be liftedand hence thedesired liftingforceFdesired . 3 Calculatedesired flux density Bdesired 2
0

Fdesired WhereAg is air gap area Ag

4 Calculatemagneticflux in circuit
circuit

Brequired *Ag

5 Calculateflux density B j in each element j Bj

circuit

Aj

WhereA j is cross sectionalarea of element j.

6 Find H j and

from material' s BH curves

7 Calculatereluctancefor each circuit element lj Rj j Aj 8 Calculatemagnetomot ive force Fm total circuit

j

Rj

9 From availablecurrentdeterminenumber of turns Fm total N I available

Consider a magnetic circuit with a T joint

ApplyingGauss law to theT joint

3 k k 1

Or in general
n k k 1

Wheren is thenumber of branchesat a junction DC circuit analysistechnique s, such as mesh and nodal analysis are applicablein magneticcircuit analysis

Magnetic circuit model of Permanent Magnet. Characteristics of permanent magnets are in the second quadrant.

Consider a permanentmagnet of cross sect ionalarea Am , lengt hl m and a linear B-H charact eri st ic. T hedemagnet iz at ioncurve has t heformula Bm Br Hm Hc
m

Hc

Hm

Hc
0

, t he permeabili t y of t hepermanentmagnetis nearly Bm m Rm

T hemagnet ic" volt agedrop"across t hemagnet H mlm Hm lm m Am H c lm H c lm H c lm Fm

Model of a Permanent Magnet of cross sectional area Am, length lm and a linear B-H characteristic . Note that Hm is in opposite direction to Bm.

For a nonlineardemagnetiz ationcurve, themagneticpermeabili ty is Bm m Hm Hc WhereH m is negativebeing in theoppositedirectionof Bm .

Permeability

= r 0

Where r typically is 1000-100000 in magnetic cores

Hysteresis loop 0ab: magnetising curve, from demagnetised state. by: Saturation flux density 0c: remanent flux density or remanence, H reduced to zero. 0d: Coercive force required to reduce flux to zero. bcde: curve formed by reducing H. ex: Saturation flux density. efgb: Curve formed by increasing H. Hysteresis: Changes in B lag behind changes in H. bcdefgb: Hysteresis loop

Hysteresis loss
Energy is expended in ferromagnetic materials to change the alignment of domains during cycles of magnetisation. The energy appears as heat and is called hysteresis loss. Hysteresis loss is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop. The area of the hysteresis loop varies with the hardness/softness of materials. Figure a: hard material, high remanence, large coercivity Figure b: soft material large remanence, small coercivity Figure c: Ferrite small hysteresis

a) Unmagnetised domains

b) Magnetised domains

Magnetisation curve

Material
Mild steel Silicon iron Cast steel Numetal Stalloy

Relative Permeability 200 800 1000 - 5000 300 - 900 200 000 500 - 6000

Electromagnetism

Magnetic field due to an electric current

Direction of magnetic field inside coil given by either screw rule or grip rule

Electromagnets
Electric bell -single stroke.

When the push button is pressed a current flows and the armature is attracted to the electromagnet. The striker on the armature hits the gong. When the circuit is broken the electromagnet demagnetises and the armature is pulled back by the spring.

Relay Contacts are closed, or opened, instead of striking a bell. The contacts are for another electrical circit.

Lifting magnet Coil C is wound around cast iron core P. A protective non-magnet covering R is over the face of the electromagnet. The magnetic paths M pass through the magnetic material to be lifted.

Telephone Receiver Converts electrical signals to sound waves. The diaphragm vibrates according to the electrical signals transmitted to the receiver.

Force on a current carrying conductor F=BIl sin Where B is magnetic flux density, I is current, l is length of conductor and is angle between conductor and magnetic field.

Loudspeaker When an electric current flows in the coil it produces a force that moves the cone backwards and forwards according to the direction of the current. The cone transfers the force to the air, producing sound waves.

A current carrying conductor in a magnetic circuit experiences a force due to the interaction of the two magnetic fluxes; the one for the magnetic field and that due to the current.

Flemings left hand rule Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the left hand be extended such that they are all at right-angles to each other, If the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field, the second finger points in the direction of the current, then the thumb will point in the direction of the motion of the conductor

Simple dc motor
Magnetic field supplied by permanent magnet. Current supplied to coil through brushes and commutator bar. Commutator allows for change of direction of current. Coil rotates due to the forces acting on it. Brushes provide contact to a moving commutator.

A practical motor has more than one winding

Example 8: A coil is wound on a rectangular former of width 24 mm and length 30 mm. The former is pivoted about an axis passing through the middle of the two shorter sides and is placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 0.8 T, the axis being perpendicular to the field. If the coil carries a current of 50 mA, Determine the force on each coil side (a) for a single-turn coil, (b) for a coil wound with 300 turns.

Solution
a Flux density B = 0.8 T, length of conductor lying at right-angles to field l = 30 mm = 30 10-3 m and current I = 50 mA = 50 10-3 A. For a single-turn coil, force on each coil side F = BIl = 0.8 50 10-3 30 10-3 = 1.2 10-3 N or 0.0012 N b When there are 300 turns on the coil there are effectively 300 parallel conductors each carrying a current of 50 mA. Thus the total force produced by the current is 300 times that for a single-turn coil. Hence force on coil side, F = 300 BIl = 300 0.0012 = 0.36 N

Elementary dc motor summary

Back emf: a voltage is induced in a motor coil as it revolves

Note that a dc motor can also operate as a dc generator

DC motor equivalent circuit: Note the two flux systems E0 = K where =2n/60, n is speed in rpm (revolutions per minute)

The back emf Eb = E0 = Km (1) Where m is mechanical speed of rotation =2n/60, n=speed in rpm (revolutions per minute), K is a factor that depends on coil geometry.

The armature current Ia =(VT - E0)/Ra (2) Note that the starting current is very high since E0 is zero at start.
The torque developed T = KIa (3) Substituting for Ia from (2 ) T = K(VT-E0)/Ra = (K/Ra)(VT - Km) The power developed by the motor Pdev=E0Ia = KmIa (=Mechanical power =mT= KmIa)

Torque speed characteristic

Operating point depends on load characteristic

Speed regulation: One of the measures of performance

Speed regulat ionis defined as t hechangein speed as full load is applied t o t hemot or. N no load - N full load Speed regu lation x100% N full load WhereN no load is speed at no load N full load is speed at full load

DC machine classifications Depends on arrangement of supplies to the field and armature windings.
a. b.
i. ii. iii.

Separately excited machine when the field winding has a separate supply Self excited machine when field winding is connected to the main motor supply. Three types of connections: Shunt connected machine when the field is across the main supply Series connected machine when the field and armature windings are in series. Compound connected machine when both shunt and series connections are used. The connections can be cumulative compounding (fluxes additive) or differential compounding (fluxes in opposition)

Separately excited motor

Tdev

K VT Ra

Shunt excited motor, has same torque speed characteristic as a separately excited motor

Tdev

K VT Ra

Series excited motor

Tdev

KK f VT2 Ra Rf KK
2 f m

Derivation of torque speed characteristic for series motor

Tdev Tdev VT Ia K Ia K f Ia KK f I a2 I a Ra Ra Rf ... (1) ... (2) ... (3) Rf VT KK f
m

I f and I f

Ia

I a is found from thearmaturecircuit Eb I a Ra Rf K

m

I a Ra

Rf

KK f

Substituting for I a in (3) Tdev KK f VT2 Ra Rf KK f

2 m

K 'VT2 Ra Rf K'
2 m

Example A 230 V 10 hp DC shunt motor delivers power to a load at 1200 rpm. The armature current drawn by the motor is 200 A. The armature circuit resistance of the motor is 0.2 and the field resistance is 115 .
a)

b)

If the rotational losses are 500 W, what is the value of the load torque. What is the starting current of the motor

Solution part (a)

VT = Ra = Ia = Prot = N= 230 0.2 200 500 1200 V A W rpm

Back emf induced in the armature Eb = VT - IaRa = 190 Power developed in the rotor Pdev = EbIa = 38000 Power delivered to the load Pload =Pdev - Prot = Pout = 37500

V W W

Load torque = Pload/m m = 2N/60 = Tload =

125.6637 298.4155

rads/s Nm

Solution part (b) Starting current Ia start = VT / Ra = 230/0.2 A = 1150 A

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction

Faradays law If the flux linking a loop (or turn) varies as a function of time, a voltage is induced between its terminals. The value of the induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of flux.
E N t

Where: E is induced volt age V , N is number of t urnsof coil, is changeof flux inside t hecoil Wb t is t imeint erval during which t heflux changes s

When the magnetic field in a coil changes a voltage is induced in the coil. This voltage will drive a current in a circuit to which the coil is connected.

Electromagnetic Induction

When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field or vice versa so as to cut through the lines of force (or flux), an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is produced in the conductor. If the conductor forms part of a closed circuit then the e.m.f. produced causes an electric current to flow round the circuit. Hence an e.m.f. (and thus current) is 'induced' in the conductor as a result of its relative movement across the magnetic field. This effect is known as 'electromagnetic induction'

Lenz's law states: The direction of an induced e.m.f. is always such that it tends to set up a current opposing the motion or the change of flux responsible for inducing that e.m.f. An alternative method to Lenz's law of determining relative directions is given by Fleming's Right-hand rule (often called the geneRator rule) which states: Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand be extended such that they are all at right angles to each other . If the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb points in the direction of motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, then the second finger will point in the direction of the induced e.m.f.

Conductor moving in a magnetic field

If a wire is moved through a magnetic field then a voltage can be induced across the ends the wire.

Induced voltage E = Blv sin volts Where: B Magnetic flux density [Wb/m2] l length of conductor v velocity of conductor [m/s] angle between conductor and magnetic field.

Example 9: A conductor 300 mm long moves at a uniform speed of 4 m/s at right-angles to a uniform magnetic field of flux density 1.25 T. Determine the current flowing in the conductor when (a) its ends are open-circuited, (b) its ends are connected to a load of 20 resistance.

Solution: When a conductor moves in a magnetic field it will have an e.m.f. induced in it but this e.m.f. can only produce a current if there is a closed circuit.

Induced e.m.f.

a. b.

If the ends of the conductor are open circuited no current will flow even though 1.5V has been induced. From Ohm's law,

Figure shows a view of a looped conductor whose sides are moving across a magnetic field.

The left-hand side is moving in an upward direction (check using Fleming's right-hand rule), with length l cutting the lines of flux which are travelling from left to right. By definition, the induced e.m.f. will be equal to Blv sin and flowing into the page. The right-hand side is moving in a downward direction (again, check using Fleming's right-hand rule), with length l cutting the same lines of flux as above. The induced e.m.f. will also be equal to Blv sin but flowing out of the page. Therefore the total e.m.f. for the loop conductor = 2Blv sin Now consider a coil made up of a number of turns N . The total e.m.f. E for the loop conductor is now given by: E = 2NBlv sin

Example 10: A rectangular coil of sides 12 cm and 8 cm is rotated in a magnetic field of flux density 1.4 T, the longer side of the coil actually cutting this flux. The coil is made up of 80 turns and rotates at 1200 rev/min. (a) Calculate the maximum generated e.m.f. (b) If the coil generates 90 V, at what speed will the coil rotate? Solution a Generated e.m.f. E = 2NBLv sin where number of turns, N = 80, flux density, B = 1.4 T, length of conductor in magnetic field, l = 12 cm = 0.12 m

and for maximum e.m.f. induced, = 90, from which, sin =1

Hence, maximum e.m.f. induced, E = 2NBlv sin = 2 80 1.4 0.12 1.6 1 = 135.1 volts

b Since E = 2NBlv sin then 90 = 2 80 1.4 0.12 v 1

An alternative method of determining (b) is by direct proportion. Since E = 2NBlv sin , then with N, B, l and being constant, E v If from (a), 135.1 V is produced by a speed of 1200 rev/min, then 1V would be produced by a speed of

Hence, 90V would be produced by a speed of 90 8.88 = 799 rev/min

Generators

When the coil is horizontal, the induced current is maximum, as the coil is cutting across the field lines at right angles as it moves.

When the coil is vertical, the induced current is zero, as the coil is moving parallel to the magnetic field lines

If we start timing from when the coil is vertical, then at t=0, = BxA

B N

If the coil rotates with speed , then after time t the coil will have turned through angle = t The flux will now be = Bcost x A

B S

Faradays Law says:

V V V

d dt d ( BA cos t ) dt BA sin t
BAN sin t

For a coil of N turns:

The formula for alternating generator voltage is often written as:

Vmax sin t

Where Vmax=BAN This produces a voltage-time graph that looks like a sine curve NB. Similarities to SHM!!

To generate D.C, split rings are used.

To generate A.C, slip rings are used

DC generator equivalent circuit Separately excited

Ia = I = load current Load voltage VL = VT = Eg IaRa Vbr

Where Eg is generated voltage, VT is terminal voltage, Ra is armature resistance, Vbr is voltage drop across the brushes (may be assumed negligibly small)

Power input (from prime mover) Pin = Pm = EgIa Power output = VL Ia =

Magnetisation curve

Voltage current characteristic for separately excited generator

Self excited: Need for residual magnetism and forward direction of rotation

Series connected generator equivalent circuit

Ia = If = IL = load current Load voltage VL = VT = Eg Ia(Ra+Rf) Vbr

Where Eg is generated voltage, VT is terminal voltage, Ra is armature resistance, Rf is field resistance Vbr is voltage drop across the brushes (may be assumed negligibly small)

Power input (from prime mover) Pin = Pm = EgIa Power output = VL Ia =

Shunt connected generator equivalent circuit

Ia = If + IL
Where If = VL/Rf = field current where Rf is field resistance IL= load current

Generated voltage Eg= VL + IaRa + Vbr

Where Eg is generated voltage, VL is terminal / oad voltage, Ra is armature resistance, Vbr is voltage drop across the brushes (may be assumed negligibly small)

Power input (from prime mover) Pin = Pm = EgIa Power output = VL Ia =

Shunt connected generator OA, OB, OC slopes give critical resistances at the indicated speeds. Rf should be less than this value for the particular speed.