4. What are the other science topics / science concepts in which research have been conducted on alternative conceptions?

Researchers observing school classrooms have identified numerous areas in sciences where students hold alternative conceptions that create a barrier to learning. A students expression of an alternative conception is derived from the students alternative framework of thinking (his or her non-scientific thinking). Student knowledge can be erroneous, illogical or misinformed. Some concepts in different content areas are simply very difficult to grasp. They may be very abstract, counterintuitive or quite complex. Hence, our understanding of them is flawed. In addition, things we have already learned are sometimes unhelpful in learning new concepts/theories. This occurs when the new concept or theory is inconsistent with previously learned material. Accordingly, as noted, it is very typical for students to have alternative conceptions in different domains. Indeed, researchers have found that there is a common set of alternative conceptions that most students typically exhibit. The alternative conception identified on student in science was superposition that applied along both axes, which implied that not only the amplitudes were added along the yaxis, but also the wavelengths (or time) along the x-axis. According to S.Imenda et.al (2007), the following were quotes from students to explain and support the alternative conception: The two waves are similar thus the combination will be double the effect of the original wave i.e. it will be 2x the amplitudes and wavelength. As the pulses meet the amplitude on the Y-axis and the wavelength on the X-axis will enlarge. When two crests meet (in phase) the smaller crest will be inside the lar ger crest, but the distance will be twice the distance. A second alternative conception relating to the principle of superposition was that interference is associated with reinforcement. So, essentially, the students were of the view that interference was associated only with constructive interference and not destructive interference. Therefore, another wave would always increase, and never decrease, an existing wave. The students were of the view that identical waves would have no effect on each other. When two pulses interfere the result is an average pulse, or the bigger pulse will be dominant. The following quote bears this out: When two pulses meet the final crest will be the average of both crests and the final point where pulses will be will be the average of the x-axis. 1

Another alternative conception was that waves collided and adhered to the law of conservation of momentum. In this regard, a view was held that two identical waves propagating from opposite directions would cancel each other when they met in phase. Therefore, the direction in which a pulse is propagating, as well as the propagating velocities, influences the interference pattern. In the case of pulses propagating towards each other, they collide and come to a complete standstill or move backwards. Students develop alternative conceptions in earth and space science starting in early childhood. Their observations of the sky and Earth and representations they see on television (especially in cartoons) provide a source for many alternative conceptions. The Earth and sky are experienced by all humans starting early in life. Students always compare their common sense view of where they live to the ideas presented in classroom science lessons. To take advantage of a students prior knowledge, it is necessary to first provide students with observational and other concrete experiences that relate to the idea being introduced. The following is a brief sample of alternative conceptions commonly found in relation to earth and space science topics such as the Earth, its structure, history, oceans and atmosphere; space science; geology; the solar system; and stars and the universe (Sunal, 2002). The list demonstrates the depth and breadth of alternative ideas students bring to class.

Day and night are caused by the Sun going around the Earth. The Earth rotates in 24 hours.

The Earth is flat. The Earth is round like a pancake. The Earth is round and it is in the sky. The Earth is spherical and people live in a flat place on top.

The Moon is stationary, it does not move. The Moon is located in a part of the sky that is always dark. The Moon goes around the Earth in a single day.

The Earth revolves around the Moon. Different countries on the Earth see different phases of the Moon on the same day. Phases of the Moon are caused by a shadow from the Earth. 2

The Sun is directly overhead at noon. The daylight is the same length as our local day on any part of the Earth. The amount of daylight time increases throughout the summer months.

The Sun revolves around the Earth. The Earth is in the center of the solar system. The seasons are caused because the Earth is closer to the Sun in summer. According to Wandarsee (2007), there are some typical alternative conceptions of

students in science. The lists of the alternative conception are as below. Physics: 1. Forces and Motion If no force is being applied, either objects are at rest or, if moving, they are slowing down. An object moves in the direction of the force applied to it. 2. Heat and Temperature Heat makes things rise. Heat and cold are material substances that can be transferred from one thing to another. 3. Light/Optics Light brightens objects so that they can be seen. Eyes play an active role in reaching out to intercept images. 4. Nature/States of Matter Gas molecules are not in constant motion. Heating and cooling play no role in particle motion. 5. Earth/Space Science The orbit of the earth is highly elliptical (related to change of seasons).

 The earth is flat. Chemistry Atoms vary in shape. Phosphorus atoms are yellow; water molecules are made of small drops (and other transferences of macro properties to molecular level). Biology 1. Animals and Plants Animals are alive, have legs, move, have hair or fur, live outside or in the woods. Plants are not alive. Plants must eat (get food from the soil). 2. Continuity Some traits come from the mother and others from the father Traits can change over time in response to the environment. Students, regardless of how much they read, rely on analogies they make based on familiar objects and events to understand and explain what they see in the classroom. Thus, students common sense everyday knowledge can lead to alternative conceptions of science concepts. When teaching the earth and space sciences, purposeful observations and experience of events are important and should be developed before analogies and models are used (Capps, 2013). Concepts and generalizations should be developed based on evidence from objects and events and in context with analogies and models whose limitations must be presented. The steps in accomplishing this process include a diagnosis and eliciting of student ideas through experiences, questioning, and demonstrations. This should be followed by a time for testing or challenging these ideas. Finally, scientific ideas supported by evidence should be experienced by students in order to replace a common sense view developed about the earth and space sciences.

8. How to conduct and write a review of research report systematically?

A review article differs from a research article in that the review article examines the evidence presented in a research article, rather than producing research itself. By organizing, integrating, and evaluating previously published material, the author of a review article considers the progress of current research toward clarifying a problem. In a sense, a review article is tutorial in that the author summarizes previous investigations in order to inform the reader of the state of current research. According to Williamson (2001), a common misconception that writers have is that they know or should know what they are going to say before they begin. In order for this to be true, writers would need to memorize ten to twenty pages worth of material and then spew them onto the pages. This is not possible. The life as a researcher, student, and writer will be more pleasant if one learn now that writing is a form of thinking and helps organize thoughts, not vice versa. The structure of a research article usually depends on the journal to which the article is being submitted. Many journals have page limits, figure limits, or specific article divisions to which authors must adhere. According to Bordeaux (2007) every journal out there requires an abstract. In the abstract, the author must summarize why the research was conducted, how it was conducted, and what the major results and conclusions were. References are typically not cited in the Abstract, since the reader expects a more full discussion in the body of the article.

The length of an introduction depends on the journal and the paper; however, the structure and content should be similar. In the introduction, the author must present the problem his or her research will address, why this problem is significant, and how it applies to the larger field of research. The author must clearly state his or her hypothesis, and quickly summarize the methods used to investigate that hypothesis. The author should address relevant studies by other researchers; however, a full history of the topic is not needed. The introduction should contain all the background information a reader needs to understand the rest of the authors paper. This means that all important concepts should be explained and all important terms defined. The author needs to know who will be reading this paper, and make sure that all the concepts in the paper are accessible to them. 5

The author should thoroughly describe the methods you used to investigate the problem, and should briefly describe why these methods were used. Any materials used should be documented, and any computer programs used should be discussed. This section should address the experiments, models, or theories devised. It should contain little to no background information, since this information should be placed in the introduction. Also, the Methods section should contain no results, conclusions, or interpretations.

The author should thoroughly detail the results of the experiments, models, or theories developed in the body of the article. The results should be supplemented by figures and tables, and the figures and tables should be briefly explained. No interpretations or conclusions should be drawn. All interpretation and discussion of the results should be saved for the Discussion and Conclusions section. Most journals require a discussion and conclusions section. In some cases, when the author has many points to discuss, he or she may split this into two sections; however, one section is usually sufficient. In this section, the author should restate the problem he or she was attempting to address, and summarize how the results have addressed it. The author should discuss the significance of all the results, and interpret their meaning. Potential sources of error should be discussed, and anomalies analyzed. Finally, the author should tie his or her conclusions into the big picture by suggesting the impact and applications this research might have. This can be accomplished by discussing how the results of this paper will affect the authors field, what future experiments could be carried out based on this research, or what affect the conclusions could have on industry.

References:

Bordeaux, B. C., Wiley, C., Tandon, S. D., Horowitz, C. R., Brown, P. B., & Bass, E. B. (2007). Guidelines for writing manuscripts about community-based participatory research for peerreviewed journals. Progress in Community Health Partnerships: Research, Education, and Action, 1(3), 2818. doi:10.1353/cpr.2007.0018 Coetzee, A., Africa, S., Imenda, S. N., & Africa, S. (n.d.). Alternative conceptions held by first year physics students at a South African university of technology concerning interference and diffraction of waves ., 113. K., C., Daniel, McAllister, Meredith;, Boone, & J., W. (2013). Alternative Conceptions concerning the Earths Interior Exhibited by Honduran Students by Capps, Daniel K. Journal of Geoscience Education, Vol. 61, N. Pelaez, N. J., Boyd, D. D., Rojas, J. B., & Hoover., M. A. (2005). Some Common Alternative Conceptions (Misconceptions), 113. Sunal, D. W., & Sunal, C. S. (n.d.). Science in the Elementary and Middle, 046. Wandersee, F. (2007). Misconceptions. ( Alternative Conceptions). Williamson, R. C. (2001). How to write a review article. Hospital Medicine (London, England: 1998), 62(12), 7802. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24578062