Semiconductor Devices

Lalaji Memorial Omega International School Aca.
Year 2010-11
CLASS XII PHYSICS
SEMI-CONDUCTOR DEVICES
P-N JUNCTION
When a p-type semiconductor crystal is brought into close contact with an n-type
semiconductor crystal, the resulting arrangement is called a p-n junction or junction diode.
In the p-type semiconductor, the holes are the majority carriers and electrons are minority
carriers, whereas in n-type semiconductor, the electrons are majority carriers and holes are
minority carriers.
Formation of p-n junction
To make a p-n junction , the n-type and p-type silicon crystals are cut into thin slices
called wafers. If on a wafer of n type silicon, an aluminium film is placed and heated to a
high temperature, say 580
0
C, aluminium diffuses into silicon. In this way, a p-type
semiconductor is formed on an n-type semiconductor. uch a formation of p-region on
n-region is called p-n junction.
!nother way to make a p-n junction is "y diffusion of phosphorous into a p-type
semiconductor.
The wafer of which a p-n junction is formed, is cut into small pieces. #ach piece is
enclosed in a casting with electric connections coming out from p and n regions.
Depletion region an !arrier electric fiel in p-n junction
Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction $ iffusion an
rift. %e know that in an n & type semiconductor, electrons are majority carriers and holes
are minority carriers. In p-type semiconductor holes are majority carriers and electrons are
minority carriers. %hen p-n junction is formed, due to difference in concentration of charge
carriers in the two regions of p-n junction, the electrons from n-region diffuse through the
junction into p-region and holes from p-region diffuse into n-region. The motion of charge
carriers gi'es rise to iffusion current across the junction.
%hen an electron diffuses from n-region to p-region of p-n junction, it lea'es "ehind
an ioni(ed donor atom in n-region, ha'ing positi'e charge which is immo"ile as it is "onded
to the surrounding atoms. !s diffusion of electrons continues from n-region to p-region of
p-n junction, more positi'ely charged donor atoms are created in n-region resulting a layer of
positi'e charge )i.e., a positi"e space c#arge region* near the junction in n-region.
imilarly, when a hole diffuses from p-region to n-region of p-n junction, it lea'es
"ehind an ioni(ed acceptor atom in p-region ha'ing negati'e charge which is immo"ile. !s
the diffusion of holes continues from p-region to n-region of p-n junction, more negati'ely
charged acceptor atoms are created in p-region resulting a layer of negati'e charge )i.e., a
negati"e c#arge space region* near the junction in p-region. The space-charge regions on
both the sides of p-n junction which has immobile ions and is devoid of any charge carrier
will form a region called epletion region or epletion layer$ Fig. % &a'. It is like a no man
1
Lalaji Memorial Omega International School Aca.Year 2010-11
land on a "order. The thickness of this depletion region is of the order of one-tenth of a
micrometer.
+ue to positi'e space charge region on n-side of junction and negati'e space charge
region on p-side of junction, an electric field is
set up across the junction from positi'e charge
towards negati'e charge, as if a fictitious "attery
is connected across the junction with its positi'e
terminal to n-region and negati'e terminal to p-
region. This electric field sets a potential
(arrier at the junction which opposes further
diffusion of majority charge carriers into
opposite regions. +ue to this electric field, an
electron on p-side of the junction mo'es to n-
side and a hole on n-side of junction mo'es to p-
side of junction. The motion of these charge
carriers due to electric field is called rift. !s a
result of it, a rift current starts, which is
opposite in direction to the diffusion current.
In the "eginning, the diffusion
current is large "ut drift current is small. !s the diffusion process continues, the space charge
regions across the junction e,tend. !s a result of it, the strength of electric field across the
junction increases and there"y rift current increases. This process continues until the
diffusion current "ecomes e-ual to the drift current. %hen this stage is reached, the
mo'ement of majority charge carriers across the junction stops. .ow the p-n junction is said
to "e in e-uili"rium state and there is no current across the p-n junction. !t this stage, the
potential "arrier across the p-n junction has ma,imum 'alue /
0
. It means the "arrier 'oltage
/
0
stops the diffusion of majority charge carriers from p to n region across the junction and
'ice 'ersa.
Fig. % &(' represents the potential istri(ution near t#e junction. This potential
acts as a "arrier, hence known as potential (arrier.
!t room temperature of 100 2, /
0
is a"out 0.1 / for 3e and 0.4 / for i. Infact, the
'alue of /
0
depends on doping impurity, nature of semiconductor and temperature "ut is
independent of the design of junction diode. The 'alue of /
0
increases with rise in
temperature for 3e and i.
+ue to presence of potential "arrier /
0
across the junction, an electron from n-region
re-uires the energy e/
0
to cross the junction. !n e-ual amount of energy is re-uired to mo'e
a hole, from p-region to n-region across the p-n junction.
T#e wit# of t#e epletion layer an t#e magnitue of t#e (arrier potential
epen on t#e nature of semiconductor and doping concentration on the two sides of
p-n junction. If the doping concentration in n-type and p-type semiconductor forming
p-n junction is small, the diffusing electrons and holes across the junction can mo'e to -uite
large distances "efore suffering a collision with another hole or electron to "e recom"ined.
2
Fig. %
+ue to this, the width of p-n junction is large and junction field is small. 5n the other hand if
the doping concentration in n-type and p-type semiconductor forming p-n junction is large,
the width of p-n junction would "e small and junction field would "e large. It means the
p-n junction will show different "eha'ior "y changing the doping le'els on "oth the sides. If
the width of the depletion region is a"out 60
& 7
m, the "arrier electric field # for silicon
p-n junction is
5 6
7
0.4
4 60
60
V
E Vm
d

, which is 'ery high.

Note ) )6* The p-n junction can "e considered to "e e-ui'alent to a capacitor with
p and n-regions acting as the plates of a capacitor and depletion region as the dielectric
medium.
)8* ym"olically, a p-n junction is shown in Fig. *.
The direction of the arrow is from the p to n-
side. The p-side is known as anode and n-side is known
as cathode.
)1* %e cannot measure t#e potential (arrier of p-n junction "y putting a sensitive
voltmeter across its terminals "ecause there are no free electrons or holes in the depletion
layer and in the a"sence of forward "iasing, the depletion layer offers infinite resistance.
The contact potential or potential "arrier at the p-n junction is gi'en "y
8
log
A
! e
i
" " #T
V
e n
_

,
where k is 0olt(mann constant, T is the temperature in 2el'in, .
!
, .
+
are the num"er density of acceptor atoms and donor atoms respecti'ely and n
i
is the num"er
density of intrinsic carriers )i.e. electrons or holes*.
!I+,IN- OF T./ P-N JUNCTION
There are two methods of "iasing the p-n junction.
)i* Forwar (iasing.
&ii' 0e"erse (iasing.
,.No. Forwar (iasing 0e"erse (iasing
6. A p-n junction is said to be forward
biased if the positive terminal of the
e$ternal battery ! is connected to p-side
and the negative terminal to the n-side of
p-n junction. Fig. 1&a'.
A p-n junction is said to be reverse
biased if the positive terminal of the
e$ternal battery ! is connected to n-side
and the negative terminal to p-side of
the p-n junction, Fig. 2&a'.
8. The circuit diagram for forward "iasing of
p-n junction is shown in Fig. 1&('.
The circuit diagram for re'erse "iasing
of p-n junction is shown in Fig. 2&('.
1. In forward "iasing, the applied 'oltage /
of "attery 0 mostly drops across the
depletion region and the 'oltage drop
across the p-side and n-side of the p-n
junction is negligi"le small.
In re'erse "iasing, the applied 'oltage /
of "attery 0, mostly drops across
depletion region of p-n junction and its
direction of 'oltage is same as that of
potential "arrier.
9. It is due to the fact that t#e resistance of +ue to it, the re'erse "ias 'oltage
3
Fig. *
epletion region is "ery #ig# as it #as
no free c#arge carriers. In forward
"iasing the forward 'oltage opposes the
potential "arrier /
0
.
supports the potential "arrier.
5. !s a result of it, the potential barrier
height is reduced and width of depletion
layer decreases.
!s a result of it, the barrier height
increases and width of depletion region
increases.
7. The effecti'e height of the potential
"arrier or effecti'e "arrier potential in
forward "iasing is )/
0
& /*. Fig. 1&c'.
The effecti'e "arrier height or "arrier
potential under re'erse "ias is )/
0
: /*,
Fig. 2&c'
4. The majority carriers, electrons in the n-
region are repelled "y the negati'e
potential due to "attery 0 and mo'e
towards the p-n junction.
There is no conduction across the
junction due to majority carriers.
8. The majority carriers, holes in the p-
region are repelled "y the positi'e
potential due to "attery 0, towards the
junction.
! few minority carriers )holes in n-
section and electrons in p-section* of p-n
junction diode cross the junction after
"eing accelerated "y high re'erse "ias
'oltage.
;. !n electric current will flow due to
migration of majority carriers across the
p-n junction $ which is called forwar
current.
They constitute a current that flows in
the opposite direction. This is called
re"erse current or lea3age current.
60. The
small increase in forward 'oltage shows
the large increase in forward current,
hence the resistance of p-n junction is
low to t#e flow of current w#en
forwar (iase.
The large increase in re'erse 'oltage
shows small increase in re'erse current,
hence the resistance of p-n junction is
#ig# to t#e flow of current w#en
re"erse (iase.

4
C.+0+CT/0I,TIC, OF + P-N JUNCTION DIOD/
There are two types of characteristics of a p-n junction diode <
)i* =orward characteristics
)ii* >e'erse characteristics
,.No. Forwar c#aracteristics 0e"erse c#aracteristics
6. These are the graphical relations between
forward bias voltage applied to p-n
junction and the forward current through
the p-n junction.
These are the graphical relations
between the reverse bias voltage applied
to the p-n junction and the reverse
current across the p-n junction.
8. %e connect the e,ternal "attery 0 with
potential di'iding arrangement, to the p-n
junction as shown in Fig. 4 &a'$ so that p-n
junction is forward "iased.
%e connect the e,ternal "attery 0 with
potential di'iding arrangement to p-n
junction as shown in Fig. 5&a'$ so that p-
n junction is re'erse "iased.
1. =or the gi'en low forward "ias 'oltage
)noted from 'oltmeter /*, note the
corresponding forward current )from
milliameter m!*, which is due to
migration of majority carriers across the
p-n junction.
=or the gi'en re'erse "ias 'oltage )noted
from the 'oltmeter /* applied to the p-n
junction, note the re'erse current )from
the micro-ammeter !*, which is due to
migration of minority carriers across the
p-n junction.
9. 3o on increasing the 'arious 'alues of
forward "ias 'oltage and note the
corresponding forward currents.
3o on increasing the re'erse "ias 'oltage
and note the corresponding re'erse
current.
5. 5n plotting a graph "etween forward "ias
'oltage and forward current, we get the
cur'e 5!0. This is the forward
characteristics of the type shown in
Fig. 4&('.
5n plotting a graph "etween re'erse "ias
and re'erse current, we get the re'erse
characteristics as shown in Fig. 5&('.
7. It is found that "eyond forward 'oltage /
? /
k
, called KNEE VOLTAGE )which is
0.1 / for 3e and 0.7 to 0.4 / for i* the
conducti'ity is 'ery high.
If the re'erse "ias 'oltage is e-ual to 50
)i.e "reakdown 'oltage*, the re'erse
current through the p-n junction will
increase a"ruptly.
4. 6nee 7oltage is the forward voltage
beyond which the current through the
junction starts increasing rapidly with
voltage, showing the linear variation. !ut
below the #nee voltage the variation is
non-linear.
The characteristic curve we note that in
reverse biasing of p-n junction diode,
the reverse current is very small % A&
and is voltage independent upto certain
reverse bias voltage, #nown as
(rea3own "oltage. It is called re"erse
saturation current.
8. 'n forward bias( V is positive, and low.
Then forward current,
@
0
) 6*
eV #T
f
' ' e
.
'n reverse bias ( V is negative and high,
so
@ eV #T
e A A 6, then re'erse current,
5
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
0 r
' '
.
D8N+9IC 0/,I,T+NC/ O0 +.C. 0/,I,T+NC/ OF T./ JUNCTION DIOD/
Dynamic resistance or a.c. resistance of junction ioe or incremental resistance
is defined as the ratio of a small change in voltage V applied across the p-n junction to a
small change in junction current ' i.e.,
In Fig. 4 &('$

d
V E
)
' *E
In Fig. 5 &('$

d
V E
)
' *+
In the forward characteristics of p-n junction diode, "eyond the knee point, there is
almost a linear region of the characteristics, showing that >
d
is independent of / a"o'e the
knee point. the 'alue of >
d
in forward "ias "eyond knee point is low )a"out few ohms* and is
-uite high )a"out mega ohm* in re'erse "ias.
P-N JUNCTION DIOD/ +, + 0/CTIFI/0
)ectifier is a device which is used for converting alternating current , voltage into
direct current , voltage. ! p-n junction can "e used as a rectifier in two ways<
6
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
)a* -alf wave rectifier )"* +ull wave rectifier.
)a* p-n junction ioe as a #alf wa"e rectifier.
Principle. Its working is "ased on the fact that the resistance of p-n junction "ecomes
low when forward "iased and "ecomes high when re'erse "iased.
Circuit iagram. !.C. to "e rectified is connected to the primary B
6
B
8
of a stepdown
transformer.
6
8
is the secondary coil of the same transformer.
6
is connected to the
portion p of the p-n junction.
8
is connected to the portion n through load resistance >.
Fig. : &a'.
;or3ing. During t#e positi"e #alf cycle of
t#e input +.C.$ suppose B
6
is negati'e and B
8
is positi'e. 5n account of induction,
6
"ecomes positi'e,
8
"ecomes negati'e. The p-
n junction is forward "iased. The resistance of
p-n junction "ecomes low. The forward
current flows in the direction shown "y arrow
heads. Thus we get output across-load.
During t#e negati"e #alf cycle of t#e input
+.C.$ B
6
is positi'e and B
8
is negati'e. 5n
account of mutual induction,
6
"ecomes
negati'e and
8
is positi'e. The p-n junction is
re'erse "iased. It offers high resistance and
hence there is no flow of current and thus no
output across load. The process is repeated. In
the output, we ha'e current corresponding to
one half of the wa'e, the other half is missing.
The output 'oltage is of the type shown in Fig.
: &('.
The process is called half wa'e rectification.
It is not of much use. The output signal is
a'aila"le in "ursts and not continuously.
&(' p-n junction ioe as a full wa"e rectifier.
Circuit iagram. =or full wa'e rectification,
we ha'e to use two p-n junctions +
6
and +
8
.
The arrangement is shown in Fig. <.
;or3ing. +uring the positi'e half cycle of the
input !.C., the junction diode +
6
is forward
"iased as shown in Fig. < &a'$ and the p-n
junction diode +
8
is re'erse "iased. The
forward current flows on account of majority
carriers of junction diode +
6
in
7
Fig. :
the direction shown.
During t#e negati"e #alf cycle of input +.C., the junction diode +
6
is re'erse "iased,
and the junction diode +
8
is forward "iased, Fig. < &('. The forward current flows on
account of majority carriers of junction diode +
8
. %e o"ser'e that during "oth the
hal'es, current through > flows in the
same direction. The input and output
wa'eforms are shown in Fig. < &c'. The
output signal 'oltage is unidirectional
ha'ing ripple contents i.e. d.c.
components and a.c. components of 'oltage. It can "e made d.c. 'oltage "y filtering
through a filter circuit$ "efore it can "e put to any use.
! single capacitor C of high 'alue of capacitance connected across the output of
rectifier, can ser'e the purpose of a filter circuit. Fig. = &a'.
The capacitor offers low impedance to a.c. component
6 6
8
*
.
* v *
_

,
Q
and
offers infinite impedance to d.c. component. +ue to which the a.c. component is
"ypassed or filtered out. the d.c. component is o"structed "y C. It produces a 'oltage
drop across load resistance >
C
as a filtere .c. output$ which is almost output d.c.
'oltage.
0ole of capacitor in filtering is e,plain "elow< +uring the half cycle when 'oltage
across capacitor is rising, the capacitor gets charged. %hen no e,ternal load is applied,
the capacitor remains charged to the peak 'oltage
of the rectified output. %hen the load is applied
across the capacitor, the capacitor gets discharged
through that load. +ue to it, the 'oltage across the
capacitor "egins to fall. In the ne,t half cycle of
rectified output, the capacitor again gets charged to
the peak 'alue and so on. The output 'oltage will
"e of the type as shown "y thick solid cur'e in Fig.
= &('. The rate at which the 'oltage across the capacitor falls depends upon the in'erse
of time constant of the circuit. The time constant of this current is e-ual to the product
of capacitance C and effecti'e resistance > used in the circuit. To make the 'alue of
time constant large, the 'alue of C should "e large. Therefore, for filtering the rectified
'oltage, the capacitor of large capacitance is to "e used in order to o"tain the output
'oltage nearer to the peak 'oltage of the rectified 'oltage. ,uc# filter is wiely use in
power supplies)
0ipple factor of a rectifier
'alue of a.c. component
'alue of d.c. component

8
. . . . . . .
. . . . . .
6
a c a c r m s
d c d c d c
' E '
' E '
_

,
.
8
Fig. <
Fig. = &a'
Fig. = &('
It can "e shown that ripple factor for #alf wa"e rectifier is %.*% an for full wa"e
rectifier is >.2<.
/fficiency of rectifier$
output d.c. power
600D
input a.c. power

Note %. In half wave rectifier
If V
rms
is r.m.s. primary 'oltage, then
9a?imum primary "oltage$ 8
pm rms
V V
9a?imum seconary "oltage$ 0

s
sm pm
p
n
V V V
n

9a?imum seconary current$
0 0
@ ) *
i /
' V ) ) +
Ealf wa'e rectified current i.e. mean loa current
0
. . d c
'
'
@
0
8
rms
'
'
Output .c. "oltage A
0
. . d c / /
'
' ) )

Output r.m.s. "oltage A V
0
, 8
Note *. In full wave rectifier
9a?imum seconary "oltage$
8
s s
sm pm rms
p p
n n
V V V
n n

=ull wa'e rectified current i.e. mean loa current
0
. .
8
d c
'
'
@
0
8
rms
'
'
Output .c. "oltage A
0
. .
8
d c / /
'
' ) )
.
,P/CI+B PU0PO,/ P-N JUNCTION DIOD/
ome de'ices which are "asically junction diodes are de'eloped for different
applications. The important de'ices are as follows<
)a* Fenerdiode
)"* Bhotodiode
)c* Cight emitting diode )C#+*
)d* olar cell.
&a' Cener ioe
It was in'ented "y C & Fener. It is
designed specially to operate under re'erse
9
"ias in the "reak down region and is used as a 'oltage regulator. The sym"ol for (ener
diode is shown in Fig. %> &a'.
The (ener diode is made "y hea'ily doping "oth p-side and n-side of the p-n junction.
+ue to it, the depletion region formed at the junction "ecomes 'ery thin )A 60
&
7
m* and the electric field across the junction is e,tremely high )a"out 5 , 60
7
/@m*. The
'oltage )/* and the current )I* characteristics of (ener diode is of the type as shown in
Fig. %> &('.
In case of (ener diode, it has "een o"ser'ed that
)i* %hen the applied re'erse 'oltage reaches the "reak down 'oltage )/
(
*, there is a
large change in the re'erse current.
)ii* !fter the "reak down 'oltage /
(
, a large change in the current can "e produced
"y almost insignificant change in the re'erse 'oltage.
The a"o'e facts indicate that t#e Dener "oltage remains constant e"en t#oug# t#e
current t#roug# t#e Dener ioe "aries consiera(ly. This property of the (ener diode
is used for regulating supply 'oltage.
Fener diode is a'aila"le ha'ing (ener 'oltages of 8.9 / to 800 /. Their power rating
)i.e. ma,imum power dissipation ? (ener "reak down 'oltage )/
F
* ma,imum (ener
current )I
F
* 'ary from 650 m% to 50 %.
=or proper working of a (ener diode in any circuit, it is essential that
)a* the (ener diode must "e re'erse-"iased.
)"* the (ener diode must ha'e 'oltage greater than (ener "reak down 'oltage )/
F
*.
)c* the (ener diode is to "e used in a circuit where the current is less than the
ma,imum (ener current )I
F
* limited "y power rating of the gi'en (ener diode.
Cener ioe as 7oltage 0egulator
5ne of the most important uses of (ener diode is in making the constant "oltage
power supply. The circuit detail is shown in
Fig. %> &c'. Eere the (ener diode is joined in
re'erse "ias to the fluctuating d.c. input 'oltage
through a resistance > of suita"le 'alue,
depending upon the (ener 'oltage and power
rating of (ener diode used. The constant
output 'oltage is taken across a load resistance
>
C
connected in parallel with (ener diode.
%hen the input d.c. 'oltage increases "eyond a certain limit, the 'oltage across (ener
diode "ecomes constant e-ual to (ener "reak down 'oltage, "ut the current through the (ener
diode circuit rises sharply as the incremental or dynamic resistance of (ener diode "ecomes
almost (ero, after (ener "reak down 'oltage. +ue to which there is an increase in 'oltage
10
Fig. %>
Fig. %> &c'
drop across >. ince >
C
is connected in parallel so the 'oltage across >
C
remains the same as
that of (ener "reak down 'oltage. Eence the output 'oltage remains constant.
Note. In order to ha'e a good load regulations, the 'alue of series resistance > should
"e such that the current through the (ener diode is much larger than the load current. =or this,
we select, the (ener current fi'e times the load current.
&(' P#otoioe
P#otoioe is an Optoelectronic e"ice in w#ic# current carriers are generate
(y p#otons t#roug# p#oto e?citation. i.e. p#otoconuction (y lig#t.
! photodiode is a special type p-n junction diode made of photosensiti'e
semiconducting material. In such a diode a pro'ision )i.e, a transparent window* is made
to allow the light of suita"le fre-uency to fall on it. it is operated under re'erse "ias. The
conducti'ity of p-n junction photodiode increases with the increase in intensity of light
falling on it. sym"olically, a photodiode
is shown in Fig. %% &a'.
Fig. %% &(' shows an e,perimental
arrangement for the study of 'oltage )/*
current )I* characteristics of a photodiode
in which the photodiode is re'erse "iased
"ut the 'oltage applied is less than the
"reak down 'oltage.
%hen 'isi"le light of energy greater than for"idden energy gap )i.e. h' G #
g
* is
incident on a re'erse "iased p-n junction photodiode, additional electron-hole pairs are
created in the depletion layer )or near the junction*.
These charge carriers will "e separated "y the junction
field and made to flow across the junction, creating a
re'erse current across the junction. The 'alue of
re'erse saturation current increases with the increase in
the intensity of incident light as shown in Fig. %% &c'$
which is the /-I characteristics of photodiode. It is
found that the re"erse saturation current t#roug# t#e
p#otoioe "aries almost linearly wit# t#e lig#t flu?.
The photodiodes are used in re'erse "ias condition "ecause the change in re'erse
current through the photodiode due to change in light flu, can "e measured easily as the
re'erse saturation current is directly proportional to the light flu,. 0ut it is not so when
photodiode is forward "iased.
%hen the photodiode is re'erse "iased, then a certain current e,ists in the circuit e'en
when no light is incident on the p-n junction of photodiode. This current is called ar3
current. ! photodiode can turn its current ON and OFF in nanoseconds. Eence
photodiode is one of the fastest photodetector.
11
Fig. %%
Fig. %% &c'
P#otoioes are use for following purposes)
6. In p#otoetection for optical signals.
8. In emoulation for optical signals.
1. In switc#ing t#e lig#t on an off.
2. In optical communication eEuipments.
5. In logic circuits that re-uire sta"ility and high speed.
5. In reaing of computers$ punc#e cars an tapes etc.
Note. There are other photodiodes the BI. photodiode and !'alanche photodiode, the
discussion of which is "eyond the scope of this "ook.
)c* Big#t /mitting Dioe &B/D'. Big#t emitting ioe is a p#otoelectronic e"ice w#ic#
con'erts electrical energy into light energy. It is a hea'ily doped p-n junction diode
which under forward "ias emits spontaneous radiation. The diode is co'ered with a
transparent co'er so that the emitted light may come out.
ym"olically C#+ is shown in Fig. %* &a'. The construction and circuit used for
working with C#+ is shown in Fig. %* &('.
In an C#+, the upper layer of p-type
semiconductor is deposited "y diffusion on
n-type layer of semiconductor. The
metallised contacts are pro'ided for
applying the forward "ias 'oltage to the p-n
junction diode from "attery 0 through a
resistance > which controls the "rightness of light emitted.
The 'oltage )/* current )I* characteristics of C#+ is similar to that of silicon junction
diode. =or C#+s, the threshold 'oltages are much higher and slightly different for
different colours. The re'erse "reakdown 'oltages of C#+s are low generally around 5/.
It is due to this reason, the care is taken that high re'erse 'oltages do not appear across
C#+s.
;or3ing of B/D is iscusse (elow )
%hen p-n junction is forward "iased, the mo'ement of majority charge carriers takes
place across the junction. The electrons mo'e from n-side to p-side through the junction
and holes mo'e from p-side to n-side through the junction. !s a result of it, the
concentration of minority carriers increases rapidly at the junction "oundary, as compared
to the e-uili"rium concentration, when there is no "ias across the junction. Therefore,
there are e,cess minority carriers on either side of the junction "oundary, which
recom"ine with majority carriers near the junction. 5n recom"ination of electron and
hole, the energy is gi'en out in the form of heat and light )i.e. p#oton*. The photons with
energy e-ual to or slightly less than the "and gap are emitted. =or a p-n junction of 3e
and i, the larger percentage of this energy is gi'en out in the form of heat. +ue to it, the
emitted light is insignificant. 0ut in other p-n junction semiconductor diodes made of
materials like gallium arsenide )3a !s*, gallium phosphide )3aB* and gallium-arsenide-
12
Fig. %*
phosphide )3a!sB* a greater percentage of energy released during the recom"ination is in
the form of 'isi"le light. +ue to it the junction "ecomes a light source i.e., a light
emitting diode )C#+*. The colour of light emitted depends upon the type of material used
in making the semiconductor diodes as gi'en "elow<
6. 3allium-arsenide )3a!s* & infrared radiation.
8. 3allium-phosphide )3aB* & red or green light.
1. 3allium-arsenide-phosphide )3a!sB* & red or yellow light.
C#+s emit no light when re'erse-"iased. >ather the C#+s will "e destroyed when
re'erse "iased.
%hen the forward current of the junction diode is small, the intensity of light emitting
diode is small. !s the forward current increases, intensity of light also increases and
reaches a ma,imum 'alue. 0eyond this stage if forward current is further increased, the
intensity of light starts decreasing. +uring working C#+s are "iased such that the light
emitting efficiency is ma,imum.
U,/,)
6. In !urglar-alarm systems$ infrared C#+s are used.
8. In calculators an igital watc#es$ C#+s are used for numeric displays.
1. In t#e fiel of optical communication$ where high radiance 3a!s diode are
matched into the optical fi"re ca"le.
9. In computers C#+s are used in optical mouses for the computers. They are also
used in computer memories and in optical communication.
5. In picture p#ones an "ieo isplays. C#+s are used in image sensing circuits
for picture phones and 'ideo displays.
7. In traffic lig#t. C#+s are used to illuminate the traffic lights.
4. In remote control. C#+s are used to transmit information to the electronic
gadgets.
+"antages of B/DFs o"er incanescent lamp are as follows)
6. C#+ has less power and low operational 'oltage.
8. C#+ has fast action and re-uires no warm up time.
1. C#+ is cheap and easy to handle.
9. C#+ cam "e used for 'ariety of uses$ e.g. in "urglar alarm system, in the field of
optical communication, in digital watches etc.
)d* ,olar cell. olar cell is "asically a solar energy con'erter. It is a p-n junction de'ice
which con'erts solar energy into electric energy. ! solar cell is shown sym"olically in
Fig. %1 &a' and in construction along with circuit in Fig. %1 &('.
13
! solar cell consists of a
silicon or gallium-arsenide p-n
junction diode packed in a can
with glass window on top. The
upper layer is of p-type
semiconductor. It is 'ery thin so
that the incident light photons
may easily reach the p-n
junction. 5n the top face of p-
layer, the metal finger
electroes are prepared in order to ha'e enough spacing "etween the fingers for the light
to reach the p-n junction through p-layer.
%hen photons of light )of energy h' G #
g
* fall at the junction, electron-hole pairs are
generated in the depletion layer )or near the junction*. The electrons and holes produced
mo'e in opposite directions due to junction field. The photo generated electrons mo'e
towards n-side of p-n junction. The photo generated holes mo'e towards p-side of p-n
junction. They will "e collected at the two sides of the junction, gi'ing rise to a photo
'oltage "etween the top and "ottom metal electrodes. The top metal contact acts as
positi'e electrode and "ottom metal contact acts as negati'e electrode. %hen an e,ternal
load is connected across metal electrodes a photo current flows.
U,/,)
6. olar cells are used for charging storage "atteries in day time, which can supply
the power during night times.
8. The solar cells are also used in artificial satellite to operate the 'arious electrical
instruments kept inside the satellite.
1. They are used for generating electrical energy in cooking food and pumping
water.
9. olar cells are used in calculators, wrist watches and light meters )in
photography*.
5. olar cells are used to produce electric power in remote areas, where power from
the electric power supply is not a'aila"le.
7. olar cells are used to power traffic signs.
4. olar cells are used in remote radiotelephones.
JUNCTION T0+N,I,TO0
A junction transistor is obtained by growing a thin layer of one type semiconductor in
between two thic# layers of other similar type semiconductor. Thus a junction transistor is a
semiconductor de'ice ha'ing two junctions and three terminals.
The two types of junction transistors are p-n-p junction transistor and n-p-n junction
transistor.
14
Fig. %1
! p-n-p junction transistor is o"tained "y growing a thin layer of n-type
semiconductor in"etween two relati'ely thick layers of p type semiconductor.
! n-p-n junction transistor is o"tained "y growing a thin layer of p-type
semiconductor in"etween two relati'ely thick layers of n type semiconductor.
! "rief description of three layers of a transistor is gi'en "elow <
/mitter &/'. It is the left hand side thick layer of the transistor which is hea'ily
doped.
!ase &!'. It is a central thin layer of transistor which is lightly doped.
Collector &C'. It is the right hand side thick layer of the transistor which is
moderately doped.
The function of emitter is to emit
the majority carriers. function of
collector is to collect the majority
carriers. 0ase pro'ides the proper
interaction "etween the emitter and the
collector.
ym"olically, the two types of
transistors are represented in Fig. %2.
The direction of arrowhead indicates the direction of flow of positi'e charge.
In case of p-n-p transistor, Fig. %2 &a'$ the arrowhead is inwards, "ecause majority
carriers are holes. In case of n-p-n transistor, Fig. %2 &('$ the arrowhead is outwards, "ecause
majority carriers are electrons.
A junction transistor is a transformer of resistance, which can be achieved by
interchanging the biasing across the junction triode, #ence its name is junction transistor.
T#e transistor is a current ri"en e"ice$ in which the emitter current controls the
collector current.
T0+N,I,TO0 +CTION O0 ;O06IN- OF JUNCTION T0+N,I,TO0
,.No p-n-p Transistor n-p-n Transistor
6. The emitter "ase junction is forward "iased
i.e. the positi'e pole of emitter "ase "attery
/
##
is connected to emitter, and its negati'e
pole to the "ase.
The emitter "ase junction is forward
"iased i.e. the positi'e pole of emitter
"ase "attery /
##
is connected to "ase and
its negati'e pole to emitter.
8. The resistance of emitter "ase junction is
'ery low. o the 'oltage of /
##
)i.e. /
#0
* is
-uite small ) 6.5 'olt*.
The resistance of emitter "ase junction is
'ery low. o the 'oltage of /
##
)i.e. /
#0
*
is -uite small ) 6.5 /*.
1. Collector "ase junction is re'erse "iased i.e.
the negati'e pole of the collector "ase
"attery /
CC
is connected to collector and its
The collector "ase junction is re'erse
"iased i.e. the positi'e pole of the
collector "ase "attery /
CC
is connected to
15
Fig. %2
positi'e pole to the "ase. collector and negati'e pole to "ase.
9. The resistance of collector "ase junction is
'ery high. o the 'oltage of /
CC
)i.e. /
C0
*
is -uite large ) 95 'olt*.
The resistance of this junction is 'ery
high. o the 'oltage of /
CC
)i.e. /
C0
* is
-uite large ) 95 /*.
5. Eoles which are majority carriers in emitter
)p-type semiconductor* are repelled towards
"ase "y positi'e potential on emitter due to
"attery /
##
, resulting in emitter current I
e
.
#lectrons which are majority carriers in
emitter )n-type semiconductor* are
repelled towards "ase "y negati'e
potential of /
##
, on emitter, resulting
emitter current I
e
.
7. Tht7 "ase "eing thin and lightly doped
)n-type semiconductor* has low num"er
density of electrons.
The "ase "eing thin and lightly doped
)p-type semiconductor* has low num"er
density of holes.
4. %hen holes enter the "ase region, then only
a few holes )says 5D* get neutrali(ed "y the
electron & hole com"ination, resulting in
"ase current I
"
)? 5D I
e
? 0.05 I
e
*.
%hen electrons enter the "ase region,
then only a few holes )says 5D* get
neutrali(ed "y the electron & hole
com"ination, resulting in "ase current
I
"
)? 5D I
e
? 0.05 I
e
*.
8. The remaining ;5D holes pass o'er to the
collector on account of high negati'e
potential of collector due to "attery /
CC
,
resulting in collector current
I
c
)? ;5D I
e
? 0.;5 I
e
*.
The remaining ;5D holes pass o'er to
the collector, on account of high positi'e
potential of collector due to "attery /
CC
,
resulting in collector current
I
c
)? ;5D I
e
? 0.;5 I
e
*.
;. !s one hole reaches the collector, it is
neutrali(ed "y the flow of one electron from
the negati'e terminal of the "attery /
CC
to
collector through connecting wire.
!s one electron reaches the collector, it
flows to the positi'e terminal of "attery
/
CC
through connecting wire.
60. !t the same time a co'alent "ond is "roken
in the emitter, the electron goes to the
positi'e terminal of the "attery /
##
through
connecting wire and hole produced "egins
to mo'e towards "ase and then one electron
flows from negati'e terminal of "attery /
##
to positi'e terminal of "attery /
CC
.
!t the same time, one electron flows
from negati'e terminal of /
CC
to positi'e
terminal of /
##
and one electron flows
from negati'e terminal of /
##
to emitter.
66. %hen the hole coming from emitter com"i
nes with the electron in "ase, the deficiency
of electron in "ase is compensated "y the
flow of electron from negati'e terminal of
"attery /
##
to the "ase through connecting
wire.
%hen the electron coming from emitter
com"ines with the hole in "ase, the
deficiency of hole in "ase is compensated
"y the "reakage of co'alent "ond. The
electron released flows to the positi'e
terminal of "attery /
##
through
connecting wire.
68. The current in p-n-p transistor is carried "y
holes and at the same time their
concentration is maintained. 0ut in the
e,ternal circuit the current is due to flow of
electrons.
In n-p-n transistor, the current is carried
inside the transistor as well as in e,ternal
circuit "y the electrons.
61. The direction of con'entional current )of
holes currents* in the 'arious arms of the
The direction of con'entional current in
the 'arious arms of the circuit has "een
16
circuit has "een shown "y arrow heads in
the Fig. %4. Thus in this case, I
e
? I
"
: I
c
.
In the "ase I
e
and I
c
flow in opposite
directions.
shown "y arrow heads in Fig. %5. Thus
in this case, I
e
? I
"
: I
c
.
In the "ase I
e
and I
c
flow in opposite
directions.
9OD/, OF ,TUD8 OF JUNCTION
T0+N,I,TO0,
! transistor can "e studied with any one of
its three terminals grounded which would ser'e as a
link for "oth, the input and output 'oltages. Thus,
there are three e,ternal circuit connections for
transistors as shown in Fig. %:.
Fig. %: &a' represents the common "ase
configuration )C0*. Fig. %: &(' represents the
common emitter )C#* and Fig. %: &c' represents the
common collector )CC* configuration of npn
transistor.
CO99ON !+,/ T0+N,I,TO0
C.+0+CT/0I,TIC,
The graphical representation of the
'ariations among the 'arious current and 'oltage
'aria"les of a transistor are called the transistor
c#aracteristics.
17
Fig. %4
Fig. %5
T#e common (ase transistor c#aracteristics are of two types )
)i* /mitter or Input c#aracteristics. A graphical relation between the emitter voltage and
the emitter current when collector voltage is #ept constant is called the emitter or input
characteristics of the transistor.
)ii* Collector or Output c#aracteristics. A graphical relation which shows the variation of
collector voltage and collector current when emitter current is #ept constant is called
collector or output characteristics of the transistor.
To study the characteristics of common "ase transistor using p-n-p transistor, we
complete the circuit as shown in Fig. %<. Eere emitter "ase circuit is "iased in forward
direction with "attery /
##
and collector "ase circuit is "iased in the re'erse direction with
"attery /
CC
. The emitter 'oltage and emitter
current can "e studied "y 'oltmeter /
#0
and
ammeter I
e
respecti'ely, whereas the collector
'oltage and collector current "y 'oltmeter /
C0
and ammeter I
c
respecti'ely. The 'arious
currents o"ey the condition I
e
? I
"
: I
c
.
18
Fig. %:
Fig. %<
I. Input or /mitter C#aracteristics
To get input characteristics, apply a suita"le
constant 'oltage on collector and "y applying
the 'arious 'alues of emitter 'oltage, note the
corresponding 'alues of emitter current.
>epeat the e,periment for the 'arious constant
collector 'oltages. Blot a graph "etween
emitter 'oltage and emitter current, we get the
cur'es of the type shown in Fig. %=$ called
input characteristics of common base
transistor.
=rom the graphs, it can "e concluded that <
)i* =or a gi'en collector 'oltage, the emitter current increases rapidly with
increasing 'alues of emitter "ase 'oltage. It means that input resistance is 'ery
small.
)ii* =or a higher negati'e collector 'oltage, the emitter current rises more rapidly
with the collector 'oltage.
In order to find input resistance of transistor corresponding to emitter 'oltage 0.7
/, mark the point B on the input characteristic. +raw a tangent to the cur'e at B. The
reciprocal of the slope of the line !0 will gi'e us input resistance >
i
of transistor.
Eere,
0.4 0.5 0.8
50
8 9 9
i
V A! V
)
' A* mA

II. Output or Collector C#aracteristics
To get the output or collector characteristics,
adjust a suita"le constant 'alue of emitter
current and "y applying the 'arious 'alues of
collector 'oltages, note the corresponding
'alues of collector currents. >epeat the
e,periment for the 'arious constant emitter
currents. Blot a graph "etween collector
'oltage )/
C0
* and collector current )I
c
*. %e get
the cur'es of the type shown in Fig. *> called
output characteristics of common base transistor.
=rom the graphs, it can "e concluded that <
)i* =or a gi'en 'alue of emitter current, the collector current is not (ero when
collector 'oltage is (ero.
)ii* =or a gi'en emitter current, there is a rapid increase in the collector current for
an increase in low negati'e collector 'oltage. This shows the region of low
collector resistance. The transistor is ne'er operated in this region.
19
Fig. %=
Fig. *>
)iii* =or a gi'en emitter current, the collector current "ecomes saturated for a certain
collector 'oltage shown "y hori(ontal line. 0eyond this there is no change in
collector current for a further increase in negati'e collector 'oltage. This
indicates a region of high collector resistance. This means that output resistance
is 'ery high.
CO99ON /9ITT/0 T0+N,I,TO0
C.+0+CT/0I,TIC,
Fig. *% shows the e,perimental set up
for the study of characteristics of a transistor
when grounded emitter is kept as a common
terminal. 0ase is the input terminal and
collector is the output terminal as shown. The
'arious currents are marked keeping in 'iew
the condition I
e
? I
"
: I
c
.
The input c#aracteristics of the transistor represent the 'ariation of the "ase current
I
"
with "ase emitter 'oltage /
0#
, keeping /
C#
fi,ed. Their shape is shown in Fig. ** &a'. The
current is small as long as /
0#
is less than the "arrier 'oltage. %hen /
0#
is greater than the
"arrier 'oltage, the cur'es look similar to that of a forward "iased diode. Hore than ;5D of
emitter electrons )in npn transistor* and emitter holes )in pnp transistor* go to the collector to
form the collector current. That is I
"
is much smaller )in microampere*.
!s long as the collector emitter junction is re'erse "iased, the input characteristics are not
affected much "y small changes in /
C#
. !t a fi,ed point on the characteristics, we can find
input ynamic resistance of transistor as gi'en "elow <
Input ynamic resistance of a transistor &0
i
' is defined as the ratio of change in
base-emitter voltage )V
!E
* to the resulting change in the base current )'
b
* at constant
collector-emitter voltage )V
*E
* i.e.
is constant
*E
!E
b
V
V
'
_

,
The 'alue of >
i
for common-emitter transistor circuit can "e anything from few
hundreds to a few thousand ohms.
To find the input resistance corresponding to "ase emitter 'oltage /
0#
? 0.8 /, mark
the point B on the proper input characteristic. +raw a tangent !0 at B. The reciprocal of
slope of !0 will gi'e us the input resistance of transistor )>
i
*.
20
Fig. *%
Fig. **
Eere,
)0.; 0.4*
500
)700 800*
!E
i
b
V !* V
)
' A* A

The output c#aracteristics of the transistor represent the 'ariation of collector
current I
c
with collector emitter 'oltage /
C#
, keeping I
"
fi,ed. Their shape of output
characteristic cur'es of npn transistor is shown in Fig. ** &('.
=rom the cur'es, we find that for a gi'en 'alue of /
C#
, I
c
is large for larger 'alue of I
"
.
This happens "ecause the transistor is in saturation state and not in acti'e state. =urther, as
long as collector emitter junction is re'erse "iased )/
C#
G /
0#
*, we get I
c
which is almost
independent of /
C#
. The 'alue of I
c
is howe'er controlled "y I
"
, as is clear from Fig. *%. %e
can find the output resistance of transistor as gi'en "elow.
Output ynamics resistance of a transistor &0
>
' is defined as the ratio of change in
collector-emitter voltage )V
*E
* to the change in collector current )'
c
* when base current '
b
is #ept constant i.e. 0
is constant
b
*E
*
'
V
)
'
_
,
To find the output resistance for a gi'en "ase current at a gi'en collector 'oltage,
mark a point on the proper output characteristic. +raw a tangent on this characteristic at
point B. The reciprocal of slope of this tangent will gi'e us output resistance. The output
resistance of a transistor is 'ery high )of the order of 50 to 600 # *.
.8!0ID P+0+9/T/0, &#-P+0+9/T/0,'
The performance of a transistor can "e judged with respect to its h-parameters. These
h-parameters of a common-emitter transistor are as follows< IIn h-parameters the first
su"script indicates the nature of parameter and second su"script indicators the type of
circuitJ.
(i) Input impeance &h
ie
'. It is the ratio of small change in the "ase-emitter 'oltage )V
be
*
to the corresponding change in "ase current )'
b
* when the collector-emitter 'oltage
)V
*E
* is kept constant, i.e.,
is constant
*E
be
ie
b
V
V
h
'
1
]
. The unit of h
ie
is ohm.
(ii) 0e"erse "oltage ratio &h
re
'. It is the ratio of small change in "ase-emitter 'oltage
)V
be
* to the corresponding change in the collector-emitter 'oltage )V
*E
*, keeping the
"ase current )'
b
* constant, i.e.,
is constant
b
be
re
*E
'
V
h
V
1
]
.
h
re
has no unit and no dimensions.
(iii) Forwar current ratio &h
fe
'. It is the ratio of small change in the collector current
)'
c
* to the corresponding change in the "ase current ) T
b
* at constant collector-
emitter 'oltage )V
*E
*, i.e.,
is constant
*E
c
fe
b
V
'
h
'
1
]
. h
fe
has no unit and no dimensions.
21
(iv) Output amittance &h
oe
'. It is the ratio of small change in the collector current )'
c
*
to the corresponding small change in the collector-emitter 'oltage )V
*E
* at constant
"ase current )'
b
* i.e.,
is constant
b
*
oe
*E
'
'
h
V
1
]
. The unit of h
oe
is iemen.
T0+N,I,TO0 +, + ,;ITC.
To understand the
operation of the transistor as a
switch )i.e., a de'ice for the on
and off the current in the circuit*,
we use npn transistor with
common emitter transistor circuit
as shown in Fig. *1.
Using 6irc##offFs "oltage law @ for the input circuit we ha'e
/
00
: I
0
>
0
: /
0#
? 0 or /
00
? I
0
>
0
: /
0#
K )i*
In case of i transistor V
!E
is 0.7 / to 0.4 /.
=or the output circuit, we ha'e
/
CC
: I
C
>
C
: /
C#
? 0 or /
C#
? /
CC
I
C
>
C
K )ii*
%e shall assume /
00
as the d.c. input 'oltage /
i
and /
C#
as the output 'oltage /
0
.
Then from )i*, /
i
? I
0
>
0
: /
0#
K )iii*
from )ii*, /
0
? /
CC
I
C
>
C
K )i'*
.ow we shall try to understand how /
0
changes as /
i
increases from (ero onwards.
In case of i-transistor as long as /
i
A 0.7 /, the transistor will "e in cut off state and
current I
c
will "e (ero. Then from )i'*, /
0
? /
CC
.
%hen /
i
G 0.7 /, the transistor is in acti"e state. There will "e some current I
c
in the
collector-emitter circuit. =rom )i'* we note that the
'alue of output 'oltage /
0
decreases as the term I
c
>
c
increases. %ith the increase of /
i
, I
c
increases almost
linearly and so, /
0
decreases linearly till /
i
"ecomes
less than 6.0 /. 0eyond this, the 'ariation of /
0
with
/
i
"ecomes non-linear and transistor goes to
saturation state. %ith further increase in /
i
, /
0
is
found to decrease further towards (ero "ut ne'er
"ecomes (ero. Fig. *2.
22
Fig. *1
Fig. *2
=rom a"o'e, we note that as long as /
i
is low )i.e., /
i
A 0.7 /*, /
0
is high ) ? /
CC
*.
The transistor is not working i.e. the transistor is in cut off state. It means the transistor is
said to "e in switc#e off state. If /
i
is high )i.e., /
i
G 6.0 /*, the transistor is in saturation
state, the /
0
is low and is 'ery near to (ero. It means the transistor is fully conducting. In
this situation the transistor is said to "e in the switc#e on state.
If we define low and high input states as "elow and a"o'e certain 'oltage le'els
corresponding to cut off and saturation states of transistor, then we can say that a low input
state switches the transistor off and a high input state switches it on. It means the low input
to transistor gives a high output and a high input gives a low output. This indicates that a
transistor acts as a switch.
Note. The switching circuits are made in such a way that the transistor does not
remain in acti'e state.
CONC/PT OF +N +9PBIFI/0
An amplifier is a device which is used for increasing the amplitude of variation of
alternating voltage or current or power. The amplifier thus produces an enlarged 'ersion of
the input signal.
The general concept of amplification is
represented in Fig. *4. There are two input
terminals for the signal to "e amplified and two
output terminals for connecting the load$ and a
means of supplying power to the amplifier.
T0+N,I,TO0 +, CO99ON !+,/ +9PBIFI/0
&a' +mplifier circuit using an n-p-n transistor.
The circuit details, using an n-p-n transistor as a common "ase amplifier are shown in
Fig. *5. Eere, "ase is common to "oth the input and the output circuits. The input
)emitter "ase* circuit is forward "iased "y using a low 'oltage "attery /
##
of 'oltage
/
#0
. !s a result, the resistance of input circuit is small. The output )collector "ase*
circuit is re'erse "iased "y using a high 'oltage "attery /
CC
of "attery 'oltage /
C0
. +ue
to which, the resistance of output circuit is large. >
c
is a load resistance connected in
collector circuit. The low input a.c. 'oltage signal is applied across emitter "ase circuit
and the amplified a.c. 'oltage signal )i.e. output* is o"tained as the change in collector
'oltage. In circuit diagram, arrows represent the direction of con'entional current or
hole current which is opposite to the direction of electronic current.
23
Fig. *4
%hen no a.c. signal 'oltage is applied to the input circuit "ut emitter "ase circuit is
closed then let us consider that I
e
, I
"
and I
c
"e the emitter current, "ase current and
collector current respecti'ely. Then, according to 2irchhoffLs first law
I
e
? I
"
: I
c
. K )i*
Cet us consider 5D of the emitter current appears as "ase current due to electron hole
com"ination in "ase and ;5D of the emitter current flows as a collector current. i.e.,
I
"
? 5D of I
e
? 0.05 I
e
and I
c
? ;5D of I
e
? 0.;5 I
e
. +ue to collector current I
c
, 'oltage
drop across >
c
? I
c
>
c
. If /
c
is collector 'oltage )i.e., potential difference "etween
collector and "ase* then /
C0
? /
c
: I
c
>
c
or /
c
? /
C0
I
c
>
c
K )ii*
%hen the input signal 'oltage is fed to the emitter "ase circuit, it will change the
emitter 'oltage and hence the emitter current $ which inturn will change the collector
current. +ue to this, the collector 'oltage /
c
will 'ary in accordance with relation )ii*.
This 'ariation in collector 'oltage appears as an amplified output.
P#ase relations#ip (etween input an output "oltages.
%hen the positi'e half cycle of input a.c. signal 'oltage comes, it opposes the forward
"iasing of the emitter "ase circuit. +ue to this the emitter current decreases and
conse-uently the collector current decreases. !s a result of which, the collector 'oltage
/
c
increases Ifrom relation )ii*J. ince the collector is connected to the positi'e
terminal of /
CC
"attery, therefore the increase in collector 'oltage means the collector
will "ecome more positi'e. This indicates that during positive half cycle of input a.c.
signal voltage, the output signal voltage at the collector also varies through a positive
half cycle.
%hen negati'e half cycle of input a.c. signal 'oltage comes, it supports the forwards
"iasing of emitter "ase circuit. +ue to which the emitter current increases and
conse-uently the collector current increases. !s a result of which, the collector 'oltage
/
c
decreases Ifrom relation )ii*J i.e., the collector "ecomes less positi'e. This indicates
that during negative half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage, the output signal voltage at
the collector also varies through the negative half cycle.
Thus, in common (ase amplifier circuit$ t#e input signal "oltage an t#e output
collector "oltage are in t#e same p#ase$ as shown in Fig. *5.
&(' +mplifier circuit using an p-n-p transistor.
The circuit details, using a p-n-p transistor as a common "ase amplifier are shown in
Fig. *:. The "asic theory of this circuit is the same as in case of n-p-n transistor circuit.
In this case also, output 'oltage signal o"tained across collector is in phase with the
input 'oltage signal as e,plained "elow<
24
%hen the positi'e half cycle of input a.c. signal 'oltage comes, it supports the
forward "iasing of the emitter "ase circuit. +ue to thus the emitter current increases
and conse-uently the collector current increases. =rom )ii* we note that as I
c
increases,
the collector 'oltage /
c
decreases. ince the collector is connected to the negati'e
terminal of /
CC
"attery of 'oltage /
C0
, therefore, the decrease in collector 'oltage
means the collector will "ecome less negati'e. This indicates that during positive half
cycle of input a.c. signal voltage, the output signal voltage at the collector also varies
through a positive half cycle.
imilarly, it can "e shown that during negative half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage,
the output signal voltage at the collector also varies through the negative half cycle.
Thus, in common (ase transistor amplifier circuit$ t#e input signal "oltage an t#e
output collector "oltage are in t#e same p#ase.
7+0IOU, -+IN, IN CO99ON !+,/ +9PBIFI/0
)6* Current gain or current transfer ratio. Its 'alue depends on whether the current
flowing is d.c. or a.c. in nature.
(a) .c. Current gain. 't is defined as the ratio of collector current %'
c
& to the emitter
current %'
e
&. 't is denoted by . Thus 1 '
c
, '
e
2 %i&
The 'alue of d.c. current gain is always less than 6. Its ma,imum 'alue is 0.;8.
(b) a.c. Current gain. 't is defined as the ratio of change in collector current )'
c
* to
the change in emitter current )'
e
* at constant collector 'oltage. It is denoted "y
a.c.
25
Fig.*:
. .

c
a c
e
'
'
,
, when /
c
is constant 2%ii&
(2) a.c. 7oltge gain. It is defined as the ratio of change in output 'oltage, i.e. collector
'oltage ) V
c
* to the change in input 'oltage i.e. emitter-"ase 'oltage ) V
i
*. It is
denoted "y !
'
.

c
V
i
V
A
V
2 %iii&
Cet >
0
? the output resistance of the circuit
>
i
? the input resistance of the circuit of a transistor,
Then
0
. .
resistance gain
c c
V a c
i i i
V ' )
A
V ' )

2 %iv&
where >
0
@ >
i
is called resistance gain.
=or e,ample, if >
0
? 6000 >
i
and
a.c.
? 0.;5, then !
/
? 0.;5 6000 ? ;50.
This is the order of 'oltage gain.
)1* a.c. Power gain. It is defined as the ratio of change in output power to the change in
input power. i.e.
a.c. power gain ?
c c
i e
V '
V '

2 %v&

. .
c c
V a c
i e
V '
A
V '

_

,
2 %vi&
=rom )'*, a.c. power gain
8
0 0 c c c
e i e e i
' ) ' ' )
' ) ' ' )
_

,
8
. . a c
resistance gain 2 %vii&
!s current gain A 6, power gain is slightly less than the 'oltage gain.
Note %. The whole working and gains of p-n-p common "ase transistor amplifier are e,actly
the same as e,plained in the n-p-n transistor amplifier.
Note *. The common "ase amplifier is preferred when radio fre-uency signals are amplified.
T0+N,I,TO0 +, CO99ON /9ITT/0 +9PBIFI/0
&a' +mplifier circuit using an n-p-n transistor.
26
The circuit details, using an n-p-n transistor as a common emitter amplifier are shown
in Fig. *<. Eere, emitter is common to "oth the input and the output circuits. The input
)emitter "ase* circuit is forward "iased with "attery /
00
of 'oltage /
#0
and the output
)collector emitter* circuit is re'ersed "iased with "attery /
CC
of 'oltage /
C#
. +ue to
this, the resistance of input circuit is low and that of output circuit is high. >
c
is a load
resistance connected in collector circuit. The low input a.c. 'oltage signal is applied
across "ase-emitter circuit and the amplified a.c. 'oltage signal )i.e. output* is o"tained
as the change in collector 'oltage. In circuit diagram, arrows represent the direction of
con'entional current or hole current, which is opposite to the direction of electronic
current.
%hen no a.c. signal 'oltage is applied to the input circuit "ut emitter "ase circuit is
closed let us consider, that I
e
, I
"
and I
c
"e the emitter current, "ase current and collector
current respecti'ely. Then, according to 2irchhoffLs first law
I
e
? I
"
: I
c
. K )i*
Cet us consider 5D of the emitter current appears as "ase current due to electron hole
com"ination in "ase and ;5D of the emitter current flows as a collector current. i.e.,
I
"
? 5D of I
e
? 0.05 I
e
and I
c
? ;5D of I
c
? 0.;5 I
e
. +ue to collector current I
c
, 'oltage
drop across >
c
? I
c
>
c
. If /
c
is collector 'oltage )i.e., potential difference "etween
collector and emitter* then
/
C#
? /
c
: I
c
>
c
or /
c
? /
C#
I
c
>
c
K )ii*
%hen the input signal 'oltage is fed to the emitter "ase circuit, it will change the
emitter 'oltage and hence to the emitter current, which inturn will change the collector
current. +ue to this, the collector 'oltage /
c
will 'ary in accordance with relation )ii*.
This 'ariation in collector 'oltage appears as an amplified output.
P#ase relations#ip (etween input an output "oltages.
%hen the positi'e half cycle of input a.c. signal 'oltage comes, it supports the
forward "iasing of the emitter "ase circuit. +ue to this, the emitter current increases
and conse-uently the collector current increases. !s a result of which, the collector
'oltage /
c
decreases Ifrom relation )ii*J. ince the collector is connected to the positi'e
terminal of /
C#
"attery, therefore decrease in collector 'oltage means the collector will
27
"ecome less positi'e, which means negati'e w.r.t to initial 'alue. This indicates that
during positive half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage, the output signal voltage at the
collector also varies through a negative half cycle.
%hen negati'e half cycle of input a.c. signal 'oltage comes, it supports the forwards
"iasing of emitter "ase circuit, due to this the emitter current decreases and hence
collector current decreases$ conse-uently the collector 'oltage /
c
increases Ifrom
relation )ii*J i.e., the collector "ecomes more positi'e. This indicates that during
negative half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage, the output signal voltage varies through
the positive half cycle.
Thus, in a common emitter amplifier circuit$ t#e input signal "oltage an t#e
output collector "oltage are in opposite p#ase$ i.e.$ %<>
>
out of p#ase$ as shown in
Fig. *<.
&(' +mplifier circuit s#owing p-n-p transistor.
The circuit details, using a p-n-p transistor as a common "ase amplifier are shown in
Fig. *= &a'. The "asic theory of this circuit is the same as in case of n-p-n transistor
circuit. In this case also, the output signal 'oltage o"tained across collector is 680
0
out
of phase with the input 'oltage signal as e,plained "elow<
%hen the positi'e half cycle of input a.c. signal 'oltage comes, it opposes the forward
"iasing of emitter "ase circuit. +ue to this, the emitter current decreases and hence
collector current decreases$ conse-uently the collector 'oltage /
c
increases according to
relation )ii*. ince the collector is connected to the negati'e terminal of /
CC
"attery of
'oltage /
C#
, therefore, the increase in collector 'oltage means, the collector will
"ecome more negati'e. This indicates that during positive half cycle of input a.c. signal
voltage, the output signal voltage at the collector varies through negative half cycle i.e.,
340
0
out of phase.
28
Fig.*= &a'
imilarly, it can "e shown that during negative half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage,
the output signal voltage at the collector also varies through the positive half cycle i.e.,
340
0
out of phase.
Thus, in common emitter transistor amplifier circuit$ t#e input signal "oltage
an t#e output collector "oltage are %<>
>
out of p#ase.
7+0IOU, -+IN, IN CO99ON /9ITT/0 +9PBIFI/0
)6* Current gain or Common emitter current +mplification factor. It is of two types<
(i) .c. Current gain. 't is defined as the ratio of the collector current %'
c
& to the base
current %'
b
&. 't is denoted by .
@
6 @
c c c e
b e c c e
' ' ' '
' ' ' ' '

( )
e b c
' ' ' + Q

6
( )
c e
' ' +
If ? 0.;5,
0.;5
6;.
6 0.;5

&ii' a.c. Current gain. 't is defined as ratio of change in collector current )'
c
* to the
change in "ase current )'
b
* at constant collector 'oltage. It is denoted "y
a.c.
. .

c
a c
e
'
'
,
. Its 'alue lies "etween 65 to 50, for a transistor.
(2) Trans-conuctance &
!
'. It is defined as the ratio of change in collector current ) '
c
*
to the change in "ase emitter 'oltage ) V
i
*. Therefore
c c b
m
i b i
' ' '
g
V ' V

or
. . a c
m
i
g
)
i
i
b
V
)
'
_
,
Q
Its unit is
- 6
or siemen )denoted "y *
(3) a.c. 7oltge gain &+
"
'. It is defined as the ratio of change in output 'oltage ) V
c
* to the
change in input 'oltage ) V
i
*.
0 c c
V
i b i
V ' )
A
V ' )

A
0
. . a c
i
)
)

K )i*
. .
resistance gain
a c

where >
0
and >
i
are the output and input resistances of the circuit.
Eere
a.c.
G G
a.c.
, "ut resistance gain )>
0
@ >
i
* is less than that in case of common "ase
transistor amplifier, hence the a.c. 'oltage gain in common emitter amplifier is greater
as compared to that of common "ase transistor amplifier.
=rom )i*,
. .
0 0
a c
V m
i
A ) g )
)

.
29
!ctually, !
/
? g
m
>
0
, here negati'e sign indicates phase re'ersal of output.
)9* a.c. Power gain. It is defined as the ratio of change in output power to the change in
input power. i.e.
a.c. power gain ?
8
8 0
. . 8
resistance gain
c
a c
b i
' )
' )

. . . . . .
) resistance gain* ?
a c a c a c v
A
ince
. . . . a c a c
>
, therefore, e,tremely high power gain is possi"le in common emitter
amplifier as compared to that in common "ase amplifier.
Note %) /oltage gain )in d!* ? 80 log
60
? 80 log
60
!
'
.
Current gain )in d!* ? 80 log
60

Bower gain )in d!* ? 60 log
60

Note *) /oltage gain of an amplifier with negati'e feed"ack is gi'en "y
6
fb
A
A
Am
+
,
where ! ? 'oltage gain without feed"ack
m ? percentage of negati'e feed"ack
Note 1) =or operational or 5B-in'erting amplifier,
Fig. *= &('$ 'oltage gain is
0
f
i i
)
V
A
V )

.
Eere 'e sign shows that the output 'oltage
is out of phase with input 'oltage.
T0+N,I,TO0 +, +N O,CIBB+TO0
! simple C & C circuit can "e used to produce electrical oscillations of desired
fre-uency. The radio wa'es which are used as carrier wa'es in radio communications are
produced "y these circuits called oscillators.
Tank circuit consisting of an inductance C and a capacitance C, connected in parallel
is the simplest type of electrical oscillating system. In this circuit, electrical energy once
30
Fig.*= &('
gi'en to the circuit, oscillates as magnetic energy in the inductance and electrostatic energy in
the capacitance. The fre-uency of oscillations of the tank circuit is gi'en "y
6
8
v
/*
.
Eowe'er due to internal resistance of the inductance coil etc. in C & C circuit, there
occurs a small "ut constant energy loss as heat with time. Eence, the oscillations produced in
C & C circuit are damped oscillations, i.e., oscillation of C & C circuit die out with time.
Therefore, C & C circuit gi'es out damped electromagnetic wa'es.
The damped electromagnetic wa'es are
suita"le for the transmission of code messages or
telegraphic messages "ut to transmit speech or music,
we re-uire undamped electromagnetic waves or
carrier waves. The same can "e produced "y using
transistor as an oscillator. The (loc3 iagram fee
(ac3 of oscillator is shown in Fig. 1>.
Eere, we couple C & C circuit with transistor amplifier in such a way that there is a
positi'e feed "ack to the C & C circuit i.e. there is a proper supply of energy to the C & C
circuit at the proper timings so that the total energy of the C & C circuit remains the same
throughout oscillations. The arrangement is called feed "ack oscillator.
Circuit iagram of transistor as an oscillator. It is shown in Fig. 1%. Eere C & C
circuit is inserted in emitter "ase circuit of
transistor which is forward "iased with "attery
/
00
. The collector emitter circuit is re'erse
"iased with "attery /
CC
. ! coil C
6
, is inserted in
collector emitter circuit. It is coupled with C in
such a way that if increasing magnetic flu, is
linked with C, it will support the forward "ias of
emitter "ase circuit and if decreasing magnetic
flu, is linked with C, it will oppose the forward
"ias of emitter "ase circuit.
;or3ing. If we close the key 2, the collector attains positi'e potential, due to which
there will "e a weak collector current which will start rising with time due to the inductance
C
6
. !s a result of it, an increasing magnetic flu, is linked with C
6
and hence with C. +ue to
mutual induction, an e.m.f. is induced in C which will charge the upper plate of capacitor
with positi'e charge, conse-uently there will "e support to the forward "iasing of emitter
"ase circuit. This results in an increase in the emitter current and hence an increase in the
collector current. due to it, more increasing magnetic flu, is linked with C
6
and hence with C.
!s a result of this, more e.m.f. is induced in C, charging the upper plate of capacitor with
more positi'e charge and hence pro'iding more support to the forward "iasing of emitter-
"ase circuit, which results further increase in the emitter current and hence in the collector
current. The process continues till the collector current "ecomes ma,imum or saturated.
.ow the mutual induction stops playing its part. The capacitor C gets discharged
through inductance C. !s a result of it, the support to the forward "iasing of emitter-"ase
31
Fig.1>
Fig.1%
circuit is with drawn, there "y the emitter current decreases and hence collector current also
decreases. +ue to this, a decreasing magnetic flu, is linked with C
6
and hence with C. +ue
to mutual induction, an e.m.f. is induced in C which will charge the lower plate of capacitor C
with positi'e charge, conse-uently there will "e opposition to the forward "iasing of emitter
"ase circuit. This results in further decrease in emitter current and hence in collector current.
This process continues till the collector current "ecomes (ero. .ow again mutual induction
stops playing its part. The condenser gets discharged through inductance C. !s a result of it,
the opposition to the forward "iasing of emitter-"ase circuit is withdrawn, there"y the emitter
current increases and hence collector current also increases and the process repeats. Thus the
collector current oscillates "etween a ma,imum and (ero 'alue.
%e know that in common emitter circuit, a signal 'oltage applied to the emitter "ase
circuit suffers a phase change of 680
0
in the collector emitter circuit. 0y coupling C
6
, with C,
we "ring a"out a further phase change of 680
0
. Thus the energy which is fed to the C & C
circuit is in proper phase at proper timings and hence we get undamped oscillations in C & C
circuit of fre-uency<
6
8
v
/*
. Therefore we get the carrier wa'es from the oscillator.

In this oscillator, the energy is "eing supplied "y the "attery /
CC
to the C & C circuit at
proper time and in proper phase, therefore the "attery gets consumed in oscillator. It means
in oscillator +.C., is con'erted into !.C.
+D7+NT+-/, OF ,/9ICONDUCTO0 D/7IC/,
6. emiconductor de'ices are much smaller in si(e and weight as compared to 'acuum
tu"es.
8. emiconductor de'ices are not to "e heated for emission of electrons. They start
operating instantly. This sa'es a lot of electric power.
1. ! transistori(ed e-uipment does not get heated, while operating. Therefore, no cooling
arrangement is re-uired.
9. The semiconductor de'ices are more rugged than the 'acuum tu"es. They can withstand
rough handling.
5. emiconductor de'ices ha'e much longer life as compared to the life of 'acuum tu"es.
7. emiconductor de'ices are cheaper than 'acuum tu"e de'ices.
4. emiconductor de'ices are low power de'ices.
DI,+D7+NT+-/, OF ,/9ICONDUCTO0 D/7IC/,
6. emiconductor de'ices are 'ery sensiti'e to changes of temperature whereas the 'acuum
tu"es are less sensiti'e.
8. It is difficult to produce semiconductor de'ices with e,actly identical characteristics.
1. The noise le'el in semiconductor de'ices is higher than that of 'acuum tu"es.
9. emiconductor de'ices cannot handle as much power as 'acuum tu"es.
In modern times, semiconductor de'ices are almost replacing 'acuum tu"es on account
of their merits.
NU9/0IC+B P0O!B/9,)
32
1. ! p-n junction when forward "iased has a drop of 0.7 / which is assumed to "e
independent of current. The current in e,cess of 60 m! through the diode produces a
large Moule heating effect which "urns the diode. If we want to use 6.5 / "attery to
forward "ias the diode, what should "e the 'alue of resistor used in series with the diode
so that the ma,imum current does not e,ceed 7 m!N G%4> H
8. Fig. % shows a diode connected to an e,ternal resistance and an
e.m.f. !ssuming that the "arrier potential de'eloped in diode is
0.5 /, o"tain the 'alue of current in the circuit in milliampere.
G2> m+H
3. =ind the static resistance of p-n junction germanium diode if the temperature is 84
0
C and
saturation current is 6.5 !, for an applied forward "ias of 0.8 /. 0olt(mann constant,
6.18 60
& 81
M2
& 6
. G4<.< H
4. ! full wa'e rectifier uses two diodes, the internal resistance of each diode may "e
assumed constant at 85 . The transformer r.m.s. secondary 'oltage from centre tap to
each end of the secondary is 50 / and load resistance is ;45 . =ind )i* the mean load
current )ii* the rms 'alue of load current. G24 %>
I 1
+ $ 4> %>
I 1
m+H
5. In a full wa'e junction diode rectifier, the input a.c. has r.m.s. 'alue of 60 /. The
transformer used is a step up one ha'ing transformation ratio 6 < 8. Calculate the +.C.
'oltage in the rectified output. G%< 7H
6. The /-I characteristics of a silicon diode is
shown in the Fig. * . Calculate the resistance
of the diode at )a* I
+
? 65 m! and )"* /
+
? -
60 /. G%> $ %>
:
H
7. In Fener regulated power supply a Fener diode
with /
F
? 7.0 / is used for regulation. The
load current is to "e 9.0 m! and the
unregulated input is 60.0 /. %hat should "e
the 'alue of series resistance >N G%5: H
8. =rom the output characteristics of common
emitter circuit shown in Fig. 1., calculate the
'alues of
ac
and
dc
of the transistor when /
C#
is 60 / and I
C
? 9.0 m!. G%4>$ %4>H
9. ! change of 8.0 m! in the emitter current
"rings a change of 4.7 m! in the collector
re-uired to ha'e the same change )?4.7 m!* in
collector current. =ind the 'alue of and .
G>.=4 $ %=H
33
Fig. %
Fig. *
Fig. 1
10. ! transistor has a current gain of 50. If the collector resistance 5 k and the input
resistance is 6 k. Calculate the output 'oltage if input 'oltage is 0.06 /. G*.4 7H
11. In a common emitter circuit, if /
C#
is changed "y 0.8 /, collector current changes "y
0.0009 m!. Calculate the output resistance. G4> 3H
12. !n input resistance of a silicon transistor is 775 . Its "ase current is changed "y 65 !
which results in the change in collector current "y 8 m!. This transistor is used as a
common emitter amplifier with a load resistance of 5 k. %hat is the 'oltage gain of
the amplifierN G %>>>H
13. The current gain of a transistor in a common "ase arrangement is 0.;5. =ind the 'oltage
gain and power gain if the load resistance of output circuit is 900 k and the input
resistance is 800 . G%=>> $ %<>4H
14. The "ase current of a transistor is 605 ! and collector current is 8.05 m!.
(a) +etermine the 'alues of , I
e
and .
(b) ! change of 84 ! in the "ase current produces a change of 0.75 m! in collector
current. =ind
ac
. G A %=.4* $ A >.=4$
ac
A *2.>:H
15. In a common "ase transistor amplifier, if the input resistance is 800 and output
resistance is 800 kilo-ohm, find )i* 'oltage gain )ii* power gain. 3i'en current gain of
common "ase transistor is 0.;5. G=4> $ =>*.4H
67. ! common emitter circuit has an input resistance of 0.7 kilo-ohm and output resistance
of 56 kilo ohm. If the current gain is 75, find the 'oltage gain and power gain.
G44*4 $ 1.4=% %>
4
H
17. In a silicon transistor, a change of 4.8; m! in the emitter current produces a change of
4.8 m! in the collector current. %hat change in the "ase current is necessary to produce
an e-ui'alent change in the collector currentN G<=.=2 %>
I 1
m+H
18. =or a C# transistor amplifier, the audio signal 'oltage across the collector resistance of
8.0 k is 8.0 /. uppose the current amplification factor of the transistor is 600. %hat
should "e the 'alue of resistance >
0
in series with /
00
supply of 8.0 /, if the d.c. "ase
current has to "e 60 times the signal current. !lso calculate the direct current across the
collector resistance. Fig. 2. !ssuming /
0#
? 0.7 /. G%2 3 $ %> m+H
34
19. In common emitter transistor as shown in
Fig. 4, the /
00
supply can "e 'aried from 0
/ to 5.0 /. The i. Transistor has
ac
?
850 and >
0
? 600 k, >
c
? 6 k, /
CC
? 5.0
/. !ssume that when the transistor is
saturated, /
C#
? 0 / and /
0#
? 0.8 /.
Calculate< )a* the minimum "ase current,
for which the transistor will reach saturation. Eence, )"* determine /
i
when the
transistor is Oswitched onL )c* find ranges of /
i
for which the transistor is switched off
and switched on. G*> + $ *.< 7H
20. ! potential "arrier of 0.9 / e,ists across a p-n junction. )a* If the depletion region is
9.0 60
& 4
m wide, what is the intensity of the electric field in this regionN If an electron
with speed 9.0 60
5
m@s approaches the p-n junction from the n-side, find the speed
with which it will enter the p-side. G%.> %>
5
7Jm $ %.1= %>
4
mJsH
86. In an npn transistor 60
60
electrons enter the emitter in 60
& 7
s. If 8D of the electrons are
lost in the "ase, find the current transfer ratio and the current amplification factor.
G A >.=< $ A 2=H
88. ! p-n junction is fa"ricated from a semiconductor with "and gap of 1.0 e/. Can it
detect a wa'elength of )i* 700 nm )ii* 900 nm.
Gno$ yesH
23. ! p-n junction diode when forward "iased has a drop of 0.5 / which is assumed to "e
independent of current. The current in e,cess of 60 m! through the diode produces a
large joule heating which damages )"urns* the diode. If we want to use a 6.5 ' "attery to
forward "ias diode, what should "e the 'alue of resistor used in series with the diode so
that the ma,imum current does not e,ceed 5 m!N G*>> H
24. The width of depletion region in a B-. junction diode is 500 nm and an intense electric
field of 5 60
5
/m
& 6
is also found to e,ist init. +etermine the height of the potential
"arrier. !lso calculate the kinetic energy which a conduction electron must ha'e inorder
to diffuse from the .-side to B-side. G>.*4 7 @ >.*4 e 7H
25. The diode used in the circuit shown in Fig. 5 has a constant
'oltage drop at 0.5 / at all currents and a ma,imum power
rating of 600 milli watt. %hat should "e the 'alue of the
resistance >, connected in series and with diode for
o"taining ma,imum current. G4 H
26. Calculate the current through the circuit and the potential
difference across the diode shown in Fig. :. The drift current
for the diode is 10 !. G1> + @ 5 7H
35
Fig. 2
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
84. ! sinusoidal 'oltage of rms 'alue 800 'olt is connected to a diode and a resistor > in the
circuit as shown in Fig. <,
so that half wa'e rectification occurs. If the diode is ideal,
what is the rms 'oltage across >N G%>>
8
7H
28. ! full wa'e rectifier uses two diodes, the internal resistance
of each diode may "e assumed constant at 10 . The transformer r.m.s. secondary
'oltage from centre tap to
each end of the secondary is 50 / and load resistance is ;40 . =ind )i* the mean load
current )ii* the rms 'alue of load current.G24 m+ $ 4> m+H
29. =ind the current through the resistance > in Fig. = if )a* > ?
60 and )"* > ? 80. G>.4> + $ >.11 +H
10. =or a transistor working as common "ase amplifier, current
gain is 0.;4 and "ase current is 0.68 m!. Calculate the
emitter current and collector current. G2 m+ $ 1.<< m+H
16. =or a common emitter amplifier, current gain is 70. If the emitter is 7.7 m!, calculate
the collector and "ase current. G5.4 m+ $ >.% m+H
18. The current gain for common emitter amplifier is 7;. If the emitter current is 4.0 m!,
find )i* "ase current and )ii* collector current. G>.% m+ $ 5.= m+H
33. The potential difference across the collector of a transistor, used in common emitter
mode is 6.5 / with the collector resistance of 1 k. =ind )i* the emitter current and
)ii* the "ase current, if the d.c. gain of the transistor is 50. G>.4% m+ $ >.>% m+H
34. In a common "ase transistor amplifier circuit, the input resistance is 600 and the
output resistance is 60
5
. %hat is the 'oltage amplification, when the emitter current is
5 m! and current gain is 0.;;N G==>H
35. In a common emitter amplifier the load
resistance of the output circuit is 6000 times the
load resistance of the input circuit. If ? 0.;8
then calculate the 'oltage gain. G2=>>>H
17. The output characteristics for the common
emitter transistor are of the type as shown in
Fig. %>. Pse these graphs to estimate the 'alue
of current amplification factor for the transistor
when /
C#
? 1/. G%4>H
37. The "ase current of a transistor is 605 ! and collector current is 8.05 m!.
)a* +etermine the 'alue of , I
e
and , )"* ! change of 84 ! in the "ase current
produces a change of 0.75 m! in the collector current. =ind
ac
.
G&a' %=.4$ *.%44 %>
I 1
+ $ >.=4 @ &(' *2.>:H
36
Fig. :
Fig. <
Fig. =
Fig. %>
38. In a silicon transistor, "ase current is changed "y 80 !. This results in a change of
0.08 / in "ase-emitter 'oltage and a change of 8 m! in the collector current.
(a) =ind the input resistance,
ac
. and trans-conductance of the transistor.
(b) The transistor is used as an amplifier with the load resistance 5 k. %hat is the
'oltage gain of the amplifierN G&a' % 3 $ %>>$ >.%
- %
@ &(' 4>>H
39. ! transistor, connected in common emitter configuration, has input resistance >
i
? 8 k
and load resistance 7 k. If ? 70 and an input signal 60 m/ is applied, calculate the
)i* resistance gain, )ii* 'oltage gain )iii* the power gain and )i'* the 'alue of the output
signal. G1 $ %<> $ %><>> $ %.< 7H
40. ! transistor is used in common emitter mode in an amplifier circuit. It is found that
when a signal of 80 m/ is added to the "ase-emitter 'oltage, the "ase current changes "y
80 ! and collector current changes "y 6.5 m!. +etermine the factor , input
resistance >
i
, the trans conductance and 'oltage gain. 3i'en load resistance >
C
? 7 k.
G:4 @ %>>> @ .>:4 $ 24>H
41. ! common emitter amplifier is designed with n-p-n transistor ) ? 0.;;*. The input
impedance is 6 k and load is 60 k. =ind the 'oltage gain and power gain.
G==> @ =<>%>H
42. The input resistance of a common emitter amplifier is 8 k and a.c. current gain is 80.
If the load resistor used in 5 kilo ohm, calculate )i* the 'oltage gain of amplifier and
)ii* the transconductance of the transistor used. G4> @ >.>% ,H
43. ! load resistance of 8 k is connected in the collector "ranch of an amplifier circuit
using a transistor in common emitter mode. The current gain ? 90. The input
resistance of transistor is 0.90 k. If the input current is changed "y 90 ! )a* "y what
amount does the output 'oltage change )"* "y what amount input 'oltage change )c*
what is the power gainN G1.* 7 $ >.>%5 $ <>>>H
44. The input resistance, in the common emitter amplifier circuit of a gi'en transistor, has a
'alue of 6.5 k. The output of this circuit, is o"tained across a collector resistance of
4.5 k. %hat would "e the output 'oltage, corresponding to an input 'oltage of 5 m/, if
the current amplification factor, of this transistor has a 'alue of 70N G%.4 7H
95. !n amplifier has a 'oltage gain !
'
? 600. %hat is the 'oltage gain in d0N G2> !H
46. ! crystal diode ha'ing internal resistance 80 , is / ? 50 sin t and load resistance is
800 . =ind )i* ma,imum output current )ii* d.c. output current )iii* d.c. power output
and )i'* d.c. output 'oltage. G5% m+ $ %=.2 m+$ >.1> watt$ %4.4* 7H
47. =or a C#-transistor amplifier Fig. %% the audio signal 'oltage across the collector
resistance of 6.0 k is 6.0 /. suppose the
current amplification factor of the transistor is
600, what should "e the 'alue of >
0
in series
with /
00
supply of 6.0 / if the dc "ase
37
Fig. %%
current has to "e 60 times the signal current, assuming /
0#
? 0.7 /. !lso calculate the
'oltage drop across the collector resistance. G2 3 $ %> 7H
48. In a common emitter transistor amplifier, the input resistance of a transistor is 6000 .
5n changing its "ase current "y 60 !, the collector current increases "y 8 m!. If a
load resistance of 5 k is used in the circuit, calculate< )i* the current gain )ii* the
'oltage gain of the amplifier. G*>> $ %>>>H
49. ! half wa'e rectifier is used to supply 50 / d.c. to a resistance load of 800 . +iode has
a resistance of 800 . Calculate a.c. 'oltage re-uired. G%=5.21 7H
50. ! transistor is connected in common emitter configuration. The collector supply is 8/
and the 'oltage drop across a resistor of 800 in the collector circuit is 0.5 /. If the
current gain factor )a* is 0.;7, find the "ase current. G>.>*5 m+H
51. ! 60 / (ener diode along with a series resistance is
connected across a 90 / supply. Calculate the minimum
'alue of the resistance re-uired, if the ma,imum (ener
current is 50 m!. Fig. %* G5>> H
58. In a full wa'e junction diode rectifier, the input a.c. has r.m.s. 'alue of 80 /. The
transformer used is a step up transformer ha'ing primary and secondary turns ratio 6 < 8.
Calculate the d.c. and a.c. 'oltage in the rectified output. G15 7$ *:.%2 7H
% 9+06)
6. %hat is the 'alue of potential "arrier of p-n junction made of silicon semiconductorN
8. Eow does the width of the depletion layer of a p-n junction diode change with decrease
in re'erse "iasN
1. %hich "iasing makes the junction resistance low and which highN
9. Eow p-n-p and n-p-n transistor are represented sym"olicallyN
5. %hat is the relation "etween power gain, current gain and resistance gain of common
"ase transistor amplifierN
7. %hat is the phase relationship in the output and input 'oltages in the common "ase
transistor amplifier.
4. +efine transconductance of a transistor.
8. +efine a.c. current gain of common emitter transistor amplifier.
;. +efine a.c. 'oltage gain of common emitter transistor amplifier.
60. =or what purpose, common "ase transistor amplifier is preferred o'er common emitter
38
Fig. %*
66. =or what purpose, common emitter transistor amplifier is preferred o'er common "ase
68. In n-p-n transistor, what are the current carriers inside and outside the transistor circuitN
61. In p-n-p transistor, what are the current carriers inside and outside the transistor circuitN
69. Can we measure the potential difference of a p-n junction "y putting a sensiti'e
'oltmeter across its terminalsN
65. Can two p-n junction diodes placed "ack to "ack work as pnp transistorN
67. In the depletion region of an un"iased p-n junction diode, what are the charge carriersN
17. In a transistor, the 'alue of ? 0.;, find the 'alue of .
18. In a transistor, the 'alue of is 600, and the 'alue of .
6;. In an n & p & n transistor circuit, the collector current is 60 m!. If ;0D of the electrons
emitted reach the collector, find the "ase current and collector current.
80. tate the relation for the 'oltage gain in terms of trans-conductance, using transistor as
an amplifier.
86. %hat type of feed "ack is re-uired in an oscillatorN
88. %hy is the transistor called a junction transistorN
81. In a transistor, "ase is lightly doped and is a thin layer. %hyN
89. In a transistor, emitter is always forward "iased. %hyN
85. ! transistor cannot "e used as rectifier, whyN
87. 0y increasing load resistance, can we increase or not, the gain of a transistor
indefinitelyN
84. Bower gain of transistor amplifier with common "ase circuit or common emitter circuit
is large. +oes it mean the power is generated "y the transistorN #,plain.
88. %hat is the condition for the state of saturation of a transistorN
8;. +raw a p-n junction with re'erse "ias.
10. ! transistor is "eing used a s a common emitter amplifier. %hat is the 'alue of phase
difference, if any, "etween the collector-emitter 'oltage and the input signal.
16. %hat is the phase relationship "etween collector and "ase 'oltages in common-emitter
configuration.
18. %hich type of "iasing gi'es a semi-conductor diode of 'ery high resistanceN
11. +raw a p-n junction with forward "ias.
19. %hen a transistor is used as an oscillator, why is it necessary to feed "ack energy to
C & C circuitN
15. %hat is the direction of diffusion current in a junction diodeN
36. =or a common "ase transistor, if the 'alue of I
e
and I
c
are 60
1
! and 0.;7 m!
respecti'ely, find the 'alue of I
"
.
39
14. If the forward "ias on p-n junction is increased from (ero to 0.05 /, then no current in
the circuit flows. %hat is the contact potential of junction diodeN
18. %hat is the main cause of (ener "reakdownN
1;. %hat is the ratio of forward and re'erse resistance of p-n junction diodeN
90. If the forward 'oltage in a semiconductor diode is changed from 0.5 / to 8 /, then the
forward current changes "y 6.5 m!. %hat is the resistance of junction diodeN
96. Three amplifier circuits are connected in series. The 'oltage gain of each is 5. %hat is
the final 'oltage amplificationN
42. %hat will "e the change in collector current, in a transistor of a.c. current gain 650, for
600 ! change in "ase currentN
91. If "ase region has larger width in a junction transistor, how does the collector current
changeN
99. +raw the 'oltage-current characteristics of a p-n junction diode in forward "ias.
95. +raw the 'oltage-current characteristics of a (ener diode.
97. +raw a circuit diagram t show how a photodiode is "iased.
94. %hy are photodiodes used prefera"ly in re'erse "ias conditionN
98. In the following circuits, which one of the
two diodes is forward "iased and which is
re'erse "iased. Fig. %
9;. %hat is a solar cellN
50. Eow does the d.c. current gain of a transistor
change, if the width of "ase region is increasedN
51. The a.c. current gain of a transistor is 680. %hat is the change in the collector current in
the transistor whose "ase current changes "y 600 !N
58. The output of an unregulated dc power supply is to "e regulated. .ame the de'ice that
can "e used for this purpose.
51. The doping in transistor is KKKKK.. in "ase KKKKK.. in collector KKKKK
in emitter.
* 9+06,)
6. %hat is meant "y depletion region in a junction diodeN Eow is this region formedN
8. +istinguish clearly "etween forward "iasing and re'erse "iasing of p-n junction.
1. Can we take one sla" of p-type semiconductor and physically join it to another n-type
semiconductor to get p-n junctionN
4. The current in the forward "ias is known to "e more ) m!* than the current in the
re'erse "ias ) !*. %hat is the reason then to operate the photodiodes in re'erse "iasN
40
Fig. %
5. Consider the half wa'e rectifier circuit Fig.%. !ssume the
diode to "e a silicon diode with a threshold 'oltage of 0.4
/. +raw the output if the input is a sine wa'e with an
amplitude of 8/.
7. In half wa'e rectification, if the input fre-uency is 50 E(, what is the output fre-uencyN
%hat is the output fre-uency of a full wa'e rectifier for the same fre-uencyN
4. Consider a silicon diode with a threshold 'oltage of & 0.4 /, used as a half wa'e
rectifier. +raw the output if the input is a sine wa'e form of amplitude 8/ and circuit is
on in re'erse position.
8. In a transistor connected in a common emitter mode >
c
? 9 k $ >
i
? 6 k$ I
c
? 6 m!
and I
"
? 80 !. =ind the 'oltage gain.
;. %hat do you understand "y potential "arrierN
60. ! transistor is current operated de'ice. #,plain.
66. %hat is the phase relationship "etween input 'oltage and output 'oltage in common
emitter amplifierN
68. Transistor does not work in railway carriage. %hyN
61. +raw the circuit diagram of n-p-n transistor amplifier and show 'arious potential drops.
69. +efine current amplification factor in a common emitter mode of transistor.
65. #,plain the term depletion region and potential "arrier for a p-n junction.
67. If the emitter and "ase of npn transistor ha'e same doping concentration, e,plain how
will the collector and "ase currents "e affectedN
64. %hy is a common emitter amplifier preferred o'er common "ase amplifierN
68. The current gain of a transistor in common emitter configuration is 40. %hat is the "ase
current if the emitter current is 8.8 m!N
6;. .ame the purpose for which common "ase transistor amplifier is preferred o'er common
emitter transistor amplifier.
80. 3i'e any two difference "etween a half wa'e rectifier and a full wa'e rectifier.
86. .ame the p-n junction diode which emit spontaneous radiation when forward "iased.
Eow do we choose the semiconductor, to "e used in those diodes, if the emitted
radiations, is to "e in the 'isi"le regionN
88. In the working of a transistor, emitter-"ase junction is forward "iased while collector-
"ase junction is re'erse "iased. %hyN
81. In a a.c. input signal, of fre-uency 70 E(, is rectified "y a )i* half wa'e, )ii* full wa'e
rectifier. +raw the output wa'e form and write the output fre-uency in each case.
89. #,plain with the help of a circuit diagram, how the thickness of depletion layer in p-n
junction diode changes when it is forward "iased.
85. +raw a la"elled circuit diagram to show the use of (ener diode as a 'oltage regulator.
41
Fig. %
87. +raw and e,plain the output wa'eform across the load resistor >, if the input wa'e form
is as shown in Fig. *.
84. %hat is the function of "ase region of a transistorN %hy is this region made thin and
slightly dopedN
88. In a transistor, forward "ias 'oltage is always small as compared to re'erse "ias 'oltage.
%hyN
1 9+06,)
6. %hat is p-n junctionN Eow is a p-n junction madeN Eow potential "arrier is caused in it.
8. +iscuss the 'arious modes of "iasing the p-n junction. %hat do you conclude from
themN
1. #,plain "riefly, with the help of circuit diagram, how /-I characteristics of a p-n
junction diode are o"tained in )i* forward "ias, and )ii* re'erse "ias. +raw the shape of
the cur'es o"tained.
9. Eow p-n junction can "e used as )a* Ealf wa'e rectifier )"* =ull wa'e rectifierN
5. %ith a circuit diagram, e,plain how a (ener diode can "e used as a 'oltage regulator.
7. +raw c circuit diagram of a full-wa'e rectifier. #,plain its working principle. +raw the
input@output wa'e forms indicating clearly the functions of the two diodes used.
4. %hat is a junction transistorN Hention its two types. Eow are they representedN
8. +iscuss the action of a )i* p-n-p junction transistor and )ii* n-p-n junction transistor.
)5>* +escri"e the principle, construction and working of a transistor.
;. ketch the three modes of study of n-p-n junction transistor.
60. +iscuss "riefly the concept of an amplifier.
66. #,plain the ad'antages and disad'antages of semiconducting de'ices compared to
'acuum tu"e.
68. +raw the circuit diagram of an n-p-n transistor amplifier and show 'arious potential
drops.
61. #,plain the working of n-p-n transistor as an amplifier and determine its 'oltage gain.
69. +raw a la"elled diagram of a full wa'e rectifier using p-n junction diodes.
65. #,plain the working and amplifying action of a transistor.
67. %hat is rectificationN %ith the help of a la"elled circuit diagram e,plain full wa'e
rectification using junction diodes.
64. %ith the proper circuit diagram show the "iasing of a npn transistor. #,plain the
mo'ement of charge carriers through different parts of this transistor. Eence show that I
e
? I
"
: I
c
.
68. %hat is a transistorN 3i'e sym"ols of p-n-p and n-p-n transistors. #,plain action of a
transistor.
42
Fig. *
6;. +raw a la"elled circuit diagram for a common emitter amplifier using n-p-n transistor.
%rite down the e,pression for its 'oltage gain. %hat is the phase difference "etween
inputs and output signals.
80. #,plain that a transistor can "e used as a switch.
4 9+06,)
6. #,plain the use of p-n junction diode as a rectifier. +raw the circuit diagram of a full
wa'e rectifier. #,plain its working gi'ing its input and output wa'e forms.
8. +escri"e an e,perimental set up for drawing common "ase characteristics of p-n-p
junction transistor. +iscuss their shape. %hat do you conclude from themN
1. +escri"e an e,perimental set up for drawing common emitter characteristics of p-n-p
junction transistor. +iscuss their shape.
9. +iscuss common "ase amplifier using n-p-n transistor, calculate its current gain, 'oltage
gain and power gain.
5. +iscuss common emitter amplifier, using n-p-n transistor. =ind its current gain, 'oltage
gain and power gain.
7. #,plain "riefly the use of a junction transistor as an oscillator.
4. %hat is the function of emitter, "ase and collector in a transistorN #,plain with the help
of a circuit diagram, the use of n-p-n transistor as an amplifier in common emitter
configuration.
8. %hat is a p-n junction diodeN +efine the term Odynamic resistanceL for the junction
diode. %ith the help of a circuit diagram e,plain the working of a p-n junction diode as
a full wa'e rectifier.
;. #,plain )i* forward "iasing )ii* re'erse "iasing of a B-. junction diode. %ith the help of
a circuit diagram, e,plain the use of this de'ice as a half wa'e rectifier.
60. #,plain the function of "ase region of a transistor. %hy is this region made thin and
lightly dopedN +raw a circuit diagram to study the input and output characteristics of
n-p-n transistor in a common emitter )C#* configuration. how these characteristics
graphically. #,plain how current amplification factor of the transistor is calculated
using output characteristics.
66. tate the principle of working of p-n junction diode as a rectifier. #,plain with the help
of a circuit diagram, the use of p-n junction diode as a full wa'e rectifier. +raw a sketch
of the input and output wa'e forms.
68. +raw the sym"olic representation of )i* p-n-p, )ii* n-p-n transistor. %hy is the "ase
region of transistor thin and lightly dopedN %ith proper circuit diagram, show the
"iasing of a p-n-p transistor in common "ase configuration. #,plain the mo'ement of
43
charge carriers through different parts of the transistor in such a configuration and show
that I
e
? I
c
: I
"
.
44
+N,;/0 I 6/8) ,/9I CONDUCTO0 D/7IC/,
NU9/0IC+B P0O!B/9,)
45
46
47
48
49
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53

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Lalaji Memorial Omega International School Aca.

, which is 'ery high.

. Therefore we get the carrier wa'es from the oscillator.

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