Industrial Drying

INDUSTRIAL DRYING
Principles and Practice

Edited by
Sachin V Jangam
Arun S Mujumdar

Lecture Notes

INDUSTRIAL DRYING

Lecture notes

INDUSTRIAL DRYING: Principles and Practice
Lecture notes

Copyright 2011 by authors of respective contribution

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or
retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the
copyright holder.

This book contains information from recognized sources and
reasonable efforts are made to ensure their reliability. However, the
authors, editor and publisher do not assume any responsibility for
the validity of all the materials or for the consequences of their use.

INDUSTRIAL DRYING

Lecture notes

PREFACE

Drying is an important unit operation used in numerous industries and well known
as a dominant industrial consumer of fossil fuel-derived energy in developed countries.
As standard of living rises in the developing world energy usage for drying operations
will rise along with the demand for energy-efficient, faster, environmentally friendly
(minimal carbon foot print) and cost-effective drying technologies will continue to
increase worldwide. Indeed, the growth in energy consumption for drying will increase
at a higher pace in the rapidly developing world, in particular the rapidly developing as
well as very large economies of China, Brazil and India. As the fuel prices rise, it is
necessary to develop sustainable drying technologies using renewable sources using
innovative ideas. This is also reflected in the continuing success of the International
Drying Symposium (IDS) series and numerous sister conferences as a well as a premier
archival journal devoted exclusively to drying science, technology and engineering.
Drying R&D seems to have reached a sustainable level of activity around the globe, still
there is tremendous scope to carry out R&D in this complex process.

This one day workshop is organized by Minerals, Metals and Materials Technology
Centre (M3TC) of NUS, Singapore to disseminate the basic and applied knowledge about
drying and attract more young researchers to the field of drying. The workshop is also a
part of a Mechanical Engineering module, Industrial Transport Processes (ME5202).
This e-book is a collection of power point presentations of the speakers participated in
this workshop. It is important to note the special efforts of speakers in preparing their
power point presentations. We are truly grateful for the outstanding effort of our
speakers for their truly thankless contribution in the interest of global dissemination of
a useful information. We believe this e-book can be used for teaching as well as R&D
purposes and also as a supplementary notes for the students.

Arun S. Mujumdar
Director, M3TC, NUS, Singapore

You are invited to a one-day course on
Industrial Drying Technologies-Principles & Practice
Organized by
Minerals, Metals and Materials Technology Centre (M3TC),
Chair: Dr. Jeremy D. Lease, Minerals, Metals and Materials Technology Centre (M3TC), NUS, Singapore
Co-Chair: Dr. Sachin V Jangam, M3TC, NUS, Singapore

Date: Saturday, October 01, 2011
Time: 09:00 -16.30
Venue: LT1, Blk E2, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore.
Tentative Program
#
(* indicates speaker)
08:30-09:00 Registration
09:00-09:05 Introduction speech Chair - Dr. Jeremy Lease* M3TC, NUS, Singapore
09:05-09:45 Introduction to Drying Principles Prof. Arun S Mujumdar* ME/M3TC, NUS, Singapore
10:15-10:45 Classification and Selection of dryers Prof. Arun S Mujumdar* ME/M3TC, NUS, Singapore
10:45-11:00 Coffee Break
11:00-11:30
Energy savings strategies for industrial
dryers
Dr. Sachin V Jangam/
Dr. Chung Lim Law*
ME/M3TC, NUS, Singapore/
University of Nottingham, Malaysia
11:30-12:15
Recent developments and innovative
dryers
Prof. Arun S Mujumdar*/
Dr. Sakamon Devahastin
ME/M3TC, NUS, Singapore/ KMUTT,
Bangkok, Thailand
12:15-13:00 Drying of low rank coals and biomass
Dr. Sachin V Jangam*/
Dr. M. Faizal
ME/M3TC, NUS, Singapore/ Sriwijaya
University, Palembang, Indonesia
13:00-14:00 Lunch Break
14:00-14:30 Introduction to Simprosys Mr. Hafiiz Bin Osman* ME/M3TC, NUS, Singapore
14:30-15:00 Spray Drying Technology
Prof. A.S.Mujumdar*/
Prof. Li Xin Huang
ME/M3TC, NUS, Singapore/Nanjing,
China
15:00-15:30
Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of drying
processes
Prof Rajasekhar
Balasubramanian*/Prof.
A.S.Mujumdar/
Dr. Nawshad Haque
ME/M3TC, NUS, Singapore/CSIRO,
Australia
15:30-16:00 Impingement drying Mr. Jundika Kurnia* ME/M3TC, NUS, Singapore
16:00-16:30 Open Forum: Prof Arun S Mujumdar and all speakers

Contact: Ms. Claire Lee, Tel.: (65) 65168295, E-mail: englctc@nus.edu.sg
For details and updates, please visit http://www.eng.nus.edu.sg/m3tc/
Above program is a part of ME5202 Industrial Transfer Processes

Papers and/or PowerPoint handouts will be made available as an e-book to participants

Index

Presentation
No
Title / Authors
01 Introduction speech
Jeremy Lease*
02 Introduction to Drying Principles
Arun S Mujumdar*
03 Classification and Selection of dryers
Arun S Mujumdar*
04 Energy savings strategies for industrial dryers
Chung Lim Law*
05 Recent developments and innovative dryers
Arun. S. Mujumdar, Sakamon Devahastin, Sachin V. Jangam*
06 Drying of low rank coals and biomass
Sachin V. Jangam* and M. Faizal
07 Introduction to Simprosys
Hafiiz Bin Osman*
08 Spray Drying Technology
Arun. S. Mujumdar* and Li Xin Huang
09 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of drying processes
Rajasekhar Balasubramanian*, Arun. S. Mujumdar and Nawshad
Haque
10 Impingement drying
Jundika Kurnia*

Introduction speech

M
3
TC
Minerals, Metals and Materials
Technology Centre
Introduction
One-day course on
Industrial Drying Technologies Industrial Drying Technologies Industrial Drying Technologies Industrial Drying Technologies- -- -Principles & Practice Principles & Practice Principles & Practice Principles & Practice
Dr. Jeremy Lease
Program Manager
Minerals, Metals and Materials Technology Centre
(M3TC)
October 1, !11
"en#e $ LT1, %&', 'inga(ore
M3TC ) *ntrod#ction
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Minerals, Metals and Materials Technology Centre (M3TC),
+as established at the ,ac#lty o- .ngineering, %&' +ith
s#((ort -rom.D/in 0(ril !!1.
M3TC ) "ision
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
M3TCs vision is for a dynamic
global minerals, metals and
materials sector; driven and
supported by R&D capabilities for
sustainable developments in
minerals, metals and materials
processing tecnologies and
e!pertise"
M3TC ) Ob2ecti3es
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Create R&D capability and disseminate arcival #no$ledge as
appropriate"
%romote gro$t of te tree industry sectors via 45D and
man(o+er s6ills enrichment programmes"
&stablis constructive and convenient platforms for net+or6ing
among different industries, researc centres and academic institutes"
Develop carefully'identified core and strategic researc ventures
tat $ill result in ne$ 6no+ledge generation and intellect#al
(ro(erty creation"
(acilitate technology and 6no+ledge trans-ers to advance local
and regional industries"
&stablis standard testing facilities and certification for relevant
industry sectors"
Focus: Industrially Relevant R&D
45D in Drying
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Drying Tecnology ) *n +nternational ,ournal initiated
publication in -./0
Drying Tecnology $ill publis -1 issues per year from
02--) ig manuscript flo$, 0322 papers4
Truly global development' still gro$ing at different rates in
different parts of globe
Developed countries 5 -2'026 of national industrial energy
consumption attributed to termal drying
Drying is important part of te ne!us of food and energy"
Role in climate cange still not 7uantified4
'ome 'tats $ Drying Technology
Jo#rnal
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
2
02
32
12
/2
-22
-02
-32
China 'inga(ore canada Thailand /ra7il *ndia 0#stralia ,rance Poland '(ain
%
o
o
-
(
a
(
e
r
s
Total papaers 80221'02--9
Contrib#tion o- M3TC
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Welcome
to
NUS, Singapore
Industrial Drying Technologies Industrial Drying Technologies Industrial Drying Technologies Industrial Drying Technologies- -- -
Principles & Practice Principles & Practice Principles & Practice Principles & Practice
*A special warm welcome to our guests from overseas*
08:30-09:00 Registration
09:00-09:05 Introduction speech Chair - Dr. Jeremy Lease* M3C! "#$! $in%apore
09:05-09:&5 Introduction to Dryin% 'rincip(es 'ro). *run $ Mu+umdar* M,-M3C! "#$! $in%apore
.0:.5-.0:&5 C(assi)ication and $e(ection o) dryers 'ro). *run $ Mu+umdar* M,-M3C! "#$! $in%apore
.0:&5-..:00 Coffee Break
..:00-..:30
,ner%y sa/in%s strate%ies )or industria(
dryers
Dr. $achin 0 Jan%am-
Dr. Chun% Lim La1*
M,-M3C! "#$! $in%apore-
#ni/ersity o) "ottin%ham! Ma(aysia
..:30-.2:.5
3ecent de/e(opments and inno/ati/e
dryers
'ro). *run $
Mu+umdar*-Dr $achin
Jan%am-
Dr. $a4amon De/ahastin
M,-M3C! "#$! $in%apore- 5M#!
6an%4o4! hai(and
.2:.5-.3:00 Dryin% o) (o1 ran4 coa(s and 7iomass
Dr. $achin 0 Jan%am*-
Dr. M. 8ai9a(
M,-M3C! "#$! $in%apore- $ri1i+aya
#ni/ersity! 'a(em7an%! Indonesia
.3:00-.&:00 Lunch Break
.&:00-.&:30 Introduction to $improsys Mr. :a)ii9 6in ;sman* M,-M3C! "#$! $in%apore
.&:30-.5:00 $pray Dryin% echno(o%y
'ro). *.$.Mu+umdar*-
'ro). Li <in :uan%
M,-M3C! "#$! $in%apore-"an+in%!
China
.5:00-.5:30
Li)e Cyc(e *na(ysis =LC*> o) dryin%
processes
'ro) 3a+ase4har
6a(asu7ramanian*-'ro).
*.$.Mu+umdar-
Dr. "a1shad :a?ue
M,-M3C! "#$! $in%apore-C$I3;!
*ustra(ia
.5:30-.@:00 Impin%ement dryin% Mr. Jundi4a 5urnia* M,-M3C! "#$! $in%apore
.@:00-.@:30 Open Forum: Prof Arun S Mujumdar and all speakers
'ched#le
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
M3TC re(orts and e)boo6s

Introduction to Drying
Principles

Professor A. S. Mujumdar
National University of Singapore
Introduction to Drying Principles
Presented during
One day course on
Industrial Drying TechnologiesPrinciples
and Practice
!cto"er #$% &#$$
'ontents
Introduction to Drying
Some facts about drying
Drying A complex process
Basic terms in drying
Quality alteration
Some industrial dryers
Closure
Introduction to drying
(emoval of a li)uid froma solid*semisolid*li)uid to produce solid
product "y thermal energy input causing phase change
+Sometimes converts solid moisture into vapor "y su"limation eg.
,ree-e drying .ith application of heat./
Needed for the purposes of preservation and storage% reduction in
cost of transportation% etc.
Most common and diverse operation .ith over $## types of dryers
in industrial use
'ompetes .ith distillation as the most energyintensive
operation
Some facts a"out drying
Product si-e may range frommicrons to tens of centimeters
Product porosity may range from -ero to 00.01
Drying time ranges from #.&2 sec to five months
Production capacities may range from #.$ 3g*h to $## t*h
Product speeds range from-ero to &### m*min
!perating pressure may range from fraction of milli"ar to &2 atm
4asics a"out drying
Drying particle
5nergy Input "y Moisture !utput "y
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
icro!ave and Radio
"re#uency "ields
Combined mode
$i#uid diffusion
%apor diffusion
Capillary flo! &'ermeability(
)nudsen diffusion &ean free
pat* + pore dia,(
Surface diffusion
'oiseuille flo!
Combination of above
Drying a 'omple6 Process
'hemical*
"iochemical
reactions
Phase change
Multicomponent
Moisture transport
'hange of physical
structure
'oupled .ith
mass
transfer
Input
'ontinuous*
intermittent
'hange in
)uality
Transient
Shrin3age
D(7IN8 AS A
'!MP95:
T;5(MA9 P(!'5SS
Drying "ased on heat input
I. Direct +'onvective/
Direct
Dryer
-ot gas
.et product
Dry product
-umid gas
Drying medium directly contacts material to be dried and carries
evaporated moisture,
II. Indirect +'ontact% 'onduction/
/as flo! &lo!(
.et product
Dry product
%acuum or lo! gas flo!
-eat supplied
by *eat exc*anger
&t*roug* metal !all(
Drying "ased on heat input
III. (adiant
.et feed
Dry product
%acuum or lo! gas flo! to carry evaporated moisture a!ay,
I<. Micro.ave or (,
0lectromagnetic energy absorbed selectively by !ater &volumetric *eating(,
-eater &radiant(
1ypically less t*an 234of total *eat supplied in most direct dryers
is used for evaporation, .ater is t*e most common solvent removed
in dryers,
Summari-ation of 4asic Terms
Terms*Sym"ol Meaning
Adiabatic saturation
temperature5 1ad
0#uilibrium gas temperature reac*ed by unsaturated gas and vapori6ing
li#uid under adiabatic conditions, 7nly for air8!ater system5 it is e#ual to
t*e !et bulb temperature
Bound moisture
$i#uid p*ysically and8or c*emically bound to solid matrix so as to exert a
vapor pressure lo!er t*an t*at of pure li#uid at t*e same temperature
Constant rate drying period5 9C :nder constant drying conditions5 drying period !*en evaporation rate
per unit drying area is constant &!*en surface moisture is removed
De! point5 1d 1emperature at !*ic* a given unsaturated air;vapor mixture becomes
saturated
Dry bulb temperature5 1db 1emperature measured by a &dry( t*ermometer immersed in vapor;gas
mixture,
0#uilibrium moisture content5
<e
At a given temperature and pressure5 t*e moisture content of moist solid in
e#uilibrium !it* t*e gas;vapor mixture &6ero for non;*ygroscopic
materials(
Critical moisture content5 <c oisture content at !*ic* t*e drying rate first begins to drop &under
constant drying conditions(
"alling rate period
9"
Drying period under constant drying conditions during !*ic* t*e rate false
continuously !it* time
"ree moisture5
oisture content in excess of t*e e#uilibriummoisture content &*ence free
to be removed( at given air *umidity and temperature,
Summari-ation of 4asic Terms
Terms*Sym"ol Meaning
-umid *eat
-eat re#uired to raise t*e temperature of unit mass of dry air and its
associated vapor t*roug* one degree &= >g
;?
)
;?
(
-umidity5 absolute5 @ ass of !ater vapor per unit mass of dry air &>g >g
;?
(
-umidity5 relative
Ratio of partial pressure of !ater vapor in gas;vapor mixture to
e#uilibrium vapor pressure at t*e same temperature,
:nbound moisture
oisture in solid !*ic* exerts vapor pressure e#ual to t*at of pure li#uid
at t*e same temperature,
.ater activity5 a!
Ratio of vapor pressure exerted by !ater in solid to t*at of pure !ater at
t*e same temperature
.et bulb temperature5 1!b $i#uid temperature attained !*en large amount of air;vapor mixture is
contacted !it* t*e surface, In purely convective drying5 drying surface
reac*es 1!b during constant rate period
4asic Terms
R.H. 50%
EMC
Bound moisture
Free moisture
Content
X Moisture Content(dry bsis!
X"
#nbound moisture
100%
$% Constnt
Various types of moisture content
4asic Terms
Sorption Isotherm
Adsorption
Desorption
B
C
A
M
o
i
s
t
u
r
e

C
o
n
t
e
n
t
20 40 60 80 100
% Reati!e "umi#ity
4asic Terms

0
100
X, kg water / kg dry solid
Relative
humidity
Non-hygroscopic
Nearly
non-
hygroscopic
Hygroscopic
porous
Colloidal
Colloidal, infinitely swelling
T = CONST.
$%uii&rium moisture content cur!es for !arious types of
soi#s
4asic Terms
Typical drying curve
<
time
d:*dt = constant
X (d.b.) = mass of water/
mass of dry solid
X (w.b.) = mass of water/
mass of wet solid
4asic Terms
Typical te6t"oo3 "atch drying rate curve under
constant drying conditions

Moisture content +dry "asis/
D
r
y
i
n
g
(
a
t
e

+
3
g
m
&
s
$
/

A B
C D
"alling Rate
'eriod
Constant Rate
'eriod
Initial
1ransient
'eriod
Xe XC
&Internal *eat8mass
transfer rate controlling(
&0xternal *eat8mass
transfer rate controlling(
4asic Terms
N
M
A
dX
dt
or
M
A
dX
dt
s s f
=
By convention5 t*e drying rate5 N5 is defined as
an initial constant rate period !*ere N A N
c
A constant,
N
q
c
s
=

1*e constant rate period is governed fully by t*e rates of external *eat and mass
transfer since a film of free !ater is al!ays available at t*e evaporating surface
N
c
can be calculated using empirical or analytical tec*ni#ues to estimate t*e external
*eat8mass transfer rates
1*e drying rate in t*e falling rate period&s( is a function of < &or <f ( and must be
determined experimentally for a given material being dried in a given type of dryer
4asic Terms
If t*e drying rate curve &9 versus <( is >no!n5 t*e total
drying time re#uired to reduce t*e solid moisture content
from <? to <B can be simply calculated by
t
M
A
dX
N
d
s
X
X
=
1
2
Model Drying time
)inetic model5 td A Drying time to reac* final moisture content X2 from initial moisture content X1
N = N(X)
&/eneral(
N = Nc
&Constant rate period(
N = aX + b
&"alling rate period(
N = Ax
t
M
A
dX
N
d
s
X
X
=

2
1
t
M
A
X X
N
c
s
c
=
( )
2 1
t
M
A
X X
N N
N
N
f
s
=

( )
( )
ln
1 2
1 2
1
2
t
M X
AN
X
X
f
s c
c
c
= ln
2
X X X
c
*

2
N
M
A
dX
dt
s
=
4asic Terms
R
,

k
g
/
m

h
2
X, kg water/kg dry solid
0
0
Textbook DRC
X*
SHD
X
crit
Casehardening
Through/impingement
drying
RDF
vapor-lock
Unusual Drying Rate Curves
4asic Terms
Reasons for non-textbook shapes
Physical structure
Crystallization
Melting
skinning
glass transition
Puffing
shrinkage
precipitation
change of mass
change of physical
structure
boundary heating
volumetric heating
SHS air
hi temp.
low temp.
Unusual Drying Rate Curves*
* Constant drying conditions
Drying (ate ;eat > Mass Transfer (ates
Internal 'ontrol
Mass Transfer (Aroma/shelf life*)
9i)uid*vapor diffusion
5)uili"rium M'
5nergy Transfer
(Chemical/thermal damage*)
Temperature distri"utions
Thermal*chemical degradation
Momentum Transfer
(Delamination/cracing/!uffing*)
Single phase
T.ophase
Mechanical 5ffects (Cracing*)
Deformation
Strength
Stresses
56ternal 'ontrol
5nergy Supply
'onvection
'onduction
(adiation
Dielectric
Affected "y
Pressure
Temperature
;umidity
8as ,lo.
Dryer 'onfiguration
8as flo. patterns
(esidence time
4asic Terms
Diffusion during drying of solids
X
t
D
X
x
f
L
f
=
2
2
Solution subCect to t*e follo!ing initial and boundary conditions
<
f
A <
i
5 every!*ere in t*e slab at t A 3
<
f
A 35 at x A a &top5 evaporating surface(5 and
at xA3 &bottom5 non;evaporating surface(
"ic>Ds la!
X
x
f
= 0
$i#uid diffusion model
DL A constant5 X2 = Xc
SlabE one;dimensional diffusion5
evaporating surface at X
*
X A average free moisture content
a A *alf;t*ic>ness of slab
t
a
D
X
X
f
L
=
4 8
2
1
2
2
ln
Diffusion +'ontd/
8eometry
4oundary
conditions
Dimensionless average free
M.'.
"lat plate of
t*ic>ness Bb
Infinitely long
cylinder of radius R
Sp*ere of radius R
t b z b X X = < < = 0
0
; ;
t z b X X > = = 0; ;
*
X
n
n
b
D t
b
L
n
=

|
\
(
=
8
1
2 1
2 1
4
2
2
2
1
( )
exp ( )
X
R
D t
n
L n
n
=
=
4
1
2 2
2
1

exp( )
t r R X X = < < = 0 0
0
; ;
t r R X X > = = 0; ;
*
t r R X X = < < = 0 0
0
; ;
t r R X X > = = 0; ;
*
X
n
n
R
D t
R
L
n
=
|
\
(
=
6 1
2 2
2 2
1
exp
4asic Terms +useful mainly for food and "iologicals/
?AT5( A'TI<IT7 + a /@
.
State of .ater in "ioproduct@
,ree .ater intracellular .aterA nutrients and dissolved
solids needed for living cells
4ound .ater .ater "uilt into cells or "iopolymer structures
Needs additional energy to "rea3 B"ondsB .ith solid. 4ound
.ater also resists free-ing
,or safe storage% "ioproducts must "e dried to appropriate
levels and stored under appropriate conditions
.
a A
Partial pressure of .ater over .et solid
5)uili"rium vapor pressure of .ater at same temp.
4asic Terms +.ater activity/

Dry foods
Intermediate moisture foods (IMF)
e.g. syrups
cheese, sausages, candy
a
w
Dry basis water content
0
0
1.0 2.0 3.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
?ater activity versus moisture content plot for different food
materials
Phenomena in )uality alteration
Aroma loss selective evaporation
Phase changes glass transitions% crystalli-ation%
collapse% shrin3age
Migration of solutes% salts% etc.
Micro"iological reactions development of
microorganisms
4iochemical reactions en-ymatic "ro.ning% lipid
o6idation% vitamin o6idation% protein denaturation%
etc.
Different Industrial
Dryer Types
Tur"o Tray Dryers
Suitable for granular feeds5 operate !it* rotating s*elves and force
convection of air above t*e s*elves,
1*e Dryer can *ave F3G trays and provide large residence time,
-ermetic sealing is possible for solvent recovery,
(otary Dryer
Combined cascade motion
!it* *eat H mass transfer,
$arge capital H operating cost,
:sed in fertili6ers5
p*armaceutical5 lead H 6inc
concentrate for smelting5
cement,
Si6e 3,F to 2 m diameter H
B to I3 m lengt*,
Steam Tu"e (otary Dryer ,luid 4ed Dryers <ariations
,luid 4ed Dryers Modifications
-omogeneous "B !it*out c*anneling or bubblesE
*ig* gas velocity possible
Deeper bed dept* is possible if t*e bed is
agitated;9ot commonly used
Centrifugal 8 rotating "B ; flo!ing
gas radially ; rotating cylindrical
perforated distributor,
promising contacting :
mf
and :
t
can be controlled
(otocone Dryers +4atch/
Drying of p*armaceuticals ; tableting formulation
aximum capacity ?3 m
F
,
0vaporation rate B;J >g8*r,m
B
<acuum Dryers C ;eat Sensitive Materials Paddle Dryer
) *ro+ides dryin, time
u-to se+er. /ours.
) 0uitb.e 1or -ste.i2e 3
,rnu.r mteri..
) E+-. rte u-to 10 2,//r.m
2
7amato TA'! (otary Dryer

Classification and Selection
of dryers

Selection and Classification of dryers
Presented during
One day course on
Industrial Drying TechnologiesPrinciples
and Practice
!cto"er #$% &#$$
'ontents
Introduction
Why so many dryers (complex process)
Key criteria for classification
Criteria for dryer selection
Closure
(hy so many dryer types)
Over 500 reported in literature studies; over 100 commercially
availale
Over 50!000 materials are dried commercially at rates of a fe" #$%hr to
&0 '%hr or more
(ryin$ times (residence times "ithin dryin$ chamer) can ran$e from
1%& sec) to months
'emperature and pressure ran$e from elo" triple point to super*
critical
+umerous constraints on physical%chemical properties of feed as "ell
as dried product re,uire a e"ilderin$ array of dryer desi$ns
Wide ran$e of feeds (li,uid! solid! semi*solid! particulate! pasty; slud$e*
li#e; stic#y etc); "ide specs on dried product
(hy so many dryer types)
(ifferent sources of ener$y input( conduction! convection! radiation!
-W!./ etc)
0ner$y input continuous or intermittent
1atch! continuous or semi*continuous operation
*uality is #ey parameter for many products
2imited numer used in pharma industry
+eed to reduce the cost
+eed to consider dryin$ system rather than dryer! i)e) 3re* and post*
dryin$ sta$es are important and often cost more than dryer
0nvironmental re$ulations demand ne" dryin$ techni,ues
Dryer Selection Dryer Selection Dryer Selection Dryer Selection
And classification And classification And classification And classification
'riterion for selection of dryers
+umerous criteria ! "ith different "ei$hts
-any dryers can typically meet specs; hence several dryers can do a
$iven 4o in $eneral)
Choice depends on mode of operation! physical form of feed and
dried product desired; heat sensitivity; ,uality re,uirements;
production rate; "hether non*a,ueous solvents are present in feed;
"hether material is toxic%inflammale or friale etc
Key criterion* dryer must e ale to handle the product* move it
from feed to exit5 Other criteria follo"
+or pharma products ,uality is N! $ criterion-
'riterion for selection of dryers
Dryer Selection. A "lac/ art or science)
2ittle pulished "or# on su4ect
In vie" of tremendous diversity of dryers! uyer must #no" more
aout dryers and dryin$
-ost vendors speciali6e in selected dryer types; so uyer needs to
ma#e choice
-ultiple choices are possile and can ma#e selection process complex
0xpertise needed to ma#e ri$ht choice5
0ner$y! environment! safety and cost are important considerations in
selection)
Special care needed 0hen handling nona,ueous solvents in 0et
material
(hy select dryer carefully)
Can affect ottom*line))
3roduct ,uality ! ener$y usa$e affected y choice
Choose ri$ht dryin$ system*not 4ut dryer
Wea#est lin# decides ultimate $oodness of system choice
7urvey of 10 lar$est pharma and chemical companies in 0urope in
18809s identified dryer selection as main prolem facin$ industry5
0xpert systems exist for selection) (ifferent expert systems $ive
different selections
Kno" product and process "ell efore choosin$ dryin$ system;
imitation can cause pro"lems-
7imple decision trees su$$ested (737)
Some notes for dryer selection
-ust examine dryin$ systemcost rather than dryer cost for final
selection)
2ar$ely untested in industrial practice : trend is to ;repeat
history<
(o not copy dryer or dryer system used else"here "ithout
critical evaluation from s,uare 15
+ic#el ore concentrate is dried in different places usin$ spray!
fluid ed! rotary and flash dryers% Which one do you CO3=>
2ocal fuel availaility and relative costs of different ener$y
sources! environmental re,uirements as "ell as le$islation can
chan$e selection of dryer for same application
Main dryer classification criteria
'riterion Types
-ode of operation 1atch
Continuous?
@eat input*type Convection?! conduction! radiation!
electroma$netic fields! comination of heat
transfer modes
Intermittent or continuous?
Adiaatic or non*adiaatic
7tate of material in dryer 7tationary
-ovin$! a$itated! dispersed
Operatin$ pressure Bacuum?
Atmospheric
(ryin$ medium
(convection)
Air?
7uperheated steam
/lue $ases
Main dryer classification criteria
'riterion Types
(ryin$ temperature 1elo" oilin$ temperature?
Aove oilin$ temperature
1elo" free6in$ point
.elative motion et"een
dryin$ medium and
dryin$ solids
Co*current
Counter*current
-ixed flo"
+umer of sta$es 7in$le?
-ulti*sta$e
.esidence time 7hort (C 1 minute)
-edium (1 : D0 minutes)
2on$ (E D0 minutes)
1 Most common in practice
Typical chec/list for selection of industrial dryers
3hysical form of feed Franular! particulate! slud$e! crystalline! li,uid! pasty!
suspension! solution! continuous sheets! plan#s! odd*shapes
(small%lar$e)
7tic#y! lumpy
Avera$e throu$hput #$%h (dry%"et); continuous
#$ per atch (dry%"et)
0xpected variation in
throu$hput
(turndo"n ratio)
/uel choice Oil
Fas
0lectricity
3re* and post*dryin$
operations
(if any)
/or particulate feed
products
-ean particle si6e
7i6e distriution
3article density
1ul# density
.ehydration properties
Typical chec/list for selection of industrial dryers
Chemical%iochemical%
microiolo$ical activity
@eat sensitivity -eltin$ point
Flass transition temperature
Inlet%outlet moisture
content
(ry asis
Wet asis
7orption isotherms
(e,uilirium moisture
content)
(ryin$ time (ryin$ curves
0ffect of process variales
7pecial re,uirements -aterial of construction
Corrosion
'oxicity
+on*a,ueous solution
/lammaility limits
/ire ha6ard
Color%texture%aroma re,uirements (if any)
More guidelines for
Dryer Selection
Principal Data Needed
7olids throu$hput -ass flo" W
s
'urndo"n ratio
-oisture content Inlet G1!
Outlet G0! variation
3article properties 7i6e! si6e distriution
(ensity! r
p
! r
s
(ryin$ #inetics (ryin$ curves
0)-)C) data
'emperature limits lon$*term
Instantaneous
Fas and solvent Identity
3hysical properties
Other features 7afety! ease of handlin$! attrition! etc)
Huality aspects
'oxicity! flammaility
Include as much relevant data as possi"le
Additional *ualitative Data Needed
/ires and dust explosions
'oxicity
3otential for environmental dama$e
3roduct value
+eed for containment
Capital cost
Attrition! hardness and friaility
Cohesion! adhesion! a$$lomeration
Operatin$ time
+eed for si6e reduction%enlar$ement
3ost*dryin$ operations and 3re*dryin$ factors
Small Scale 2a" Tests
Small scale tests give valua"le information.
(ryin$ #inetics : dryin$ rates (parametric effects)
0,uilirium moisture content : effect of '! humidity
-icroscopic examination : surface! a$$lomeration
2a*scale rotary evaporator : overheatin$! allin$! adhesion
.otatin$ drum tester : attrition! dustiness
Cohesion and adhesion : handlin$! stic#y point
Bital to have a representative sample of final material
+ot necessary to carry out all of aove tests in all cases
3asic 'hoice. +orm of +eed
+eed and product can "e in one of these main "asic
forms.
3articulate solids (ed%layer%or dispersed)
7heet or film
1loc# or sla
7lurry or solution (feed only) or paste
-ostly re,uire completely different types of dryer
Widest choice availale for particulate solids
7pecification of final product also critical in selection
3asic 'hoice. 3atch or 'ontinuous
3atch dryers favored "y .
2o" throu$hput (under 50 #$%h)
2on$ residence time (i)e) mainly fallin$ rate dryin$)
1atch e,uipment upstream and do"nstream
.e,uirement for atch inte$rity
'ontinuous dryers favored "y
opposite conditions
Match production made of feed 0here possi"le
3asic 'hoice. Information +rom 4inetic Data
Interpretation of drying curves assists choice.
Inhindered dryin$ period : favors convective%dispersion
2on$ hindered dryin$ period : favors contact dryin$
0stimate of re,uired solids residence time
-aximum li#ely dryin$ rate
Indication of mechanisms controllin$ dryin$
(ifference et"een initial and final dryin$ rates ?
? (If hi$h! favors "ell*mixed! parallel flo" or t"o*sta$e)
Dryers. Solid 56posure to 7eat 'onditions

Dryers Typical residence time 0ithin dryer
# $#
sec
$# 8#
sec
9 $#
min
$# :#
min
$ :
hr
'onvection
1elt conveyor dryer G
/lash dryer G
/luid ed dryer G
.otary dryer G
7pray dryer G
'ray dryer (atch) G
'ray dryer (continuous) G
'onduction
(rum dryer G
7team 4ac#et rotary dryer G
7team tue rotary dryer G
'ray dryer (atch) G
'ray dryer (continuous) G
Product 'lassification and Dryer Types
Dryers 5vap. ;ate
</g=m
&
=h
r>
+luid%
li,uid
suspensio
n
Pastes Po0ders ?ranule
s% pellets
!peration
/orced
Convection
(throu$h
flo")
J)5 * * * Food 1atch
(oule Cone 10 * 3oor /air 3oor 1atch
/1( 1&0 * * Food Food Continuous
1and &0 * /air * Food Continuous
/ilm (rum KK Food /air * * Continuous
/lash J50 * /air Food /air Continuous
.otary
(indirect)
&& * 3oor Food /air Continuous
7pin /lash 1L5 * Food Food /air Continuous
7pray 15 Food * * * Continuous
Selection of Fluid Bed Dryer
Fluidization Regimes
1) (epends on types
of solids!
fluidi6ation can
appear in different
types of re$imes
2. Smooth fluidization
and bubbling
fluidization are
preferale
&) Any material that
can e fluidi6ed in
these t"o re$imes
can e dried in a
/1(
M) 1y modifications of
/1(! some solids %
po"ders % pastes %
solutions % sheets
can also e
fluidi6ed "ell
Increasin$ $as velocity
Developments in +luidi@ed "eds
N Conventional /1(9s use steady flo" rate! constant temperature and operate
in atch or continuous mode at near atmospheric pressure "ith air as the
dryin$%fluidi6in$ medium
N -odified /1(s may use pulsed flo"! variale temperature! viration to assist
fluidi6ation! use superheated steam as dryin$ medium! operate at reduced
pressure etc)
N /1(s may e used to dry slurries or continuous sheets (e)$) leather in a ed
of adsorent particles)
N /luidi6ed eds compete "ith rotary dryers! conveyor dryers and movin$ ed
or pac#ed ed dryers due to their advanta$es such as hi$her efficiency! etter
heat%mass transfer rates! smaller floor area; aility to operate in atch or
continuous modes etc
N 2imitations include hi$h po"er consumption! attrition! need to have
fluidi6ale material etc
N Often a second sta$e after flash dryin$ or spray dryin$ "here it is also used
as an a$$lomerate
'omparison of +3D 0ith other dryers
2ar$e ran$e
/lexile
Ip to D0min
2ar$e
2ar$e
@i$h
@i$h
@i$h
-edium
2o"
@i$h
/ines
2imited
10*&0sec
2ar$e len$th
7mall
@i$h
2o"
-edium
-edium
-edium
-edium
500Om*10mm
/lexile
Ip to 1K0min
2ar$e
7mall
2o"
2o"
-edium
@i$h
@i$h
-edium
100*K000Om
2imited
Ip to D0min
7mall
7mall
@i$h
-edium
-edium
@i$h
@i$h
-edium
3article si6e
37 (istriution
(ryin$ time
/loor area
'urndo"n ratio
Attrition
3o"er consumption
-aintenance
0ner$y efficiency
0ase of control
Capacity
10Om*10mm
Wide
Ip to D0min
7mall
7mall
@i$h
-edium
-edium
@i$h
@i$h
@i$h
'riterion ;otary +lash 'onveyor +3D
Modified
+3D
+3D 'lassification
'riterion Types of +3 Dryer
-ode
/lo" re$ime
3ressure
'emperature
Fas flo"
@eat supply
/luidi6ation action
/luidi6in$ material
/luidi6in$ medium
1atch! continuous! semi continuous
Well mixed! plu$ flo"! circulatin$! hyrid
2o" (heat sensitive)! atmospheric! hi$h (steam)
Constant! time dependant
Continuous! pulsed
Convection%conduction; continuous%pulsed
Fas flo"! 4et flo"! mechanical! external field
3articulate solids! paste slurry (inert solids
ed)
@eated air! s) steam! dehumidified air! free6e
+3D 'lassification
+3 Dryers
3atch 'ontinuous
7y"rid 'ontinuous
input
Aaria"le
input
Multistage Single stage
'onventional 'onventional Modified Modified
3atch <(ell Mi6> Plug +lo0 <narro0 ;TD> (ell Mi6 <0ide ;TD>
+3D 'lassification
+3 Dryers
3atch 'ontinuous
'ontinuous input Aaria"le input
'onventional Modified
Spout +3D
Pulsating +3D Agitated
+3D
3affled +3D
Inert solid
+3D
+3D 'lassification
+3 Dryers 3atch
'ontinuous
Single stage Multistage 7y"rid
'onventional Modified
Immersed tu"es
Ai"rating +3D
+3 dryer cooler Spray +3D
'yclone +3D (ell mi6edPlug flo0
Plug flo0 +3D
(ell mi6
+3D
(ell Mi6ed and Plug +lo0 +luid 3ed dryer
common /1( used in industry)
ed temperature uniform! e,ual to the product and exhaust $as
temperatures)
particle residence time distriution is "ide
"ide ran$e of product moisture content)
feed is continuously char$ed into /1 of relatively dry particles!
this enhances fluidi6ation ,uality)
a series of "ell*mixed continuous dryers may e used "ith
variale operatin$ parameters)
vertical affles are inserted to create a narro" particle flo"
path)
narro"particle residence time distriution)
nearly e,ual residence time for all particles re$ardless of their
si6e
uniformproduct moisture content)
len$th*to*"idth ratio from5P1 to &0P1)
inlet re$ion may e a$itated or apply ac#*mixin$! or use a
flash dryer to remove the surface moisture)
Multistage = Multi Process +3D
+luidi@ed "ed drying. heated air
+luidi@ed "ed cooling. cold air
(ellmi6 fluidi@ed "ed plug flo0 fluidi@ed
"ed
Drying. (ellmi6 predryerB Plug flo0
second stage drying))
+luidi@ed 3ed Dryer='ooler
'om"ines +3 drying and cooling.
'ooling to eliminate condensation
Multistage = Multi Process +3D
upper stage drying lo0er stage cooling 0ellC
mi6ed +3 plug flo0 +3
Spray drying
+3 drying%
+3 cooling
spray drying 0ellCmi6ed
+3 drying=cooling plug flo0
+3D Aariations
Bariale operatin$ parametersP pulsatin$ $as flo"!
variale temperature! ad4ustale heat input or periodic
fluidi6ation
ener$y and cost effectiveness
3ulsatin$ : provides vertical viration! improvin$ the
fluidi6ation ,uality
1ed temperature * atch /1 * constant * ad4ustale heat
input
3ulsatin$ /1 :rotated hot air inlet : intermittent dryin$
times
Pulsating +luidi@ed 3ed
lo" ener$y consumption due to hi$h specific moisture
extraction rate (7-0.)
hi$h coefficient of performance (CO3)
"ide ran$e of dryin$ temperature (*K0oC to 110oC)
environmental friendly
hi$h product ,uality)
suitale for heat sensitive products (food! io*ori$in
products)
+luid 3ed 7eat Pump Dryer
'losure
N Wron$ choice leads to severe penalties : start*up costs!
do"ntime and need to replace
N Iser must do ;home"or#< fist; vendors valuale thereafter
N 7everal dryers may do the 4o : same ,uality! cost etc)
N 7election does depend on cost of fuel! relative cost of different
ener$y sources; $eo$raphical location; le$islative re$ulations;
emission control; safety! etc)
N 0xpert systems no" availale (e)$) 737) to aid in selection :
still a comination of art (experience) and science5
N 7election may e dominated y 4ust one criterion in some cases
e)$) ,uality for pharma products
N 7everal different dryers can do same 4o at same cost in some
cases
N Choice can depend on $eo$raphic location! cost of ener$y etc

Energy savings strategies
for industrial dryers

Energy Issues in Energy Issues in
Industrial Industrial
Drying Drying
Law Chung Lim Law Chung Lim
The University of Nottingham The University of Nottingham
Arun S. Muumdar Arun S. Muumdar
National University of National University of
Singa!ore Singa!ore
Presentation Outline Presentation Outline
Introduction Introduction
Energy Issues in Industrial Drying Energy Issues in Industrial Drying
Energy consumption Energy consumption
Energy efficiency Energy efficiency
Methods of improving energy efficiency in drying Methods of improving energy efficiency in drying
Techniques for energy savings Techniques for energy savings
New drying techniques New drying techniques
Heat pump drying Heat pump drying
Superheated steam drying Superheated steam drying
Multistaging Multistaging of dryers of dryers
Pulse combustion dryer Pulse combustion dryer
Closing Remarks Closing Remarks
Introduction Introduction
Industrial drying Industrial drying
Thermal
dehydration
Developed nations:
national industrial
energy consumption
12 - 25
"etro#hemi#al
refining
Industrial drying
Aluminum
Chemi#al
"a!er
Steel
from #om$ustion of
fossil fuels % maor
EI
Energy use for industrial drying in Canada Energy use for industrial drying in Canada
Thermal
dehydration
!anada: national
industrial energy
consumption
&ld dryers tend to
have low energy
effi#ien#ies '()%
)*+, and very
little !ro#ess
#ontrol
In (--. Canada
im!orted /
)(0***0*** worth
of dryers ust for
the agri%food se#tor
"#$
250 %&/y and 19 million
tons/y o' !(2
Energy Use for Industrial drying in UK Energy Use for Industrial drying in UK
Thermal
dehydration
)*: national industrial
energy consumption
Effi#ient dryer % ( ton
of oil e1uivalent 'T&E,
to remove . tons of
water
Ineffi#ient % (23
Assume average (24
5.) million T&E of
fossil fuel energy
E1uivalent (3 million
tons of C&67
"#0
27 million tons +ater
removed / year
Is energy issue in industrial drying so Is energy issue in industrial drying so
important? important?
Energy usage for drying in manufa#turing2
0
20
40
60
80
Wood Textile Corn Paper Pulp &
Paper
Energy usage
70
50
,0
27
-0
Is energy issue in industrial drying so Is energy issue in industrial drying so
important? important?
Mi#ro s#ale view!oint2
Dryer manufacturer: YES market value
(promotion)
User: YES - commodity materials, wastes,
enery constraints,!
"#$ %E&''Y (i( marin, )uality
is more important (p(armaceuticals,
pro*iotics, specialty foods,!+)
Ma#ro s#ale 'government,2
YES enery availa*ility, ,-,
emissions,!
Energy efficiency for dryers Energy efficiency for dryers
)*+ of Dow Chemi#al8s and 46+ of Du "ont8s 3***
!rodu#ts involve !arti#les
9and Cor!oration study for 3: solids !ro#essing
!lants $uilt in USA and Canada indi#ates that2
Ignoran#e of !arti#ulate $ehavior leads to loss of
!rodu#tivity0 in#reased #osts0 higher ris;s0 lower
1uality !rodu#t0 in#reased energy #onsum!tion<..0
Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 81, No. 5, pp. 14-22, 1985
.,0 .,0
."0 ."0
Dryer operating efficiency
Average
effi#ien#y =
45+
Industry
standard = -*%
-)+
e>!e#ted
energy
effi#ien#y
varies from
5* to .*+.
/otary dryer /otary dryer
0luid 1ed dryer 0luid 1ed dryer
!onveyor dryer !onveyor dryer 2pray dryer 2pray dryer
A#tual effi#ien#y ranges from 6*%
5*+ $e#ause of2
.+ /mproper operation (too (i( temperature or
velocity)
0+ /mproper application (use of e1istin dryers
for ot(er products)
2+ /mproper desin3 4onservative desin of old
dryers (life time is 25-65 years instead of .7-
05 years)
6+ Some dryers are *uilt in-(ouse wit( little
knowlede+
7+ "o insulation
8+ "o control
!neumati# dryer for re#y#led
!olyethylene 6)+ vs )*% 4)+
Improving energy efficiency Improving energy efficiency
Current trends 'Does it only
ha!!en in the develo!ed nations?,2
.+moderni9e e1istin dryers to
improve enery efficiency
0+replace old dryers wit( advanced
tec(noloies
2+use multistae dryers and
(y*rid tec(noloies
Methods of reducing dryers energy Methods of reducing dryers energy
consumption consumption
Directly reducing the dryer heat Directly reducing the dryer heat
duty duty
Reducing the inherent requirement Reducing the inherent requirement
for drying, e.g. dewatering for drying, e.g. dewatering
Increasing efficiency of dryer, e.g. Increasing efficiency of dryer, e.g.
reducing heat loss, total air flow or reducing heat loss, total air flow or
batch time batch time
Heat recovery to reduce heat target Heat recovery to reduce heat target
Heat recovery within the dryer system, Heat recovery within the dryer system,
between hot and cold streams between hot and cold streams
Heat exchange between the dryer and Heat exchange between the dryer and
surrounding processes surrounding processes
Reduce the cost utilities or Reduce the cost utilities or
primary energy requirement primary energy requirement
Use of low Use of low--grade, lower cost heat sources grade, lower cost heat sources
to supply the heat requirement to supply the heat requirement
Combine heat and power, cogenerate Combine heat and power, cogenerate
heat and power while supplying the heat heat and power while supplying the heat
requirement to the dryer requirement to the dryer
Use of heat pump to recover waste heat to Use of heat pump to recover waste heat to
provide dryer heating provide dryer heating
Thermal Thermal mechanical energy? mechanical energy?
Energy in!ut for se!arating ( m
3
of water
9ule of thum$2 Always #onsider me#hani#al
dewatering0 followed $y eva!oration and
finally thermal dehydration@drying
Thic3ening Thic3ening
0#001 0#001--0#01 0#01
34h/m 34h/m
--
5echanical 5echanical
de+atering 1 de+atering 1--10 10
34h/m 34h/m
--
Thermal Thermal
drying 1000 drying 1000
34h/m 34h/m
--
Techni6ues 'or 7nergy 2aving Techni6ues 'or 7nergy 2aving
Methods to Improve Energy Savings Methods to Improve Energy Savings
Methods Potential
Use of heat exchangers including heat pipes M
Use of heat pumps M-L
Model-based control M-L
Optimized operation H-M
Superheated steam drying with utilization of excess
steam
L
Multi-stage drying M-L
More efficient heat source (e.g. pulse combustion) M-L
H: high M: medium L: low
Energy savings due to control Energy savings due to control
: ; to .0< of enery savins could *e ac(ieved
w(en process control is applied (case studies
indicate from 7< to 2=< wit( an e1treme
75<) >4&DDE$, /E&?
: @redictive control for wood kiln could result in
up to 25< of enery savins >'aval University and
Aorintec, 4anada /nc+?
: 4onditions for successful (advanced) control
.+sensors for moisture content
0+model for t(e process
: Beven t(e simplest controller can provide ood
control performance for a properly desined
processB+
Additional advantages Additional advantages
: &ther advantages2
.+ Cuality products
0+ /ncreased t(rou(put
2+ /mproved relia*ility
6+ %educed la*or (automation)
Note2
: 4ost of t(e installation of control system
varies from D25,555 to D055,555
: Economic analysis s(ould *e performed
8e+ Drying Techni6ues 8e+ Drying Techni6ues
Heat pump drying Heat pump drying
9eat pump generates lo+
temperature dehumidi'ied air
Drying Drying
cham1er cham1er
Advantages Advantages
Higher Higher energy energy efficiency efficiency with with improved improved heat heat recovery recovery
Better Better product product quality quality with with well well--controlled controlled temperature temperature schedules schedules..
AA wide wide range range of of drying drying conditions conditions typically typically 20 20 CC to to 100 100 CC and and
relative relative humidity humidity 15 15%%to to 80 80%%..
Excellent Excellent control control of of environment environment to to produce produce high high--value value products products
Aseptic Aseptic processing processing is is possible possible
Limitations Limitations
CFCs CFCs are are used used in in the the refrigerant refrigerant cycle cycle -- environmentally environmentally issues issues..
Requires Requires regular regular maintenance maintenance of of components components
Leakage Leakage of of refrigerant refrigerant to to the the environment environment when when pipes pipes crack crack..
Increased Increased capital capital costs costs..
Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages and Disadvantages
Superheated Steam Drying Superheated Steam Drying
Any convective dryer can be made into Any convective dryer can be made into
SHSD by switching from air to SHS! SHSD by switching from air to SHS!
Extra steam can be supplied to other unit Extra steam can be supplied to other unit
opeartions in plant! opeartions in plant!
Flash, fluid bed, spray, conveyor, Flash, fluid bed, spray, conveyor,
impingement dryer etc impingement dryer etc
Must be leak Must be leak--proof; must recover heat proof; must recover heat
from exhaust SHS ( at lower specific from exhaust SHS ( at lower specific
enthalpy to benefit from energy recovery) enthalpy to benefit from energy recovery)
Not always feasible. Not always feasible.
No oxidative / combustion No oxidative / combustion
reactions (no fire/explosion reactions (no fire/explosion
hazard, better quality product) hazard, better quality product)
Higher drying rates (higher Higher drying rates (higher
thermal conductivity & heat thermal conductivity & heat
capacity of SS). capacity of SS).
Suitable for products Suitable for products
containing toxic or organic containing toxic or organic
liquids (recovered by liquids (recovered by
condensation) condensation)
Permits pasteurization, Permits pasteurization,
sterilization and/or sterilization and/or
deodorization of food products deodorization of food products
There are other product specific advantages: There are other product specific advantages:
Processing temperature flexibility, lower Processing temperature flexibility, lower
temperature at vacuum temperature at vacuum used extensively in used extensively in
lumber drying lumber drying
Avoids case hardening Avoids case hardening
produces higher porosity (lower bulk density) produces higher porosity (lower bulk density)
products (fluffy product without shrinkage) products (fluffy product without shrinkage)
Feasible for higher quality product (e.g. fibre, Feasible for higher quality product (e.g. fibre,
pulp, distillers dry grain, silk, paper, wood etc.) pulp, distillers dry grain, silk, paper, wood etc.)
Multi Multi--staging of Dryers staging of Dryers
Can be same or different dryer type Can be same or different dryer type
operated at different conditions operated at different conditions
Surface moisture removed in one stage Surface moisture removed in one stage
and internal in another and internal in another
Examples: Spray followed by fluid or Examples: Spray followed by fluid or
vibrated bed; flash followed by fluid bed vibrated bed; flash followed by fluid bed
or packed bed; impingement dryer or packed bed; impingement dryer
followed by through dryer etc followed by through dryer etc
Each stage can be optimized for Each stage can be optimized for
energy/quality energy/quality
Pulse Combustion Dryer Pulse Combustion Dryer
Features Steady Pulsed
Combustion intensity
(kW/m
3
)
100-1000
10000-
50000
Efficiency of burning
(%)
80-96 90-99
Temperature level ( K)
2000-
2500
1500-
2000
CO concentration in
exhaust (%)
0-2 0-1
NOx concentration in
exhaust (mg/m
3
)
100-7000 20-70
Convective heat
transfer coefficient
(W/m
2
k)
50-100 100-500
Time of reaction (s) 1-10 0.01-0.5
Excess air ratio 1.01-1.2 1.00-1.01
Pulse combustion is intermittent ; can be subsonic or supersonic
Mach Number >1.0 (supersonic)
Pulse Combustion Dryer Pulse Combustion Dryer Pulse Combustion Dryer Pulse Combustion Dryer
High drying rates
1. Increased turbulence and flow reversal in the drying
zone promote gas/materials mixing
2. Decreased boundary layer thickness of materials
3. Increased heat and mass transfer rates
4. High driving force because of high gas temperature
short contact time
Suitable for some heat sensitive materials
High energy efficiency and economic use of
fuels
Environmentally friendly operation
Pulse Combustion Dryer Pulse Combustion Dryer
Electrical energy
consumption is
40 50% less
than for the
conventional
flash dryers. Its
heat duty is
0.016 kW/kg of
H
2
O and
evaporation rate
is 230 kg of
H
2
O/hr.
!losing /emar3s !losing /emar3s
Closing Remarks Closing Remarks
Incorporate energy-efficiency at design stage
design; retrofits are possible but maybe less
effective, more expensive and not feasible
Good math model can help with optimization
and control for good quality and energy
efficiency; do energy audits regularly
Novel/new dryers are not necessarily more
efficient; proper selection is important
Avoid copying flowsheets from elsewhere done at
different times!
-$
- -- -- -- - Thank You Thank You Thank You Thank You Thank You Thank You Thank You Thank You - -- -- -- -

Recent developments and
innovative dryers

Professor A. S. Mujumdar/Sachin Jangam
Recent developments and innovative
dryers
Presented during
One day course on
Industrial rying !echnologies"Principles and
Practice
#cto$er %&' (%&&
r. Sa)amon evahastin
*MU!!' !hon$uri' !hailand
+ontents
Why Drying R&D is needed
Superheated steam drying
Heat pump drying
Spray Freeze drying
Pulse combustion drying
Atmospheric freeze drying
Intermittent drying
Hybrid drying techniues
!losure
,hy drying -. is needed
Almost all industrial sectors use drying as a processing step once or se"eral
times
#hermal efficiency ranges from $%&'%( )a"g * +%(,- Potential e.ists for
impro"ing performance of most dryers
High impact on greenhouse gas emission and carbon
/eed for impro"ed performance 0 1nergy2 en"ironmental and safety as 3ell
as product uality
Inno"ation 0 incremental as 3ell as radical 0 needed to reduce energy
intensity
High ris4 5 cost of R&D can be alle"iated "ia modeling 0 ma6or impediment
is lac4 of a uni"ersal drying theory
7in4ed to ne.us of food2 energy & 3ater 0 all critical global issues8
Innovation and difficulties
Why Inno"ation9 Incremental "s Radical
7ong life of drying technologies 3or4s against inno"ation in drying
Superheated steam dryer )SHSD, for pulp2 fibre2 hogfule etc needed :%&$%
years to commercialize- high cost of energy and recently carbon ta.
pro"ided the impetus;
/o"elty may be in e.perimental design or operation; Hybrid system can
be inno"ati"e
Design R&D problems 3ith industry impact 0 often 3e ha"e e.cellent
solution for a non&e.isting problem )imagined by academics 0 common
practice,
7in4ed to ne.us of food2 energy & 3ater 0 all critical global issues8
Atmospheric free/e drying
0eat pump drying
0y$rid drying
Intermittent drying
Spray free/e drying
Pulse com$ustion dryers
Multi"stage dryers
Multi"processing dryers
Advanced rying Methods
Superheated Steam Drying
Closed steam
drying system
Recycled steam
Fan/blower
Direct use of
steam
Energy recovery via
heat exchanger
Removal of
condensate
Heater
purged steam
steam from boiler
!ypical SS set"up
Saturated Steam /eed
Assume &%%0)' & $ar1 . 2
('34% 5J/5g
Steam
Superheater
Superheated Steam
Assume &&%0)' & $ar1 . 2 ('6(% 5J/5g
rying cham$er
Saturated Steam 78haust
9ac5 to &%%0)' & $ar1 . 2 ('34% 5J/5g
9leeding off for
other uses

Superheated
SteamDryers
Low pressure
Near
atmospheric
pressure
High Pressure
Example: potato chip,
tortilla chip, shrimp,
paddy, soybean, noodles
Example: Beet pulp
Example: products
which trend to melt or
undergo glass transition
)lassification of SS
Flash dryers with or without indirect
heating of walls
FBDs with or without immersed heat
exchangers
Spray dryers
Impinging jet dryers
Conveyor dryers
Rotary dryers
Impinging stream dryers
Fluid bed
Possi$le !ypes of SS
.eat Pump ryer :)oncept;
Am$ient
air
ehumidified
air
rying
.ot air
!ypical .eat Pump ryer
Advantages and <imitations of .eat Pump ryer
< High 1nergy 1fficiency
< =etter uality products
especially for heat sensiti"e
materials;
< Wide range of operating
conditions;
< 7o3 temperature drying;
< =etter sol"ent reco"ery in
closed loop system )useful for
reco"ering sol"ent during
drying of pharma products,;
< Higher initial cost and
maintenance cost due to need to
maintain compressor2
refrigerant filters and charging
of refrigerant
< 7ea4age of refrigerant;
< >arginally comple. operation
relati"e to simple con"ection
dryer;
< Additional floor space
reuirement;
Advantages <imitations
More a$out .eat Pump ryer
"=%
o
) "(>
o
) %
o
) ?4%
o
)
@acuum <! dryers .! dryers
Inert or immo$ilised particles
<iAuid' solution'
fro-en particles Solids and granules
.eat pump dryers
/luidi-ed or not
More a$out .eat Pump ryer
.7A! PUMP +B7+S
)<ASSI/I)A!I#N
Processing
mode of dryer
Num$er of
drying
stages
Num$er of
stages of .eat
Pump
Au8iliary
heat input
9atch
dryer
)ontinuous
dryer
Single
drying
stage
)onvection
Multiple -
stage heat
pump dryer
cyclic
operation
)ontinuous
operation
.eat pump
dryer
operation
)onduction #thers C
.+adio -/reAuency
.MicroDave
.IN/+A+7
intermittent
operation
multiple
drying
stage
single-stage heat
pump dryer
P+#U)!
!7MP7+A!U7
A9#@7
/ree-ing
P#IN!
97<#*
/ree-ing
P#IN!
Solar assisted heat Pump drying
!ondenser
Dryer
Solar
!ollector
Pre&
heater
1"aporator
Air
Solar
radiation
s
< ?se of solar heat 3ith or 3ithout
heat storage
< solar energy is used to heat the
drying air either before or after the
condenser of a con"entional heat
pump
< especially useful 3hen high drying
temperatures are reuired )grain
drying,
< Ad"antages & effecti"e utilization of
rene3able energy for direct heating
as 3ell as storage 3ith easy control
strategy
< 7imitations & Higher capital cost
)solar panels, and maintenance
I+/M* assisted .P

1.pansion
"al"e
!ompressor

!ondenser

1"aporator

Drying chamber

#hermocouple

IR sources

IR po3er
supply and
control
)an $e
M*
!ime varying #peration and Auality aspects
1.pansion "al"e
!ompressor

!ondenser

1"aporator

Dryer :

Dryer $

Dryer @

Au.iliary
heater :
Au.iliary
heater $
Au.iliary
heater @
Air
blo3er
1.ternal
condenser
Multiple drying cham$ers Dith time varying cycle in heat pump dryer
!ime varying #peration and Auality aspects
Reductionin drying time
>a.imumretention of sugar in food products
A"oiding color change due to non enzymatic bro3ning )e.ampleA
Drying of banana )!hau and co 3or4ers,
#he color and aroma herbs can be impro"ed 3hen compared 3ith
the commercial products;
1.ampleA drying of Binger )ma.imumretention of Bingerol,2 because
of the closed operation of heat pump dryer
#he sensory "alues in the literature are almost double for the heat
pump dried products
?se of modified atmosphere to replace air allo3s ne3 dry products
to be de"eloped 3ithout o.idati"e reactions
Multi"mode .P system

T
Heater plate
MW
source
Blower
Compressor
H
IR source
Evaporator Condenser
Honeycomb
Perforated plate
Auxiliary
heater Perforated
plate
Spray free-e drying
< >ethod 3hich combines
processing steps common to
freeze drying and spray drying
< #he protein drug is dissol"ed
< Solution is nebulized into a
cryogenic medium )e;g; liuid
nitrogen, 3hich generates a
dispersion of shoc4 frozen
droplets
< Dispersion is then dried in
lyophilizer
< So far mainly used for highly
specialized food and pharma
products
MicroDave ryer
< >icro3a"e dryers are e.pensi"e
both in terms of the capital and
operating )energy, costs;
< #hey ha"e found limited
applications to date;
< seem to ha"e special ad"antages
in terms of product uality 3hen
handling heat&sensiti"e materials;
#hey are 3orth considering as
< de"ices to speed up drying in the
tail end of the falling rate period;
Similarly2 RF dryers ha"e limited
industrial applicability
< Applications mainly in
food5pharma
Introduction to pulse com$ustion drying
< Pulse combustion is intermittent - can be subsonic or supersonic >ach
/umber C:;% )supersonic,
Features Steady Pulsed
!ombustion intensity
)4W5m
@
,
:%%&:%%%
:%%%%&
+%%%%
1fficiency of burning )(, D%&EF E%&EE
#emperature le"el ) G,
$%%%&
$+%%
:+%%&
$%%%
!H concentration in
e.haust )(,
%&$ %&:
/H. concentration in
e.haust )mg5m
@
,
:%%&'%%% $%&'%
!on"ecti"e heat transfer
coefficient )W5m
$
4,
+%&:%% :%%&+%%
#ime of reaction )s, :&:% %;%:&%;+
1.cess air ratio :;%:&:;$ :;%%&:;%:
http://blastwavejet.com/pulsejet.htm
More a$out pulse com$ustion drying
< .igh drying rates
0 Increased turbulence and flo3 re"ersal in the drying zone promote
gas5materials mi.ing
0 Decreased boundary layer thic4ness of materials
0 Increased heat and mass transfer rates
0 High dri"ing force because of high gas temperature
< short contact time
0 Suitable for some heat sensiti"e materials
< .igh energy efficiency and economic use of fuels
< 7nvironmentally friendly operation
7nergy consumption $etDeen P) and conventional dryer
ryers
!ypical evaporation
capacity
!ypical consumption
:5J/5g.
(
#;
P) dryers (>%"(%%% 5g .
(
#/h E%%%"E>%%
!unnel dryer >>%%"3%%%
Impingement
dryer
>% 5g .
(
#/hm
(
>%%%"6%%%
+otary dryer E%"F% 5g .
(
#/hm
(
=3%%"4(%%
/luid $ed dryer =%%%"3%%%
/lash dryer >"&%% 5g .
(
#/hm
E
=>%%"4%%%
Spray dryer &"E% 5g .
(
#/hm
E
=>%%"&&>%%
rum dryer
:pastes;
3"(% 5g .
(
#/hm
(
E(%%"3>%%
Atmospheric /ree-e rying
"ibrator "ibrator
ScopeA
:; AFD 3ith fi.ed bed
$; AFD 3ith HD
@; AFD 3ith "ibrated bed
and absorbent
Atmospheric /ree-e rying :Advantages;
< Significant reduction in energy costs & due to the absence of a "acuum chamber and ancillary
euipment ;
< !ontinuous system & higher producti"ity and lo3er operating cost;
< Decrease energy consumption and drying time 0 due to application of heat&pump system and
different process temperature ele"ating modes;
< >inimize product degradation 0 by using inert gas drying en"ironment;
< High heat transfer co&efficient & about $%&I% times grater than that in "acuum dryer;
< 7ong drying time 0 lo3er diffusi"ity of 3ater "apor 3ith increasing pressure in the chamber;
< =ul4y system 0 Reuire more space;
< #3o mechanical agents are reuired & does not seem economical from the energy point of
"ie3;
< It also ta4es time to setup2 de&humidify and cool the drying chamber;
Atmospheric /ree-e rying :<imitations;
Intermittent rying
7nergy Savings , Guality 7nhancement
Intermittent rying
9atch " temporal )ontinuous " spatial
)yclic or time"varying heat
input $y convection'
conduction' radiation'
dielectric fields' etc.
)oncurrent or seAuential
Inherent
+otary ryers
Spouted 9eds
Multi"cylinder
paper dryers
Imposed
/ree-e ryers
*ood rying
Hilns
Pulsed /luid
9eds
Some e8amples of Intermittent rying
Rotating Jet Spouted Bed dryer
Pulsed bed - intermittent fluidization
Vibrated bed with tempering periods
Intermittent IR/! in a bat"h heat pump dryer
#on$eyor %&pron' dryer with parts of the dryer
unheated
Aside from reduced energy/air consumption, product quality may
be better for heat-sensitive and/or fragile solids. Slight increases
in drying time are expected
)omparison of )onventional and Innovative rying !echniAues
/eed type ryer type NeD techniAuesI
7iuid Suspension Drum
Spray
Fluid5spouted beds of
inert particles
Spray5fluid bed
combination
Jacuum belt dryer
Pulse combustion dryers
Spray freeze drying
Paste5sludge Spray
Drum
Paddle
Spouted bed of inert
particles
Fluid bed )3ith solid
bac4mi.ing,
Superheated steam
dryers
Scre3 con"eyor dryer
/eed type ryer type NeD techniAuesI
Particles Rotary
Flash
Fluidized bed )hot air
or combustion gas,
Superheated steam F=D
Jibrated bed
Ring dryer
Pulsated fluid bed
Ket&zone dryer
Lamato rotary dryer
Scre3 con"eyor dryer
Immerse heat e.changed dryer
!ontinuous sheets >ulti&cylinder contact
dryers
Impingement )air,
)om$ined
impingement/radiation
dryers
!ombined impingement and
through dryers )te.tiles2 lo3
basis 3eight paper,
Impingement and >W or RF
evelopments in fluid $ed drying :comparison innovative and
conventional fluidi-ed $eds;
@ariant )onventional Innovative
>ode of heat
transfer
Hnly con"ection !on"ection M conduction
)immersed heaters in bed, M
radiati"e heat transfer )>W
assisted fluid beds,
Bas flo3 Steady Pulsating- on5off
>ode of fluidization Pneumatic >echanically agitated 5
"ibrations
Drying media Air 5 flue gases Superheated steam 5 heat
pump assisted )e"en using
inert media,
#ype of material
dried
Particulate material Drying of pastes 5 slurries
using bed of inert particles
.y$rid rying !echnologies

Fluidied bed
d!"e!s
#ombined
mode of heat
transfer
#o$vective / co$ductio$
%&'itated (luid bed d!"e!)
#o$vective with *+/,F/-,
#o$ti$uous o! i$te!mitte$t
.ach sta'e with same d!"e! t"pe
%/wo0sta'e (luid bed)
1i((e!e$t d!"e!s at each sta'e
%2p!a" a$d (luid bed d!"e! o!
(lash a$d (luid bed d!"e!)
ulti-stage
drying
systems
ultipro"ess
ing dryers
1i((e!e$t d!"i$' tech$olo'ies
at each sta'e %supe!heated
steamd!"i$' / b" ai! d!"i$')
Filte! cum d!"e!
1!"i$' a$d a''lome!atio$ %sp!a"
(ollowed b" (luid bed)
1!"i$' 3cooli$' %i$ plu' (low
(luid bed d!"e!
)losure
< Impro"e and design intelligent com$inations of current technologies & better
uality product2 smaller euipment size2 greater reliability2 safer operation2
lo3er energy consumption2 and reduced en"ironmental impact 3hile reducing
the o"erall cost
< Further R&D is needed & close interaction among industry " university
researchers 0 to better design2 optimise2 and operate the 3ide assortment of
dryers
< 1"olution of fu--y logic' neural netDor5s and genetic algorithms has opened
ne3 e.citing opportunities for applications in"ol"ing comple. drying system
< #n"line sensing of the colour2 the te.ture2 moisture content and temperature of
the product and use this information to control the dryer operating conditions
locally to yield high "alue product
< !omple.ity in microscopic understanding of drying remains a ma6or
deterrent; >icro&le"el understanding still at rudimentary le"el
< #here is a need to de"elop and operate environmentally friendly drying
processes
< 1mploying model"$ased control or fu--y control strategies 3ill probably
become commonplace 3ithin the decade
)losure
< De"elopment of NsmartO or NintelligentO dryers 3ill help impro"e uality of
products as 3ell as enhance the energy efficiency to assure desired product
uality
< #here is need to de"ise more efficient com$ustors as 3ell as drying
euipment to obtain high&uality products 3ith the least consumption of
resources
< .eat pump drying 3ill become more accepted technology & chemical heat
pump&assisted direct and indirect dryers still need to be e"aluated carefully
< With ad"ances in computer technology2 material science2 and understanding of
the underlying transport phenomena in drying of solids2 there is scope for
rapid de"elopment of more efficient drying technologies
< Micro"scale dryers could be useful for pharmaceutical applications 3here
Nscale&up by replicationO has distinct ad"antages
< Superheated steam at near atmospheric or lo3 pressures 3ill become more
popular for a host of industrial products )foods and agro&products to paper to
3ood and 3aste sludge,

Drying of low rank coals and
biomass

Drying of low rank coals and biomass
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Presented during
One day course on
Industrial Drying Technologies-Principles and Practice
achin !" #angam
Minerals, Metals and Materials Technology Centre $M3TC%,
&ational 'ni(ersity of ingapore, ingapore
Dr" M )ai*al
riwi+iaya 'ni(ersity, Palembang, Indonesia
,utline of the presentation
ome background
-bout .ow /ank Coal $./C%
&eed for ./C drying and difficulties
!arious con(entional dryers used
/ecent de(elopments
Proposed techni0ues
Closure
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Coal $-pplications%
Coal
Coal as a fuel
Mainly Electricity
Generation
Coking and use of
coke in Steel
Making
Gasification
(To Syngas and
then to gasoline)
Liquefaction
(To Gasoline or
Diesel mainly by
hydrogenation)
Ethanol roduction
!ea"n #et$een
coal and %atural
Gas
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Total 1orld Primary 2nergy
upply $3445%
Oil (34.4%)
Coal (26%)
Natural Gas
(20.5%)
Nuclear
(6.2%)
Hydro
(2.2%)
Combustible
re!e"able a!d
"aste #0.#%
Ot$ers
(0.6%)
Coal (41%)
Ot$ers
(2.2%)
Hydro
(#6%)
Nuclear
(#4.%%)
Natural Gas
(20.#%)
Oil (5.%%)
Total 1orld 2lectricity
generation by fuel $3445%
&ource' (ebsite o) "orld coal i!stitute ($tt*'++"""."orldcoal.or,+resources+coal-statistics+)
ome statistics about coal
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
ome statistics about coal
1orld 2lectricity generation capacity
ource6 7ow the energy industryworks $the insider guide 3448%
1orld 2lectricity generation
)ossil )uel C,3 2missions
Ma+or
Problem
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
-bout ./C
.d/a!ta,es o) 01C o/er blac2 coal
0o" mi!i!, cost
Hi,$ reacti/ity
0o" as$ co!te!t
0o" *ollutio! )ormi!, com*o!e!ts suc$ as sul*$ur
!itro,e! a!d $ea/y metals
0imitatio!s o) 01C o/er blac2 coal
Hi,$ moisture co!te!t
0o" calori)ic /alue
Hi,$ stac2 )lue ,as )lo" )rom 01C *rocessi!, *la!ts
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Need for LRC Drying
3acilitate t$e tra!s*ort
di))icult to *!eumatically tra!s*ort t$e $i,$ 4C coal
3ree5i!, i! colder climate
1educe emissio! o) ,ree! $ouse ,ases
6!crease t$e calori)ic /alue
Difficulties in Drying
1e-adsor*tio! o) moisture
7ust 3ormatio!
Hi,$ reacti/ity
7actors to *e considered
8!d a**licatio! o) t$e dried 01C
0ocatio! "$ere t$e dryi!, *la!t is set-u*
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
'otential *enefits
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Ty&es of #oistures in Coal
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Dru#)tu*e9 Cha#*er dryer
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
7rum-tube dryer
&*outed bed coal dryer
7luidi:ed *ed dryer
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Sche#atic of 7luo)Solids)ty&e fluidi:ed *ed
dryer
The fluidi:ed *ed coal dryer $;awasa+i
4eavy (ndustries, Ltd! "a&an%
i*ratory dryer
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
&c$ematic o) 8sc$er-(yss-ty*e /ibratory dryer
State of the art of LRC Drying
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Dryers ,dvantages Li#itations
7luid *ed
dryer
6!te!se dryi!, due to ,ood mi9i!, :$e )eed material "ill !ot $a/e ,ood
)luidi5atio! c$aracteristics
S&outed *ed
dryer
;ery ,ood $eat a!d mass tra!s)er rates :$e material "ill !ot $a/e s*outi!,
c$aracteristics
i*rated *ed
dryer
Co!/eyi!, a!d dryi!, to,et$er ;olume o)
dryi!, medium re<uired "ill be lo" as
mec$a!ical /ibratio!s results i!to mi9i!,
C$a!ces o) a,,lomeratio! ("$ic$ may be
u!desirable "$e! t$e e!d *roduct is
re<uired to be /ery )i!e)
'neu#atic
dryers
&$ort dryi!, times 8ase o) o*eratio!. Co!ditio!ed by $eati!, medium /elocity
a!d ,rai! si5e o) coal
Rotary
Dryer
7ryi!, alo!, "it$ disi!te,ratio!= i!ter!al
$eati!, "it$ coils= )lue ,as "it$ lo" O2 as
dryi!, medium to elimi!ate )ire $a5ard
Hi,$ e!er,y co!sum*tio! 7ryi!, rates are
slo" C$a!ces o) i,!itio!
Rotary tu*e
dryers
6!direct $eati!,' !o )ire $a5ards 7ryi!, time may be co!siderably lo!,
Su&erheated
stea# using
arious
dryers
Hi,$ t$ermal e))icie!cy No da!,er o) )ire
or e9*losio! 0o"er dust emissio!
1eductio! i! sul*$ur a!d sodium co!te!t
e9*e!si/e as t$e dryer becomes *ressure
/essel
State of the art of LRC Drying
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Dryers ,dvantages Li#itations
Microwave
dryer
;olumetric $eati!, 3aster dryi!,
6!termitte!t 4($eati!, ca! be a ,ood
o*tio!
Hi,$ dielectric losses )or coal >rese!ce o)
im*urities ca! result i! $ot s*ots a!d e/e! $i,$
dielectric losses ca! result i! bur!i!,-)ire $a5ard
)or coal
4ori:ontal
agitated *ed
dryer
$4eating
thru 8ac+et
or screw%
Co!/eyi!, dryi!, a!d disi!te,ratio!
simulta!eously >ossibility o) i!direct
$eati!, t$ou,$ s$a)t a!d ?ac2et ;ery lo"
/elocities o) dryi!, medium (mi!imum
)luidi5atio! /elocity)
4ai!te!a!ce >o"er re<uireme!ts 7ust
collectio! !ot a sim*le o*eratio! to co!trol
<elt dryer Com*act co!structio! &im*le desi,!
7ryi!, at lo"er tem*eratures-c$ea*er but
"ill !eed lo!,er dryer le!,t$
:$e lo" tem*erature dryi!, ca! result i!
*roduct "$ic$ ca! reabsorb moisture 7ryi!,
may re<uire lo!, u!it-costly
'ulsed
Co#*ustion
Drying
&$ort dryi!, time $i,$ dryi!, e))icie!cy
e!/iro!me!tally )rie!dly o*eratio!
Noise *roblem
&cale-u* issues
Other Drying Methods Used
Hi,$ &*eed Gri!di!, a!d 7ryi!,
Hot (ater 7ryi!,
4ec$a!ical 7e"ateri!,
,ir' 4ost commo! a!d t$e c$ea*est dryi!, medium @si!, air ca!
result i! combustio! because o) *rese!ce o) o9y,e! a!d $e!ce
c$a!ces o) )ire $a5ard
Co#*usti*le gases9flue gases' 8!er,y utili5atio!= elimi!atio! o)
)ire $a5ard due to lo" O
2
le/el
Su&erheated stea#' Hi,$er dryi!, rate com*ared to air dryi!,
abo/e certai! tem*erature No )ire $a5ards Ca! be used at !ormal
*ressure or $i,$er *ressures(e9*e!si/e as t$e dryer becomes
*ressure /essel)
Drying #edia availa*le
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
'ilot tests of &re)drying lignite
conducted in coal cree+ station
6!creasi!, *o"er *la!t e))icie!cy-li,!ite )uel e!$a!ceme!t
A 2-sta,e )luidi5ed bed dryer system usi!, "aste $eat.
A .**licable to *o"er *la!ts bur!i!, i!$ere!tly $i,$-moisture coals.
A 3ull-scale test o! 546 A4( u!its at Coal Cree2 &tatio! @&..
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Su&erheated stea# drying

Cyclone
Fluidized Bed
Dryer
Wet coal
Coal
Preheating
Condensate
Dry coal
Coal dust
Compressor
Circulation
fan
Steam for
Drying
waste heat
for plant
use
.T, 'rocess for Lignite drying
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Microwave Drying
Clai#s3
Hi,$er e!er,y e))icie!cy
./oids coal combustio!
&ul*$ur remo/al
1eductio! i! *otassium a!d *$os*$orous
&ource' "ebsite o) 7B. Global .ustralia
Dry coal Technology
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Microwave Drying ) Status
&ource' "ebsite o) 7B. Global .ustralia
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
. #5 t*$ *la!t $as o*erated commercially )or more t$a! si9 mo!t$s.
4oisture )rom C2%% to C#2% :4.
>ro/ided a use)ul test )acility )i!a!cial retur! a!d clear ?usti)icatio! )or
i!/estme!t i! a lar,er )acility.
. lar,er 50 t*$ *la!t "as to be commissio!ed i! D4 200E.
Drying using waste heat
&ource' Duarterly re*ort o) 8!er,y 1esearc$ Ce!ter 0e$i,$ @!i/ersity
Clai#s'
1educed )uel cost
1educed as$ dis*osal
1educed cost )or emissio! co!trol
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Fluid bed
dryer
Wet coal
Hot water
Atm.
air
Cooling
tower
water for
Recirculation
Heated air
Heated air
Dry coal for
Power Plant Cold
water
Use of waste heat
frompower plant
Hot water
@se o) coal mi!e met$a!e i! t$ermal dryers ca! )ree u* coal
)or sales
1educed corrosio! o) "etted *arts due to reductio! o) H
2
&O
4
)rom )iri!, coal
8limi!ates emissio! o) )i!e *articulate material resulti!,
)rom coal-)ired $eati!,
1eco/ery a!d use o) coal mi!e met$a!e reduces ,ree!$ouse
,as emissio!s
Use of Coal Mine Methane
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
/#erging #ethods of LRC drying
Hot oil dryi!,
Hot "ater dryi!,
Combi!ed ,ri!di!, a!d dryi!,
3leiss$er *rocess
No!-t$ermal biomass dryer
4ec$a!ical t$ermal e9*ressio! *rocess
>ulse combustio! dryi!,
7ryi!, usi!, "aste $eat
7ee* bed dryi!,
&u*er$eated steam dryi!,
&ol/e!t dryi!, (748)
Ultrasonic drying
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
So#e recent
&atents on LRC
drying
Rotary (#&inging Strea# dryer
6!let /a!es assist i! )ormi!, *roduct-,as stream.
1otary s$ell co!sist o) 2 dryi!, sectio!s'
8ac$ sectio! co!sist o) a! u*stream turbulator a!d do"!stream ser*e!ti!e
)lo" sectio!.
:urbulator i!te!si)y mi9i!, o) ,as a!d *article )or better $eat tra!s)er rate.
&er*e!ti!e )lo" sectio! i!crease dryi!, time a!d i!crease )lo" /elocity.
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Microwave)guide 7luidi:ed *ed
3luidi5ed bed dryer co!)i,ured to "or2 as a "a/e,uide.
O*e!i!, o) ,as i!let a!d outlet si5ed su))icie!tly smaller t$a! 4( "a/ele!,t$ to
*re/e!t 4( lea2a,e.
(ater is circulated at do"!stream e!d o) dryer to absorb e9cess 4(.
4embra!e (7istributor *late) *laced at ce!tre o) "a/e,uide "$ere 84 )ield is
ma9imum.
(a/e,uide dime!sio!ed to *ro*a,ate :8#0 mode at 2450 or F#5 4H5.
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Microwave drying of aggregate coal
Gradi!, o) coal i!to )i!e medium
a!d coarse ,rades.
3i!e ,rade coal "ill ,o t$rou,$ a
series o) o!e or more dryers to be
su))icie!tly dried suc$ t$at t$e
a,,re,ate moisture co!te!t is
reaso!ably "it$i! t$e tar,et ra!,e.
4edium a!d coarse ,rades may or
may !ot ,o t$rou,$ a!y dryer.
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
'ulsed fluidi:ed *ed dryer with 0 gas flows
:"o ,as )lo" /elocities'
0o"er )lo" /elocity 2ee*s t$e "$ole bed i! a! e9*a!ded state at all
time
Hi,$er )lo" /elocity )luidi5e s*eci)ic areas i! se<ue!tially *ulsati!,
ma!!er suc$ t$at a tra/eli!, "a/e o) /ariable orie!tatio! is )ormed i!
t$e bed.
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
New &ro&osed
technology
'ro&osed Drying Method
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
'ro&osed Drying Method
.d/a!ta,es'
6!direct $eati!, (?ac2et G $ollo" scre"+*addle)
@se o) /acuum (reduce t$e c$a!ces o) )ire $a5ards)
Hi,$ Heat tra!s)er coe))icie!t
@se o) solar e!er,y (t$eoretical com*ariso!)
@se o) "aste $eat (t$eoretical com*ariso!)
>ossible C37 a**licatio! )or some dryer
Screw
conveyor
dryer
Conveying and drying using the
sa#e e-ui&#ent, (ndirect heating
through 8ac+et, Si:e reduction
during drying, 'ossi*ilities of
using vacuu#, drying to very low
#oisture content
Chances of /rosion, Safety issues,
Maintenance &ro*le# as so#eti#es
the &resence of hard i#&urities can
result in *loc+ages
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Screw Conveyor Dryer $SCD%
7iameter o) t$e dryer (6!!er diameter o) ?ac2et)' 30cm (a**ro9.)
Outer diameter o) t$e ?ac2et' 2Ecm (a**ro9.)
0e!,t$ o) t$e dryer' 2.% m (a**ro9.)
&cre" diameter' #% cm (or to )it t$e barrel diameter)
Cleara!ce bet"ee! bottom "all a!d t$e scre"' 2mm
3li,$t $ei,$t' 6-E cm
>itc$' #2 cm % cm
O&erating 'ara#eters to *e tested
&cre" s*eed' 5-40 r*m (3or &C7)=
7e,ree o) )ull!ess' #0-F0% (3or &C7)
&olid )eed rate' 50 - 200 2,+$r o) "et solids
7ryi!, air tem*erature' ambie!t A u* to F0 HC (ca! ,o $i,$er)
Iac2et tem*erature' 50-#00 HC (arra!,eme!t )or as $i,$ as #40 HC)
&ystem *ressure' atmos*$eric or sub-atmos*$eric u* to 0.6 bar()or &C7)
6!itial moisture co!te!t o) coal sam*les' 25 - 50% o! "et basis
Constraints' Space availability and the quantity of coal
sample needed; Mine testing is necessary for
commercialization
S&ecifications of Dryers
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Screw Conveyor Dryer
Schematic of screw conveyor dryer assembly
The equipment is fabricated and ready for testing up to 200 kg/hr of wet coal
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
'ictorial views of screw conveyor dryer
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
i*rated <ed Dryer
Schematic of vibrated bed dryer assembly
The equipment is fabricated and ready for testing up to 150 kg/hr of wet coal
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
i*rated <ed Dryer
'ictorial views of vi*rated *ed dryer asse#*ly
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Distribution of particles colored based on residence time at different time steps
t = 10 s
t = 20 s
Feed out
Infeed
t = 14 s
t = 18 s
Computational domain
Discrete Element Modeling for flow study
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
Select a degree of
fullness to be used
in SCD (based on
pilot scale study)
For reuired t!roug!put and
degree of fullness obtain t!e
scre" speed fro#standard
c!arts
Select
appropriate
scre" si$e
Calculate t!e total po"er
reuired per unit lengt!
for selected geo#etrical
para#eters of scre"
Calculate t!e total !eat
reuired tobe transferred to
solids based on t!e
inlet%outlet #oisture
content and te#p&
Calculate t!e !eat transfer
coefficient using correlations
a'ailablein literature or based
on our pilot scale e(peri#ental
outco#e
)sing t!e *+,*D for
countercurrent flo" of solids
and !eating #ediu#and
assu#ing t!e dryer efficiency
calculate!eat transfer area
*!e!eat transfer area per unit
lengt! "ill depend on t!e
pitc!%dia#eter ratio and ot!er
scre" and dryer di#ensions
-ased on t!e space
a'ailability and cost
opti#i$ation t!e proper
pitc!%dia#eter ratio is
selected
*!ec!oice of single%#ultiple units
can be #ade on t!e basis of total
!eat transfer area
reuired%fabrication constraints
and ot!er factors
The scale-up study of screw conveyor dryer is under progress
Data needed3
:$rou,$*ut (m
3
+$)
4aterial *ro*erties (bul2 de!sity s*eci)ic ,ra/ity )lo"ability t$ermal *ro*erties etc
:em*erature o) $eati!, medium a!d ot$er *ro*erties
&olid 3eed a!d outlet co!ditio!s (moisture co!te!t tem*erature etc.)
Design guidelines for $SCD%
Develo&ing Sustaina*le Drying Techni-ue for LRC
Drying of Low Rank Coal
Drying at Mine Site
Drying at Plant Site
Drying during
conveying from
Mine site to
Barge port
Use of
Renewable
sources of
energy
Use of coal
Mine
Methane
Use of plant
waste heat
Use of flue
gases from
the plant
Use of
Renewable
sources of
energy
Experimentation and use of the
advanced computational tools
Cost-effective and sustainable
drying technology for LRC
Recovering heat from dryer
exhaust / Recycle of exhaust drying
gas
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
01C 7ried at 4i!e &ite
A 1e<uire t$e bur!i!, o) coal to ,e!erate $eat a!d *o"er to
o*erate t$e dryi!, system
A 1esults i! a! i!crease i! !et CO
2
emissio! e/e! "it$
sa/i!,s i! tra!s*ortatio! a!d im*ro/ed *la!t e))icie!cy
A @se o) 4et$a!e at mi!e site ca! reduce t$ese *ossibilities
01C 7ried at >o"er statio! usi!, "aste $eat
A 1esults i! reduced CO
2
emissio!
A But si,!i)ica!t loss o) re/e!ue a!d i!creased cost o) coal
*roducer
Screw Conveyor Dryer is a &ro#ising techni-ue for
low ran+ coal, can *e used for drying during conveying
Detailed e=&eri#entation
So#e Concluding Re#ar+s
M
3
TC
Technology Centre
M3TC re&orts and e)*oo+s

Introduction to Simprosys

Introduction to Introduction to
Simprosys Simprosys
Technology Centre
Industrial Drying Technologies Principles & Practice
Hafiiz Osman
Minerals, Metals and Materials Technology Centre (M3TC)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
1
Contents
2
1. Introduction
2. Principles of Simprosys
3. Case study 1:
Dryin of coal
!. Case Study 2:
Spray dryin of sodium
Palconate
". Conclusion
#. $eferences
7. %&'
()ature does not do anyt*in
+it*out purpose, +*y s*ould +e-(
AS Mujumdar
Introduction to drying software
(Inno.ation is not t*e product of loical
t*ou*t/ alt*ou* t*e result is tied to loical
structure.(
Albert Einstein
3
Drying software challenges
4
0se of riorous t*eoretical model is .ery limited in
practical desin.
Processes in.ol.in solids are difficult to model.
Dryin 1inetics can differ 2y orders of manitude for t*e
same c*emical su2stance,
Solid properties dependent on particle si3e/ porosity/
polymorp*/ etc,
Dryin is a non4e5uili2rium rate4controlled process,
Difficult to 5uantify certain properties 6e.. stic1iness and
*andlin c*aracteristics7
8any computer42ased models *a.e 2een de.eloped
2ut are rarely tested or used practical dryer desin.
9imited mar1et and lac1 of replica2ility.
Available drying software
5
dryPAK De.eloped at 9od3 :ec*nical 0ni.ersity
D;S42ased only
DrySel <=pert system
8ar1eted 2y 'spen :ec*
HSYSY
Aspen Plus
Prosim
Process simulator not specific to dryin
)o dryer unit or too simplistic dryer unit
Desined mainly for material +it* .ery +ell4defined
c*emical properties
DrySPEC2 De.eloped 2y )I>; ?ood $esearc*
Specifically for spray dryin
Simprosys De.eloped 2y Simprote1 Corporation
@indo+s42ased process simulator specifically for dryin
Can simulate almost any dryin and e.aporation related
processes
About Simprosys
8oti.ated 2y t*e need for intuiti.e/ process simulation soft+are tareted
at dryin.
@indo+s42ased process simulator de.eloped 2y Simprote1 Corporation
6+++.simprote1.com7.
0sed for flo+s*eet desin and simulation of dryin and e.aporation
systems.
Simprosys is e=tremely user friendly .
8ainly sol.es *eat and mass 2alances
Ao+e.er does not use dryin 1inetics
Simprosys 2.1 can simulate 11 non4a5ueous dryin systems
Can 2e used to study t*e effect of recycle/ pre4*eatin/ indirect *eatin
etc.
Based on e=tensi.e studies in aut*oritati.e *and2oo1s 2y 8uCumdar/
8asters/ Perry.
6
Principles of Simprosys
DIt Es easy to come up +it* ne+ ideas, t*e
*ard part is lettin o of +*at +or1ed for you
t+o years ao/ 2ut +ill soon 2e out of date.(
Roger von Oech
7
Nomenclature
8
Aeat capacity/ F/1.G 8oisture content 6dry 2asis7
Aumid *eat/ F/1.G '2solute *umidity/ 1/1
Diffusi.ity of system '4B/ m2/s Aeat loss of t*e dryer/ F
:emperature/ G Indirectly supplied *eat to dryer/ F
8ass flo+ rate 6dry 2asis7/ 1/*r )et *eat in 2y transport de.ice/ F
9atent *eat of .apori3ation 8ec*anical enery input/ F
Specific ent*alpy/ F/1
:*ermal conducti.ity/ @/m.G Density/ 1/m3
9e+is num2er Hroup contri2ution .alues
8ass/ 1
Drying gas model
Air-!"er sys"em# properties of +ater calculated from 19#7
'S8< Steam :a2les.
$"%er &!s-li'uid sys"em#
(
Material property
Spe)i*i) %e!" )!p!)i"y de"ermin!"ion
Heneric material:
Heneric food:
1+
Material property
Spe)i*i) %e!" )!p!)i"y de"ermin!"ion ,2-
Heneric food:
11
Car2o*ydrate
's*
?i2er
?at
Protein
:a2le 1. Specific *eat of eneric food components
Unit operations
Dryer .odel
m!ss /!l!n)e#
Ener&y /!l!n)e#
$"%er uni" oper!"ions#
Aeat e=c*aner/ air4filter/ cyclone/ fan/ pump/ compressor/
electrostatic precipitator/ and more.
12
13
Examples and Demo
DIf you are not failin e.ery no+ and aain/ it is a
sin you are not doin anyt*in .ery inno.ati.e.D
Woody Allen
13
Case Study 1: Drying of coal
14
Solid Dryer <=*aust
0nle" !nd ou"le" spe)i*i)!"ions
15
Pro)ess spe)i*i)!"ions
1. Dryin air needs to o t*rou* an air filter first. Pressure drop
is +13 2P!, 'ssume dust .olume concentration of +11 &3m3,
Collection efficiency ((184, ?iltration .elocity is 215 m3s.
2. Dryin air t*en o t*rou* fan +it* efficiency of 7+4 and
pressure ain is 3 2P!.
3. :*en t*rou* air *eater to 2e *eated to 2++ 5C, pressure drop
is +18 2P!.
!. In t*e dryer/ t*e pressure drop in dryer is 112 2P!
". <=*aust air entrains +114 of t*e total material. It needs to o
t*rou* a cyclone to collect t*e entrained particles. :*e
cyclone *as a collection efficiency of (54 and pressure drop
of +16 2P!
16
:emperature 4 30IC
$elati.e Aumidity 4
'2solute *umidity 4 0.09 1 1
41
:*rou*put 4 2 tons/*r
8oisture Content 4 "0J
:emperature 4 30IC
8oisture Content 4 KJ
:emperature 4 Laries
:emperature 4 200IC
Fresh
Air
Air
Filter
Filtered
Air
Fan1
Exchanger 1
Before
Exch
After
Exch
Heater 1
Dryer
In Dryer
out
Dryer
Cyclone 1
Dry
Coal
Wet
Coal
Cyclone
out
Solids from
Cyclone
Dryin& *los%ee" ,no &!s re)y)le-
17
Fresh
Air
Air
Filter
Filtered
Air
Fan1
Exchanger 1
Before
Exch
After
Exch
Recycled
Air
Heater 1
Dryer
In Dryer
out
Dryer
Cyclone 1
Dry
Coal
Wet
Coal
Cyclone
out
Solids from
Cyclone
Fan
0sin Simprosys/ +e +ant to study t*e effects of dryin temperature on
e=it *umidity and specific enery consumption t*e dryin process.
@e can also study t*e effect of as recycle on t*e o.erall performance
of t*e dryin system.
Dryin& *los%ee" ,&!s re)y)le-
18
E**e)" o* dryin& "emper!"ure on e6i"
%umidi"y
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.!
0."
0.#
0.7
12" 1"0 17" 200 22" 2"0 27"
R
e
l
a
t
iv
e
H
u
m
id
it
y
a
t
D
r
y
e
r
E
x
it
(
-
)
Air Temperature at Dryer Inlet (C)
Exit temp =80C
Exit temp = 70C
Exit temp = 60C
0
"00
1000
1"00
2000
2"00
3000
3"00
!000
!"00
"000
12" 1"0 17" 200 22" 2"0 27"
S
p
e
c
if
ic
E
n
e
r
g
y
C
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
io
n
(
k
J
/k
g
)
Exit temp = 80C
Exit temp = 70C
Exit temp = 60C
E**e)" o* dryin& "emper!"ure on
Spe)i*i) ener&y )onsump"ion
7esul"s *rom p!r!me"ri) s"udy
1(
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
125 150 175 200 225 250 275
S
p
e
c
if
ic
E
n
e
rg
y
C
o
n
s
u
m
p
tio
n
(k
J
/k
g
)
Without Recycle
Air temp at pre-heater exit = 70C
Air temp at pre-heater exit = 60C
Air temp at pre-heater exit =50C
E**e)" o* pre-%e!"in& o* *res% !ir on
spe)i*i) ener&y )onsump"ion
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
S
p
e
c
if
ic
E
n
e
r
g
y
C
o
n
s
u
m
p
tio
n
(k
J
/k
g
)
R
e
la
tiv
e
H
u
m
id
ity
a
t D
r
y
e
r
E
x
it (-)
Recycle Ratio to Dryer
Relative humidity
Specific heat consumption
E**e)" o* re)y)le r!"io on e6%!us" !ir
%umidi"y !nd spe)i*i) ener&y )onsump"ion
2+
Case Study 2: Spray drying
Liquid feed (275 kg/hr)
Inlet +ater content 69#J7
:emperature M 20NC
Evaporator
Steam
Condensate
Concentratedliquor
Spray
Dryer
Hot Air
:emperature M 230NC
Dried Product
8oisturecontent M 9J

Heater 1
Dryer
In
Dryer
out
Spray
Dryer
Dry
product
Liquor
Fresh
Air
Fan 1
Before
Heater
Concentrated
feed
Separator
Mix out
Evaporator
Condensate
Steam
Feed
Spray Drying Block
Diagram
Basic flowsheet in Simprosys
SEC 4610 kJ kg
-1
water ea
So!i"m #alconate
21

Heater 1
Dryer
In
Dryer
out
Spray
Dryer
Dry product
Liquor
Fresh
Air
Fan 1
Exch 1
In
Concentrated
feed
Separator
Mix out
Evaporator
Condensate
Steam
Feed
Exch 1
Exch 2
Before
Heater
Exch 1
out
Condensate
out
$eco.ery of *eat from condensate and dryer e=*aust air
22
$eat loss %k&' Specific energy
cons"mption%kJ(kg'
)hermal
efficiency
!"existing# $%1&"Existing# &'!1
$ $!() &'!%
1% $1!* &'$&
1& !+!% &'$%
& !*!( &'(1
Con!ensate o"tlet
temperat"re % C'
Specific energy
cons"mption
%kJ(kg'
Without ,reheating $%1&"Existing#
1&& $$%%
*& $!)!
%& $)
*ir e+ha"st
temperat"re after
pre-heating % C'
Specific energy
cons"mption
%kJ(kg'
Without ,reheating $%1&
1!& !+*
1& !*&
11& !)1!
1&& !%&*
E**e)" o* dryer e6%!us" !ir *or pre-%e!"in& E**e)" o* )ondens!"e ou"le" "emper!"ure
E**e)" o* redu)ed %e!" losses *rom spr!y dryer
Con)lusion
8ost of t*e e=istin /upcomin coal dryin processes
*a.e potential to impro.e t*eir enery efficiency +*ic*
is .ery important de.elop cost4effecti.e and sustaina2le
dryin system.
'lt*ou* it is difficult to e=perimentally study t*e use of
recycle and *eat reco.ery/ soft+are suc* as Simprosys is
.ery *andy in determinin feasi2ility of alternati.e
approac*es to impro.e t*e enery efficiency.
23
7e*eren)es
1. 8uCumdar/ '.S./ <d. Aand2oo1 of Industrial Dryin. C$C Press: Boca $aton/
?lorida/ 2007.
2. Hon/ >.O./ 8uCumdar/ '.S. 6200K7. Soft+are for desin and analysis of dryin
systems. Dryin :ec*noloy/ Lol. 2#/ pp. KK!4K9!.
3. Hon/ >.O./ 8uCumdar/ '.S. 620107. Simulation of dryin non4a5ueous
systems M an application of Simprosys soft+are. Dryin :ec*noloy/ Lol. 2K/
pp. 111411".
!. Gemp/ I.C. 620077/ Dryin soft+are: Past/ present/ and future. Dryin
:ec*noloy/ Lol. 2"/ pp. 1!29412#3.
". 8es*utina/ ).L./ Gudra/ :. 620017. Computer aided dryin tec*noloies.
Dryin :ec*noloy/ Lol. 19/ pp. 1K2"41K!9.
#. Pa1o+s1i/ >. 619997. Simulation of t*e process of con.ecti.e dryin:
identification of eneric computation routines and t*eir implementation in a
computer code dryP'G. Computers and C*ermical <nineerin Supplement/
pp. 7194722.
24

Spray Drying Technology

Dr. Lixin Huang
Nanjing, China
Spray Drying Technology
Presented during
One day course on
Industrial Drying Technologies-Princiles
and Practice
!cto"er #$% &#$$
'ontents
Definition of Spray Drying
Advantages and limitations of spray drying
* Advantages
* Limitations
Classification of spray dryers
Components of spray dryer
* Types of atomization
* Flow patterns
* Collection types
* Control methods
Examples of spray drying
Some typical spray drying processes
Developments in spray drying
Definition
a special process
which is used to
transform the feed
from a liquid state
into a dried
particulate form
(Powder or Particles
!y spraying the feed
into a hot drying
medium"
Ho( it (or)s****
!ot air
Li"#id
feed
Droplets
$oist#re
!eat
Solid
formation
P!+D,-
The Ad.antages of Sray Drying
Contin#o#s and easy to control process
Applica%le to %oth heat&sensitive and heat&
resistant materials
Applica%le to corrosive' a%rasive' toxic and
explosive materials
Satisfies aseptic(hygienic drying conditions
Different prod#ct types) gran#les'
agglomerates' powders etc can %e prod#ced
Different sizes and different capacities
Limitations of Sray Drying
!igh installation cost
Large air vol#mes at low prod#ct hold&#p
implies gas cleaning costly
Lower thermal efficiency
!eat degradation possi%ility in high&
temperat#re spray drying
'omponents of Spray Dryer
A conventional spray drying process consists of the follo)ing four stages0
*+ Atomization of feed into droplets
,+ !eating of hot drying medi#m
-+ Spray&air contact and drying of droplets
.+ /rod#ct recovery and final air treatment
1igure0 Typical spray dryer layo#t
Types of atomi2ers0 .otary atomi2er
Advantages)
!andles large feed rates with single
wheel or dis0
S#ited for a%rasive feeds with proper
design
!as negligi%le clogging tendency
Change of wheel rotary speed to control
the particle size distri%#tion
$ore flexi%le capacity 1%#t with changes
powder properties2
Limitations )
!igher energy cons#mption compared
to press#re nozzles
$ore expensive
3road spray pattern re"#ires large
drying cham%er diameter
Types of atomi2ers0 Pressure no22le
Advantages0
Simple' compact and cheap
4o moving parts
Lowenergy cons#mption
/imitations0
Lowcapacity 1feed rate for single nozzle2
!igh tendency to clog
Erosion can change spray characteristics
Types of atomi2ers0 Pressure no22le
Advantages0
Simple' compact and cheap
4o moving parts
!andle the feedstoc0s with high&viscosity
/rod#ce prod#cts with very small size particle
/imitations0
!igh energy cons#mption
Lowcapacity 1feed rate2
!igh tendency to clog
Types of Spray Dryersflo) patterns
'ocurrent flo) 'ountercurrent flo) Mi3edcurrent flo)
Po)der collection
'ontrol System
SystemA)
5t maintains the o#tlet temperat#re %y ad6#sting the feed
rate+ 5t is partic#larly s#ita%le for centrif#gal spray dryers+
This control system #s#ally has another control loop' i+e+'
controlling the inlet temperat#re %y reg#lating air heater+
System3)
5t maintains the o#tlet temperat#re %y reg#lating the air
heater and 0eeping the constant spray rate+ This system can
%e partic#larly #sed for nozzle spray dryers' %eca#se varying
spray rate will res#lt in change of the droplet size
distri%#tionfor press#re or pne#matic nozzle+
Selection Tree for Spray Drying System
Some -3amples of
Spray Drying Systems
Spray Drying Applications in 1ood Technology
/rod#ct Feed co
ncentrat
ion 7
8esid#al
&mois
t#re 7
Drying&
temperat#re 1
9
C2
Spray dryer design
5nlet :#tlet
Coffee -9&;; ,+9&.+; *<9&
,;9
<9&**; :CL=CCF=/44=SS=C>=$
S
Egg ,9&,. -&.+; *<9&
,99
<9&?9 :CL=CCF=CA(/44=SS=C
>(3F
Enzyme ,9&.9 ,+9&;+9 *99&
*<9
;9&*99 :CL=CCF'CA(/44'SS=3
F(C>@AC
S0immil0 .B&;, -+;&.+9 *B;&
,.9
B;&?; :CL=CCF=CA(/44=SS(
$S C>(3F
Spir#lina *9&*; ;+9&B+9 *;9&
,,9
?9&*99 :CL(SCCL=CCF=CA=SS=
3F(C>@AC
$altodextrin ,+;&C+9 ,+;&C+9 *;9&
-99
?9&*99 :CL=CCF($F=/44(CA=
SS=3F(C>@AC
Soya protein *,&*B ,+9&;+9 *B;&
,;9
<;&*99 :CL=CCF=/4=SS=3F
Tea extract -9&.9 ,+;&;+9 *<9&
,;9
?9&**9 :CL=CCF=/4=SS=C>(C>
@AC
Tomato
paste
,C&.< -+9&-+; *.9&
*C9
B;&<; :CL=CCF=/4(CA=SS($
S= C>(3F
Spray Drying of S*im Mil* Spray Drying of Tomato 4uice
Spray Drying of 'offee
Developing Trends in
Spray Drying
Multi-stage Spray Drying System
:peration(comp#tation parameters SD SD@DF3 SD@5F3 SD@5F3@DF3
1$SD2 Spray drying
5nlet air temperat#re 1
9
C2 ,99 ,-9 ,-9 ,C9
Air rate 10g(h2 -*;99 -*;99 -*;99 -*;99
Spray rate 10g(h2 ,,?9 -;*9 .,;9 ;;.9
Solid content 172 .< .< .< .<
$oist#re 17D32 *9<+- *9<+-
*9<+-
*9<+-
8esid#al moist#re 172 -+; C ? ?
:#tlet temperat#re 1
9
C2 ?< B- C; C;
Evaporation rate 10g(h2 **;9 *B?9 ,9*9 ,C,9
Energy cons#mption 1EF2 B+C <+<C <+? ?+?;
Energy cons#mption(0g powder
10F(0g2
CCCB .?.? -?B* -.,<
DF3 5F3 5F3
Air rate 10g(h2 .,?9 CB;9 **;99
Air temperat#re 1
9
C2 *99 **; *,9
Evaporation rate 10g(h2 .; *,; *C;
8esid#al moist#re 172 -+; -+; -+;
Energy cons#mption 1EF2 9+.< 9+<, *+**
:verall drying performance
Total energy cons#mption 1EF2 ? ?+-. ?+B, **+*
Energy cons#mp+(0g powder1$F(0g2 C+CB ;+-; .+-. .+9*
/owder diameter 1micron2 ;9&*;9 ;9&,99 ;9&;99 ;9&;99
Flowa%ility poor Freeflow
Freeflow
Free&flow
3#l0 density 10g(m
-
21Approx+2 C99 .<9 .;9 .;9
Superheated Steam Spray Drying
Advantages 0
* 4o fire and explosion hazards
* 4o oxidative damage
* A%ility to operate at vac##m and high operating press#re
conditions
* Ease of recovery of latent heat s#pplied for evaporation
* 3etter "#ality prod#ct #nder certain conditions
* Closed systemoperation to minimize air poll#tion
/imitations0
* !igher prod#ct temperat#re
* !igher capital costs compared to hot air drying
* /ossi%ility of air infiltration ma0ing heat recovery from
exha#st steamdiffic#lt %y compression or condensation
Spray 1ree2e Drying
schematic
flowchart of
the
con!entional
spray free"e
drying
'1D modelling and
deposition study of spray
dryers
.eduction of particle)all deposition
,e"li*e deposition 5gelatin6
Deposition at the conical )all
5sucrosemaltode3trin6
Dripping pro"lem
5sucrosemaltode3trin6
-3periments to determine deposition flu3es
-3periments to determine deposition flu3es
#.$7 m
&
#.$7 m
&
#.$8 m
&
1indings
Middle plate Bottom plate
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
100 120 140 160 180
Inlet temperature, C
D
e
p
o
s
i
t
io
n

f
lu
x
,

g

m
-2

s
-1
SS
TF
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
100 120 140 160 180
D
e
p
o
s
it
io
n

f
lu
x
,

g

m
-2

s
-1
SS
TF
G Deposition strength tester
Air sparger
Adjusta"le disperser
angle
'lips to hold
the plate
9uic* coupling
tocompressed
air line
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
100 120 140 160 180
%

D
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

i
n

d
e
p
o
s
i
t

a
f
t
e
r

t
e
s
t
SS
TF

1indings
Middle plate
Ne) deposition model
G :ig challenge as rigidity changes
G Proposed a ;iscoelastic approach
*,9 HC inlet
Amorpho#s glassy
*?9 HC inlet
Amorpho#s r#%%ery
G ;iscoelastic contact modelling
t d
d
E

+ =
Stress
Storage
coefficient
Strain /oss
coefficient
Strain
rate
G ;iscoelastic contact modelling
G Superposition techni<ue
Storage mod#l#s Loss mod#l#s
247 . 1
) ( 228 . 1 T A E =
056 . 1
) ( 235 T A E =
( )
T
A E ( )
T
A E ( )
T
A E ( )
T
A E
Strong re"ound and escape
5diameter0 $## =m% initial velocity0 #.8 ms
$
% TTg0 &>?'6
G 1indings
5diameter0 $&# =m% initial velocity0 #.@ ms
$
6
G 1indings
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
T - Tg, C
R
e
s
t
i
t
u
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r
0.2 m/s
0.5 m/s
1.0 m/s
1.5 m/s
Spray Drying and Simulations
-3ample Specifications .emar*s
Different geometry Conical' ho#r&glass'
lantern' cylinder&
on&cone
4ew idea&limited
experience
!orizontal SDI 4ew development
Coffee spray dryer two nozzles
installed
5nd#strial scale
Conventional spray
dryer with rotary
disc
Cylinder&on&cone
geometry+ 8otary
disc atomizer
Conventional
concept G first try
;arious tested geometries modeled "y '1D
!*J<,9mm
!,J<B9mm
!-JB9mm
!.J*99mm
D*J?-;mm
D-JB.mm
D.J*B9mm
D;J*-Cmm
Cylinder&on&cone
5n6ection
position
At the
center
and !.
away
fromthe
top
ceiling
Conical Cham%er
!9J*C?9mm
D*J?-;mm
D-JB.mm
5nlet size is
same as that
in Case K
5n6ection
position
At the
center and
!. away
fromthe
top ceiling
!o#r&glass Cham%er
!*J<,9mm
!,J<B9mm
D*J?-;mm
D,J.99mm
D-JB.mm
5nlet size is
same as
that in Case
K
5n6ection
position
At the
center and
!. away
fromthe
top ceiling
Lantern
cham%er
!*J<,9mm
!,J<B9mm
D*J.99mm
D,J?-;mm
D-JB.mm
5nlet size is
same as that
in Case K
5n6ectio
n
position
At the
center
and !.
away
fromthe
top
ceiling
Novel spray dryer geometry tests
'ylinderoncone
'onical cham"er
(ourglass geometry
/antern geometry
!verall heat and mass transfer characteristics of the four cham"ers
Case A Case 3 Case C Case D
Dol#me of cham%er 1m
-
2 9+BB? 9+;9* 9+C,- 9+C,-
Evaporation rate 1*9
&-
0g(s2 9+?;? 9+?;* 9+?,,B 9+?;;
4et !eat&transfer rate 1A2 ,,B9 ,,-C+<< ,*C;+* ,,<;
!eat loss fromwall 1A2 ,.<B+;C ,9CB+CB ,-99+?C ,9-<+BC
Average vol#metric evaporation
intensity "
m
1*9
&-
0g!
,
:(s+m
-
2
*+,- *+?* *+.< *+;-
Average vol#metric heat&
transfer intensity "
h
1A(m
-
2
;.C-+,B <;?*+? B*C<+C C?.9+,
The possi%ility of changing the spray cham%er geometry was investigated for
%etter #tilization of dryer vol#me and to o%tain higher vol#metric heat and
mass transfer performance compared to the traditional co&c#rrent cylinder&on&
cone config#ration+
The predicted res#lts show that ho#r&glass geometry is a special case and the
cylinder&on&cone is not an optimal geometry+
The predicted overall drying performance of different geometry designs show
that p#re conical geometry may present a %etter average vol#metric
evaporation intensity+
Limitation) no experimental data to compare
The predicted res#lts are #sef#l for the spray dryer vendors or #sers who are
interestedin developing newdesigns of spray dryers+
'losing .emar*s
Spray dryers' %oth conventional and innovative' will
contin#e to find increasing applications in vario#s
ind#stries+
Some of the common feat#res of innovations are
identified+ There is need for f#rther 8LD and eval#ation
of new concepts+
Spray drying is an important operation for ind#stries
that deserves m#lti&disciplinary 8LD prefera%ly with
close ind#stry&academia interaction
5n the f#t#re' the mathematical model of spray drying
will incl#de not only the transport phenomena %#t also
prod#ct "#ality predictions+ 5n the meantime' it is
necessary to test and validate new concepts of drying in
the la%oratory and if s#ccessf#l then on a pilot scale+

Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of
drying processes

Prof. Rajasekhar Bala and Prof. A S Mujumdar
Minerals, Metals and Materials Technology Centre (M3TC)
Dr. Nawshad Haque
CSIRO, !stralia
Industrial Drying Technologies Principles and Practice
"ife cycle assess#ent
("C) of drying
processes
Technology Centre
1
Contents
$% Introd!ction to "C
&% "C soft'are
3% The "C process
(% Co##on "C ter#s
)% *rod!ct life+cycle syste#
,% I#pact category selection
-% Case st!dy $. The /and 0rying
0ile##a
1% Case st!dy &. 0rying of C!
concentrate
2% Case st!dy 3. 3io#ass drying
$4% S!##ary
$$% References
2
53ea!ty in things e6ists in the #ind
'hich conte#plates the#%5
David Hume
3
INTRODUCTION
5The !lti#ate test of #an7s conscience #ay 8e his
'illingness to sacrifice so#ething today for f!t!re
generations 'hose 'ords of than9s 'ill not 8e
heard%5
Gaylord Nelson
Do you know
*rod!cing one ton of
recycled steel saves the
energy e:!ivalent of 3%,
8arrels of oil and $%) tons of
iron ore, co#pared to the
prod!ction of ne' steel;
*rod!cing paper !sing a
chlorine+free process !ses
8et'een &4 and &) percent
less 'ater than conventional
chlorine+8ased paper
prod!ction processes;
4
!fe "#$le Assessmen% &"A' is a techni:!e for assessing the
potential environ#ental aspects associated 'ith a prod!ct (or
service), 8y.
co#piling an !n(en%or# of relevant inp!ts and o!tp!ts,
e(alua%!n) the potential environ#ental i#pacts associated
'ith those inp!ts and o!tp!ts,
!n%er*re%!n) the res!lts of the inventory and i#pact phases in
relation to the o8<ectives of the st!dy%
(from the ISO Committee Draft 14040.3 draft on LCA, October 1995) (from the ISO Committee Draft 14040.3 draft on LCA, October 1995)
+
What is LCA ?
=!antitative environ#ental "ife Cycle ssess#ent of prod!cts
> Quantitative (as #!ch as possi8le)
> Environmental (th!s not costs, safety, !ser friendliness, %%%)
> Life Cycle (fro# the cradle to the grave)
> Products ('ith a central role for the f!nction of the prod!ct)
,
What is LCA ?
ction is re:!ired to address glo8al and regional environ#ental
concerns.
?nergy conservation
@ stratospheric oAone BholesC
@ increased level of greenho!se gases
@ eco+syste# da#age
@ loss of 8io+diversity
@ soil erosion, etc%
-
Why do we need to perform LCA?
"A $an ass!s% !n.
@ identifying i#prove#ent opport!nities in a prod!ctDs life
cycle%
@ decision+#a9ing in ind!stry, govern#ent, NEOs%
@ selection of relevant indicators of environ#ental perfor#ance%
@ #ar9eting (e%g% environ#ental declaration or la8el)%
/
What are the appi!ations of LCA?
learning a8o!t the prod!ct
F all !pstrea# processes are identified%
F the s!ppliersD processes are 8etter !nderstood%
F B9ey iss!esC in the life cycle are identified%
F the connections 8et'een prod!ct characteristics and
environ#ental i#pacts are revealed%
0
"ut most of a LCA assists in
11
Dri#ers for startin$ LCA
@ 2m*or%an% dr!(ers are.
F cost savings
F prod!ct+related environ#ental pro8le#s
F e#erging green #ar9ets
F 0G? (0esign for the environ#ent). is a #ethodological
fra#e'or9
8ased on "C thin9ing 'hich allo's the integration of
environ#ental
para#eters directly into the design of processes and prod!cts
@ Med!um !m*or%an$e dr!(ers.
F environ#ental legislation
F #eet eco la8el criteria
F initiatives 8y R H 0
@ ow !m*or%an$e dr!(ers.
F enco!rage#ent 8y parent co#pany
F co#petitors started to !se it%
11
%oti#ations for Impementin$ LCA
Product Process Imp.
Cost Reduction
Decision Making
Proactive Environment
Customer Requirements
I SO St andards
Determine Liabilities
Regulator y Concer ns
Market ing
Set Research Priorit ies
Eco-Labeling
Product Compar ison
Opt imization
Reduce Toxic Waste
Waste Stream Mgt.
0 5 10 15 20 25
A#aia&e LCA 'oftware
12
Ea3i(.
http.II'''%ga8i+soft'are%co#I
Si#a*ro.
http.II'''%si#apro%co%!9I
ER??T
http.IIgreet%es%anl%govI
T?M
https.II'''%eco8ilan%co#I!9Jtea#%php
M?TSIM
http.II#etsi#%co#I*rod!cts%ht#
?IO+"C
http.II'''%eiolca%netIcgi+8inIdftI!se%pl
open"C.
http.II'''%openlca%orgIinde6%ht#l
'omethin$ to think a&out
13
KS
*aper to'el /and dryer
14
LCA %ethodoo$y
5/!#an needs gro' linearly 8!t greed gro's
e6ponentially, 'hich poses a #a<or challenge
to achieving s!staina8ility in any area%5
Arun S Mujumdar
The LCA pro!ess
1+
Eoal and
scope
definition
Inventory
analysis
I#pact
ssess#ent
Interpretation
Lhy and for 'ho#;
3o!ndary de#arcation, data
collection
I#pact category selection,
characterisation
ssess#ent, interpretation,
sensitivity analysis
Update H i#prove#ent 'ith
ne' data
The LCA pro!ess ()*
1,
3oal def!n!%!on &2S4 14141'. 0efine 8asis and scope of the
eval!ation%
2n(en%or# Anal#s!s &2S4 14141'. Create a process tree in 'hich all
processes fro# ra' #aterial e6traction thro!gh 'aste 'ater
treat#ent are #apped o!t and connected and #ass and energy
8alances are closed (all e#issions and cons!#ptions are acco!nted
for)%
2m*a$% Assessmen% &2S4 14142'. ?#issions and cons!#ptions are
translated into environ#ental effects% The are environ#ental
effects are gro!ped and 'eighted%
2m*ro(emen% Assessmen%52n%er*re%a%!on &2S4 14143'. reas for
i#prove#ent are identified%
The LCA pro!ess (+*
1-
?sta8lish scope Collect data
"ife cycle
inventory
Convert to
i#pacts
I#pact
assess#ent
Interpretation 0ecision #a9ing
The LCA pro!ess (,*
1/
*rod!cts can 8e eval!ated thro!gh each stage of their life+
cycle.
?6traction or ac:!isition of ra' #aterials
Man!fact!ring and processing
0istri8!tion and transportation
Use and re!se
Recycling
0isposal
Gor each stage, identify inp!ts of #aterials and energy
receivedM o!tp!ts of !sef!l prod!ct and 'aste e#issions
Gind opti#al points for i#prove#ent F eco+efficiency
'ome !ommon terms in LCA
10
3o!ndary
G!nctional !nit
"ife cycle inventory ("CI) data
CharacteriAation
?nviron#ental i#pact categories
Midpoint
?ndpoint
I#pact #ethods (?coindicator, ReCi*?, CM" etc)
Leighting
Interpretation, reporting, peer revie'
The produ!t ife-!y!e system
21
21 Source: World Business Council of Sustainable Development
Life-!y!e sta$es of diff. produ!ts Impa!t !ate$ory see!tion
22 Source: SimaPro software manual
LCA Impa!t/midpoint indi!ators
23
2nd!$a%ors 6n!%
Elo8al Lar#ing *otential (EL*) 9g CO
&
*hotoche#ical o6idation 9g C
&
/
(
?!trophication 9g *O
(
e:
Carcinogens 9g chloro+ethylene e:
To6icity 9g $,( 0i+chloro+8enAene e:
"and !se ha%year
Later Use 9" /
&
O
Solid 'aste 9g
Gossil f!els MN s!rpl!s
Minerals MN S!rpl!s
Assessment 0 LCA Impa!t/Indi!ators
24
I#pact category Indicators Unit
/!#an /ealth Cli#ate change 0isa8ility ad<!sted life
years (0"O)
OAone depletion 0"O
Carcinogens 0"O
Respiratory effects
(organicIinorganic)
0"O
To6icity 0"O
Ionising radiation 0"O
?cosyste# da#age "and !se *artially disappeared
fractionP (#
&
Iy)
cidificationI?!trophication *0GP#
&
Iy
?coto6icity *0GP#
&
Iy
Reso!rce depletion MineralsIfossil f!el MN s!rpl!s
2+
CA'1 'TUDI1'
5The difference 8et'een ani#als and
h!#ans is that ani#als change the#selves
for the environ#ent, 8!t h!#ans change the
environ#ent for the#selves%5
Ayn Rand
Case I - The 2and Dryin$ Diemma
2,
KS
*aper to'el /and dryer
'ystem &oundaries3 Dryer system
2- Source: Environmental Resources Management, 2001
'ystem &oundaries3 Towe system
2/ Source: Environmental Resources Management, 2001
Impa!t &urden of &oth systems
20 Source: Environmental Resources Management, 2001
4auation !omparison
31 Source: Environmental Resources Management, 2001
0ifferent #ethod res!lt in different val!ationsQ
ss!#ptions also greatly affect val!ations%
Case II 0 Cu !on!entrate dryin$
31
Assum*%!ons
C! concentrate drying e6a#ple (),444 tpa)
C! concentrate at $4R MC needs to 8e dried to 4%&R
MC in a rotary dryer
Nat!ral gas is in<ected in a 8!rner as f!el ('e can
change f!el type if 'e 'ant)
ir is !sed for co#plete co#8!stion
Co#8!sted o!tp!t off+gas is at $-,) deg C, cooled to
,)4 deg C 'ith adding cold air
32
,)4C
$3)C
&44C
$4R MC
4%&R MC
Case II 0 Cu !on!entrate dryin$ ()*
Me%s!m flowshee%
Case II 0 Cu !on!entrate dryin$ (+*
33
Base$ase &B' s$enar!o
0ryer inlet te#perat!re. ,)4 deg C
0ryer o!tlet gas te#perat!re. &44 deg C
*rod!ct te#perat!re. $3) deg C
Initial #oist!re content. $4R
Total of $4 9L #otor po'er re:!ired for e:!ip#ent
Case II 0 Cu !on!entrate dryin$ (,*
34
S!mula%ed s$enar!o
Control can change these te#perat!res H MCs, th!s
the specific energy H car8on e#ission footprint of dry
prod!ct is changed
Seeping other para#eters sa#e.
S$. 0ryer inlet te#p% is halved to 3&) TC
S&. 0ryer o!tlet gas te#p% is halved to $44 T C
S3. *rod!ct te#p% is halved to ,-%) TC
S(. Initial MC is do!8led to &4R
Case II 0 Cu !on!entrate dryin$ (5*
3+
Resul%s. 7hermal ener)# foo%*r!n%
4%44
4%$4
4%&4
4%34
4%(4
4%)4
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Assum*%!ons
Loody 8io#ass particle siAe. )##
Lood species. radiata pine
Initial #oist!re content (oven+dry 8asis). )4R
Ginal #oist!re content (oven+dry 8asis). $4R
0ryer type. 3ed dryer
0rying te#perat!re. 2) C
Relative h!#idity of drying air. )R
Case III 0 "iomass dryin$ (8*
3/
Case III 0 "iomass dryin$ ()*
30
1.69 1.98 6.85
67.63
116.52
7.6 7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Woodwaste Bagasse Charcoal Natural gas Black coal
k
g

C
O
2
e
/
t

d
r
y

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
Electrical
Thermal
Bed dr#er $ase
Case III 0 "iomass dryin$ (+*
41
4,643
4,788
7,226
37,617
62,060
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
Woodwaste Bagasse Charcoal Natural gas Black coal
t
C
O
2
e
/
y
/
0
.
5

M
t
p
a

d
r
y
i
n
g

p
l
a
n
t
Plan% $ase
'ummary (8*
41
"C is a tool to assess environ#ental i#pact of a
prod!ct or process
It can 8e Bcradle to graveC or Bcradle to gateC or Bgate
to gateC depending on the 8o!ndary
It is a !sef!l tool for decision #a9ing and co#paring
processes for car8on footprints and other
environ#ental i#pacts
"CI inp!t data :!ality is very i#portant and there are
tools to assess data :!ality
'ummary ()*
42
0rying is partic!larly energy+intensive process th!s
re:!ires its environ#ental i#pact assess#ent
0epending on so!rce of energy or f!el type this
i#pact can differ
Eiven a choice, opti#isation of f!el type or energy
so!rce #ay 8e possi8le !sing "C
t the end, #ay need co#pro#ise 8et'een
environ#ental and econo#ic i#pacts for adopting a
partic!lar drying technology at co##ercial scale
"enefits Of LCA
43
co#panies can clai# one prod!ct is 8etter
than another on the 8asis of "C
"C inventory process helps to narro' in on
the area 'here the 8iggest red!ctions in
environ#ental e#issions can 8e #ade
can 8e !sed to red!ce prod!ction costs
Referen!es
44
$% ISO $(4(( (&44,). Environmental management - Life cycle
assessment - Requirements and guidelines% International
OrganiAation for StandardiAation, ISO, Eeneva, S'itAerland%
&% UN?* S?TC "ife Cycle ssess#ent Initiative +
http.IIlcinitiative%!nep%fr Uaccessed 2 !g!st, &4$$V%
3% !stralian "ife Cycle ssess#ent Society ("CS) and !s"CI
0ata8ase Initiative + http.II'''%alcas%asn%a! Uaccessed 2 !g!st,
&4$$V%
(% S'iss Centre for "ife Cycle Inventories, ?coinvent 0ata8ase +
http.II'''%ecoinvent%ch Uaccessed 2 !g!st, &4$$V%
)% "ife Cycle Cons!ltancy and Soft'are Sol!tions, Si#a*ro Soft'are +
http.II'''%pre%nl Uaccessed 2 !g!st, &4$$V
,% Ea3i Soft'are F Soft'are Sol!tion 8y *? International F
http.II'''%ga8i+soft'are%co# Uaccessed 2 !g!st, &4$$V%
"ooks
4+
$% E!inee, N%3% (?d%), /and8oo9 on life+cycle assess#ent.
operational g!ide to the ISO standards, Sl!'er cade#ic
*!8lishers, &44&%
&% C!rran, M%%, ?nviron#ental life+cycle assess#ent,
McEra'+/ill *rofessional *!8lishing, $22,%
3% Cia#8rone, 0%G%, ?nviron#ental life+cycle analysis, CRC
*ress, $22-
A!knowed$ement
4,
The a!thors are gratef!l to /afiiA Os#an for the artistic
preparation of this *o'er *oint presentation%
5Sno'ledge is li9e entropyM it
9eeps increasing% It is a pity
the sa#e cannot 8e said
a8o!t 'isdo#%5
Arun S Mujumdar
4-
Thank 9ou
for your
Attention
Technology Centre

Impingement drying

Impingement Drying
Singapore, October 1
st
, 2011
Industrial Drying Technologies
Principles & Practice
Jundika C. Kurnia
1
Division of Energy and Bio-Thermal System, Mechanical
Engineering Department, National University of Singapore,
Singapore 117576
2
Minerals, Metals and Material Technology Centre (M3TC), National
University of Singapore, Singapore 117576
Email: jc.kurnia@nus.edu.sg
Tel: +65-6516-2256
Outline
Overview of impingement jet flow
Impingement dryers
Overview
Design parameters
Heat transfer correlations
Single jet
Multiple jet
CFD Model for impingement dryers
Problem description
Selected results
2
Overview of Impinging Jet
A simple flow configuration, in which a jet issuing from a nozzle hits
perpendicularly a wall
Intensive heat transfer between the fluid and the wall
Thin hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers within the
stagnation (impinging) point
Widely used in industrial application 3
Drying of continuous sheets of
materials (textile, films, papers, veneer,
lumber,)
Thermal drying foodstuff production
Electronic component and gas turbine
cooling
Manufacture of printed wiring boards
and metal sheet
Printing processes
Deicing of aircraft wings
Tempering of glass and nonferrous
metal sheet..
Vertical/Short Take-Off and Landing
(V/STOL) aerodynamics
Impinging Flow Field
Deflection (Impingement) region: The flow is subjected to strong
curvature and very high strain due to the presence of the physical
boundary
Wall jet region: The flow proceeds as wall-jets on the sides and
decelerates in the flow direction while the boundary layer thickness
increases
4
Free jet region: Jet issued from
nozzle spreads as a free jet
Potential core: centerline velocity
not change with the stream wise
direction, equal to its value at the
nozzle exit
Developing flow: there is a decay of
the centerline velocity and followed
by fully-developed region
Developed: velocity profiles are
similar
Types of Impinging Jets
Steady/Pulsed
Laminar/Turbulent
Large/Small temperature jets
Single/Multiple
Slot/Round/3-D
Semi-confined/Confined/Free jets
Newtonian/Non-Newtonian
Stationary/Moving/Smooth/Roug
h targets
Single/Two phase
Continuous flow/Gas-particle/Mist
jets
Non-reacting/Reacting
Incompressible/Compressible
Solid/Liquid/Gas target
Normal/Oblique impingement
Subsonic/Supersonic
Target with injection/suction
Jets in cross-flow
5
Configurations of Impinging Jets
6
Impingement Drying
Various impinging jets are commonly used in numerous
industrial drying operations involving rapid drying of
materials:
Continuous sheets (e.g., tissue paper, photographic, film, coated
paper, nonwovens and textiles)
Relatively large, thin sheets (e.g., veneer, lumber, and carpets)
Beds of coarse granules
Also in printing, packaging and converting industry
Popular for rapid convective drying
Offers very high heat and mass transfer rates
Recommended only to remove surface or unbound
moisture
Can be combined with other drying method (e.g.,
microwave drying, suction)
7
Design of Impinging Dryers
Design parameters:
Select nozzle configuration (e.g. multiple slot and round jet arrays or
exhaust port location)
Select nozzle geometry (most of them chosen arbitrarily)
Select jet velocity, temperature and nozzle-target spacing (These
are interrelated)
Calculate drying rate using pertinent empirical correlations (or
computational modeling) and applying various correction for surface
motion, high transfer rate, large temperature difference between the
air jet and the web surface. etc. Compute product surface
temperature. Make a parametric study to determine quantitatively
the influence of various parameters.
Determine air recycle ratio (by mass and enthalpy balance)
Redo steps 4 and 5, accounting for changes in jet temperature and
humidity due to recycle (The recalculated exhaust may be heated in
some instances)
Product consideration 8
Nozzle Configurations
9
Single jet Multiple jet
Single jet has higher heat transfer rate at the impingement point
Single jet can be of interest if the product is susceptible to deformation under
high pressure gradient
Multiple jet has more uniform heat transfer rate
Nozzle Geometry and Target Spacing
10
Nozzle geometry Nozzle to target spacing
Nozzle design appreciably affects the impingement surface heat and mass
transfer
Different nozzle designs produce different nozzle exit velocity and turbulence
profile
Higher nozzle-to-surface distance results in more uniform but lower heat
transfer rate
Surface Motion and permeability
11
Moving surface Permeable surface
Moving surface could change heat and mass transfer characteristics
substantially
The larger effect on the local heat transfer is felt in the wall region of the side
where surface motion is towards the nozzle centerline
At permeable impingement surface, heat transfer can be improved by
withdrawing some of the jet flow through the surface
Large Temperature Different
12
Standard k- model RSM model
Large temperature differences between the jet and the impingement surface lead
to significant differences in the numerical value of the heat transfer coefficients
(Nu
j
, Nu
f
and Nu
w
which corresponds to jet, film and wall temperature).
Use of jet temperature as the reference gives the least spread.
Designer could use previously published correlation, which were obtained at
small temperature difference
Product Quality Consideration
Depending on the type and quality of the
product, design of the dryer will be limited in the
choice of one or more design variables:
Type of nozzle
Jet temperature
Jet velocity
For example
Mechanical stress sensitive (e.g., coated or printed
sheet) limited velocity
Temperature sensitive (e.g., thin slice of fruit)
limited temperature
Drying uniformity (e.g., coated papers) Slot nozzle
preferred over arrays of round holes
13 The above formulations imply that to calculate heat transfer coefficient,
Reynolds number and Prandtl number are essential.
Heat Transfer Correlations
Reynolds number and heat transfer coefficient
formulation
( )
(0) ( )
(0) ( )
3
2
Re , Re, Pr
, ,
(ARN )
2 3
(ARN)
4
(ASN)
j
avg
avg
j
VD
Nu f
Nu k Nu k
h h
D D
D
L
D
f
L
w
L
= =
= =
| |
|
\
| |
=
|
\
where:
Re = Reynold number at nozzle
Pr = Prandtl number at nozzle
= Nozzle diameter
= Fluid density
= Fluid velocity
= Fluid dynamic viscosity
= Nusselt number
j
D
V
Nu
S
(0)
( )
= Sherwood number
= Heat transfer coefficient at stagnation point
= Average heat transfer coefficient
= Thermal conductivity
= Nozzle exit area/area of square at
avg
h
h
h
k
f tached
= Array of round nozzle, triangular pitch
= Array of round nozzle, square pitch
= Array of slot nozzle
ARN
ARN
ASN
14
Heat Transfer Correlations
15
( )
0.05
6
2/3
0.42 0.42
3/4
0 0.42 0.42
0 0
1 2.2 /
1 Re
Pr 0.6 1 0.2 / 6
2000 Re 100, 000; 0.004 0.04; 2 / 12; accuracy 15%
2 4Re
Pr 6 / /
where
ARN
ASN
f Sh Nu H d
f
Sc f H d f
f H D
Sh Nu
f
Sc f f f f
f
| |
| | | | | |
|
= = + | | |
| |
| +
\ \ \
\

| | | |
= =
| |
+
\ \
( ) ( )
1/ 2
2
0
60 4 / 2 2
1500 Re 40, 000; 0.008 2.5; 1 / 40; accuracy 15%
H w
f H D
= +

Within the engineering approximation, this correlation yields the following
results for both round and slot nozzle:
Optimal spacing for slots and optimal pitch for ARN are both 1.40 H
S
opt
= 0.2 H and D
opt
= 0.18 H
These optima should be taken only roughly
Design Factors
The following factors have to be considered in designing impinging dryers
Crossflow
For ASN the effect of crossflow is severe
For staggered ARN the effect of crossflow is less severe
May trigger nonuniform moisture profile
Semi confinement
Absence of confinement may worsen heat transfer performance by 20-50%
Mass transfer
High evaporation rate creates large mass fluxes normal to the surface
Correction must be taken to the empirically determined Nu and Sh
Large temperature difference
Suction
Increase the impingement heat transfer rate (10-15%)
Permeability of the product changes during drying, suction velocity increase in the
downstream direction
Surface motion
Safe to neglect if the surface linear velocity is less than 20% of the jet impact
Local Nu is altered significantly but the average is little affected
Oblique impingement
For moving surface, an optimum angle of impingement may exist
Local Nu changes but the average only slightly changes
Roughness, curvature of impingement surface and artificially induced turbulence.
16
CFD model impingement drying
17
Inlet
45
fixed and pulsating
17.5%
in
in
in
T C
V
RH
=
=
=
Drying chamber
0.4
0.02
L m
z m
=
=
Substrate
30
5
s
s
L mm
H mm
=
=
Substrate dried is a potato chips.
It is placed in a drying chamber
with impinging jet
Orifice nozzle is used in this study
Governing equations
Bulk substrate
Conservation of mass
Liquid water
Water vapor
Conservation of energy
Drying air
Conservation of mass
Water vapor
Conservation of momentum
Conservation of energy
18
2
a
p
t

| |
+ = +
|
\
u
u u u
( )
( )
,
,
l
lb l l
v
vb v v
c
D c Kc
t
c
D c Kc
t
+ =
+ =
( ) ,
v
va v v
c
D c c
t
+ =
u
( )
a pa a a pa
T
c k T c T
t

+ =
u
( )
b pb b
T
c k T q
t

+ =
&
Governing equations
19
Turbulence model
Reynolds stress model
Accumulation
Convective
Production
Rotation
Diffusion
Dissipation
Pressure strain
interaction
To solve this model k-
turbulence model is
required
ij
ij ij ij ij ij ij
R
C P D
t

+ = + + +
( )
' '
i j
ij
u u
R
t t
=

( )
' '
ij a i j
C u u = U
j i
ij im jm
m m
U U
P R R
x x
| |
= +
|

\
( )
' ' ' '
2
ij k j m ikm i m jkm
u u e u u e = +
2
with , 0.09 and 1.0
t
ij ij t k
k
k
D R C C

| |
= = = =
|
\
2
3
ij ij
=
1 2
1 2
2 2

3 3
with 1.8 and 0.6
ij ij ij ij ij
P C R k C P P
k
C C

| | | |
=
| |
\ \
= =
Governing equations
k- turbulence model
20
( )
( )
2
1
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
,
,
2 ,
t
t
k
t t
k
t
k
k k G
t
C G
C
t k k
u v w u v u w w v
G
x y z y x z x y z
( | |
+ = + +
( |
( \
( | |
+ = + + ( |
( \
| |
( | | | | ( ( | |
| = + + + + + + + +
| | | ( ( (
| \ \ \
\
u
u
2
,
k
C
=
C1 = 1.44
C2 = 1.92
C = 0.09
k = 1.0
= 1.0
Nomenclature:
u, v, w = component velocity
t= turbulent viscosity
k = turbulent kinetic energy
= turbulent dissipation
G = turbulent generation rate
Constitutive relations
21
Density air
Dynamic viscosity of air
Conductivity of air
Specific heat of air
Heat evaporation
Density of substrate
Conductivity of substrate
Specific heat of substrate
Diffusivity of water vapor and
liquid water inside substrate
5 2 2
1.076 10 1.039 10 3.326
air air air
T T

= +
15 3 11 2 8 7
5.21 10 4.077 10 7.039 10 9.19 10
air air air air
T T T

= + +
10 3 7 2 4
4.084 10 4.519 10 2.35 10 0.0147
air air air air
k T T T

= +
( ) 1000 2.394( 273.15) 2502.1
fg
h T = +
( ) ,
1
1
b ref
b
X
SbX
+
=
+
3
0.049 47 1 1 0.611
exp
1 8.3143 10 273.15 335.15 1
b
s
X
k
X T X
( | |
= + ( |
+ + + ( \
6 0.0725 2044
1.29 10 exp exp
273.15
vb lb
s
D D
X T
| | | |
= =
| |
+ \ \
6 3 3 2
,
4.647 10 4.837 10 1.599 1175
p air air air air
c T T T

= + +
,
1750 2345
1
p b
X
c
X
| |
= +
|
+ \
Constitutive relations
22
Heat of wetting (heat to evaporate
bound water)
Total heat of evaporation
Moisture content
Dry basis
Wet basis
Equilibrium moisture content
(GAB model)
Free moisture content
Cooling rate due to evaporation
Rate of water evaporation
Diffusivity of water vapor in air
mass of water
mass of dry product
mass of water
mass of wet product 1
l
s
l l
s l b
X
X
W
X

= =
= = = =
+ +
evap l l
q h M Kc = &
0
Ea
RT
K K e
=
6 4 6 3 5 2
4
8.207 10 4.000 10 6.161 10
2.368 10 1163 for 0.01 0.2
w
H X X X
X X
= +
+ + < <
evap fg w
h h H = +
6 8 10 2
2.775 10 4.479 10 1.656 10
va
D T T

= + +
( )( )
,
1
0.0209, 0.976, 4.416
m w
e
w w w
m
X CKA
X
KA KA CKA
X K C
=
+
= = =
free e
X X X =
Constitutive relation
Relation of moisture content to concentration of water inside substrate
23
( )
( )
( ) ( )
,
2
,
2
, 2 2
, , 2
,
1
,
1 1
,
1
1 1 ,
1 1 0,
can be solved analytically for X and by neglecting wrong root th
w b
b ref
w
b ref
w w
b ref
w w
b ref b ref
w w w w
W
X X
X SbX
X X
M c
SbX X SbX
SbX Sb X X X
M c
Sb X Sb X
M c M c

=
+
=
+ +
+
=
+ + +
+ + + = +
| | | |
+ + + = | |
\ \
2
,
,
e solution is
4
,
2
,
1 ,
1.
b ref
w w
b ref
w w
b b ac
X
a
where
a Sb
M c
b Sb
M c
c

=
| |
= |
\
| |
= + |
\
=
Initial and boundary conditions
24
Substrate
Drying air
0. 0,
,
l l b v v b
c c c c = =
Initial conditions:
Drying chamber inlet
Drying chamber outlet
0,
, 0, , ,
in in in v v a
u u v T T RH RH c c = = = = =
, . 0, . 0.
out v
p p c T = = =
Boundary conditions:
0, 0,
,
l l a v v a
c c c c = =
( )
,0
0.
0,
0.
,0
0,
where
,
0,
0,
1000 .
1
b
l b
l
v b
l a
a
v a
l
W
c
M
c
c
RH
c
RH M
=
=
=
=
+
Boundary conditions and parameters
Case 1: Parallel flow
v
in
= 2 m s
-1
(experiments)
Re
in
34329 (using chamber
geometry)
Case 2: Steady laminar jet
v
in
= 2 m s
-1
Re
in
455
Case 3: Pulsating laminar jet
v
in
= 2+1sin(2ft) m s
-1
Re
in
455
Case 4: Steady turbulent jet
v
in
= 20 m s
-1
Re
in
4550
Case 5: Pulsating turbulent jet
v
in
= 20+10sin(2ft) m s
-1
Re
in
4550
Parameters needed to solve
the model are
25
3
,
1
0
3
,45
5 1 1
,45
1 1
1
1420 ,
42 ,
0.018 ,
4.6,
1.110 ,
1.934 10
8.314 ,
48.7 ,
1.4
1
120
b ref
in
l
a C
a C
kg m
T C
M kg mol
X
kg m
kg m s
R J K mol
Ea kJ mol
Sb
f Hz
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Correlations
Local Nusselt number
along the target surface
Local heat transfer
coefficient
Local heat transfer flux
Time averaged local
Nusselt number
Time averaged Nusselt
number 26
Calculation of h, Nu, Nu distributions in impinging jets
( , )
x jet
fluid
h D
Nu x t
k
=
( )
x
x
jet wall
q
h
T T
=
0
( )
x fluid
y
T x
q k
y
=
0
1
( ) ( , )
t
avg
Nu x Nu x t dt
t
=

0 0
1 1
( , )
x t
avg
Nu Nu x t dtdx
x t
=

Nomenclature
27
cl concentration of liquid water [mol m
-3
] p Pressure [Pa]
cv concentration of water vapor [mol m
-3
] Dva diffusivity of vapor on the drying air [m
2
s]
Dlb diffusivity of liquid inside the drying substrate [m
2
s] dynamic viscosity of the drying air [Pa s]
Dvb diffusivity of vapor inside the drying substrate [m
2
s] a density of the drying air [kg m
-3
]
T temperature [K] cpa specific heat of the drying air [J kg
-1
K
-1
]
q& cooling rate due to evaporation [Wm
-3
] ka thermal conductivity of the drying air [Wm
-2
K
-1
]
K production of water vapor mass per unit volume Ea activation energy [kJ mol
-1
]
b density of the drying substrate [kg m
-3
] R universal gas constant [J K
1
mol
1
]
cpb specific heat of the drying substrate [J kg
-1
K
-1
] Ml molecular weight of water [kg kmol
-1
]
kb thermal conductivity of the drying substrate [Wm
-2
K
-1
] hevap total heat of evaporation [J kg
-1
]
u mean velocity [m s
-1
] X moisture content (dry basis) [kg kg
-1
]
u fluctuate velocity [ms
-1
] W moisture content (wet basis) [kg kg
-1
]

Numerics
28
Gambit: creating geometry, meshing, labeling boundary
condition
Fluent: solving for conservation of mass, momentum,
turbulence and energy
User Defined Scalars: solving for water liquid and vapor
User Defined Functions Macros
DEFINE_SOURCE, DEFINE_DIFUSIVITY, DEFINE_FLUX,
DEFINE_UNSTEADY, DEFINE_PROFILE, ETC
Finer mesh in the boundary layer zone, and increasingly
coarser; mesh independence test ~ 4500 cells.
Relative residual 10
-6
for all dependent variable.
It took around 30-50 min to converge in Quadcore 1.8
GHz with 8 GB RAM for 5 to 8 h drying time
Validation
29
Impinging flow model Diffusion model
Drying curves for parallel
flow, experimental value was
taken from Islam et al., 2003
Reynold Stress Model predicts better
local Nusselt number distribution
compared with k-, k- and v
2
f model
Effect of Substrate Thickness
30
Drying curves for steady laminar jet
Thin slab displays faster drying
rate as compared to the thick
slab.
Heat transfer from impingement
surface to the substrate as well
as diffusion of moisture content
from the inner drying sample
towards its surface plays
significant role in determining the
drying kinetics
31
Thin substrate has better uniformity of moisture content
The moisture content at the impingement area is slightly lower (~ 10%)
than that of inner one.
32
Nusselt number distribution along drying
chamber
Significantly higher heat and
mass transfer rate occurs in
impingement region
The thinner substrate
possesses slightly higher
Nusselt number (~10%) at
the stagnation point which
indicates higher heat and
mass transfer
The Nusselt number
approches to zero at the
chamber wall where there is
no substrate and no heat and
mass transfer taking place.
Effect of jet Reynolds number
33
5 mm substrate 0.5 mm substrate
For thin substrate, it is seen that velocity has negligible effect to
the drying kinetics. It only increase substrate temperature.
The drying kinetic is seen to be slightly higher (~5%) for thick slab.
34
Temperature of thin substrate is significantly higher when the jet velocity
increases
Non unifrom temperature distribution is observed for thick drying
substrate.
35
The velocity profiles for both laminar and turbulent case exhibits symmetry
condition.
For laminar case, a maximum velocity of 2 m/s is observed at the jet;
whereas for turbulent case, the maximum jet velocity is found to be 20 m/s.
Effect of Pulsation and Intermittency
36
0.5 mm substrate 5 mm substrate
For thin substrate, the pulsation and intermittent drying has nearly no effect on the
drying kinetic which is beneficial from the energy saving point of view.
For the thicker substrate, on the other hand, the effect of pulsation and intermittent
is seen to be more significant: the drying kinetics for pulsating and intermittent IJ
drying is about 7% and 10% slower than that of steady inlet, respectively.
References
[1] A. S. Mujumdar, 2007, Handbook of Industrial Drying. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
[2] S. Polat, 1993, Heat and Mass Transfer in Impinging Drying, Drying Technology,
Vol. 11 (6), pp: 1147-1176
[3] P. Xu, B. Yu, S. Qiu, H. J. Poh, A. S. Mujumdar, 2010, Turbulent Impinging Jet Heat
Transfer Enhancement Due to Intermittent Pulsation, International Journal of
Thermal Sciences. Vol. 49(7), pp: 1247-1252.
[4] H. J. Poh, K. Kumar, A. S. Mujumdar, 2005, Heat transfer from a pulsed laminar
impinging jet, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 32,
pp:13171324
[5] M. R. Islam, J. C. Ho, A. S. Mujumdar, 2003, Convective Drying with Time-Varying
Heat Input, Drying Technology, Vol. 21(7), pp: 1333-1356
[6] J. Srikiatden a, J. S. Roberts, 2008, Predicting moisture profiles in potato and carrot
during convective hot air drying using isothermally measured effective diffusivity,
Journal of Food Engineering, Vol. 84, pp: 516-525
[7] W. Kays, M. Crawford, B. Weigand, 2005, Convective Heat and Mass Transfer 4
th
ed., McGraw Hill, Singapore
[8] F. P. Incropera and D. P. Dewitt , 2001, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer,
5th Edition, Wiley
[9] M. V. De Bonis, G. Ruocco, 2008, A Generalized Conjugate Model for Forced
Convection Drying Based on An Evaporative Kinetics, Journal of Food Engineering,
Vol. 89, pp: 232-240
37

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