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TOPIC

OPTIMISING CHALLENGE TO YOUNG CHILDREN:

ACTION

ACTION RESEARCH IN A NURSERY SCHOOL

Sin Rees-Jones, Headteacher of Bognor Regis Nursery School in West Sussex, describes a study which sought to improve the presentation of challenge to young children through a whole-school action research programme. It identified appropriate scaffolding techniques as a major component and mapped these against a childs individual learner characteristics. The successful application of these strategies has been confirmed independently.

Readership: early years practitioners

INTRODUCTION
This study has its origins in an OFSTED Inspection (1). The outcomes included a commendation for excellence by the Chief Inspector of Schools in his Annual Report (2) but Inspectors suggested that, in order to raise still further the standards of work and the quality of learning, the Governors should support staff in
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West Sussex Local Education Authority, in collaboration with the University of Sussex, had developed a School Effectiveness initiative which presented an opportunity to pursue the issue of challenging young children, as part of the schools wider development planning. I teach part-time and led the study, pursuing it from the outset with the active collaboration of the teaching staff. Having established a methodology and the way forward, we involved the whole-staff team (including nursery nurses and classroom assistants) in the second phase.

continuing the successful development, implementation and review of school policies and procedures; engaging the older and more able children in selecting some activities in advance and evaluating their resulting learning more systematically with staff; planning some activities in each session which, on the basis of individual assessment, offer precise challenge to able children in specific areas of their learning.

THE SCHOOL
The learning environment has been developed in a substantial Edwardian house with large landscaped garden; 176 children attend on a parttime basis. The staff team comprises four teachers, three nursery nurses and two classroom assistants. Three of these posts are job shares. Over the past nine years, all staff working with children have been actively involved in corporate school development. The team members see their contribution to this process as an important part of their work. Over time, with much negotiation, debate and a degree of compromise, an effective Teaching and Learning Policy has been developed with seven guiding elements:

It seemed to the staff that the second and third recommendations were at variance with findings elsewhere in the Report; for example, Inspectors noted that the exemplary record keeping informed the daily planning for individual childrens education (2). Staff felt that, in addition to the Inspectors findings, they as a team needed to collect further evidence and analyse this in order to put them back in control and take their practice forward.

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1. childrens recognition of trust between parents/carers and the staff; 2. equal access to learning opportunities; 3. cultivation of childrens self-esteem; 4. high expectations of children; 5. holistic approach to education; 6. effective planning for individuals/small groups based on evidence from observations and assessments; 7. appropriate structuring of the learning environment, including time, space, resources and access to staff.

Our approach to development planning contained many of the elements of action research, which greatly facilitated progress with the challenge project.

STRUCTURING THE ACTION RESEARCH

The model of action research pursued (Figure 1) sought to explore the possibilities of enhancing challenge with minimal disruption of existing good practice.
Figure 1. Action research in Bognor Regis Nursery School

Audits
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Negotiation/ implementation M

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Additional cycles (following audit) Project identification: Optimising Challenge to Young Children

Literature review

Evaluation/negotiation
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Negotiation/discussion with colleagues

Audits Data collection

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Literature review
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Development of methodology (including modifications)

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It has parallels and common features with those described by Cohen and Manion ((3), pp.1846) and Hayson (p.162), and with the literature of the management of change in School Effectiveness programmes:
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identification, evaluation, formation; negotiation with team members; literature review methodological identification; data collection; evaluation optimal methodology; implementation and feedback.

Low level I less independent approach I involved, but more distractible (not totally focused) I consolidation of existing knowledge, concepts or skills in a known activity/area (gain in confidence and ability).

Observations of challenge: data collection and assessment

Two approaches were adopted in the study: 1. In the first (initially restricted to the area of experience, Design Technology, but later covering the wider curriculum) the schools existing observation and recording procedures were employed by the teaching staff. Individual members of the teaching staff recorded random instances of challenge activity, supported where possible by serial photographic evidence. Those involved jointly reviewed the observations, assessing the degree of challenge and the contributing factors. This promoted lively debate and also minimised individual bias. 2. It was important that the remainder of the staff team were involved in the further development and application of results if this work was to have a lasting effect on whole-school practice. The increase in the size of group, workload and time scales did not allow for a repeat of random observations and whole-team assessment of all data. Consequently, a second approach was negotiated:
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Differences lie in more frequent audit/feedback to team members; and similarities to some aspects of the multi (and linear) cyclical approaches described by Collard (5) and Hopkins (6). Throughout the study, efforts were made to apply useful results as they emerged.

METHODOLOGY
Definition of challenge
The team judged a child to be challenged when she/he is actively engaged in a situation or problem and through this high level of involvement, her/his current capabilities are extended either in depth or in breadth ((7) and (8)).

Criteria for levelling challenge

High level I total absorption I new experience I desire for independence I not over-reliant on adults I multi-layered problems I creative approach I high level of perseverance I use of a new skill. Medium level I transference of existing knowledge, concept or skills I more than one area of experience extended I good level of involvement.

specific children were targeted by individual team members (usually the childs key worker1); assessments of challenge were made by paired workers; these joint assessments were sampled and reviewed by the whole group to ensure consistency.

By this stage of the study, scaffolding techniques2 had emerged as a significant factor in challenging young children, and a list of the identified techniques was drawn up for reference. The original pro forma headings for observational recordings were, consequently, modified for use in the enlarged study (Figure 2) overleaf.

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Figure 2. Pro forma for recording observational data

Date: Context for learning, Social context: Area of Observation Degree of Level of Scaffolds Child: e.g. adult directed/ alone, pair, experience challenge involvement: used Age: child initiated group, adult length of time

Coordination of the research with the schools Development Plan

The research was an integral component of the schools Development Plan, part of which, at the time of the study, was a response to the 1995 OFSTED report (1). This minimised potential conflicts with other elements of the schools programme and facilitated the introduction of improved practice as useful results emerged. The long-established consultation processes helped greatly in this.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Initial group study by teaching staff
The main points that emerged from the initial series of observations were:
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a high incidence of child-initiated activity leading to challenge (92 per cent); the value of staff intervention in child-initiated activities, e.g. where the child lacked the skills and confidence to respond to challenge; scaffolding was often identified with the successful presentation of challenge as staff came to recognise that optimal support mechanisms vary from child to child; all areas of experience in the curriculum can present challenge.

Auditing progress
Throughout the study, I, as headteacher and researcher, carried out frequent audits of progress using short-term planning documentation and record-keeping evidence evaluated against the aims of the project. These provided important indices of progress, especially in the application of results. Regular feedback to individual staff members, and to the whole team, was an important element of the process. When the study was enlarged, whole-team staff meetings were set aside to provide a forum for discussion and analysis of data. These meetings fostered a sense of communal ownership of the work; frank debate in relation to any emerging difficulties helped greatly in their resolution.

Nine key factors were identified as important when challenging young childrens learning: 1. Provision of clearly planned progressional opportunities supporting children to access the same activities at a variety of levels. 2. The use of knowledge of individual children to nurture future development. 3. Holistic view of education: avoiding compartmentalising childrens learning and thus constraining learning.

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4. Respect for children and high emphasis on the quality of the relationships in the school. 5. Confidence to stand back and empower children to make decisions about their own learning, together with the skills to intervene effectively where appropriate. 6. Deployment of a wide range of teaching styles depending on the intended learning and the individual child. 7. High expectations of all childrens potential. 8. Provision of an environment that enables children to learn within meaningful contexts and time for them to wallow in their experiences or study in depth. 9. Encouragement of high levels of self-esteem (developed through, for example, fostering independence and promoting a mastery attitude to learning). The importance of such factors for effective teaching and learning has been highlighted by Smith ((9), p. 25); Pascal and Bertram ((10), p. 164); Kitson ((11), p. 95); Heaslip ((12), p. 102); Bruce ((13), pp.1957); and Coffield (14). In some 50 per cent of observations of challenge activity during the first phase, all nine of the above factors were evident.
G G G

Science and Technology (11) Personal, Human and Social (5) Information and Communication Technology (5).

High levels of challenge presented in 30 per cent of the observations; medium levels in 40 per cent; and low levels in 30 per cent. Of those examples presenting low levels, all had low scaffolding inputs. Medium and high levels of challenge were usually accompanied by a greater proportion of scaffolding inputs, particularly in adult-directed challenge activity. Thirty-one examples of challenge were observed in child-initiated activities (most with subsequent scaffolding input). Child-directed examples presented nine of the observed high levels of challenge. Adult-directed challenge usually presented high or medium levels but very occasionally low levels were observed; these were accompanied by low scaffolding input. The audit/feedback system (see Figure 1) enabled appropriate support to be targeted. The levels of adult-directed challenge in the second phase of the project were higher (40 per cent) than in the initial study. This reflected the change of focus to apply earlier findings on scaffolding. In all examples of challenge, the importance of the nine key factors, above, was clearly evident.

Whole-team study
The later series of observations involved the whole-staff team, particularly the key workers. Fifty-one instances of challenge activity were recorded and evaluated (nine of three-year-old children and 42 of four-year-olds) in the following areas of experience: G Language and Literacy (9) G Mathematics (7) G Creative and Aesthetic (3) G Physical (11)
Effective scaffolding techniques for children

Effective scaffolding techniques for children

Table 1 summarises some of the schools approaches to scaffolding in the second phase of the study, with related examples of practice. Both in the furtherance of the research and its application to teaching, these proved to be of considerable practical value.

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Table 1. Effective scaffolding techniques
1. Appropriate new experiences

1.1 Pose problems linked to a childs previous experience

Use an area of interest that a child has been revisiting over a period of time Give feedback based on your knowledge of what he/she has been doing and support him/her in self-evaluation Discuss how he/she could move the work forward, including suggestions, e.g. have you thought of a way in which you could attach a roof to your shelter? Encourage peer partnership Be aware of possible distractions and remove these from area if necessary Work near a relevant interactive display Recognise some children respond better to peer support than adult support Encourage a child to support another (this could be for a wide range of reasons, e.g. he/she is a special friend, or he/she is especially good at a task but shy, thus supporting his/her self- esteem) I always remember how to do this by When I was a little girl, I found this really hard but I found helped Well, we could try to find a book that may help us or just try it out for ourselves What do you think? I dont know how this works, do you know? Could you show me, please? Provide related interactive displays Be enthusiastic, look at this . have you seen the colours and beautiful patterning? Im going to try to build a tower as high as that tree can you help me? I cant reach any higher, what could we do? Impart knowledge when interest has been secured, e.g. describe what is going to happen to the frog spawn Share information as the need arises, e.g. through encouraging a child to ask questions Have you seen the P. B. Bear story on the computer? What could we do if we wanted to remember how to make this again? OK, Ill take a photograph but I think we may need a plan as well lets make one together Recognise that some children respond best to adult-set goals as they may not be able to see the wood for the trees Bearing in mind the importance of encouraging a child to think through his/her work, support him/her through negotiated choice, would you like to do or ? What will we need to do first? Such children may need the goal clarified as they progress

1.2 Manipulate a favourable context

1.3 Encourage peer support

1.4 Think aloud, pose possibilities, relate own experiences

1.5 Stimulate interest and ideas

1.6 Inform directly

1.7 Use a childs strengths to promote interest in an area that he/she has not yet experienced/showed confidence in 1.8 Identify clear goals

2. Stepped approach

2.1 Support the child to see the whole picture 2.2 Break the task into several achievable stages 2.3 Partner child 2.4 Alter the complexity of challenges

Help the child to see purpose in what he/she is doing Talk about/demonstrate the end-product and then complete the activity together if necessary Support the child to structure or sequence the task, how shall we start? and then what do we need to do? Complete some of the task and encourage him/her to finish it off Ask the child for his/her help Offer challenges that are only slightly in front of current capabilities and encourage child to complete these independently Offer more complex challenges, knowing that the degree of scaffolding will often need to be higher initially Ensure that the child has time to consolidate existing experiences, as well as access exciting new experiences

2.5 Moderate the pace of challenge as appropriate

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3. Opportunities to practice

3.1 Link events to experiences in different contexts 3.2 Provide related resources/activities

Provide experiences to support the development of specific learning in a range of situations, e.g. set up a ticket office with relevant resources after a visit to the station Set up the workshop environment to enable the development of specific knowledge concepts and skills through a range of activities Provide additional resources as required, based on individual childrens interests and needs Limit interruptions to a childs day to encourage concentration/ sustained interest over a period of time Provide safe places to keep work, so that a child may revisit an activity over the next days/weeks Provide children with an entitlement of resources. Children will know where to access these resources in order to practise and consolidate existing knowledge, concepts and skills

3.3 Provide time for children to follow up activities

4. Feedback

4.1 Provide emotional support for children who are trying out new or difficult experiences

Provide verbal encouragement, just try to see how you do Ill help you if you need me to Have a go yourself as an adult and role model not always succeeding! Praise a childs attempts or successes with sincerity Can you help me finish this off? You did that first bit really well tell me what you are going to do next? Establish the ground rules but support the child in working in areas independent of direct adult involvement Listen to a childs plans and work alongside as a facilitator; encourage a child to use your skills This leg on your model is really strong but this one is still a bit wobbly can we think of a way to make it more secure? Thats a lovely painting youve remembered how we mixed those colours, they are not too runny and not too thick! Ask what if, how, in what way type questions to encourage a child to verbalise his/her experience: which bit do you like best? would you make it in exactly the same way if you were to make another one? how is your painting different from ? Reinforce a childs actions by describing what he/she is doing. This may support a childs language development, as well as formalise ideas Last time you used the easel, the paint kept running down the paper do you remember what we did to stop that from happening? Can you tell us how you made this lovely model?

4.2 Redirect children if they are moving off course 4.3 Have high expectations of childrens capabilities and not limiting their horizons 4.4 Give constructive comment

4.5 Encourage evaluation

self-analysis

and

4.6 Give verbal commentary

It was agreed that all children did not share the same scaffolding needs. Staff examined the factors that impacted on a childs access to the curriculum i.e. a childs learner characteristics. These included specific Abilities/multi-intelligences/strengths, Thinking/learning styles, Feelings about self, Feelings about self in relation to others, and Motivational dispositions. The areas were explored further in conjunction with related literature. Linked examples of observable behaviours supported staff in developing profiles for individual children. Specific teaching strategies/scaffolds were produced as exemplars for planning purposes. Table 2 illustrates guidelines for one of these factors, namely Thinking/learning styles. This builds upon the work of Sternberg (15) in the context of presenting challenge to the very young.

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Table 2. Thinking/learning styles
Examples of types Possible observable behaviours Possible teaching strategies/scaffolds

Functions 1. Independent

2. Follower

3. Analyser

1. Does not like to be told what to do or how 1. Give opportunities to make choices within the structured environment and space to develop own interests over a period of time 1. Likes to organise own time and use working environment by self 1. Celebrate original/creative aspects of his/her work with others 1. Can be creative in approach 1. During more formal group times, gradually introduce the child to the idea of the benefits of working cooperatively, e.g. initially through aspects that particularly relate to his/her own interests, gradually broadening the experiences 2. Likes to obey set rules and prefers to be 2. Observe how child is using the environment, and if only using a very narrow area, question why told what to do 2. Enjoys having a partner at an activity and 2. Partner child as you introduce him/her to new experiences (if appropriate) not taking responsibility 2. Gradually decrease scaffolds and support independence 3. Enjoys activities where he/she can evaluate 3. Provide closed problem-solving materials, such as block patterns where existing problems and ideas rather than child is required to replicate design create new onesyou know? Could you show 3. Use materials in which child is confident to support the development of me, please? his/her own designs and model the making of base plates, so that the pattern can be replicated at a later date 4. Not easily distracted when set on completing 4. Allow time and space for child to have opportunity to work at activity at an activity own pace 4. Enjoys setting own tasks based on own 4. Support child to form tasks that extend his/her experiences interests 4. Begin to encourage child to rise to an adult-set challenge (based on childs own interests) 4. Support child when prioritising tasks and get him/her to talk through his/ her reasons 5. Recognises the need to prioritise, Im going 5. Give child space to try out own strategies (best not to jump in with the to do this first and then Im going to quickest option in your view!) 5. Will see potential in using variety of 5. Talk through how you would set priorities and why strategies 5. Encourage child to evaluate what he/she has done 5. Childs priorities might not be the same as 5. Support child in deciding where to start and why. Model this yourself, yours! Well Im going to do this because 6. Cant see the wood for the trees; doesnt 6. Explain where you are going next and why know where to start; wants to do more than 6. Partner child at activities or provide peer support as appropriate one thing at a time 6. Can appear pressurised by the environment 6. Resist imposing own views; enable child to explore the potential of various approaches 7. Tries one approach then another, then 7. Support if you see that child is becoming frustrated; give a range of possible another, without much time given to any solutions but put the onus back on the child to make choices (and often without much success) 7. Realise that a child may not accept such support; may respond better to 7. Rejects accepted ways of doing things adult/peer working alongside and modelling various approaches without directly imparting information 7. Can be creative and is often original 8. Enjoys relatively large and abstract issues, 8. Encourage child to be creative in his/her thinking and build on his/her ideas e.g. where do you think rain comes from? 8. Use these notions, record them for the child, e.g. scribe so that his/her work can be celebrated through display 9. Responds best to practical concrete/ 9. Provide lots of opportunities for practical problem-solving activities problems, e.g. can we think of a way to 9. Give constructive comment and encourage child to self-evaluate work make a house for this mouse to live in? 10. 10. 10. 11. 11. 12. 12. 12. 10. 10. 10. 11. 11. 11. Likes to go beyond existing rules and 12. procedures 12. Enjoys change Seeks out new, somewhat ambiguous 12. situations, e.g. involves him/herself in 12. activities in which he/she cant be sure of the outcome 13. Likes to stay within the rules Does not respond well to change 13. Enjoys the tried and tested Likes to work by him/herself Task orientated Sometimes not socially aware Extroverted, outgoing, people orientated Often socially sensitive, and aware of what is going on with others Give child space to work alone Praise work when appropriate and share success within small groups Draw childs attention to others achievements, needs, etc. Provide environment which encourages cooperation Encourage child to take responsibility for supporting peers Celebrate such sensitivity through display work Encourage child to be original and take acceptable risks Explain to child that some rules and procedures are linked to safety of self and others and must be respected Ensure the range of activities is broad to prevent child becoming bored Pose unusual challenges, as well as encouraging child to form his/her own

Forms 4. Single-minded

5. Prioritiser

6. Rover

7. Dabbler

Levels 8. Abstract

9. Concrete

Scope 10. Internal

11. External

12. Liberal

13. Conservative

13. 13. 13.

Make sure the environment is stable with a core of activities that can be accessed regularly If changes are to happen, e.g. new role-play area, ensure child is involved in decision-making 13. Explain changes in routine, e.g. dentist, local visit, supply teacher, in advance if possible, and provide adult/peer support if necessary

Source: Developed from the work of Sternberg ((15), pp. 2026).

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The guidelines supported the identification of a childs unique profile and related information was recorded (see pro forma, Figure 3). This was used to identify an appropriate teaching and learning match for planning purposes.
Figure 3. Personal profile used to identify an appropriate teaching and learning match

Childs name ..
Culture Feelings about self Feelings about self in relation to others

Possible teaching strategies/scaffolds

Abilities

Thinking/learning styles

Possible teaching strategies/scaffolds

Motivational disposition

Possible teaching strategies/scaffolds

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Application of the results
One of the more useful outcomes of the research has been the development of the scaffolding aide mmoire (see Table 1). This is attached to the schools short-term planning documentation and has served to sharpen staff s planned interventions with individual target children, as well as small groups. Another has been the establishment of improved methodology to take account of a childs learner characteristics. Personal profiles are routinely used to inform planning for target children. Preidentification of appropriate scaffolding techniques for individual or small groups increased from 20 per cent in 1997/98 to 70 per cent in 1998/99. Both in the execution of the research and its application, the school had the considerable advantage of:
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improved from the already high quality. In 1995, 75 per cent of the lessons were at least good, and over 25 per cent at least very good. In the current Inspection, the quality of the teaching was good and was very good or better in over 85 per cent of the sessions. Arising from this, the Chief Inspector added a further commendation in his 1998/99 Annual Report.
Acknowledgements

This work involved the whole-staff team. The successful outcomes would not have been possible without their considerable contributions. My thanks also to David Burrell of the University of Sussex, for his encouragement and insights; and West Sussex LEA, for its ongoing support.
Notes
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relatively small size (although large for a nursery) which facilitated effective communication; a well-established system of corporate development planning; a part-time teaching head/research leader who was in a position to trial initiatives alongside team members.

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Key worker here is a teacher or nursery nurse with specific responsibility for: collation of information relating to the development of the child; liaison with parents/carers; planning, together with colleagues, learning opportunities; and assessing effectiveness of provision. The list of scaffolding techniques was refined and elaborated later in the study (see Table 2).

CONCLUSION
The study has shown that action research can be pursued effectively in a nursery school setting to further the education of young children. Independent evidence of the effectiveness of the work in the schools development was presented in a second OFSTED report (2):
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References

OFSTED (1995). Inspection Report, Bognor Regis Nursery School: Carried Out under Section 9 of the Education (Schools) Act 1992. London: OFSTED. OFSTED (1999). Inspection Report, Bognor Regis Nursery School: Carried Out under Section 9 of the Education (Schools) Act 1996. London: OFSTED. COHEN, L. and MANION, L. (1980). Research Methods in Education. London: Croom Helm.

excellent progress in improving the quality of education since the previous Inspection in January 1995 older and more able children are successfully challenged in all aspects of their work and make very good progress compared with the judgements of the last Inspection, the quality of teaching has

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4 5 HAYSON, J. (1985). Inquiry into the Teaching Process. Oise Press. COLLARD, R. (1989). Total Quality Success Through People. London: Institute of Management. HOPKINS, D. (1985). A Teachers Guide to Classroom Research. Buckingham: Open University Press. BRUCE, T. (1991). Time to Play in Early Childhood Education. Sevenoaks: Hodder and Stoughton. VYGOTSKY, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society. London: Harvard University Press. SMITH, P. K. (1995). Play and the uses of play. In: MOYLES, J. (Ed) The Excellence of Play: Part 1. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Address for correspondence

Sin Rees Jones, Headteacher, Bognor Regis Nursery School, 85 Victoria Drive, Bognor Regis, West Sussex PO21 2TB. Telephone: 01243 821692
Copying Permitted

The NFER grants to educational institutions and interested bodies permission to reproduce this item in the interests of wider dissemination.

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10 PASCAL, C. and BERTRAM, T. (1995). Evaluating and improving the quality of play. In: MOYLES, J. (Ed) The Excellence of Play: Part 4. Buckingham: Open University Press. 11 KITSON, N. (1995). Fantasy play: a case of adult intervention. In: MOYLES, J. (Ed) The Excellence of Play: Part 2. Buckingham: Open University Press. 12 HEASLIP, P. (1995). Making play work in the classroom. In: MOYLES, J. (Ed) The Excellence of Play: Part 2. Buckingham: Open University Press. 13 BRUCE , T. (1995). Play, the universe and everything. In MOYLES, J. (Ed) The Excellence of Play: Part 4. Buckingham: Open University Press. 14 COFFIELD, F. (1999). The value of one daring question, Times Educational Supplement, 31 January. 15 STERNBERG, R. J. (1997). Thinking Styles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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