University of California, Los Angeles

MAE 136 Energy and Environment

MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Nuclear Energy
Webb Marner, PhD Adjunct Professor UCLA Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

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Outline
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Background

Basic Considerations
Fabrication of Uranium Fuel Pellets Nuclear Reactors Nuclear Energy Statistics Nuclear Power Plant Safety Nuclear Waste Disposal Concluding Remarks

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University of California, Los Angeles

MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Background

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Background
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Nuclear Energy - The energy released by the nucleus of an atom as the result of nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, or radioactive decay.
Worldwide, nuclear energy provides 5 percent of the energy and 15 percent of the electricity produced. In the United States, nuclear energy provides 8 percent of the energy and about 20 percent of the electricity produced.

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Nuclear History
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

1898 Radioactivity discovered by Henri Becquerel in Paris. 1938 Neutron-induced fission reaction discovered by a team of Lise Meitner, Fritz Strassmann, and Otto Hahn. 1939 Frederic Joliot, Hans Alban, Lev Kowarski, and Francis Perin showed that it was possible, using fission, to initiate a chain reaction to produce energy, and the principle of the nuclear energy was born. 1942 A team led by Enrico Fermi built the first manmade reactor at the University of Chicago.

1956 First commercial scale nuclear power plant of 180MW went into operation at Calder Hall, England.
1957 In the U.S. a 60-MW station started operating at Shippingport, Pennsylvania.
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Schematic of Fossil Fuel Power Plant

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

M.J. Moran, H.N. Shapiro, D.D. Boettner, and M.B. Bailey, Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 7th Edition, John Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2012.
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Schematic of Nuclear Power Plant

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

M.J. Moran, H.N. Shapiro, D.D. Boettner, and M.B. Bailey, Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 7th Edition, John Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2012.
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Nuclear Versus Fossil-Fuel Power Plants

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Nuclear power plants produce power in a similar manner to fossilfuel power plants. They both use the Rankine cycle. Heat Source: Coal plants use the combustion of coal as the heat source Nuclear power plants use the heat given off by nuclear fission in the reactor core Working Fluid: Typically water Can also be liquid metal (sodium or potassium) to operate the reactor at higher temperatures

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Evolution of Nuclear Power

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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University of California, Los Angeles

MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Basic Considerations

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Nuclear Energy
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Nuclear energy is derived from the binding force that holds the nucleons (positively charged protons and chargeless neutrons) of the atomic nucleus together. In the processes of fission and fusion there is a conversion of mass to energy, i.e., the mass of the products is not the same as the mass of the reactants. This difference is called the mass deficit which can be related to energy via the famous Einstein equation

=
The greater the mass deficit in a nuclear reaction, the greater the energy given off during the reaction. All commercial nuclear power plants are based on fission.

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Fission
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

When a nucleus of 235 (an isotope of uranium) is bombarded with a neutron, it usually splits into two lighter elements. The mass of one of the elements centers around atomic mass number 90 and the other around 140. The exact split into the two elements (or their isotopes) is unpredictable; it is a probabilistic process.

These isotopes are highly unstable and transmute via several intermediates to the final stable elements with the emission of and rays. Furthermore, the fission of the heavy element by bombardment with a neutron usually results in the release of two to three neutrons. The released neutrons can propagate further fissions of the heavy element in an exponential fashion in what is called a chain reaction.

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Fission
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

For example, one of the fission reactions is the splitting of 235 according to
235

+ 1

144

+ 89 + 3 1 + 177

where 1 stands for a neutron. The large evolvement of energy in this reaction is due to the mass deficit. This reaction is but one of many fissions that can result when 235 is bombarded with a neutron.

Most of the fission products are radioactive. Because more than one neutron is released in the fission reaction, a chain reaction develops with an increasing amount of energy released. The greater portion (about 80%) of the released energy is contained in the kinetic energy of the fission products, which manifests itself as sensible heat. A part of the remaining energy is immediately released in the form of and rays. The rest of the fission energy is contained in delayed radioactivity of the fission products.
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Fission
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

At the same time that 235 splits into fission products with the release of two to three neutrons per fission, a part of the neutrons can be absorbed by the more abundant 238 in the fuel, converting it in a series of reactions to an isotope of plutonium, 239:
238

+ 1

239

239

239 +

This reaction is accompanied by and radiation. 239 is a fissile element that can sustain a chain reaction. A fertile nucleus is one that can convert into a fissile nucleus after absorption of a fast neutron. Examples of fertile nuclei are 238 and 232.

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Schematic of Fission Process

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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Schematic of Fission Process

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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Radioactivity I
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Radioactivity the spontaneous decay of certain nuclei, usually the less stable isotopes of an element, both natural and manmade, which is accompanied by the release of very energetic radiation. Isotope any of two or more forms of a chemical element, having the same number of protons in the nucleus, or the same atomic number, but having different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus, or different atomic weights. After the emission of radiation, an isotope of the element is formed, or even a new element, which is usually more stable than the original element. The radiation emanates directly from the nucleus, not the atom as a whole. This is an important distinction because X-ray radiation, although equally damaging as radioactivity, emanates from the inner electronic shells of the atom, not the nucleus.
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Radioactivity II
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Alpha - these are fast moving helium atoms. They have high energy, typically in the MeV range, but due to their large mass, they are stopped by just a few inches of air, or a piece of paper. Beta - these are fast moving electrons. They typically have energies in the range of a few hundred keV to several MeV. Since electrons are much lighter than helium atoms, they are able to penetrate further, through several feet of air, or several millimeters of plastic or less of very light metals. Gamma - these are photons, just like light, except of much higher energy, typically from several keV to several MeV. X-Rays and gamma rays are really the same thing, the difference being how they were produced. Depending on their energy, they can be stopped by a thin piece of aluminum foil, or they can penetrate several inches of lead.

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University of California, Los Angeles

MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Fabrication of Uranium Fuel Pellets

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Uranium
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Uranium occurs in most rocks in concentrations of 2 to 4 parts per million and is as common in the Earth's crust as tin, tungsten, and molybdenum. Uranium occurs in seawater, and can be recovered from the oceans.

Uranium was discovered in 1789 by Martin Klaproth, a German chemist, in the mineral called pitchblende. It was named after the planet Uranus, which had been discovered eight years earlier.
Uranium has a melting point is 1132C. The chemical symbol for uranium is U. Uranium is a very heavy metal which can be used as an abundant source of concentrated energy.

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Fabrication Process for Fuel Pellets

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Uranium Ore

Yellowcake is processed to enrich it in 235 and into fuel pellets

Uranium Oxide Pellets

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Fuel Pellets
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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Energy from a Uranium Pellet

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

1 uranium fuel pellet will produce as much electricity as:

1 ton of coal 2-1/2 tons of wood 3 barrels of oil (126 gallons) 17,000 cubic feet of natural gas

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University of California, Los Angeles

MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Nuclear Reactors

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Major Elements of Nuclear Reactors

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Fuel Rods Moderator Control Rods Coolant

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Fuel Rods
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

The fuel rods contain the fissile isotopes

and/or

Natural uranium contains about 99.3 percent and 0.7% . In most power plant reactors, the concentration of the fissile isotope in natural uranium is not enough to sustain a chain reaction. Therefore, this isotope needs to be enriched to 3-4 %. The fuel rods contain metallic uranium, solid uranium dioxide (UO2) or a mix of uranium dioxide and plutonium oxide, called MOX, fabricated into ceramic pellets. The pellets are loaded into zircalloy or stainless steel tubes about 1 cm in diameter and up to 4 m long.

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Moderator
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Moderators are used to slow the energetic neutrons that evolve from the fission reaction, yielding low-energy neutrons, also called thermal neutrons. This increases the probability for the neutrons to be absorbed in another fissile nucleus, so that the chain reaction can be propagated.
Moderators contain atoms or molecules whose nuclei have high neutron scattering and low neutron absorption characteristics. Typical moderators are light water (2 ), heavy water (2 ), graphite (C), and beryllium (Be). The light or heavy water moderators circulate around the fuel rods. Commonly used moderators in the worlds reactors are: light water (75%), solid graphite (20%), and heavy water (5%). The original Fermi pile consisted of a graphite block into which metallic uranium was inserted. The Chernobyl-type reactors also use graphite as a moderator.
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Control Rods
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Control rods contain elements whose nuclei have a high probability of absorbing thermal neutrons, so that they are not available for further splitting of fissile nuclei. In the presence of control rods, the chain reaction is controlled or stopped altogether. Typical control rods are made of boron (B) or cadmium (Cd). The chain reaction inside the reactor is governed by the neutron economy coefficient k. Under steady state conditions, the number of thermal neutrons is invariant with time and k = 1. The reactor is then in a critical condition. When k < 1, the reactor is subcritical; when k > 1 it is supercritical. A nuclear reactor becomes critical when control rods are lifted out of the core of the reactor to a degree when more than one neutron released by the fission of a fissile nucleus survives without being absorbed by the control rods.
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Control Rods (Continued)

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

The position of the control rods determines the power output of the reactor. Monitoring the critical condition in a nuclear reactor while varying the output is quite complicated. Generally, nuclear power plants are run at full load, providing the base load of a grid. Running the plant at full load is also more economical. Once the remaining fuel in the rods cannot sustain the rated capacity of the plant, even with complete withdrawal of the control rods, the fuel rods need to be replaced. Such replacement occurs every 2 to 3 years.

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Coolant
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Heat must be constantly removed from the reactor. Heat is generated not only by the fission reaction, but also by the radioactive decay of the fission products. Heat is removed by a coolant which can be boiling water, pressurized water, liquid metals such as sodium, or gases such as He or 2 . The accident at the Three Mile Island power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in 1979 occurred because after shutdown (full insertion of the control rods), the reactor was completely drained of its coolant, so that the residual radioactivity in the fuel rods caused a meltdown of the reactor. The heat removed by the coolant in the form of steam or pressurized hot water is then used in a conventional Rankine cycle to produce electrical energy or process heat.
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Fuel Assembly
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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Boiling Water Reactor

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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Boiling Water Reactor: Advantages

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Advantages: The reactor vessel and associated components operate at substantially lower pressure compared to a pressurized water reactor (PWR). Pressure vessel is subject to significantly less irradiation compared to a PWR, and so does not become as brittle with age. Operates at a lower nuclear fuel temperature. Fewer components due to no steam generators and no pressurizer vessel. Lower risk of a rupture causing loss of coolant compared to a PWR. Can operate at lower core power density levels using natural circulation without forced flow.

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Boiling Water Reactors: Disadvantages

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Disadvantages: Complex operational calculations required for managing the utilization of the nuclear fuel in the fuel elements during power production due to two-phase fluid flow in the upper parts of the core.

Much larger pressure vessel required than for a PWR of similar power, with corresponding higher cost.
Contamination of the turbine by fission products.

Shielding and access control around the steam turbine are required during normal operations due to the radiation levels arising from the steam entering directly from the reactor core.
Control rods are inserted from below for current BWR designs.

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Pressurized Water Reactor

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Energy from Waves

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Pressurized Water Reactor Detail

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Energy from Tides

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Pressurized Water Reactor: Advantages

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Advantages: PWR reactors are very stable due to their tendency to produce less power as temperatures increase; this makes the reactor easier to operate from a stability standpoint. PWR turbine cycle loop is separate from the primary loop, so the water in the secondary loop is not contaminated by radioactive materials. PWRs can passively scram the reactor in the event that offsite power is lost to immediately stop the primary nuclear reaction. The control rods are held by electromagnets and fall by gravity when current is lost; full insertion safely shuts down the primary nuclear reaction. Operates at higher temperature and pressure, thus increasing efficiency over BWRs .

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Pressurized Water Reactors: Disadvantages

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Disadvantages:

High pressures and temperatures require high strength piping and

pressure vessels ($$$)

Cannot be refueled while operating

Refueling process can last weeks Reduces the availability of the reactor for power (lose $$$ when not operating) Lifetime is more limited because of boric acid added to primary coolant loop (corrosive)

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University of California, Los Angeles

MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Nuclear Energy Statistics

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U.S. Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors -- Years of Operation

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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Nuclear Plants Worldwide

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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World Reactors in Operation

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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World Reactors in Operation

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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Percent of Electricity from Nuclear Power

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Percent of Electricity

Sl e ov ak i Be a lgi um Uk ra in e Sw e S w de n itz er lan Hu d ng Ko ary re aR ep Bu . lg ar Cz ia ec hR P Fi nla nd Ja pa Ge n rm an y

Fr an c

U. S
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Worldwide Nuclear Power Production

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

806.5

418.6

266.4 147.8 136.6 133.2

96.5

87.2

64.4

62.6

U.S.

France

Japan

Russia

Korea Rep.

Germany Canada

Ukraine Sweden

China

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University of California, Los Angeles

MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Nuclear Power Plant Safety

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Safety Measures I
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

The Building: Since the nuclear power plant has exothermic nuclear reactions going on inside its core, it is very important that the structure housing the reactor should be made from relevant materials which have the appropriate capacity to shield the outside environment both during normal operations as well as to minimize risk of damage in case of unfortunate accidents such as the Chernobyl blast.
The Core: This is the place where the actual reaction takes place. Fission occurs with the release of neutrons causing further fission thus sustaining a chain reaction. Appropriate measures must be taken to maintain ideal conditions via control rods and core cooling. Monitoring: Human beings working inside the power plant need to be constantly monitored for any over exposure of radiation as a result of their routine job operations. The standards laid down in this regard should be strictly adhered to and the working environment should be regularly checked for radiation levels.
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Safety Measures II
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Waste Disposal: One of the most challenging tasks is the proper disposal of waste materials from the nuclear power plant. These waste materials come in solid, liquid, and gaseous forms. All these types of wastes have their own methods of disposal and the main idea is to dispose of these wastes in a manner which is least harmful for human beings, flora, fauna and the natural environment.

Proper Emergency Response Plans: No one wants an accident to happen, but things do go out of control sometimes due to either human error or machinery failure. The best thing is to be prepared for such a situation and have properly trained personnel as well as the requisite equipment in order to deal effectively with such situations.

Edited by Lamar Stonecypher, Bright Hub Engineering, May 10, 2010 http://www.brighthubengineering.com

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Major Accidents I
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

National Reactor Testing Station, Idaho Falls, Idaho (Jan-3, 1969) A reactor explosion destroyed the reactor and killed three operators. Little release of contamination in spite of the fact that SL-1 did not have containment. Three Mile Island Power Station Near Harrisburg, PA (Mar 28, 1979)

50-80% of fuel in core melted. Reactor core and vessel was a total loss. Containment held. No fatalities. Level 5 disaster

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Major Accidents II
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Chernobyl Nuclear Power Station, USSR (Apr 26, 1986)

Positive void coefficient caused reactivity excursion which created a steam explosion and destroyed the plant. Containment was destroyed Spread radioactive debris over a large area Level 7 disaster
Fukushima Daiichi Power Plant, Japan (Mar 11, 2011) Failure occurred when the plant was hit by a tsunami triggered by the Tohoku earthquake. About 10-20% of Chernobyl level radiation released No casualties caused by radiation exposure First level 7 disaster since Chernobyl

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Images of Chernobyl
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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Images of Fukushima
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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Images of Fukushima
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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University of California, Los Angeles

MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Nuclear Waste Disposal

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Spent Fuel Reprocessing

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

In boiling- and pressurized-water reactors the fuel stays in the reactor for 2-3 years generating electricity. After that period, the fission reaction has slowed down resulting in a decline in steam and electricity production.
At that time the fuel rods have to be replaced with fresh ones. The retrieved fuel rods are stored in containment vessels at the power plant in steel and concrete walled water pools or dry casks. After the decline of the radioactivity, the spent fuel can be reprocessed.

Although France, Russia, India, and Japan are all reprocessing spent fuel, the U.S. is not doing so for fear of nuclear weapon proliferation.

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Temporary Waste Storage

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

The liquid wastes generated in reprocessing plants are stored temporarily in cooled stainless steel tanks surrounded by reinforced concrete.
After a cooling period the liquid wastes are calcined (evaporated to dry powder) and vitrified (encased in molten glass). The molten glass is poured into stainless steel canisters. In the UK, France, Belgium, and Sweden the canisters are stored in deep silos, pending permanent disposal.

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Permanent Waste Storage

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Perhaps the major problem facing nuclear power plants is the permanent disposal of spent fuel. The level of radioactivity of the spent fuel declines about 10-fold every 100 years. After about 1,000 years the radiation level reaches that of the original ore from which the fuel (uranium) was extracted. The only practical way of disposing the waste is in stable geologic formations not subject to periodic earthquakes, and where the water table is either absent or very deep beneath the formation. Deep salt formations, for example, have such characteristics. In the U.S. a formation at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, was selected for permanent disposal. The repository was excavated from volcanic tuff at a depth of about 300 m beneath Yucca Crest which is 300 m above the local water table. The repository was projected to store 70,000 tons of spent fuel as well as 8,000 tons of military waste. However, there is strong political opposition to using Yucca Mountain for this purpose.
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On-Site Dry Storage Casks

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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Schematic Cross-Section of Yucca Mountain

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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Tunnel at Yucca Mountain

University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

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Concluding Remarks I
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Nuclear power plants produce about 20 percent of the electrical power in the U.S. There are over 400 nuclear power plants worldwide. While nuclear energy produces less waste than fossil fuels, its radioactive waste must be stored in special containers and buried beneath the earths surface, typically in a mountain, until it is no longer hazardous. Almost three (3) million Americans live within 10 miles of an operating nuclear plant Nuclear energy comes from uranium, a nonrenewable resource that must be mined. In 2009 the U.S. produced nearly 800 billion kilowatts of nuclear energy, more than twice that of any other country and over 30% of all the nuclear energy generated worldwide that year.
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Concluding Remarks II
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission (the process of splitting of an atom in two). Nuclear fusion (the process of combining atoms into one) has the potential to be safer energy because it is produced at a much lower temperature. However, nuclear fusion technology has not yet been developed to operate within a large power plant.

Every 18-24 months, a power plant must shut down to remove its spent uranium fuel, which has become radioactive waste.
U.S. power plants produce 2,000 metric tons of radioactive waste every year. In 2008 nuclear power replaced an estimated 690 million metric tons of carbon dioxide from entering the atmosphere. Nuclear power plants generate nearly three-fourths of the clean-air energy in the U.S.
http://www.dosomething.org/tipsandtools/11-facts-about-nuclear-energy
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References
University of California, Los Angeles MAE 136 Energy and Environment

J.A. Fay and D.S. Golomb, Energy and Environment, 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, 2012. C. Ngo and J.B. Natowitz, Our Energy Future: Resources, Alternatives, and the Environment, John Wiley, Hoboken, 2009. L. Levy, 50 Years in Nuclear Power: A Retrospective, American Nuclear Society, La Grange Park, IL, 2007. J.W. Tester, E.M. Drake, M.J. Driscoll, M.W. Golay, and W.A. Peters, Sustainable Energy: Choosing Among Options, 2nd Edition, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2012.

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