COMPUTER OPTIMIZATION OF DRY AND WET/DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEMS FOR LARGE FOSSIL AND NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

by Michael Choi and Leon R. Glicksman Energy Laboratory Report No. MIT-EL 79-034 February 1979

COO-4114-5

COMPUTER OPTIMIZATION OF DRY AND WET/DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEMS FOR LARGE FOSSIL AND NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

by

Michael Choi and Leon R. Glicksman

Energy Laboratory and Heat Transfer Laboratory Department of Mechanical Engineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139

Prepared under the support of the Environmental Control Technology Division Office of the Assistant Secretary for the Environment

U.S. Department of Energy Contract No. EY-76-S-02-4114.A001

Energy Laboratory Reporc No. MIT-EL 79-034

February 1979

-2-

ABSTRACT

There is a projected shortage of water supply for evaporative cooling in electric power industry by the end of this century. Thus, dry and wet/dry cooling tower systems are going to be the solution for this problem. This study has determined the cost of dry cooling compared to the conventional cooling methods. Also, the savings by using wet/dry instead of all-dry cooling has been determined. A total optimization has been performed for power plants with dry cooling tower systems using metal-finned-tube heat exchangers and surface condensers. The optimization minimizes the power production cost. The program does not use pre-designed heat exchanger modules. Rather, it optimizes the heat exchanger and its air and water flow rates. In the base case study, the method of replacing lost capacity assumes the use of gas turbines. As a result of using dry cooling towers in an 800 MWe fossil plant, the incremental costs with the use of high back pressure turbine and conventional turbine over all-wet cooling are 11% and 15%, respectively. For a 1200 MWe nuclear plant, these are 22% and 25%, respectively. Since the method of making up lost capacity depends on the situation of a utility, considerable effort has been placed on testing the effects of using different methods of replacing lost capacity at high ambient temperatures by purchased energy. The results indicate that the optimization is very sensitive to the method of making up lost capacity. It is, therefore, important to do an accurate representation of all possible methods of making up capacity loss when optimizating power plants with dry cooling towers. A solution for the problem of losing generation capability by a power plant due to the use of a dry cooling tower is to supplement the dry tower during the hours of peak ambient temperatures by a wet tower. A separate wet/dry cooling tower system with series tower arrangement has been considered in this study. In this cooling system, the physical separation of the dry and wet towers protects the dry tower airside heat transfer surface from the corrosion problem. It also allows complete freedom of design and operation of the dry and wet towers. A wet/dry cooling system can be tailored to meet any amount of water available for cooling. The results of the optimization show that wet/dry cooling towers have significant savings over all-dry cooling. For example, in either fossil or nuclear plant, the dry tower heat transfer surface of 30% makeup water wet/dry cooling system is only about fifty percent of that in all-dry cooling using high back pressure turbines. This results in a reduction of 27% and 37% of the incremental cost in the fossil and nuclear plant, respectively, over all-wet cooling. Even the availability of a small percentage of makeup water reduces the incremental cost significantly. Thus, wet/dry cooling is an economic choice over all-dry cooling where some water is available but supplies are insufficient for a totally evaporative cooling towers. On the other hand, the advantage of wet/dry cooling over evaporative towers is conservation of water consumption.

-3-

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This report is part of an interdisciplinary effort by the MIT Energy Laboratory to examine issues of power plant cooling system design and operation under environmental constraints. The effort has involved

participation by researchers in the R.M. Parsons Laboratory for Water Resources and Hydrodynamics of the Civil Engineering Department and the Heat Transfer Laboratory of the Mechanical Engineering Department. Financial support for this research effort has been provided by the Division of Environmental Control Technology, U.S. Dept. of Energy, under Contract No. EY-76-S-02-4114.AOO1. The assistance of Dr. William Mott,

Dr. Myron Gottlieb and Mr. Charles Grua of DOE/ECT is gratefully acknowledged. Reports published under this sponsorship include:

"Computer Optimization of Dry and Wet/Dry Cooling Tower Systems for Large Fossil and Nuclear Plants," by Choi, M., and Glicksman, L.R., MIT Energy Laboratory Report No. MIT-EL 79-034, February 1979. "Computer Optimization of the MIT Advanced Wet/Dry Cooling Tower Concept for Power Plants," by Choi, M., and Glicksman, L.R., MIT Energy Laboratory Report No. MIT-EL 79-035, September 1979. "Operational Issues Involving Use of Supplementary Cooling Towers to Meet Stream Temperature Standards with Application to the Browns Ferry Nuclear Plant," by Stolzenbach, K.D., Freudberg, S.A., Ostrowski, P., and Rhodes, J.A., MIT Energy Laboratory Report No. MIT-EL 79-036, January 1979. "An Environmental and Economic Comparison of Cooling System Designs for Steam-Electric Power Plants," by Najjar, K.F., Shaw, JJ., Adams, E.E., Jirka, G.H., and Harleman, D.R.F,, MIT Energy Laboratory Report No. MIT-EL 79-037, January 1979. "Economic Implications of Open versus Closed Cycle Cooling for New Steam-Electric Power Plants: A ational and Regional Survey," by Shaw, J.J., Adams, E.E., Barbera, R.J., Arntzen, B.C,, and Harleman, D.R.F., MIT Energy Laboratory Report No. MIT-EL 79-038, September 1979.

-4-

"Mathematical Predictive Models for Cooling Ponds and Lakes," Part B: User's Manual and Applications of MITEMP by Octavio, K.H., Watanabe, M., Adams, E.E., Jirka, G.H., Helfrich, K.R., and Harleman, D.R.F.; and Part C A Transient Analytical Model for Shallow Cooling Ponds, by Adams, E.E., and Koussis, A., MIT Energy Laboratory Report No. MIT-EL 79-039, December 1979. "Summary Report of Waste Heat Management in the Electric Power Industry: Issues of Energy Conservation and Station Operation under Environmental Constraints," by Adams, E.E., and Harleman, D.R.F., MIT Energy Laboratory Report N. MIT-EL 79-040, December 1979.

-5-

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . 2 3 8 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 14 16 17 18 .

.

List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 . . . . . .

Background . . . . . . . . Scope of This Thesis Work Outline of Presentation

. . . . . . . . . . .
.

. . .
. .

. . . . . .
. . . . .

CHAPTER 2: APPROACH AND MAJOR ASSUMPTIONS 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . Optimum System . . . . . . . . . . Load Profile . . . . . . . . . . . Treatment of Loss of Capacity Power Production Cost Base Economic Factors . .
.

.PER.OR . . .
. . . . .

18 18 21

.*

21 22
.

. . . . . .
. . . . . . . .

. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .

23 24
. * . . . .

CHAPTER 3: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE POWER PLANT 3.1 3.2

Plant Model . . .
* * . . . . . . . . . . .* .*

.
.

. .

. . . . .

24 25 32
. .

Turbines . . . . .

CHAPTER 4 : DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM MODEL AND itPERFORMANCE 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5
Introduction . . . Condenser . . . . . .
* . . . . .*

...
. . . . . . . .* . .

.
. I

. . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

32 34 43 49 52 53 53 55 58

Dry Towers . .

. .

Piping System

. .

. *

. .

. .

Pumping System . .

. *

CHAPTER 5: OPTIMIZATION OF DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEMS AND RESULTS 5.1 5.2 5.3 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dry Cooling Tower Optimization Procedure . . . . . . . Results of Dry Cooling Tower Optimization . . . . . .

-6Page

CHAPTER 6: THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF REPLACING LOST CAPACITY ON THE ECONOMIC OPTIMIZATION OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEMS 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79 79 79 81 82

Approach to the Problem . .

Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER 7: WET/DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM: MODEL, OPTIMIZATION, AND RESULTS ..................... 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90 90 91 91

Tower Arrangement and Operating Scheme

Wet Tower Model and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . .

Computation of Makeup Water Requirement . . . . . . . . 100 Wet Tower Cost .................... Optimization Procedure 102

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 . 104

Results of Wet/Dry Cooling Tower System Optimization

CHAPTER 8: COMPARISON OF ECONOMICS OF DRY AND WET/DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEMS WITH ONCE-THROUGH, COOLING POND, AND EVAPORATIVE TOWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 8.1 8.2 Economic Comparison of Base Case Study Economic Comparison of Sensitivity Study . . . . . . . . 119 . . . . . . . 119 . 137

CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 9.1 9.2 9.3

. . . . . . . . .

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Comparison to Previous Work and Other Published Studies 138 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 .................. 144

References .........

APPENDIX I: Equations for Calculating Hydraulic Pressure Drop . . 147 APPENDIX II: Cooling System Cost Models . . . . .. APPENDIX III: Piping Water Velocity Optimization . . . . . . . 148 . . . . . . . . 162 . . . . . . 167

APPENDIX IV: Dry Tower Heat Exchanger Specifications

APPENDIX V: Wet Tower Fill Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

-7Page

APPENDIX VI: Condenser Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX VII: Computer Program Listing For Dry Cooling Tower System ..................

169

170

APPENDIX VIII: Computer Program Listing for Wet/Dry . . . . . . . 215 Cooling Tower System Optimization APPENDIX IX: Glossary of Terms Used in Computer Programs . . . 272

-8-

LIST OF FIGURES Page

FIGURE 2.1

Illustration of the concept of power plant scaling. Illustration of economic trade-off between capital cost and operating cost.

19

FIGURE 2.2

20

FIGURE 3.1 FIGURE 3.2

Nuclear turbine heat rate characteristic curves. Fossil turbine heat rate characteristic curves.

26 27

FIGURE 4.1

Indirect type of mechanical draft dry cooling tower system.

33

FIGURE 4.2

Temperature relationship in indirect type of dry cooling tower system. Piping layout in dry cooling tower system. Dry tower piping.

35

FIGURE 4.3 FIGURE 4.4

50 51

FIGURE 5.1

Illustration of Andeen-Glicksman minimization technique.

Power production cost vs. design ITD for 800 MWe fossil plant with dry cooling tower system and conventional turbine. Power production cost vs. design ITD for 800 MWe fossil plant with dry cooling tower system and high back pressure turbine. Power production cost vs. design ITD for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with dry cooling tower system and conventional turbine. Power production cost vs. design TID for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with dry cooling tower system and high back pressure turbine. Power production cost breakdown vs. design ITD for 800 MWe fossil plant with dry cooling tower system and conventional turbine.

61

FIGURE 5.2

62

FIGURE 5.3

63

FIGURE 5.4

64

FIGURE 5.5

65

FIGURE 5.6

66

-9Page FIGURE 5.7 Power production cost breakdown vs. design TD for 800 MWe fossil plant with dry cooling tower system and high back pressure turbine. Power production cost breakdown vs. design ITD for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with dry cooling tower system and conventional turbine. Power production cost breakdown vs. design ITD for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with dry cooling tower system and high back pressure turbine. Total capital cost of dry cooling tower system vs. design ITD for conventional turbine. Total capital cost of dry cooling tower system vs. design ITD for high back pressure turbine. 67

FIGURE 5.8

68

FIGURE 5.9

69

FIGURE 5.10

70

FIGURE 5.11

71

FIGURE 6.1

Results of optimization using different methods of replacing lost capacity for 800 MWe fossil plant with dry cooling tower system and conventional turbine. Results of optimization using different methods of replacing lost capacity for 800 MWe fossil plant with dry cooling tower system and high back pressure turbine. Results of optimization using different methods of replacing lost capacity for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with dry cooling tower system and conventional turbine. Results of optimization using different methods of replacing lost capacity for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with dry cooling tower system and high back pressure turbine.

83

FIGURE 6.2

84

FIGURE 6.3

85

FIGURE 6.4

86

FIGURE 7.1

Water flow diagram for wet/dry cooling tower system. Operating scheme of wet/dry cooling tower system. Illustration of towc' culation.

92

FIGURE 7.2 FIGURE 7.3

92 94

fi! finite different cal-

-10Page FIGURE 7.4

Schematization of elementary volume within tower fill. Power production cost vs. annual makeup water quantity for 800 MWe fossil plant. Direct capital cost of cooling system vs. annual makeup water quantity for 800 MWe fossil plant. Wet tower size vs. annual makeup water quantity for 800 MWe fossil plant. Instantaneous makeup water consumption rate at maximum ambient vs. wet tower size for 800 MWe fossil plant.
Power production cost vs. annual makeup water quantity for 1200 MWe nuclear plant.

99

FIGURE 7.5

107

FIGURE 7.6

108

FIGURE 7.7

109

FIGURE 7.8

110

FIGURE 7.9

111

FIGURE 7.10

Direct capital cost of cooling system vs. annual 112 makeup water quantity for 1200 MWe nuclear plant. Wet tower size vs. annual makeup water quantity for 1200 MWe nuclear plant. Instantaneous makeup water consumption rate at maximum ambient vs. wet tower size for 1200 MWe nuclear plant.

FIGURE 7.11

113

FIGURE 7.12

114

FIGURE 8.1

Results of sensitivity study of power plant cost 121 for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with dry cooling tower system and high back pressure turbine. Results of sensitivity study of fuel cost for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with dry cooling tower system and high back pressure turbine. Results of sensitivity study of cooling system cost multiplier for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with dry cooling tower system and high back pressure turbine. Results of sensitivity study of replacement capacity cost for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with dry cooling tower system and high back pressure turbine. 122

FIGURE 8.2

FIGURE 8.3

123

FIGURE 8.4

124

-11Page FIGURE 8.5

Results of sensitivity study of replacement energy cost for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with dry cooling tower system and high back pressure turbine. Results of sensitivity study of fixed charge rate for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with dry cooling tower system and high back pressure turbine. Results of sensitivity study of power plant cost for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with wet/dry cooling tower system. Results of sensitivity study of fuel cost for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with wet/dry cooling tower system. Results of sensitivity study of cooling system cost multiplier for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with wet/dry cooling tower system. Results of sensitivity study of fixed charge rate for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with wet/dry cooling tower system. Results of sensitivity study of water cost for 1200 MWe nuclear plant with wet/dry cooling tower system.

125

FIGURE 8.6

126

FIGURE 8.7

127

FIGURE 8.8

128

FIGURE 8.9

129

FIGURE 8.10

130

FIGURE 8.11

131

FIGURE II-1 FIGURE III-1

Direct installed cost of pipe vs. pipe diameter. Illustration of economic trade-off between pipe cost and pumping power cost for piping. Results of piping design water velocity optimization. Optimum pipe diameter vs. water flow rate. Optimum water velocity vs. water flow rate.

156 163

FIGURE III-2

164

FIGURE III-3 FIGURE III-4

165 166

-12-

LIST OF TABLES Page TABLE 2.1 TABLE 3.1 TABLE 3.2 TABLE 4.1 Base case study of economic parameters. Nuclear turbine net heat rates. Fossil turbine net heat rates. 23 29 30 38

Condenser heat transfer coefficient vs. water velocity. Comparison of condenser heat transfer coefficients obtained by Nusselt analysis and empirical correlation given by Heat Exchange Institute. Optimum design parameters of dry cooling tower systems for 800 MWe fossil plant. Optimum design parameters of dry cooling tower systems for 1200 MWe nuclear plant. Cost comparison of optimum design dry cooling tower systems for 800 MWe fossil plant. Cost comparison of optimum design dry cooling tower systems for 1200 MWe nuclear plant. 800 MWe fossil plant net electrical output for optimum cooling system design. 1200 MWe nuclear plant net electrical output for optimum cooling system design. Comparison of heat exchanger tube length and number of tubes deep for 1200 MWe nuclear plant. Comparison of heat exchanger tube length and number of tubes deep for 800 MWe fossil plant. Optimum dry tower design ITD using different methods of replacing lost capacity. Optimum power generation cost using different methods of replacing lost capacity. 800 MWe dry-cooled fossil plant net electrical output vs. ambient temperature.

TABLE 4.2

39

TABLE 5.1

72

TABLE 5.2

73

TABLE 5.3

74

TABLE 5.4

75

TABLE 5.5

76

TABLE 5.6

77

TABLE 5.7

78

TABLE 5.8

78

TABLE 6.1

87

TABLE 6.2

87

TABLE 6.3

88

-13page
TABLE 6.4 1200 MWe dry-cooled nuclear plant net electrical output vs. ambient temperature.

89

TABLE 7.1

Comparison of two different optimum design wet/dry cooling tower systems for 800 MWe fossil plant. Comparison of two different optimum design wet/dry cooling tower systems for 1200 MWe nuclear plant.

115

TABLE 7.2

116

TABLE 7.3

Comparison of capital cost breakdowns of dry and 117 wet/dry cooling tower systems for 1200 MWe nuclear plant. Comparison of capital cost breakdowns of dry and wet/dry cooling tower systems for 800 MWe fossil plant. Economic comparison of base case study optimum design cooling systems for 800 MWe fossil plant. 118

TABLE 7.4

TABLE 8.1

132

TABLE 8.2

Economic comparison of base case study optimum 132 design cooling systems for 1200 MWe nuclear plant. Economic comparison of sensitivity study optimum design cooling systems for 800 MWe fossil plant. Economic comparison of sensitivity study optimum design cooling system for 1200 MWe nuclear plant. Comparison of incremental costs (%) of dry and wet/dry cooling over all-wet cooling for 800 MWe fossil plant. Comparison of incremental costs (%) of dry and wet/dry cooling over all-wet cooling for 1200 MWe nuclear plant. Comparison of results to previous studies in dry cooling system using high back pressure turbines. Comparison of results to previous studies in dry cooling system using conventional turbines. A listing of coefficients for calculating pipe and pipe fitting cost. 133

TABLE 8.3

TABLE 8.4

134

TABLE 8.5

135

TABLE 8.6

136

TABLE 9.1

141

TABLE 9.2

141

TABLE II-1

154

-14-

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1

Background

A modern-day fossil-fueled electrical power plant has an efficiency of about 40%; approximately one-half of the heat from the fuel combusted in the boiler is rejected to the circulating water. The efficiency of a

Pressurized Water Reactor or Boiling Water Reactor nuclear power plant is about 33%; two thirds of the nuclear heat generated is rejected as waste heat. Therefore, in the electrical power industry, the amount of waste

heat discharged to the environment is enormous, and this must be handled safely, economically, and without causing damage to the environment. For power plants located at a river or lake where large quantities of water are available, once-through cooling is often employed. In once-

through cooling, the hot water from the condenser is discharged into the waterway, resulting in an increase of water temperature which may have adverse effects on the ecology of the water bodies. Conventionally, when water is not sufficient for once-through cooling, evaporative towers are used. The circulating hot water is broken

into small droplets by splashing it down the fill in the cooling tower. More than 75% of the heat rejection is by evaporation. One major dis-

advantage of evaporative towers is the consumption of a huge amount of water. A 1000 MW LWR nuclear plant operating at rated load with an

evaporative tower requires about 20,000,000 gallons of makeup water

-15-

every twenty-four hours [28].

Also, evaporative towers have a number and

of environmental problems: disposal of blowdown water, fogging

icing in certain atmospheric conditions and mist carryover with high salt concentration. All the above-mentioned problems of once-through cooling and evaporative towers can be eliminated by employing dry cooling towers. Dry cooling tower systems are closed water loop cooling systems. The

circulating water has no direct contact with the atmosphere and, therefore, there is no water lost by evaporation. This allows flexibility

for power plant siting, for instance, a power plant can be located at a mine-mouth or load center where water is unavailable for wet-cooling. As a result, savings in fuel-transportation and/or electrical transmission can often be obtained. In spite of all these advantages, today dry cooling towers are not broadly used by electric utilities. is the primary deterrent. The high cost of dry cooling

Only two power plants under construction in

the United States are planned to employ all-dry cooling--a 330 MWe unit at Wyodak, Wyoming, and an 85 MWe unit at Braintree, Massachusetts. The cost of all-dry cooling can be reduced by supplementing the dry towers with evaporative towers. This wet/dry cooling concept has The first wet/dry towers

aroused deep interest from the utilities.

have been purchased by Public Service Co. of New Mexico for use at their San Juan site. These units, 450 MWe each, are designed to save

60% of the water consumed by evaporative cooling towers [10].

-16-

Recently ERDA sponsored a study by Westinghouse Hanford Co. to determine the regional requirements for dry cooling. The study con-

cluded that there are economic alternatives to dry and wet/dry cooling up to 1990. From 1990 to 2000, the combined effects of restrictions

on coastal siting, state regulations of the purchase and transfer of water rights from agriculture or other uses to cooling supply, together with the rapid and continuous growth in electricity demand, will have the potential of bringing dry or at least wet/dry cooling to increased use. Nationally, a total of 21,000 to 39,000 MWe will require dry or

wet/dry cooling at that time [17].

1.2

Scope of This Thesis Work

The research in this thesis covers the economic optimization of dry and wet/dry cooling tower systems. The dry cooling tower system

optimization program is a refinement of the model developed by Andeen and Glicksman [1,2,3]. This thesis work is part of the project titled, "Waste Heat Management in the Electrical Power Industry: Energy Conservation and Station Operation Under Environmental Constraints," prepared by the Energy Laboratory of MIT for the Division of Environmental Control Technology, U.S. Department of Energy. The purpose of this project is to compare

the economic and the environmental impacts of employing once-through, cooling ponds, wet towers, dry towers, ad wet/dry towers in fossil and nuclear power plants. The comparisons of these cooling systems

-17-

are made at the Quad Cities plant site between Illinois and Iowa.

This

hypothetical site was chosen solely because it is a river site where any of the above cooling systems can be built. The meteorological data

of Moline, Illinois, are used in the evaluation of these cooling systems.

1.3

Outline of Presentation

The material in this thesis is presented in the following sequence. Chapter 2 is a presentation of the method of analysis. The power plant Chapter 4 is The

model and turbine characteristics are given in Chapter 3.

a review of the model and performance of dry cooling tower systems. optimization procedure and results of optimization are presented in Chapter 5.

Chapter 6 investigates the effects of using different methods

of replacing lost capacity on the economic optimization of dry cooling tower systems. The wet/dry cooling tower model and results of optimizaChapter 8 compares the economics of

tion are presented in Chapter 7.

dry and wet/dry cooling systems with those of once-through, cooling ponds, and evaporative cooling towers. In addition to the base case

study, the comparison also includes the results obtained in an economic sensitivity study. in Chapter 9. Finally, conclusions and recommendations are given

-18-

CHAPTER 2: APPROACH AND MAJOR ASSUMPTIONS

2.1

Introduction

The method of analysis in this optimization study of cooling tower systems in power plant is a scalable plant-fixed demand approach as discussed in Fryer [4]. It assumes that there is a fixed demand for This is 800 MWe from the fossil Further, it assumes that the

electrical output from the power plant.

plant and 1200 MWe from the nuclear plant.

power plant can be scaled to produce a given net capacity which is just equal to the fixed demand at the design ambient temperature. Scaling is

performed, first, to account for the difference in turbine heat rates at the design point and the turbine rating back pressure and, second, to provide fan and pumping power for the cooling system. of scaling is illustrated in Fig. 2.1. The concept

2.2

Optimum System

In general, a larger cooling system has a higher capital cost but is more efficient and, therefore, has a lower operating cost. Thus,

there is an economic trade-off between the capital investment and the operating cost. An optimum exists somewhere intermediate which gives This is schematically shown in Fig. 2.2. The

the minimum total cost.

purpose of an optimization is to identify this optimum based on a given set of economic parameters.

-19-

SCALED PLANT NET CAPACITY

>4

--

---

-- -

TARGET DEMAND

~3 u
U p H

04 SCALED PLANT NET CAPACITY

O a~

DESIGN AMBIENT

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

FIGURE 2.1

ILLUSTRATION OF THE CONCEPT OF POWER PLANT SCALING

-20-

//

--

TOTAL COST

II
I
EC1

OPERATING COST

ul
o

CAPITAL COST I
~.. &-*. ,& .d..

COOLING SYSTEM SIZE

FIGURE 2.2

ILLUSTRATION OF THE ECONOMIC TRADEOFF BETWEEN CAPITAL COST AND OPERATING COST

-21-

2.3

Load Profile

In this study, no load profile is scheduled for the power plant. It assumes that the average annual capacity factor is 75%.

2.4

Treatment of Loss of Capacity

The performance of a cooling system, especially the dry towers, responds sensitively to the meteorological conditions and any changes will affect the generating capability of the power plant. The power

plant in this study is assumed to be within a summer-peak utility system. Besides, there is a fixed demand. The net plant capacity is

measured against this target demand; any deficit in capacity is necessary to be replaced by another generating source. However, the source In

of replacement is very dependent on the situation of the utility.

this study, the base case method of replacing lost capacity is the use of gas turbines. A capital cost of $160/kW and an operating cost of

30 mills/kW-hr are required for the purchase and operation of the gas turbines. This assumption may have strong influence on the economic A detailed investigation

optimization of dry cooling tower systems.

of the effects of using different methods of replacing lost capacity on the economic optimization of dry cooling tower systems will be reported in Chapter 6.

-22-

2.5

Power Production Cost In this optimization study of cooling tower systems in power plants,

an optimum cooling system is identified as one which gives the minimum power production cost. The power production cost, also known as the

bus-bar energy cost, is the total annual cost of generating one kilowatthour of electrical energy. It is composed of fuel cost, operation and

maintenance cost of the power plant and the cooling system, energy and capacity penalties, and annual fixed charge on the capital investment of the power plant and the cooling system. ship is given below: The mathematical relation-

Power Prod. Cost

(Capital Cost)(FCR)+ O&M+ Fuel Cost+ Energy Penalty J(Net Output)i (8760 x f)

~~1

for (Net Output)i and (8760X f.)

i

Fixed Demand

8760 x Capacity Factor

then we have Power Prod. Cost

=

(Capital Cost)(FCR) + O&M + Fuel Cost + Energy Penalty (Fixed Demand)(8760)(CAPF)

where Power Production Cost is in mills/kW-hr, and Capital Cost = Power Plant Cost + Cooling System Cost + Capacity Penalty Cost ($);

FCR = Fixed Charge Rate (%); O&M = Operation and Maintenance cost ($);

-23-

Fuel Cost = annual fuel cost ($); CAPF = Capacity Factor (%);

and Fixed Demand is in MW.

2.6

Base Economic Factors

The base economic factors for the hypothetical plant site, Quad Cities, are given in Table 2.1. All the costs are in 1977 dollars.

TABLE 2.1

Base Case Study Economic Factors.

Year of pricing Power plant construction cost Fossil Nuclear Fuel Cost Fossil Nuclear Annual fixed charge Operation and Maintenance cost Average annual capacity factor Capacity penalty (gas turbines) Energy penalty (gas turbines) (coal)

1977

$500/kW
$600/kW

$0.90/MMBtu $0.47/MMBtu 17% 1% of all capital costs 75% $160/kW 30 mills/kW-hr

Additional steam supply system (high back pressure turbine) Fossil Nuclear $167/kW $200/kW

-24-

CHAPTER 3: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE POWER PLANT

Both fossil and nuclear power plants are considered in this optimization study of cooling tower systems for steam-electric power plant application. In this chapter, the power plant model and the turbine

performance will be presented.

3.1

Plant Model

The nuclear power plant assumed for the cooling system evaluation in this study is considered to be a Boiling Water Reactor (BWR). On

the other hand, the fossil power plant is assumed to be coal-fired. The steam source of the power plant may be coupled with either a conventional steam turbine or a high back pressure turbine. The tur-

bine-generator for the nuclear plant is a General Electric Tantum Compound Six Flow -38 (TC6F-38) turbine; its steam conditions at the tur-

bine inlet are 965 psig saturated. The turbine-generator for the fossil plant is a General Electric Cross Compound Six Flow (CC6F) turbine with reheat cycle; conditions are 3500 psig 1000F/1000F. The conventional turbine-generator is typically the one currently used in power plants with once-through cooling or with evaporative towers. turbine. 5 inch HgA is the miaximum allowashe exhaust pressure for this Any operation at exhaust pressures exceeding this maximum its steam

-25-

limit would cause damage to the turbine. For the all-dry cooling tower systems, a high back pressure turbine is considered. The high back pressure turbine allows operation This turbine has short last-

up to an exhaust pressure of 15 inch HgA. stage buckets.

3.2

Turbines Today there are high back pressure turbines manufactured in Europe

that are only limited to small capacities.

In the United States cur-

rently no domestic turbine manufacturer offers high back pressure turbines for nuclear steam applications. However, high back pressure tur-

bines, up to 750 MWe, are presently available from the General Electric Company for fossil steam applications. According to this company [13],

the cost of the fossil high back pressure is the same as the conventional turbine but the nuclear high back pressure turbine would cost 15% more than the conventional unit. The full-load turbine net heat rate vs. exhaust pressure curves are shown in Figs. 3.1 and 3.2 for the nuclear and fossil turbines, respectively. The data of turbine net heat rates are avilable from The heat rate factor is defined as

the General Electric Co. [18,19].

the ratio of the turbine net heat rate at any exhaust pressure to the turbine net heat rate of the conventional unit at 3.5 inch HgA. pose no Sup-

is the turbine efficiency of the conventional unit at 3.5 is the turbine efficiency at any exhaust pressure, and F , nflo, and F

inch HgA,

is the heat rate factor; then the relationship between

-26-

BASE CXVENTIAL UNIT: G.E. TC6F-38 NET HEAT RATE OF

STEAM CONDITIOJ: 965 PSIG

SAIURATED

NVENTIONAL UNIT AT 3.5" MA: 10071 Btu/kwhr

1.20
2

1.16 01.12
HIH-'" PESUR

a: 1.08 w Ld
< 1.04
w

M1.00
I
MII

CONVENTIONAL

I
.

I I

I I

5 15 10 EXHAU ST PRESSURE( INCH HGA) FIGURE

3.1

NUCLEAR TURBINE CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

-27-

BSE CVEICONAL UNIT: G.E.

C6F

STM C(NDITICN: 3500 PSIG 10000F/10000F

NET HEAT RATE CF coNVENTIc]NAL UNIT AT 3.5" HA: 7882 Btu/kwhr

5EXHAUS NCH HGA) HGA)15 PRESSURE 1(INCH EXHAUST FIGURE

3.2

FOSSIL TURBINE CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

-28-

is given by the following equation:

n =n F

(3.1)

The rating back pressure for high back pressure turbines is 8 inch HgA [13]. From Figure 3.1, it can be seen that the heat rate of the

nuclear high back pressure turbine at 8 inch HgA is 7.5% higher than that at the rating back pressure of the conventional unit. For fossil

high back pressure turbines this is 6.3%, as can be seen from Fig. 3.2. Therefore, a high back pressure turbine requires a larger steam supply system than the conventional turbine in order to produce the same rated output. The capital cost of the additional steam supply system can be

calculated by using the following equation: Cs where C = kW x (FB Cs~~~ 1) x

= cost of additional steam supply system ($),

kW = turbine rated output (kilowatt), FB = high back pressure turbine heat rate factor at 8 inch HgA, Cs = cost of steam supply system ($/kW). Tables 3.1 and 3.2 are heat rates at different load conditions for the nuclear conventional turbine and the fossil conventional turbine, respectively.
19].

These data are provided by the General Electric Co.

[18,

The energy flux, that is, the product of mass flow rate and enthalpy, of steam (Btu/hr) at the turbine inlet ior each of the 100%, 75%, 50%, and 25% (fossil only) load conditions can be obtained by multiplying

-29-

TABLE 3.1.

Net Heat Rates for Nuclear Turbine

General Electric TC6F-38. Steam: 965 psig sat.

Percent Load
-

100
.

75 Net Heat Rate (Btu/kW-hr) 9,914 9,951 10,030 10,147 10,285 10,431
-

50 Net Heat Rate (Btu/kW-hr) 10,161 10,414 10,626 10,854 11,085 11,306

Exhaust Pressure (in. HgA) 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Output (kW) 1,232,850 1,231,633 1,228,000 1,221,392 1,212,377 1,200,869

--

Net Heat Rate (Btu/kW-hr) 9,904 9,914 9,943 9,997 10,071 10,167

Output (kW) 957,922 954,273 946,798 935,807 923,257 910,259

Output (kW) 644,391 634,903 622,189 609,091 596,362 584,709

-30-

r. . ..

---

4-i

(a
U'.)I 4J

co oz

0~
O

0~ H

s n

r en

~'

H (1

o o o

~P i~

Co 0 o H 0" o o

L~ ,4:

t N o

'.0 q'

tn (N

4-. en 0 3 4a) 4-igt : 0 o

(N H

0O

'' H
N

Ns 0
t

n o
n

to u
H

H
0

CO o uN
O

N
r

H (N

04

0 0N

0 (N

(0

0 H

0 H

z U) rT4
0

~~ 4-I)4J
0

O0 0-

N ~

m
0'

c0

o
o

,-I H

(',3 q; Um '
P --I (

~ C,
~

0
03N N o

,1-4 0

.H

o o 0

o'l Ho '1

,.-I
0

o
o

Cz;w 01-s o
) X

3m o0 C 0o n to O'N 0 0

(0 co
'

r u 0 co - cow O) H ( 0

ao 00 C OO-t H

0
,-I

.)
tn

to

0 4J (U

04p -

r'I to sN

CO (N (N

'.0 0O H i n N

r r H 0'

O o

0 m to ok CO a v to '. ' ON 0' 0 %o C' H C0 O

N 0 0)

(U 14 U)4

a) 04 o

:4J 4JWkr Z
LO

to =
0 N

0) O N

o4

N en Coo ON N

w H c
CO

U)
4J

to
4
U1

04
W-

on

0 tD

o~

o en
N ''

o '.

(t

en
0" to

'0

a
to

No

*~
m n
Ew

0 '~ (N H '.0 '0

H
'.

H
.0

" 'U 00O '. '0

en

c
CO
to

O~ 0

o
0

o o 0

4-i

(U a) U)

z 4-i .
(

1V '. N

N N Ns

O' m CO O N CO

H
'

00

~ o "r co en CO COD 0'~ 0

o 0

nl
4i m

o %D h .,'.0 0 a)

0 0 H-

-i

en Lt

to Co

'I (N to H

rN
n H
o

H 0 H

o 0

(N
'.
Co

o N

en o

o000 N 0o Uo

on

0 ,--I ,-4 a)
4C)
A VI
I

Co H

CO00 C

Ns H

H 000"
Co

to
NO

0 0"

CO

0C

iii

HH

L( )

ure

Lt

*d

rH

cS

r4

de

-31-

the output (kW) by the net heat rate (Btu/kW-hr).

For the fossil tur-

bine, this is 6.354x 109 Btu/hr for the 100% load, 4.84x 109 Btu/hr for the 75% load, 3.407 x 109 Btu/hr for the 50% load, and 2.047X 109 Btu/hr for the 25% load. For the nuclear turbine, this is 1.22X 10 l

Btu/hr for the 100% load, 9.49x 109 Btu/hr for the 75% load, and 6.60X 109 Btu/hr for the 50% load. By assuming that each load condi-

tion has a constant steam flow, the above results are thereby used for calculating the plant output and heat rejection rate at a given load condition. To demonstrate this, let us consider an example of calcu-

lating the output at 5 inch HgA for the 75% load condition of the fossil turbine. Suppose Q100oo is the energy flux (Btu/hr) at the turbine
A

inlet at the 100% load of the fossil turbine; then at the 75% load condition, the energy flux at the turbine inlet is given by
Q75 = 0.76* Qoo

Knowing the turbine efficiency at 75% load and 5 inch HgA to be 0.415, it follows that the output (kW) is equal to 0.76* Q100oo or 0.76 * 0.415 * Q100
and the heat rejection (Btu/hr) is simply 3.413

(Btu/hr)x 0.415 (Btu/kW-hr) 3.413

kWe

0.76* Qoo(Btu/hr) * (1 - 0.415) or 0.76 * 0.585 * Q100 Btu ru

hr

-32-

CHAPTER 4: DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM MODEL AND PERFORMANCE

Generally dry cooling tower systems may be divided into the direct type and indirect type. In the direct type, the turbine exhaust steam In the

is condensed in the cooling tower air-cooled heat exchangers.

indirect type, the turbine exhaust steam is condensed in a condenser and the hot water is carried to the cooling tower where heat is discharged to the air from the heat exchanger. Due to nuclear contamina-

tion in the nuclear steam, the direct type is always considered to be unsafe for nuclear applications.

4.1

Introduction

In this study the dry cooling tower system is taken to be an indirect type with surface condensers and metal-finned-tube heat exchangers. The computer optimization program does not use pre-designed heat exchanger modules. in detail. by fans. In addition, the piping system design is considered

Theair flow in the cooling tower is mechanically induced The various components of the dry cooling tower system are

shown in Fig. 4.1. Condensation of the turbine exhaust steam takes place in the surface condenser at the saturated steam temperature corresponding to a given tbine exhaust prssure. water circuit. e condceasate is returned to the feed-

Cooling water entering the condenser at a temperature

-33-

TURBINE

DRY TOWER

AIR FLOVF

XCE MNSER

)WATER IT

PIPING

PUMP

FIGURE 4.1

INDIRECT TYPE OF MECHANICAL DRAFT DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM

-34-

T is heated to a temperature

T2

on leaving the condenser.

The dif-

ference between the saturated steam temperature and the hot water temperature T is the terminal temperature difference (TTD). T1 and T2 is the water range. The temOn leav-

perature difference between

ing the condenser, the hot water is circulated through the piping system to the dry cooling towers where heat is rejected to the air from the heat exchangers. The difference between the temperature of hot water

entering the dry tower and the temperature of the incoming ambient air is the initial temperature difference (ITD). After cooling, the water Ambient air enter-

leaving the dry tower is returned to the condenser. ing the dry cooling tower at a temperature temperature air range. a T2 . The difference between T1 a T2

leaves the tower at a and a T1 is called the

The temperature relationships are illustrated in Fig. 4.2.

4.2

Condenser The surface condenser in this study is a shell-and-tube heat ex-

changer and it is a single pressure design.

The circulating water flows

inside the tubes and the turbine exhaust steam is condensed on the outer surface of these tubings. ing equalities must hold: Qs = UA(LMTD) (4.1) For a thermodynamic equilibrium, the follow-

Q
Q* w
Qs

(Q(4 c

T)

(4.2)
3)

-35-

TTD sat sat

mW

w
1

1 Tsat= SATURATED STEAM TEMPERATURE AT TURBINE OUTLET

TTD= CONDENSER TERMINAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE ITD= INITIAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE w T 1 = COOL WATER TEMPERATURE

1 2

w T 2 = HOT WATER TEMPERATURE a = TEMPERATURE OF AMBIENT AIR ENTERING DRY TOWER T1 a = TEMPERATURE OF AIR LEAVING DRY TOWER T2

FIGURE 4.2

TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP IN INDIRECT TYPE OF DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM

-36-

where

= heat rejection rate of the condenser (Btu/hr);

Qs

Qc m w

= heat rejection rate to the circulating water (Btu/hr); = condenser circulating water flow rate (lb/hr);

w T 2 = temperature of hot water leaving the condenser (F);

w
T1

= temperature of cool water entering the condenser (F);

U = condenser heat transfer coefficient (Btu/hrft2F);

A = condenser heat transfer area (ft2 ); and

LMTD = log mean temperature difference w w T2 - T1 = ~ r'rD+T~-TY
TD TTD Zn(TD+T T

=Zn n/ U

(Range
a n e+

Range
+ TTD
)

(4.4)

-T)

TD

The overall heat transfer coefficient face area of condenser tubes is given by

based on the oxutside sur-

1
1 h

+n

r
o

r
o

(4.5)

r.h.

1 1

r.
1

where

h
1

= steam side heat transfer coefficient (Btu/hr-ft2F);

(Btu/hrft2F);

h. = water side heat transfer coefficient r = condenser tube outer radius 0 (ft); (ft);

r.=
1

condenser tube inner radius

= conductivity of condenser tube material (Btu/hrftF).

h. 1 can be calculated using The

The water side heat transfer coefficient

the heat transfer correlation for fully developed turbulent flow. correlation is:

-37-

h.
1

0.023 k Re 0.8 Pr 0.4 w w w d

(4.6)

where

k Re Pr

w w w

= conductivity of water inside condenser tube (Btu/hr-ftF); = water side Reynolds number; = water side Prandtl number;

d = tube inner diameter (ft).

The steam side heat transfer coefficient h
0

may be determined by

using Nusselt's analysis of condensation on tube banks in the literature [13,35]. The steam side heat transfer coefficient is given by: 4

0o

0.728 D (Tsv s s)

(4.7)

where

h
o

= heat transfer coefficient

(Btu/hrft2F);

K = thermal conductivity of liquid (Btu/hrftF); p = density of liquid (lb/ft3);

Pv = density of vapor (lb/ft3); g = gravitational force (ft2/hr);

h' = latent heat of condensation (Btu/lb); fg

= viscosity of liquid (lb/hr-ft); (ft);

D = tube diameter

Tv = temperature of saturated vapor (F); sv T

s

= wall surface temperature

(F).

In a large power plant condenser, T sv the properties of steam are:

~100F,

(T -T ) sv s

10F, and

-38-

p Pv K h' fg

= = = =

62 lb/ft3 0.2 lb/ft3 0.364 Btu/hroftF 888.8 Btu/lb 1.65 lb/hr-ft

pR,=

For

D = 1 inch, then the steam side heat transfer coefficient is (0.364)3 (61.8)2 (4.17 x 108 ).(888.8) (1/12) (1.65) (10)

h
0

h= =

0.728 0.728

1932 Btu/hr-ft2F .

In Eq. (4.5), with r

= 0.5 inches, r

= 0.451 inches, k

= 65

Btu/hrftF for admiralty, and the properties of water at 70F being Pr = 6.82, V = 1.02X 10- 5 , K = 0.347 Btu/hrftF, the overall heat transfer coefficient U velocities. is computed for different condenser water

The results are tabulated in Table 4.1.

TABLE 4.1

Condenser Heat Transfer Coefficient vs. Water Velocity

V (ft/sec) 8 7 6 5 4

h. (Btu/hroft 2 F)
1

U (Btu/hr-ft2 F) 842.9 797.2 745.0 683.6 612.6

1497.0 1345.0 1189.0 1026.0 860

-39-

In the above calculations, only one horizontal tube is considered. For n tubes, the average steam side heat transfer coefficient should be divided by (n)4 in Nusselt's correlation in Eq. (4.7) [14,35].

The Heat Exchange Institute [7] has conducted extensive tests for arriving at values of the overall heat transfer coefficient for various tube materials, water velocities, and water temperatures. For example, with the condenser inlet water temperature of 70F and No. 18 BWG clean admiralty tubes, their experimental data gave the relation between the overall heat transfer coefficient and water velocity as U where = C V0 5
,

(4.8)

U = overall heat transfer coefficient (Btu/hreft2F); V = water velocity (ft/sec); C u = coefficient = 263 for No. 18 BWG admiralty tubes. from this correlation for various water velocities

The results of U

are calculated and compared to the results obtained by Nusselt's analysis in Table 4.2.

TABLE 4.2

Comparison of Condenser Heat Transfer Coefficients Obtained by Nusselt Analysis and Empirical Correlation Given by Heat Exchange Institute

V (ft/sec) 8 7 6 5 4

U, Nusselt's Analysis (Btu/hr'ft2F) 842.9 797.2 745.0 683.6 612.6

U, Heat Exchange Institute Test Data (Btu/hr-ft2 F) 743.8 695.8 644.2 588.1 526.0

-40-

Just based on these first estimations, the Heat Exchange Institute test data appear to be reasonable. The water side heat transfer coefficient is a function of the properties of water and the tube diameter. The thermal resistance of the For inlet

tube wall is dependent on the tube inner and outer diameters.

water temperature other than 70F and tube wall thickness other than that of No. 18 BWG, the Heat Exchange Institute provides design correction (4.8). Furthermore, a cleanliness factor has to be

factors for Eq.

allowed for dirty tubes. Given the values of the condenser water range, the TTD, the water velocity V, and the heat rejection rate Q , then the total condenser

heat transfer area can be calculated.

Mathematically, this is

A=. U Range n [(TTD+ Range)/TTD]

(4.6)

Also,

from the heat rejection rate and the water range, the water flow that is,

rate can be calculated;

=
Ran9 e

(4.7)

by taking the specific heat of water to be 1 Btu/lbF. By applying the mass conservation principle to the water flow rate, we have m or = PVAH (4.8)

m
.A = -E. P

(4.9)

-41-

where

p = density of water (lb/ft 3 ) at the mean temperature of

and w T2 ;
2~~~~~~~~

AH = total hydraulic area (ft2).

Given the inner diameter of the condenser tubes, then the total number of tubes is

nT

4AH 2
7TD.

(4.10)

where

D. = tube inner diameter (ft).

1

Finally, from the total heat transfer area, the outer diameter of the tubes and the number of tubes, the condenser tube length can be determined from the following equation:
=

A
(ft) (4.11)

~T

nTrD AT 7TD n T o

where

D
0o

= tube outer diameter (ft). [7] recom-

In designing the condenser, the Heat Exchange Institute

mends a minimum design TTD of 5F to avoid unpredictable condenser performance at design TTD's below this limit. The relation between the heat rejection rate and the TTD can be calculated from Eqs. (4.6) and (4.7). For a fixed condenser design,

the water flow rate m , the heat transfer area A , and the overall heat transfer coefficient we get U are constant. By combining Eqs. (4.6) and (4.7)

n A
=

(TDTTD
TTD

Q/m /

U Q/

-42-

or
TTD

An TTD + Q/m

= A m

constant

Therefore, 1 +
Q ... = (m)(TTD)

constant

or

=
(m)(TTD) Finally, we get

constant

constant* TTD

(4.12) Thus, two passes are

The maximum condenser tube length is about 50 ft. needed if the tube were longer than about 50 ft.

Due to corrosion and erosion problems, the condenser water velocity is constrained to a maximum of 7 ft/sec [12].

As can be seen in Eqs. (4.5) and (4.6), with the heat rejection rate, the TTD, and the range being fixed, the heat transfer area is inversely proportional to the square root of the water velocity; that is,

This means a higher water velocity gives a smaller condenser.

However,

the higher the water velocity, the larger the pumping power requirement (Appendix I gives the pressure drop relationships). Hence there is a

trade-off between the capital cost of the condenser and the pumping power ost. The installed cost of a surface condenser is composed of the shell

-43-

cost, tube cost, and field erection cost. of the condenser is given in Appendix II.

A detailed cost algorithm

4.3

Dry Towers

In general, mechanical draft dry cooling towers can be circular or rectilinear in shape. Rectilinear towers often have the heat ex-

changer bundles supported horizontally about 50 ft above the ground. In circular towers the heat exchanger bundles are normally vertically arranged around the base of the tower and, therefore, they are rather

self-supporting and require less structural support than the rectilinear towers. [1,2,3]. The methodology of heat exchanger design follows Andeen et al. Assuming a cross-flow heat exchanger with the water side un-

mixed, we have the following two cases: Case I: C /C < 1 ; that is, C = C , C = Clarg e

w'a

small

large

The effectiveness is given by

C =

1 -

exp

- (1 - e a

TU)

(4.13)

where NTU = UA/C smal.

/small

This gives

NTU

-n

a w

-- 1 n

C' a

(4.14)

By definition,

C (T
C c c2

-T
cl

)
(4.15)

) l(TH- T small H1 cl

-44-

where the subscripts

H = hot fluid; C= cold fluid; 1 = in; 2 = out.

Here, CH = C

Cs small , and
C= AT W wTD ITD (4.16)

NTU

=-[i

C a

c AT
1ID)]C

(4.17)

Case II:

Cw/C > 1; that is, w a

Clarg e lre

Cw, w

Csmall sal

a a

Then,
s = 1 exp

C
-w(
-

-NTU C /C\
e , (4.18)

which gives NTU =

-

C C C a

+
W

- )

(4.19)

Here, C H = C

=C

larg

large
=

, and C AT W C CITD a

(4.20)

C NTU
=

C n 1 + a n 1 a C ~ ~ CC CW

C AT
a fTD

(4.21)

For a fixed dry cooling tower design in either Case I or Case II, with the air flow rate and the water flow rate constant, the effectiveness of the heat exchanger remains constant. That is,

-45-

AT
or = constant = = constant = C C a
-

in Case I AT ITD in Case II.

ITD

Thus,

AT iITD = constant, and since

is constant, we have

m AT w w ITD or ITD or

constant

constant

Q =

constant* ITD

(4.22)

To evaluate the heat rejection capability of a mechanical draft dry cooling tower at off-design conditions, the following equations can be employed:

ITD or

ITD D

QD D

'

(4.23)

ITD

(4.24)

QD ITD D
where Q = heat rejection rate at off-design

'
(Btu/hr);

D = design heat rejection rate (Btu/hr); ITD = initial temperature difference at off-design (F); ITDD = design initial temperature difference (F).

The mass velocity of air flow is given by

m
G = A A (lb/hrft 2)

where

ma = mass flow rate of air

(lb/hr); (ft2

A = free flow area of heat exchanger

free flow area of heat exchanger (ft ).

-46-

But where

AF

(4.25)

0 = ratio of free flow area to frontal area;

AF

frontal area of heat exchanger (ft2).

It follows that the air-side Reynolds number is GD Re a = e ~a (4.26)

where D

G = mass velocity; e = equivalent diameter;

Ua = viscosity of air. If the Colburn factor and friction factor as a function of the air-side Reynolds number are known, for example given in Kays and London [9], then the air-side heat transfer coefficient lowing relation: h St Pr so that
=

can be obtained from the fol-

o pr2 a a

213 3

(4.27)

~~so

that ~St h

Pr GC a pr /3
2

(4.28)

Andeen et at. used the following equation to calculate the fin efficiency. Andeen [34] obtained this equation from a Dynatech report.

Fin efficiency

nf

= Eh (D- OD)2 1 + 24 KT

(4.29)

where

K = thermal conductivity of fin (Btu/hr-ftF); D = fin diameter (inch);

-47-

OD = tube outer diameter (inch);

E = (D/OD + 4/3)/7 ;

T = fin thickness

(inch). n is given as A (1 -pT

ni =
T

The overall surface efficiency

(4.30) f(Af

where

Af = fin area; AT = total surface area. T The water-side heat transfer coefficient h.
1

is determined by

the following equations: h.D

Nu. 1 1 K = 0.023 Re 0 ' 8 Pr 0" w w
8

(4.31)

or 0.023K Re
h. 1
= h.

D D

~w

Pr 0 4 w

(4.32)

where

Nu. = Nusselt number;

1

D = tube inner diameter; K = thermal conductivity of water in tube; Re Pr

w w

= water-side Reynolds number; = water-side Prandtl number. is given by

(4.33)

The overall heat transfer coefficient U

1 1 + 1

(ns 1 -- )h

ATE
Using the NTU relationship

-48-

= where A

a CNTU small

UA

(4.34)

is the air-side surface area, then NTU Csma 1 U

The volume of the heat exchanger is given by A

V=
-a

aa

(4.35)

where

is the surface area per unit volume of heat exchanger. dT can be calculated

Finally, the depth of the heat exchanger by the following relationships:

Va
or

AF dT
V

(4.36)

dT T

a AF

(4.37)

After determining the dimensions of the heat exchanger for a given heat transfer surface, then the total installed cost of the heat exchanger can be calculated. In this study each circular tower is divided into four quadrants; a quadrant can be shut down and isolated from the main circulation pipes by closing the control valve. All quadrants have the same number of

heat exchanger bundles (schematic sketch given in Fig. 4.4). A heat transfer bundle is composed of heat transfer surfaces (finned tubes), headers, bundle frame, and cross supports. The cost of the heat

transfer surface is the sum of tubing cost, finning cost, surface coating cost, and tube spacer cost. The total installed cost of a bundle

-49-

consists of the costs of the heat transfer surface, header, framing, and assembly. A detailed cost algorithm for the heat exchanger is

given in Appendix II.

4.4

Piping System The piping system circulates the cooling water between the heat

exchanger bundles and the condenser.

It consists of the main circulaThe piping model is adopted A

tion lines and tower distribution pipes. from Ref. 12.

Figures 4.3 and 4.4 illustrate the piping layouts.

reasonable distance of 500 ft between the condenser and the cooling tower is assumed. The center-to-center distance between the circular

towers is taken to be one and a half times the tower diameter and this is believed to be sufficient for air circulation between towers [12]. The piping material is welded carbon steel with a design pressure of 125 psig. Pipe diameters are available from 12 to 144 inches with Due to corrosion and erosion problems,

size increments of 6 inches.

the maximum allowable piping water velocity is 20 ft/sec [12]. For a given water flow rate, a higher water velocity results in a smaller pipe diameter but it increases the hydraulic pressure drop or pumping power requirement. Therefore, there is a trade-off between the

piping capital cost and the cost of pumping power. The piping water velocity optimization is given in Appendix III. For pipes installed either below or above ground level, the optimum design water velocities for large flow rates from 5000 to 500,000 gpm

-50-

2, ~2. 500 f'r 1)-.I

5D

-.---

DRY 1TOERS

2.5D PIPING

1
SINGLE TOWER GROUP

4-500 FT

2.5 D

D al,

2.5D

DRY

ITOWERS

DaUBLE TOWER GROUP

FIGURE 4.3

DRY

COLING TOWER SYSTEM PIPING IAYOUT

-51-

C IRCULATION

WER DISTRIBUTION PIPING

HEAT EXCHANGER BUNDLES

AIR FLOW

WATER FLOW
% I

QUADRANT PIPING

HEADER I

TOWER DISTRIBUTION PIPING

FIGURE 4.4

DRY TOWER PIPING

-52-

are in the vicinity of about 12.5 ft/sec. In addition to pipes, the piping system is also composed of necessary pipe fittings such as reducers, elbows, tees, valves, and flanges. A detailed cost algorithm for pipes and pipe fittings is given in Appendix II.

4.5

Pumping System The pumping system provides the necessary pumping head to overcome

the hydraulic pressure drops in the cooling system.

It consists of cirThe

culating pumps, pump structure, motors, and electrical equipment.

total pumping power requirement is governed by the water flow rate and total pressure drop of the cooling system. For the dry cooling tower

system the total pressure drop is the sum of the pressure drops in the condenser, piping, and heat exchanger. The pressure loss in pipe fit-

tings is believed to be 30-45 percent of the pressure drop in the pipes [8]. A value of 45% is used in this study. The overall pumping efficiency (pump and motors) is estimated to be about 87.6% [20]. The pump brake horsepower BHP P BHPp where APT (pQ) 550 550nh p (4.38) is given by

APT = total pressure drop (ft H2 0); Q = water flow rate (ft3 /sec); rp = pumping system efficiency; p = density of water (lb/ft 3 ).

The pumping system cost algorithm is given in Appendix

II.

-53-

CHAPTER 5: OPTIMIZATION OF DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEMS AND RESULTS

The computer optimization program of the dry cooling tower systems in this study follows Andeen and Glicksman 1,2,3]. The program does

not use pre-designed heat exchanger modules; rather, it optimizes the dimensions, air loading, water loading, etc., for the heat exchanger.

5.1

Introduction

In the present model the six design variables used in the program are the ambient dry bulb temperature, the initial temperature difference (ITD), the water range, the water-to-air heat capacity ratio, the

heat exchanger air-side frontal area, and the width-to-length ratio of the heat exchanger. The design dry bulb temperature is the reference temperature at which the power plant is scaled to produce a given net electrical output. At ambient temperatures higher than this design temperature the

turbine heat rate increases and, therefore, the generating capability of the power plant decreases. The design initial temperature difference (ITD) defines the size of the dry cooling tower. the dry cooling tower. penalty cost. The water range is a significant parameter in the design of the Generally, the higher the ITD the smaller

However, a high ITD often results in a larger

-54-

surface condenser.

As discussed in Chapter 4, the mathematical rela-

tionship of heat transfer in the condenser is given by * UA UA Range Zn [(Range + TTD)/TTD] Therefore, for a given heat rejection is a

Qc c

Here, range is the water range. rate Q

, a given U, and a given TTD, the heat transfer area A That is,

function of the water range only.

A=

Qc
Range

f(range)

Zn [(TTD+ Range)/TTD]
Moreover, the water range also influences the piping system design. The relationship between the heat rejection rate, the water flow rate, and the water range is given by

Qc where Qc m w = = = =

(mw ) (Range)(Cw )

(5.1)

condenser heat rejection rate (Btu/hr); mass flow rate of water (lb/hr); water range (F); specific heat of water
-

Range Cw

1 Btu/lbF.

For a given heat rejection rate, the higher the range, the smaller the water flow rate. However, for a given design water velocity, a smaller

water flow rate requires a smaller pipe diameter. The capacity ratio is defined as the ratio of the heat capacity of water to the heat capacity of air where heat capacity of a fluid is the

-55-

product of the mass flow rate and specific heat of the fluid.

For a

given water flow rate, the capacity ratio determines the air flow rate for the heat exchanger. Finally, the frontal area and the width-to-length ratio are used in calculating the dimensions of the heat exchanger. With a given vol-

ume of a heat exchanger, increasing the frontal area tends to reduce the depth of the heat exchanger. On the other hand, given the frontal

area, a higher width-to-length ratio shortens the heat exchanger tube length. The dimensions of the heat exchanger affect both the cooling

tower arrangement and the piping design.

5.2

Dry Cooling Tower Optimization Procedure With a given heat transfer surface, a given turbine heat rate

characteristic, a specified net capacity, a given set of economic parameters, a given set of meteorological data (for dry tower, only the dry bulb temperature distribution is needed), and the six design variables discussed in the previous section, optimization can then be performed. The optimization involves a selection of an optimum from The procedures are as follows:

a set of optima. (1) (2)

Select a design dry bulb temperature. Select a design initial temperature difference (ITD).

(3) Find the combination of the water range, capacity ratio, heat exchanger frontal area, and width-to-length ratio that gives the minimum power generation cost for the power plant with the dry

-56-

cooling tower system.

Here, scaling of the power plant is per-

formed so that the net capacity is equal to the target demand by assuming the design ambient temperature to be the temperature throughout the year. (4) Evaluate the performance of the power plant with the dry cooling tower system over an annual cycle and determine the capacity and energy penalties. (5) (6) Obtain the power production cost.

Repeat the procedures (2)-(4) with a new design ITD. Plot the power production cost vs. the design ITD and obtain the global optimum.

(7)

Repeat the procedures ()-(6) ture.

with a new design dry bulb tempera-

(8)

Compare the optima obtained for the selected design dry bulb temperatures and pick the minimum.

The optimum combination of range, capacity ratio, frontal area, and width-to-length ratio is obtained by the minimization method developed by Andeen and Glicksman [1,2,3]. The minimization technique inTo explain how the method Assume cost is a function

volves a double-shotgun-and-search method. is used, let us consider a simplified case.

of two independent variables; then it is pictured as a surface in twodimensional space, as shown in Fig. 5.la. To obtain a starting point

in the proximity of the optimum design point, first, the coarse shotgun is used to evaluate the cost of a random initial point (point 1, Fig. 5.le) and a grid of surrounding points (designated as zeroes in

-57-

in the figure) prescribed about the initial point.

The point with low-

est cost is obtained (point 2, Fig. 5.le) and a few extreme values (designated as diamonds in the figure) outside the initial grid are investigated for minimum cost. If the minimum for one of the extreme points

is one percent less than the minimum cost of the original grid, a new grid is defined about this new minimum point and evaluated for cost. If no new minimum is found by checking the extremes, a fine shotgun pattern (designated as X's in Fig. 5.1e) about the minimum (point 2 in the figure). This yields point 3 as the lowest cost point which is then

taken to be a rough approximation to the optimum design point and a starting point for the search procedure. From the rough design point, the real optimum is approached by holding variable 1 fixed, e.g., staying in plane A (Fig. 5.1c,d) and finding the point of lowest cost (point 2, Fig. 5.ld). Then by holding

variable 2 fixed, staying in plane B, we find a second minimum (point 3, Fig. 5.1c,d) and continue the process indefinitely to get the optimum. To avoid non-minimal troughs, both positive and negative step sizes are used to search for the minimum cost. As the optimum is ap-

proached, the magnitude of the step sizes becomes smaller. Expanding the process from two variables to four variables is just working in five-dimensional space instead of three-dimensional. It

holds three variables fixed at a time, while finding the planar minima, and repeats the process a given number of times. The computer program listing of the dry cooling tower system optimization is given in Appendix VII.

-58-

5.3

Results of Dry Cooling Tower Optimization Optimizations of dry cooling tower systems using conventional tur-

bines and high back pressure turbines were performed.

The results were

plotted in Figs. 5.2-5.5 with power production cost vs. design ITD for several design dry bulb temperatures. ures each design ambient Note that in each of these figThis Since TSA T ,

temperature has a maximum design ITD.

is due to the limitation of the maximum turbine exhaust pressure. the relationship between the exhaust steam saturation temperature

the design ITD, the design ambient temperature TD , and the design TTD is given by ITD for each turbine type, when TSAT T T -TDTTD ,

is the saturated steam temperature

corresponding to the maximum allowable exhaust pressure and the design TTD is 5F for all design ITD's, then a higher design ambient temperature gives a lower maximum allowable design ITD. Also, the influence of the design ambient temperature on the power production cost can be readily seen in these four figures. This is

primarily due to higher plant scaling for a higher design ambient temperature. The power production cost breakdowns are shown in Figs. 5.6 Note that in each of these figures, as the design ITD

through 5.9.

increases the cooling system cost decreases but the capacity and energy penalties increase. The power plant construction cost is dependent on

both the design back pressure and fan and pump power, which in turn depend on the design ITD.

-59-

Furthermore, the effects of the design ITD on the dry cooling system cost can be seen in Figs. 5.10 and 5.11; the higher the ITD, the smaller the cooling system. cost In these two figures, the cooling system

($/kW) for the nuclear plant is higher than that for the fossil This is due to the poorer nuclear steam conditions

plant by about 50%.

and turbine efficiency. From Figs. 5.2 and 5.4, with the use of conventional turbines, the optimum design ITD's for-the fossil plant and the nuclear plant are limited to 30F and 34F, respectively. High back pressure turbines allow much higher optimum design ITD's. From Figs. 5.3 and 5.5, these are 62F and 65F for the fossil plant and the nuclear plant, respectively. The summary results of the optimum design parameters are shown in Tables 5.1 and 5.2. With the use of high back pressure turbines, the

water flow rate, air flow rate, heat transfer surface, and fan plus pump power are approximately one half those of conventional turbines. The cost breakdowns for the optimum designs are presented in Tables 5.3 and 5.4. An examination of these two tables indicates that for

either fossil or nuclear plants, the capital cost of the cooling system for a conventional turbine is about twice as much as that for a high back pressure turbine. The optimum power production cost of the

conventional turbine is higher than that of the high back pressure turbine by 1.06 mills/kW-hr for the fossil plant and by 0.84 mills/kW-hr for the nuclear plant. The relative advantage of using high back

-60-

pressure turbines in nuclear plants is smaller; this is primarily due to the assumption that a nuclear high back pressure turbine costs 15% more than a conventional turbine. The power plant net capacity for each of the optimum cooling system designs is shown in Tables 5.5 and 5.6. All the optimum designs

essentially require no steam throttling at the highest ambient temperature. Tables 5.7 and 5.8 show how the tube length and number of tubes The results here

deep in the heat exchanger vary with the design ITD.

indicate the advantage of optimizing the dimensions of the heat exchanger over the use of pre-designed modules.

-6(1 -

FIGURE 5.1 I i

ANDKFJ7-GLICKSMAN MINDIIZATION TECHNIQUE ILLUJSRATION r- PAJP C PLANE C PLANE A PIANE B

j6

NE B
_

_mmmm

I-,

VA: Jo VARIABLE #1

I
w

VARIABLE #1 (b)

(a)

PLANE A

IPLANE C

ANE B

(N

mUM
L

VARIABLE #1

VARIABLE #1 (d)

(c)

0o

0
(N 4:

VARIABLE #1 (e)

-62-

n-

800-MWeFOSSIL PLANT TURBI NE: CONVENTIONAL 32

REPLACEMENT ENERGY

I[7

se

30

OH D

t)

z 28 0o

U O

26

0:
(L

24

20

30 40 50 DESIGN ITD'(

60
F)

70

80

FITURE 5.2

RESULTS OF BASE CASE OPTIMIZATICN SIUDY FOR DRY OOLING lOER SYSTEM IN 800-M FOSSIL PLANT USING CVENTICNAL TURBINE

-63-

800- MV FOSSIL PLANT TURBINE:HIGH BACK PRESSURE

REPLACEMENT CAPACITY REPLACEMENT ENERGY

S 160/1 KW
30 MILLSI/ KWHR F)

. .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

CUVE

DESIGN DRY

ULB (

30
B C

98
so 80 50

I-H U3

0
0

28

POWER GEERATION COST FOR REFERENCE PLANT WITH ALL-WET COOLING SYSTEM: _ 2 2.05 M I LLS/KWHR

oz 0,11
I- I

26
13_
.J

n-

"-J2

v24

F-

ELI

45

55

65 75 85 DESIGN ITD(

95 F)

105

115
OWEG.

FI(RE 5.3- RESUJLTS OF BASE CASE OPTDIIZATION SDY CF DRY OOLIN

SYSTE4 IN 8004W FSSIL PLAN USING HIGH ACK PRESRE

-64-

1 2 00 - MWe NUCLEAR PLANT NE: CONVENTIONAL TURBI RE0Lrt FNERGY= 30 MILS REPLACENT APACIYi-i o601KW
CURVE DESIGN DRY
Am

KWHR

UL (

F )

34
uV)

a c

80
70 50

-i

POWER GENERATION COSr FOR REFERENCE PLANT WITH ALL-WET. COOLING SYSTEM: 21.56 MILLS/KWHR

32
u)
I-

0
z

0
IH

30

CL

28 w 0La
cr

O G_

10

20

30 40 50 DrESe G i l'D (
.

60
F)

70

80

FIGURE 5.4

RESULTS F BASE CASE OPTIMIZATION S3DY F DRY COLING IER SYSTEM IN 1200-M4W NUCLEAR PLANT USI CNENTICNAL WURBINE

-65-

a:
0IE)

1200-M\e NUCLEAR PLANT TURBINE: HIGH BACK PRESSURE

REPLACEMENT CAPACI T Y = REPLACEMENT ENERGY 1601 KW

: 30 MILLS/KWHR

3:

33 32 31

Li)
-

30

z0

29 28 27 26 25 45 55 65 75 85 DESIGN ITD (

U
a:
w 0
'3-

95 F )

105

115

FIGURE 5.5

RESJITS OF BASE CASE OPTIMIZATICN SUDY F DRY OOLING TOWER SYSM IN 1200-M NUCLEAR PLAT USING HIGH BACK PRESSRE TURBINE

-66-

800-MW FOSSI L PLANT TURBI NE: CONVENT IONAL DESIGN DRY BULB: 0. 28

0-

0:'

25
u3l I -J -j
I

22
FUEL

19

16
COOLING SYSTEM

13

SCALED POWER PLANT

20
5.6

30 40 50 60 DESIGN ITD ( OF)

70

FIGURE

POWER PRODUCTION COST BREAKDOWN VERSUS DESIGN ITD FQR DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM IN 800-MWe FOSSIL PLANT

-67-

80Q-MW FOSSIL PLANT

SSURE 2

u") I
(fl -i -J ...J -J

,
0
U)

2;
en

1'

0
-55
FIGURE 5.7

65 75 85 95 DESIGN I TD ( F )

105

115

POWER PRODUCTION COST BREAKDOWN VERSUS DESIGN ITD FOR 800-MWe FOSSIL PLANT

-68-

1200-MW NUCLEAR PLANT TURBI NE: CONVENTIONAL DESIGN DRY BULB: 50 F

30

26
/i I
%_ CI) 0
U

22

FUEL

18

_-

~COOLING

SYSTEM

p.

SCALED POWER PLANT

20

30 40 50 60 DESIGN ITD ( F )

70

80

FIGURE 5.8

POWER PRODUCTION COST BREAKDOWN VERSUS DESIGN ITD FOR 1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT

-69-

1200-MW NUCLEAR PLANT TURBINE: HIGH BACK PRESSURE DES I GN DRY BULB: 50 F
30

us 0: 26

-j

LO H
en

22

U 18

0
FIGURE 5.9

55

65 75 85 95 105 DESIGN ITD ( F )

POWER PRODUCTION COST BREAKDOWN VERSUS DESIGN ITD FOR 12 0 0-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT

-70-

COOLING SYSTEM COST (INDIRECT COST INCLUDED) CONVENTIONAL TURBINE

oZlJ

z 3:
I-

8Do
0LI) U
._J

w H L8 ul)

8i
U

zo
FIGURE 5. 10

5U

60

70

LrING SYSTM COST VERJS DESI( ID FOR DRY COLING To SYSTM IN PMR PLANS USIS aNVENTIma iuRBNES

DESIGN ITD(F)

-71-

COOLI NG SYSTEM COST (I NDI RECT COST IN( LUDED ) HIGH BACK PRESSURE TURBI NE

1-

0 U
LI
V)

z
0-i 0
U _J

.O

4D

55

t~~ /5 b

75

FIW 1 c R oi~~ 5. FIGURE 5.11 COOLING SYSTEM IN PER PLANTS USING HIGH BACK PRESSURE 'TURBES

lU5~I 1 ~ 85 VD IT ( F ) S DESIGNDITD FOR DRY CXOfING ' t:,5

55

115
R

-72_ .t

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-74-

TABLE 5.3

Cost Comparison of Optimum Design Dry Cooling Tower Systems for 800 MWe Fossil Plant

Costs are in millions of dollars Turbine Type High Back Pressure (15" HgA max) $ 2.42

Conventional Item Circulation Pumps, Pump Structure, and Electrical Equipment Piping Condenser Heat Exchanger Tower Structure and Foundation Air Moving Equipment and Electrical Equipment Louver Direct Capital Cost of Cooling System Indirect Cost of Cooling System Total Cooling System Capital Cost Power Plant Construction Cost Additional Steam Supply Cost Extra Turbine-Generator Cost Fuel Cost Replacement Capacity (Gas Turbine) Cost Replacement Energy Cost (5" HgA max) $ 3.68

12.68 6.92 33.96 4.26 12.37

6.26 4.59 16.66 1.78 6.43

2.75 77.56 15.51 93.07 407.79 0 0 42.22 5.05

1.34 40.07 8.01 48.08 400.92 8.44 0 44.13 6.93

0.44

0.70

-75-

TABLE 5.4

Cost Comparison of Optimum Design Dry Cooling Tower Systems for 1200 MWe Nuclear Plant

Costs are in millions of dollars Turbine Type High Back Pressure (15" HgA max) 3.55

Conventional Item

~~~~~Item

~(5"

HgA max) 6.52

Circulation Pumps, Pump Structure, and Electrical Equipment Piping Condenser Heat Exchanger Tower Structure and Foundation Air Moving Equipment and Electrical Equpment Louver Direct Capital Cost of Cooling System Indirect Cost of Cooling System Total Cooling System Capital Cost Power Plant Construction Cost Additional Steam Supply Cost Extra Turbine-Generator Cost Fuel Cost Replacement Capacity (Gas Turbine) Cost Replacement Energy Cost

29.46 15.08 71.79 9.43 29.55

16.40 9.93 37.60 4.24 14.45

5.83 169.70 33.94 203.64 739.69 0 0 40.21 15.00

3.02 90.49 18.10 108.59 725.39 18.13 36.27 42.40 12.54

1.15

2.11

-76-

TABLE 5.5

800 MWe Fossil Plant Net Electrical Output for Optimum Cooling System Design

Turbine Type Ambient Temperature High Back Pressure (ITD: 65F) 800.49 800.49 800.49 800.39 799.99 799.33 798.11 796.51 794.35 790.81 786.07 779.38 768.79 760.86 756.66

(OF)
30 37 42 47 52 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 96 98

Conventional (ITD: 30F) 800.82 800.82 800.82 800.48 799.97 798.72 797.93 796.57 794.42 794.42 791.13 786.93 780.78 775.28 768.40

-77-

TABLE 5.6

1200 MWe Fossil Plant Net Electrical Output for Optimum Cooling System Design

Turbi ne Type Ambient Temperature (OF) 30 37 42 47 52 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 96 98 High Back Pressure (ITD: 65F) 1202.67 1202.67 1202.67 1202.67 1198.75 1195.12 1191.34 1188.07 1184.53 1180.04 1172.43 1160.33 1142.17 1128.68 1121.57

Conventional (ITD: 30F) 1201.13 1201.13 1201.13 1200.86 1200.07 1199.16 1198.13 1196.93 1193.37 1185.92 1174.35 1158.79 1144.39 1136.52 1106.12

-78-

TABLE 5.7

Comparison of Heat Exchanger Tube Length and Number of Tubes Deep, 1200 MWe Nuclear Plant

Design ITD (F) 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 20 30 40 50 60 70

Number of Tubes Deep 6 6 8 8 6 8 8 10 6 6 6 6 8

Tube Length (ft) 69.71 72.66 65.74 63.87 79.32 73.03 74.83 55.41 78.19 74.45 71.31 76.18 65.74

High Back Pressure Turbine

Conventional Turbine

TABLE 5.8

Comparison of Heat Exchanger Tube Length and Number of Tubes Deep, 800 MWe Fossil Plant

Design ITD (OF) 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 20 30 40 50 60 70

Number of Tubes Deep 6 6 4 6 8 8 8 6 6 6 6 6 4

Tube Length (ft) 77.12 68.70 77.97 74.14 72.89 76.06 74.26 67.73 78.99 50.00 79.95 68.70 65.14

High Back Pressure Turbine

Conventional Turbine

-79-

CHAPTER 6: THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF REPLACING LOST CAPACITY ON THE ECONOMIC OPTIMIZATION OF DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEMS

6.1

Introduction

In this optimization study the power plant with a dry cooling tower system can meet a specified capacity at the design ambient temperature. At ambient temperatures above the design temperature the net capacity of the power plant decreases. The base case study method assumes the The capital cost of the

lost capacity to be made up by gas turbines.

gas turbine is solely charged to the cooling system even though the gas turbine is needed only for a limited number of hours per year. As

can be seen from the results in Chapter 5, an optimum cooling system is one which minimizes the need for the gas turbine by using a rather large tower so that, as in most studies, no turbine throttling is required at the highest ambient temperature. This is almost always a proper con-

straint when gas turbines are used for peaking; however, it will give misleading results for other conditions.

6.2

Approach to the Problem

In reality,

lost capacity would not be made up by gas turbines Any gas turbines purchased by a util-

devoted exclusively to that task.

ity would be used to meet short-term peaks during other parts of the year and would represent stand-by capacity needed to meet outages of

-80-

other units.

Thus the capital cost of the gas turbine would be only In addition, depending on

partly attributed to the cooling system.

the capacity of neighboring utilities, power pools and pumped-storage facilities, summer-time lost capacity could be met by purchased power. Finally, utilities may find it advantageous to use older plants normally reserved for stand-by duty to meet peak capacity. Obviously, the method available to make up lost capacity caused by dry cooling towers is very much dependent on the particular condition of a utility and generalization is not valid without detailed examinations of these conditions. Thus, the purchase of gas turbines

solely to meet lost capacity is extreme and in some instances unjustifiable. The work in this chapter is to explore the influence of a range of options. To do this we have looked at the opposite case: replacing

lost capacity by purchasing power at costs which are various multiples of the average power generation cost. With large multiple values, it The high pur-

is implied that some capitalization costs are included.

chase cost may reflect actual purchase from neighboring or more distant utilities, use of an older stand-by plant, or it may reflect true penalties to be assigned to peak-load users of the utility. Conversely, the

purchase cost may represent rewards the utility should make to customers shedding peak load. There ic no intent tc idernti-y price. the correct value of the purchased

Rather, the options available to the utility can be represented

-81-

by the results between the extremes of using gas turbines to replace all lost capacity and making up lost capacity solely by purchased energy.

6.3

Results Results are shown in Figs. 6.1 through 6.4 where the power produc-

tion costs are shown as a function of the design ITD.

Note that for

both fossil and nuclear plants, in Figs. 6.1 and 6.3, with conventional turbines, it is less expensive for a utility to purchase peak energy at 90 mills/kW-hr, more than three and a half times the average production cost, than it is to use gas turbines. Referring to Table 6.2, this How-

allows the use of a higher design ITD and a smaller cooling tower. ever, by referring to Tables 6.3 and 6.4,

it can be seen that the

higher ITD designs cause more lost capacity at the peak temperatures. With high back pressure turbines the relative advantage of purchased power over gas turbines is far less. This is expected because high back

pressure turbines minimize lost capacity at high ambient temperatures. Comparing the results in Table 6.2, if replacement power can be purchased, the use of a high back pressure turbine may not be justified, especially for the nuclear plant. In addition to the assumption of a summer-peak demand, a sensitivity study for a winter-peak demand has also been performed. assessing low energy penalty costs. This is done by

The results indicate, as expected,

that dry cooling tower systems would be economically more attractive for a winter-peak utility system.

-82-

6.4

Discussion The cost and optimum design of power plants with dry cooling towers

is closely tied to the method by which lost capacity at high ambient temperatures is replaced. The proper method is highly sensitive to the conIn general, neither the

dition of a particular utility in question.

extreme assumption that lost capacity is made up by gas turbines devoted exclusively to that purpose nor the assumption that lost capacity can be made up by purchased power will properly represent the real situation of a utility. It is important to do an accurate representation of possible

methods to replace lost capacity when optimizing power plants with dry cooling towers for a particular utility.

-83-

33
I

800- MWe FOSS I L PLANT TURBI NE: CONVENTIONAL DES IGN DRY BULB: 50 F
LEGEND: - -- REPLACEMENT' CAPACITY=$160/JKW REPLACEMENT ENERGY= 30 MILLS/KwHR CAPITAL COST OF REPLACEMENT CAPACI.TY = 0 JURVE ENERGY PENALTY (M1 LLS/KWHR)

31
-

90

B
I C D E

60
30 15 7.5 A A

U (')

.. J

z 0 %-o U H V 0U Z 0 27
I-

29

POWER GENERATION COST FOR REFERENCE PLANT WITH ALLWET COOLING SYSTEM: 22.05MILLS/KWHR

//

ZD

00-1000,

n- 25 ir.
/

E
23
I
I I I I I

13.

20

30 40 50 DES IGN ITD (

60 F)

70

80

FIGURE 6.1

RESULTS OF SENSITIVITY STUDY F THE EFFECTS OF USING DIFFERT METHODS OF REPLACING OST CAPACITY ON TE EOOICS OF DRY COOLING ITCWER SYSTEM IN 800-mw FOSSIL PLANT USING CNVENTICOMAL TURBINE

-84-

33

800-MWeFOSSIL PLANT TURBINE:HIGH BACK PRESSURE DES IGN DRY BU LB: 50 F

LEGEND: ---

I
REPLACEMENT REPLACEMENT CAPACITY $160/KW ENERGY = 30 MILLS/Kwu Y= O CAPITAL COST F REPLACEMENT CAPACI CURVE ENERGY PENAL'Y(MILLS/KWHR)

:_

31

Y,

A B C D E

90 60 30 15 7.5

ul 2 %..JO -

POWER GENERATION COST FOR REFERENCE PLANT WITH ALL-WET COOLING SYSTEM: 22.05 M ILLS/KWHR

0n

29
A

LI)

zU
p0 H

27

0
0~ D_

25

LLI wC 0 a-

23
FIGURE 6.2

I II 55 65 75 85 DESIGN I T D(
.. =r

95 105 115 F )

REJSULTS OF SENSITIVITY SUDY OF TIE EFFBCETS (F USING DIFFERET tHODS OF REPLACING LOST CAPACITY ON THE EXXNC4ICS (F DRY OLING tIUER SYSTEM IN 80044W FOSSIL PANT USING HIGH BACK PRESSURE TURBINE

-85-

1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT TURBINE: CONVENTIONAL F DESIGN DRY BULB: 50

I

LEGEND: I

34

CAPITAL COST OF REPLACEMENT CAPACITrY=$160/KW = REPLACEMENT ENERGY 30 MILLS/KWHR n -. ._ CAPITAL COST OF REPLA rCEMENT CAMACI T T /

0-

32
P P S

J J

30
0

O
28

.O F0
z

26

0 1L
ll

cr

24

20

30

I 40 50 60 70 DESIGN ITD ( F)
I I

-- I

_ Lj30-

FIGURE 6.3

RESUJLTS OF SESITIVITY STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF USING DIFFERENT METHODS OF REPLACING LOST CAPACITY ON THE ECa4JC4ICS OF DRY COOLIE'G TOWER SYSTEM4 IN 1200-MU NUCLEAR PLANT USING COTETIAAL TURB1PTE

-86-

1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT TURBINE: HI GH BACK PRESSURE DESIGN DRY BULB: 50 F

.

Lme

33
X 3:
-

V
;IKWHR

/KWHR)
-

J
-

31

-P

%00
UE

Pi S~

29
A

0 0
CL 0 lIr 0d 0:

27

25
0lL

55
FIGURE 6.4

65

85 95 75 DESI GN ITD(

105 F)

115

REJSULTS OF SENSITIVITY STUDY OF-THE -EFFECS OF USING DIFFEENT ,LTHODS OF REPLACIMG LOST CAPACITY ON THE EBNCMICS CF DRY COOLING T'JER SYSTEM IN 1200-MW NUCLEAR PLANT USING HIGH BACK PRESSURE TURBINE

-87-

TABLE 6.1

Optimum Dry Tower Design ITD Using Different Methods of Replacing Lost Capacity

Replacement Capacity

($/kW)

160

Replacement Energy
_

(mills/kW-hr)
_

30

90

60
.,~~~~

Fuel Fossil Fossil Nuclear Nuclear

,. .

Turbine Conventional High Back Pressure Conventional High Back Pressure

Optimum Design ITD (F) 30 62 34 65

_ _ __

40 63 40 65

44 67 43 70

TABLE 6.2

Optimum Power Generation Cost Using Different Methods of Replacing Lost Capacity

Replacement Capacity
1

($/kW) 0

160
w __

0
_

1
I
-

Replacement Energy 30 Fuel Fossil Fossil Nuclear Nuclear Turbine Conventional High Back Pressure Conventional High Back Pressure 90

(mills/kW-hr) 60 (mills/kW-hr) 24.85 24.36 26.00 26.37

Power Generation Cost 25.53 24.47 27.06 26.23 25.08 24.48 26.42 26.37

-88-

TABLE 6.3

800 MWe Dry-Cooled Fossil Plant Net Electrical Output vs. Ambient Temperature.

NET POWER OUTPUT Conventional Turbine ITD (F) 30 800.82 800.82 800.82 800.48 799.97 799.39 798.72 797.93 796.57 794.42 791.13 786.93 780.78 775.28 768.40 40 802.00 801.66 801.16 800.56 799.91 799.13 797.79 795.66 792.58 787.66 781.90 774.82 691.68 613.69 573.55 50 803.15 802.37 801.71 800.94 799.62 797.52 794.48 788.68 783.71 776.57 706.64

(MWe)

Ambient Temperature

High Back Pressure Turbine ITD (F) 55 800.18 800.18 800.18 800.18 800.18 800.08 799.68 798.83 797.79 796.25 794.02 790.90 785.85 780.77 777.68 65 800.49 800.49 800.49 800.39 799.99 799.33 798.11 796.51 794.35 790.81 786.07 779.38 768.79 760.86 756.66 75 801.91 801.82 801.42 800.77 799.74 798.23 795.86 792.31 787.56 780.84 770.17 760.06 748.95 698.74 678.90

(OF)
30

37
42 47 52 57 62

67 72 77 82
87 92 96 98

627.67
545.51 477.42 442.57

-89-

TABLE 6.4

1200 MWe Dry-Cooled Fossil Plant Net Electrical Output vs. Ambient Temperature.

NET POWER OUTPUT (MWe) Ambient Temperature (F) 30 37 42 47 52 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 96 98 Conventional Turbine ITD (F) 30 1200.13 1201.13 1201.13 1200.86 1200.07 1199.16 1198.13 1196.93 1193.37 1185.92 1174.35 1158.79 1144.39 1136.52 1106.12 40 1202.94 1202.68 1201.90 1201.00 1199.99 1198.81 1195.33 1188.03 1175.79 1160.87 1146.61 1138.22 983.61 860.94 798.76 50 1205,45 1204.25 1203.24 1202.09 1198.71 1191.53 1179.20 1164.64 1150.01 1141.92 1008.28 884.13 757.61 654.66 602.61 High Back Pressure Turbine ITD (F) 55 1200.40 1200.40 1200.40 1200.40 1200.40 1208.16 1204.22 1200.15 1196.75 1193.47 1189.93 1185.46 1178.88 1169.20 1163.09 65 1202.67 1202.67 1202.67 1202.67 1198.75 1195.12 1191.34 1188.07 1184.53 1180.04 1172.43 1160.33 1142.17 1128.68 1121.57 75 1210.06 1210.06 1206.14 1202.49 1198.71 1195.44 1191.93 1187.50 1179.91 1167.87 1149.55 1132.37 1113.63 1079.35 1044.85

-90-

CHAPTER 7: WET/DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM: MODEL, OPTIMIZATION AND RESULTS

7.1

Introduction

By examining the results in Chapters 5 and 6, we see that with the use of conventional turbines, the design of a small dry cooling tower system requires throttling of turbine steam flow during high ambient hours in order to avoid exceeding the maximum allowable exhaust pressure; it thereby reduces the plant capacity. An alternative to steam flow throttling is to augment the dry tower by a wet tower at high ambient temperatures. By doing so it is able to This concept is

maintain the generating capability of the power plant. generally known as wet/dry cooling.

The outstanding points of a wet/dry

cooling tower system are that it can be tailored for any combination of design ambient conditions and water availability. In this study only separate wet/dry cooling towers are considered. The major advantage of separate wet/dry towers over integrated wet/dry towers is reliability. In separate wet/dry cooling towers, the complete

physical separation of the dry tower from the wet tower protects the dry tower heat exchangers from the corrosion and solids-laden exhaust vapors of the wet tower [15]. This keeps the air-side heat transfer surface eliminates replacement of heat ex-

clean, prolorngs equipment life, aa changer bundles.

-91-

Furthermore, separate wet/dry towers allow complete freedom of design and operation of the dry and wet towers. There are no new hard-

ware requirements; all components of this cooling system are conventional.

7.2

Tower Arrangement and Operating Scheme In combining the separate dry and wet towers into a single operation

unit, a number of possible arrangements of the dry and wet towers are found in the literature [15,22,23,33]. An evaluation of all these Published results by

arrangements is beyond the scope of this study. United Engineers [10]

indicate that the series tower arrangement is

economically preferable to the parallel arrangement. In the present work, only the series arrangement is considered. The water flow circuit is shown in Fig. 7.1. The cooling water from

the condenser first enters the dry tower before it enters the wet tower. The wet tower is mechanical draft and is made up of a certain number of cells. In operating the wet/dry combination unit, as the ambient tempera-

ture falls, incremental numbers of wet tower cells are shut down to maintain a constant turbine exhaust pressure. This operating scheme is consiHowever, it requires infi-

dered to be most water conservative [10,15].

nite controls of air flow and water flow in the wet tower.

7.3

Wet Tower Model and Performance The dry tower characteristics have been discussed in Chapter 4 and

will not be repeated here.

In this section, the model and performance

-92-

Il
U

I I

DRY TOWER WET TOWER

CONDENSER
.

P-|

i|

FIGURE 7.1

WATER FLOW DIAGRAM FOR WET/DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM

DRY TOWER DESIGN POINT WET TOWER DESIGN POINT

U
m w z
F-

.w
OPERATING SCHEME:

Ln

AB
pq.

DRY ONLY
w I T UNT

ull Lli

cr a.

0 20 40 60 80 100 AMBIENT DRY BULB( F )

FIGURE 72 OPERATING SCHEME OF WET/DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM

-93-

of the wet tower are presented. In wet (evaporative) towers, the cooling water is allowed to come in direct contact with the ambient air. The primary means of heat trans-

fer is evaporation, which takes place when the enthalpy of air saturated with water vapor at the water film temperature is larger than that of ambient air. Thus, the cooling capacity of a wet tower is a function Since the enthalpy of the air is

of this difference in enthalpies.

determined primarily by its wet bulb temperature, the heat rejection rate is governed by the difference between the temperature of the hot water entering the tower and the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the tower. In this study of wet/dry cooling tower systems, the wet tower is taken to be a cross-flow mechanical draft tower using splash fill. cross-flow configuration rather than the counterflow arrangement was chosen because of the availability of a flexible thermodynamic program for the former and not due to economical advantage [21]. The purpose of the splash fill is to break the cooling water flow into droplets so as to increase the air-water interfacial area for heat transfer. The thermodynamic performance of a wet tower is determined by the solutions of the Merkel equations. Referring to Fig. 7.3, let us consider an elementary volume of the fill with water entering at a temperature ture t
o

The

and leaving at a tempera-

Since the water flow rate entering the wet tower is much

rPCTA7'1l

IVTT.T.

gTPRICTIJRE

-94-

7H
AIR FLOW lha h ti UNIT CELL UN IT CELL

H-

w' UNIT CELL H/Ax = N W/Ay = N ma t

i

Ti

H.

fma ' to
i

h0

A Ax

xhw

H0

FIGURE 7.3

ILLUSTRATION OF TOWER FILL FINITE DIFFERENCE CALCULATION

-95-

larger than the water lost, the rate of heat lost by the water can be given by QW where c = m WL Ax Ayc dt (7.1)

= specific heat of water;

dt = change in temperature. Also, air enters this elementary volume with an enthalpy with an enthalpy h
0

h.

and leaves

The rate of heat gained by the air is given by m _ Ax Az dh a HL

Qa where dh

,(7.2)

is the change in enthalpy.

The condition for thermodynamic equilibrium requires that

=w or

%a

Qa(*1

(7.3)

m AxAy w WL dt

m AxAz
a LH dh (7.4)

However, Eq. (7.4) alone is insufficient for predicting the cooling performance of a given tower configuration. Since the heat transfer rate is proportional to the air-water interfacial area and this area is a function of the efficiency of the fill in breaking up the water flow, we need an additional equation which gives the transfer area. Merkel showed that within a reasonable approximation, the driving force for heat transfer across the air-water interface is proportional to the difference between the average enthalpy of saturated air at the bulk wator temperature Ti and the average enthalpy of air at its bulk

-96-

conditions

That is,

Q
or = =

(h

- h)

KA(h' - h) Ka AxAyAz (h' - h) (7.5)

where

Q
K a A

= = = =

heat transfer rate (Btu/hr) proportionality constant (lb/hrft 2) heat transfer area per unit volume (ft 2ft /ft3) total heat transfer area (ft2 ) enthalpy of water within incremental fill volume (Btu/lb) enthalpy of air within the incremental fill volume (Btu/lb).

hr = h =

From the condition

Q a~~~~ = Q

we have

m AxAy w dt
WL

m AxAz a dh
LH

Ka AxAyAz (h' - h)

(7.6)

and we obtain the following equations:

m AxAy dt Ww . =
WL(h' - h) m AxAz dh a a LH(h' - h)

Ka AxAyAz

(7.7a)

Ka AxAyAz

(7.7b)

The equation relating the temperature of the water entering the fill

01

and the temperature of the water leaving the fill We get

02

can

be obtained by integrating Eq. (7.7a).

dt

Kay
mw

J hl-h
e=

(7.8)

-97-

Further, by integrating Eq. (7.7b), we obtain h2 dh KaV h

h
hi

(7.9) m a

Equations (7.8) and (7.9) are integral forms of the Merkel equations. Croley et a. [16] approximate these integrals by solving Eq. (7.6) Ax , Ay, and Az

for a number of elementary volumes of dimensions within the fill. For each volume, h' - h dt dh where H = = = =

H.+H) ( 1 0
= = T. - T
1

) h.+h
1

(7.10)
(7.11)

- h.
1

(7.12)

o
1

enthalpy of water leaving elementary fill volume (Btu/lb); enthalpy of water entering elementary fill volume (Btu/lb); enthalpy of air leaving elementary fill volume (Btu/lb); enthalpy of air entering elementary fill volume (Btu/lb).

H. h
0

h.
1

For computational purposes, we can assume that there are equal numbers of elementary volumes in the horizontal direction and in the vertical direction of the fill. That is,

Az Az
Ay or H
Az

'H -H W
W
Ay

(7.13)

(7.14)

-98-

Substituting these approximated equations into Eqs. (7.7a) and (7.7b), we get

Ka (H. + H
h -h
=,

-h.
0 2 1

- h)
0 (7.15)

1 m N

where

3 ) = HLW, and = the volume of tower fill (ft

m (h
a

- h.)
1

m (T. - T )
w 1 o

(7.16)

Referring to Figure 7.4, the air flow is from left to right and the water flow is from top to bottom across the fill; then we have

t.(j,K)
.1

t (j-1, K)
0

for

1 < j < m, for 1 < K < N

m = N
.

(7.17) (7.18)

Ti (j,K)

T (j, K-i)

With air entering the wet tower at a wet bulb temperature entering the tower at a hot water temperature are the entrance conditions for element (1,1).

T T

and water and 1

01 , then

Using Eqs. (7.15) and The air

(7.16) we can solve for the exit conditions for this element.

exit conditions from element (1,1) are the air entrance conditions for the adjacent element (2,1). The water exit conditions of element (1,1) Thus,

are the water entrance conditions for the adjacent element (1,2).

the exit conditions of each element can be calculated by the finite difference method. The temperature of the water leaving the tower is given by
m

02

m j=l

> 02(j,N)

(7.19)

-99-

-AY

-'

WARM WATER IN

TAz

(mn, 1)

AIR IN

OUT

(m,N)

COLD WATER OUT

FIGURE 7.4

SCHEMATIZATION OF ELEMENTARY VOLUMES WITHIN TOWER FILL

-100-

The temperature of the air leaving the tower is given by N T2 =

N ~
K=-

T2(m,K) .

(7.20)

Finally, we see that the heat rejection capability of a wet tower is a function of T 1 , 01, m w , m , and w a Ka only. That is,

Q =

f(TI, 01, m , m , Ka) w a

. m

(7.21) is constant. The value

For a given tower configuration, the water loading The air loading of Ka m a

for a mechanical draft tower is constant.

is determined from experimental values offered by Lowe and

Christie [25]. Therefore, for a given wet tower design, the performance of the wet tower is only dependent on the temperature of the hot water entering the tower and the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the tower.

7.4

Computation of Makeup Water Requirement Now we proceed to the computation of the water evaporation. Let

Tdb = dry bulb temperature of air entering the wet tower; Tb = wet bulb temperature of air entering the tower;

wb

Patm= atmospheric pressure; Ps = saturation pressure corresponding to Tb .

The absolute humidity of air entering the wet tower is given by w.

=

0.622P
P atm :1. P

(7.22)

-101-

where

= absolute humidity (lb/lb of dry air) and

0.000367 P

(T

1 +

wb)

(7.23)

Assuming the air leaving the wet tower is saturated, when the wet bulb temperature of air leaving the tower isknown, its corresponding saturation pressure can be read from the saturation curve of a psychromatic chart. given by 0.622P w -mP atm where w P
0 0

The absolute humidity of air leaving the wet tower is

P p o

(7.24)

= absolute humidity of air leaving wet tower (lb/lb of dry air); = saturation pressure of water corresponding to wet bulb temperature of air leaving wet tower (psia).

The water evaporation is then given by 7.481 E

(60(62) .(60) (62) (w o

w.) 1 ma

(7.25)

where m

E = rate of water evaporation (gpm), a = air loading (lb/hr).

The blowdown is computed from the evaporation using the following equation: B where B = blowdown (gpm); E = water evaporation (gpm) c = cycle of concentration of total dissolved solids in circulating water to total dissolved solids in makeup water.
=

E c-1

'

(7.26)

-102-

The makeup water quantity is the sum of evaporation and blowdown. is, W

That

E +B

(7.27),

where

is the makeup water quantity

(gpm).

Note that although the dry bulb temperature is not used in the prediction of the thermodynamic performance of a wet tower, it is employed in the computation of water evaporation.

7.5

Wet Tower Cost

In this study, the calculation of the capital cost of a mechanical draft wet tower employs the concept of a "Tower Unit" (TU). of Tower Units is given by TU
=

The number

RF x GPM

(7.28)

where

RF = rating factor; GPM = total water flow rate (gpm).

By definition, the rating factor defines the relative cooling efficiency and is a function of wet bulb temperature, cooling range, and approach [16]. For instance, a rating factor of 1.2 is considered to be 20% more

efficient than a rating factor of 1.0 and requires 20% more fill plan area. The capital cost per tower unit is estimated to be $10 based on Dickey and Cates.

-103-

7.6

Optimization Procedure The computer program for the optimization of wet/dry cooling tower

systems is modified from the program for the optimization of dry cooling tower systems. The wet tower uses pre-designed modules. The wet/dry

cooling systems are compared based on the annual makeup water quantity. The optimization procedures are as follows: (1) (2) Select a design ambient temperature. Select a sufficiently high design initial temperature difference (ITD). (3) Find the combination of the water range, water-to-air capacity ratio, frontal area, and width-to-length ratio of the dry cooling tower that gives the minimum power generation cost. Other compo-

nents designed at this point include the condenser, piping system, and pumping system. Plant scaling is performed here to meet the

specified net capacity. (4) Evaluate the heat rejection capability of the dry tower at the highest ambient temperature and design the wet tower to supplement the dry tower to reject the remaining heat load without throttling the turbine steam flow. maximum. (5) Evaluate the performance of the wet/dry cooling system over an annual cycle to determine the annual makeup water requirement, capacity penalty, and energy penalty. (6) Repeat procedures (2)-(5) with a new design ITD. The turbine back pressure is at a specified

-104-

(7)

Repeat procedures ()-(6)

with a new design ambient temperature.

(8) Compare the power production cost of wet/dry systems which require the same annual makeup water quantity and select the optimum. (9) Plot the optimum power production costs vs. annual makeup water quantity. The computer program listing of optimization of wet/dry cooling tower systems is given in Appendix VIII.

7.7

Results of Wet/Dry Cooling System Optimization Optimizations were performed for wet/dry cooling tower systems

using conventional turbines.

The results are plotted in Figs. 7.5 and

7.9 with power production cost vs. annual makeup water requirement. Here the annual makeup water requirement is defined as the percentage of the annual makeup required for all-wet cooling. Referring to Figs. 7.5 and 7.9, we see that the power production cost decreases monotonically as the annual makeup water quantity increases from 0 to 100%. Note that even with a very small amount of

maekup water requirement, the power production cost is significantly reduced. For either fossil or nuclear plant with a 30% makeup water

quantity, the incremental cost of all-dry cooling using conventional turbines over all-wet cooling can be reduced by over 30%. An examination of Figs. 7.6 and 7.10 shows that the major advantage of wet/dry cooling over all-dry cooling is the savings in the capital cost of the cooling system. For instance, the capital cost of the

-105-

wet/dry cooling system in the nuclear plant with a 30% makeup quantity is less than one half the capital cost of all-dry cooling. Tables 7.1 and 7.2 compare the design parameters of two different optimum design wet/dry cooling systems, for the fossil and nuclear plant, respectively. Comparisons of the capital cost breakdowns between the

all-dry cooling with conventional turbine, all-dry cooling with high back pressure turbine, and wet/dry cooling tower systems with 15% and 30% annual makeup water requirements are shown in Tables 7.3 and 7.4. Note that for either the fossil or nuclear plant, with a 30% annual makeup wet/dry cooling system the capital cost of the heat exchanger is about 25% of that for the all-dry cooling using conventional turbines and is about 50% of that for the all-dry cooling using high back pressure turbines. Figures 7.7 and 7.11 are plots of tower size vs. annual makeup water quantity. Tower size here means the fraction of the total heat For example, a 70% wet/

rejected at the highest ambient temperature.

30% dry tower size means that the wet tower rejects 70% of the heat load at the highest ambient; the remaining 30% is rejected by the dry tower. Note that in either of these two figures, the wet tower size

increases sharply from annual makeup water quantity of 0% to about 5%. This is due to the fact that within this range of makeup water the wet tower is only used for a limited number of hot hours, although the physical size of the wet tower is not very small. For example, a wet/dry

cooling system with 1% annual makeup water quantity needs a wet tower size of about 30%.

-106-

In addition to the annual makeup water requirement, there is another potential restriction on water consumption for cooling systems in power plants. This is the instantaneous water consumption rate [15]. For

example, if there is an instantaneous water consumption rate of so many gpm, then the wet tower size can be readily read from Fig. 7.8 for the fossil plant or Fig. 7.12 for the nuclear plant. These two figures are

graphical plots of instantaneous water consumption rate in gpm at the highest ambient temperature vs. wet tower size.

-107-

SOO-MWe FOSS I L PLANT 27

V)

0
z

(-

0
sof I

25-

U
tY D -

-J

-- ~~~~-

rr 7b

23I I I I
I

0 g. 21 O0

I
I ,

1
I

I I~~~~~~~~~~~~~I

20 40 60 80 100 ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANTITY ( / )

POWER PRODUCTION COST VERSUS ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANTITY FOR 800-MWe FOSSIL PLANT

FIGURE 7.5

-108-

800-MWe FOSSIL PLANT

1C
Ow
U >

8
6 0
40pl

<1:

ul

<-o (0
Q-z

4 2
V,

0 UU
u J Ld

-0

LL

20 40 60 80 100 0 ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANTITY ( / )

FIGURE 7.6

DIRECT CAPITAL COST OF COOLING SYSTEM VERSUS ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER UANTITY FOR 800-MWe FOSSIL LAST

-109-

800-MWe FOSSIL PLANT 100

0 0

%W.I
N

80 60

3
IILfL

40
H.

20 0

20 40 60 80 100 ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANTITY ( o/0)

WET TOWER SIZE VERSUS ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANTITY FOR 800-MWe FOSSIL PLANT

FIGURE 7.7

-110-

800-MWe FOSSIL PLANT

10 0
J

0
r-

8
6 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 WET TOWER SIZE ( 0/0)

LL

7w x
IL 1-

7.

aw

<2

w wi. mm
cr.

<z

FIGURE 7.8

INSTANTANEOUS MAKEUP WATER CONSUMPTION RATE AT MAXIMUM AMBIENT VERSUS WET TOWER SIZE FOR 800-MWe FOSSIL PLANT

-111-

1200-MWe

NUCLEAR PLANT

29
I-

z cr 0 I 27
IU uO D
-J

25 23 21 19 0 20 40 60 sO 100 ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANTITY (%/)

POWER PRODUCTION COST VERSUS ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANTITY FOR 1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT

0O

0 CL 1-

w 0 0 0 U LaJ

FIGURE 7.9

-112-

1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT

LL
H

200
o
vF

01 0 U Ia-

160

I-

w 120
, LI)

u* U I-

(9
z
Zj
mo

80
40 .0 0 20 40 60

_1

80 100

ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANT I TY ( /0 )

FIGURE 7.10 DIRECT CAPITAL COST OF COOLING SYSTEM VERSUS ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANTITY FOR 1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT

-113-

1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT

100
0

%O

80 60 40

N
w

3w20
Wo

0 0

20 40 60 so 100 ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANT ITY ( / )

WET TOWER SIZE VERSUS ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANTITY FOR 1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT

FIGURE 7.11

-114-

1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT

20

18
D

16

14 2
1-

12

2_
0

w LLU
H

10

0_J
LL

P3

8
6 4 2 0

Lu
m

z 2

I-

a.
D

2U

<~

0
FIGURE 7.12

60 80 100 WET TOWER SIZE ( % )

INSTANTANEOUS MAKEUP WATER CONSUMPTION RATE AT MAXIMUM AMBIENT VERSUS WET TOWER SIZEF FOR 1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT

20

40

-115-

TABLE 7.1

Comparison of Two Different Optimum Design Wet/Dry Cooling Tower Systems for 800 MWe Fossil Plant

Makeup Water Requirement Design Parameters Dry Tower: Design Dry Bulb (F) Design ITD (F) Design TTD (F) Range (F) Air Flow Rate (lb/hr) 50 78.7 5 25.2 0.45 x l09 0.15 X 109 0.435 15.14 X 104 4 30 98.7 5 31.5
0.49X 10 9

15%

30%

Water Flow Rate (lb/hr) Heat Exchanger Effectiveness Heat Exchanger Frontal Area (ft2 ) Number of H.X. Tubes Deep Wet Tower: Design Dry Bulb (F) Design Wet Bulb (F) Design Approach (F) Water Flow Rate (lb/hr) Number of Cells Heat Load Split at Highest Ambient (Wet/Dry) Pumping Power (MWe) Dry Tower Fan Power (MWe) Wet Tower Fan Power (MWe)

0.12 X 109 0.319 19.80 X 104 2

98 84 3.9 0.74 X 108 10 61%/39% 5.69 4.51 0. 72

98 84 3.9 0.83 X 108 11 69%/31% 5.83 2.00 0.81

-116-

TABLE 7.2

Comparison of Two Different Optimum Design Wet/Dry Cooling Tower Systems for 1200 MWe Nuclear Plant

Makeup Water Requirement Design Parameters Dry Tower: Design Dry Bulb (F) Design ITD Design TTD Range (F) (lb/hr) (lb/hr) (F) (F) 50 78.7 30 98.7 5 31.7 0.83 x 109 0.26 x 109 0.424 25.32x 104 4 15% 30%

5
31.1 0.81 X 109 0.27 109

Air Flow Rate

Water Flow Rate

Heat Exchanger Effectiveness Heat Exchanger Frontal Area (ft 2 ) Number of H.X. Tubes Deep Wet Tower: Design Dry Bulb (F) Design Wet Bulb (F) Design Approach (F) Water Flow Rate (lb/hr) Number of Cells Heat Load Split at Highest Ambient (Wet/Dry) Pumping Power (MWe)

0.553 21.58 X 104 8

98 84 3.8 1.79X 10 25 61%/39% 11.62 20.60

98 84 3.9 1.86x 108 26 69%/31% 13.01 8.69

Dry Tower Fan Power (MWe) Wet Tower Fan Power (MWe)

1. 75

1. 81

-117-

TABLE 7.3

Comparison of Capital Cost Breakdowns of Dry and Wet/ Dry Cooling Tower Systems for 1200 MWe Nuclear Plant

Costs in millions of dollars COSTS, ALL-DRY High Back Pressure Turbine COSTS, WET/DRY Makeup Water Requirement 15% 30%

Item Pumping Piping Condenser Dry Tower: Heat Exchanger Tower Structure and Foundation Fan System and Electrical Equipment Louver Wet Tower Total Direct Capital Cost

Conventional Turbine

6.52 29.46 15.08

3.55 16.40 9.93

6.72 14.31 8.94

5.63 17.05 8.77

71.79 9.43 29.55 5.83

0

37.60 4.24 14.45 3.02

0

32.59 2.85
10.72

19.70 3.80
9.16

2.00 6.11 84.92

2.35 6.33 73.49

169.70

90.49

-118-

TABLE 7.3

Comparison of Capital Cost Breakdowns of Dry and Wet/ Dry Cooling Tower Systems for 800 MWe Fossil Plant

Costs are in millions of dollars

COSTS, ALL-DRY

COSTS, WET/DRY Makeup Water Requirement 15% 4.81 9.78 4.60 30% 4.84 9.60 4.09

Item Pumping Piping Condenser Dry Tower: Heat Exchanger Tower Structure and Foundation Fan System and Electrical Equipment Louver Wet Tower Total Direct Capital Cost

Conventional Turbine 3.68 12.68 6.92

High Back Pressure Turbine 2.42 6.26 4.59

33.96 4.26

16.66 1.78

12.02 1.82

8.70 2.60

12.37

6.43

4.53

4.54

2.75 0 77.56

1.34 0 40.07

1.40 2.50 41.84

1.84 2.81 36.92

-119-

CHAPTER 8: COMPARISON OF ECONOMICS OF DRY AND WET/DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEMS WITH ONCE-THROUGH, COOLING POND, AND EVAPORATIVE TOWER

8.1

Economic Comparison of Base Case Study

The results of economic optimization of dry and wet/dry cooling tower systems in power plants have been presented in Chapters 5 and 7, respectively. In this chapter these results are compared with those Comparisons

of once-through, cooling pond, and evaporative tower.

are shown in Tables 8.1 and 8.2 for optimum design cooling systems obtained by using the base case economic parameters shown in Table 2.1. The results of once-through, cooling pond, and evaporative tower are those in Ref. 21. The comparison indicates that once-through is the

cheapest cooling system, followed by cooling pond, evaporative tower, wet/dry tower, and dry tower.

8.2

Economic Comparison of Sensitivity Study

The previous section compares the economics of optimum design cooling systems based on the base case economic parameters. economic parameters change, the results will also change. However, if the Therefore, a

comprehensive sensitivity study was performed to determine the effects of the uncertainty in the economic parameters on the power production cost. Tables 8.3 and 8.4 compare the economics of optimum design once-

-120-

through, cooling pond, evaporative tower, wet/dry cooling, and dry cooling tower systems based on sensitivity parameters. The comparisons indi-

cate that the sensitivity parameters have significant effects on the evaluation of these cooling systems. Figures 8.1 through 8.11 graphic-

ally illustrate the results of the sensitivity study on dry and wet/dry cooling tower systems for the 1200 MWe nuclear plant. Tables 8.5 and 8.6 summarize the effects of the economic sensitivity parameters on the incremental cost (%) of all-dry and wet/dry cooling over all-wet cooling. In these two tables, we see that the

most important economic parameter is cooling system cost multiplier, followed by plant cost and fuel cost. A higher cooling system cost On the other hand, the

multiplier raises the incremental cost (%).

incremental cost (%) is reduced when the plant cost or fuel cost increases. Replacement capacity, replacement energy, and fixed charge A change in one of these

rate are far less important parameters.

three parameters in the range of values used in the sensitivity study does not significantly change the incremental cost (%). The base case water cost for the wet/dry cooling system is $0.20/ 1000 gal. A sensitivity test for water cost is shown in Fig. 8.11.

Referring to this figure, we see that as the water cost increases, the incremental power production cost of all-dry cooling or wet/dry cooling over all-wet cooling decreases. makeup wet/dry is thirty The breakeven water cost between a 30%

ccling system and all-wet cooling is $6/1000 gal, which times the base water cost of today.

-121-

40

CURVE A

POWER PLANT CONSTRUCTION(

#% ,

I KW )

36
U3) .1

-.

32
J 0L) U
z

u')

0
H

28
B

iD

cr 24
(I
C w'

0
w13_
_

nr%
f . I

55

FIGURE 8.1

RESULTS DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM IN 1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT USING HIGH BACK PRESSURE TURBINE

65 75 85 95 105 115 DESIGN ITD ( F) OF SENSITIVITY STUDY OF POWER PLANT COST FOR

-122Ct URVE
.

FUEL COST(
. .

DOLLARI MMBTU)

34

32
.. -J IJ

30
J Z

-J C~ 28 0 _U 0
LI

-0z

26

w
0

24
FIGURE 8.2

I
-

55

RESULTS COOLING TOWER SYSTEM IN 1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT USING HIGH BACK PRESSURE TURBINE

65 75 85 95 05 DESIGN ITD( F ) OF SENSITIVITY STUDY OF FUEL COST FOR DRY

-12 3-

ry

I-

CURVE

COOLING SYSTEM

CAPITAL COST

.s, 31.0
U)
-J

_-i

30.0

--

0ul 29.0

U z 028.0

() :D
0

I-H

To:
,I

27.0

m26.0
25.0-

25.0

55
FIGURE 8.3

65 75 85 DESIGN ITD (

95 105 F )

RESULTS OF SENSITIVITY STUDY OF COOLING SYSTEM COST MULTIPLIER FOR DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM IN 1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT USING HIGH BACK PRESSURE TURBINE

-124-

31

'i~~~~-

,,-

---

C URVE

REPLACEMENT

CAPACITy COST(*/I KW
I1 ....

,m

240
160

30
o 0 U
z

120

29
I (I
A

0 U 0
0 Li O D

28 27 26 25
I

-J

I::

a-

55

65 75 85 DESIGN ITD (

95 F )

105

FIGURE

8.4

RESULTS OF SENSITIVITY STUDY OF REPLACEMENT CAPACITY COST FOR DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM IN 1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT USING HIGH BACK PRESSURE TURBINE

-12 5#1-1% - -

--%, A%,

31
-J _J
-j

30
te H
LI)

0 u
z

29 28
27

0
F-

0 az
atL

w 0

26 55
FIGURE 8.5

65 75 85 95 105 F ) DESIGN ITD (

115

RESULTS OF SENSITIVITY STUDY OF REPLACEMENT ENERGY COST FOR DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM IN 1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT USING HIGH BACK PRESSURE TURBINE

-126-

CURNE A

"I) FIXED CHARGE RATE( 20 17 15

33

31
_J :[~
e

--

29

U 2
.V)

27

0
0LLI
Uo

25

C- .J.

55

65 75 85 95 DESIGN ITD(F)

105

115

FIGURE 8.6

RESULTS OF SENSITIVITY STUDY OF FIXED CHARGE RATE FOR DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM IN 1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT USING HIGH BACK PRESSURE TURBINE

-127-

1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT 37

I
-j _J
m:

_J 33

29
Ul

0 U 0
z

25

I,H

U
0

0 ;D
0o
CL a:

21

C.

17
FIGURE 8.7

100 0 20 40 0 ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER ) QUANTITY ( PLANT

RESULTS OF SENSITIVITY STUDY OF POWER FOR WET/DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM

COST

-128-

1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT 35

31

V) 0

U aI27 z 0
Z'

u0) Ln J

a
o w

723

2:

19

0 20 40 60 80 100 ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANTITY ( )

FIGURE 8.8 RESULTS OF SENSITIVITY STUDY OF FUEL COST FOR WET/DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM

-129-

1200-MWe 33 31 29
V 0

NUC LEAR PLANT

z '27 I 0 ,Uo Y25

0
-j

23

gw

CL

21 19

2:

80 100 60 20 40 ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANTITY ( /0 )

RESULTS OF SENSITIVITY STUDY OF COOLING SYSTEM COST MULTIPLIER FOR WET/DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM

FIGURE 8.9

-130-

1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT

34

I--

30

0
0

.rC
I

26
*-

To
H LO C! .-

0:

22

Ld

0 a-

Q.

18

100 20 40 60 80 ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANTITY ( 0/ )

ESL CF SENSITIVITY SUDY C V&LT/DRY COOLING ER SYST-II

FIGUJRE 8.10

FED QO

RATE FOR

-131-

1200-MWe NUCLEAR PLANT

33 0 0
I 27
.2
z ()

31 29

0 wo
Ill

a.\ %f.

25 23 21
19

0i

20 40 60 80 100 ANNUAL MAKEUP WATER QUANTITY (0%/)

F SENSITIVITY S'DY NGER SYSrEM F WATER CXdST F I.ET/Af

FIGUE 8.11

R.SULTS COOLI

-132-

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(', , -4 0% Co cq 0'
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a')

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a -I 4

a)

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r.
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-133-

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-134-

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co
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r- .C~lN ON1( (lq N N

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00)

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a):: r..-

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U) 0 U
a)

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LL4

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-135-

TABLE 8.5

Comparison of Incremental Costs (%) of Dry and Wet/Dry Cooling Over All-Wet Cooling for 800 MWe Fossil Plant

Mechanical Draft Dry, High Back Pressure Turbine Base Case Study Sensitivity Study Plant Cost ($/kW) 750 375 Fuel Cost 1.8 0.675 Cooling System Cost (Multiplier) 1.5 0.75 Replacement Capacity ($/kW) 240 120 Replacement Energy (mills/kW-hr) 60 22.5 Fixed Charge Rate 20 15 (%) 11.1 10.9 11.5 11.0 11.4 10.8 14.2 9.3 ($/kW) 10.5 11.9 9.5 12.3 11.0

Wet/Dry Makeup Water 15% 8.7 30% 7.9

7.8 9.5

7.2 8.7

7.6 9.8

6.1 9.4

12.2 6.9

11.0 6.4

8.6 8.8

7.9 8.1

8.7 8.8

8.1 8.1

9.0 8.5

7.5 7.9

-136-

TABLE 8.6

Comparison of Incremental Costs (%) of Dry and Wet/Dry Cooling Over All-Wet Cooling for 1200 MWe Nuclear Plant Wet/Dry Makeup Water 15% 15.1 30% 13.4

Mechanical Draft Dry, High Back Pressure Turbine Base Case Study Sensitivity Study Plant Cost 900 ($/kW) 21.7

450
Fuel Cost 0.94 0.3525 Cooling System Cost 1.5 0.75 Replacement Capacity ($/kW) 240 120 Replacement Energy (mills/kW-hr) 60 22.5 Fixed Charge Rate (%) 20 15 (Multiplier) ($/MMBtu)

19.3 24.1

13.5

11.9

16.6

14.7

19.4 22.0

13.1 15.7

11.7 13.9

26.5 19.2

19.8

17.4

12.7

11.4

22.1 21.7

14.8 15.3

13.2 13.5

22.7 21.6

15.0 15.2

13.4 13.5

21.6 21.4

15.3 15.0

13.4 13.4

-137-

CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

9.1

Conclusions

In our base case study, the optimum power production cost for a 800 MWe fossil plant with a dry cooling tower system and high back pressure turbine is 24.47 mills/kW-hr. once-through, The incremental costs over

cooling pond, and evaporative tower are 2.85, 2.64, and respectively. With the use of conventional turbines,

2.42 mills/kW-hr,

the optimum power production cost is 1.06 mills/kW-hr higher than high back pressure turbines. A 1200 MWe nuclear plant with the use of high back pressure turbines and dry cooling tower system has an optimum power production cost of 26.23 mills/kW-hr. The incremental costs over once-through, cooling

pond, and evaporative tower are 5.30, 4.99, and 4.67 mills/kW-hr, respectively. With the use of conventional turbines, the optimum power pro-

duction cost is 0.83 mills/kW-hr higher than high back pressure turbines. Our sensitivity study on replacing lost capacity by purchased power indicates that the economic optimization of a power plant with dry cooling tower is very much sensitive capacity. to the method of making up the lost

It is important to do an accurate representation of possible

methods of replacing capacity lost at high ambient temperatures when optimizing a dry cooling tower system in power plant for a particular utility.

-138-

The results of economic optimization of wet/dry cooling tower systems show that wet/dry cooling has significant savings over all-dry cooling. For example, the heat exchanger cost of a 30% water makeup

wet/dry system is only about one-half that of an all-dry cooling system using high back pressure turbines. On the other hand, the advan-

tage of wet/dry cooling over all-wet cooling is the reduction of water consumption. When water is insufficient for all-wet cooling, wet/dry Moreover, a wet/dry

cooling is more economical than all-dry cooling.

cooling tower system can be tailored to meet any specific amount of water consumption.

9.2

Comparison to Previous Work and Other Published Studies As mentioned in previous chapters, the dry cooling tower optimiza-

tion program in this study is an updated version of the model developed by Andeen et

al. [1,2,3].

In addition, the wet/dry optimization program

is modified from the present model of dry cooling tower system optimization. To justify the improvements which have been made in the present

model, the results of this optimization study are compared to the previous model and to other published studies.

9.2.1

Comparison to Previous Model did not have realistic physical

The previous model of Andeen et a. models and cost models. system.

There was no condenser considered in the cooling

Piping was assumed to be a fixed diameter pipe the number of

-139-

which was determined by specifying the pressure drop in piping to be less than a fixed multiple of the pressure drop across the heat exchanger. No design was considered for the tower distribution piping and header piping. The cost data were out of date. Also, the program was only

limited to turbine full-load operation and it was unable to examine the economics of operating the dry-cooled power plant at part-load conditions, for example, a winter peak system. been corrected in the present model. All these minuses have

Instead of just optimizing the

heat exchanger, the present model optimizes a total cooling system in conjunction with the power plant. A comparison of the results of this study and the previous work indicates significant differences in the design parameters. In the

previous work, the optimum water range is less than ten percent of the design ITD and the heat capacity ratio is larger than three. In the

present work, the water range is about forty percent of the design ITD and the heat capacity ratio is about one (in pre-designed heat exchanger modules offered by vendors the capacity ratio is estimated to be somewhat less than one). The differences are due to the fact that the pre-

vious model did not have a complete cooling system and it allowed a much higher water flow rate because some hydraulic pressure losses in condenser, piping, etc., were neglected. Other major differences between the previous work and this study are the heat exchanger dimensions. The previous work only considered

single-pass heat exchangers which always require a more expensive piping

-140-

system than a double-pass heat exchanger.

However, no tower distribu-

tion piping and manifolding, etc., were considered in the previous work so that this economic disadvantage was not realized. In the previous

study, the heat exchanger tube length is on the order of twenty feet, which seems to be practically too short. In this study, depending on

the turbine type and the method of replacing lost capacity, the optimum tube lengths are in the range of 50 to 80 feet, which are the typical lengths of vendor-offered heat exchanger modules.

9.2.2

Comparison to Other Published Studies

There has been a number of studies on dry cooling towers in this decade. Most of these studies have different years of pricing and difIn some cases, the cost data are now out of

ferent power plant sites. date.

The results of this study are compared to two recently published They are United Engineers [10] and Battelle Northwest [36].

studies.

The former uses a fixed steam source-fixed demand approach and predesigned dry tower modules. The latter employs a scalable plant-fixed Unfortunately, an

demand approach and optimizes the heat exchangers.

examination of Battelle's published results indicates their results for the nuclear plants are doubtful. For instance, with the same plant size,

both fossil and nuclear plants have the same heat rejection rate which gave them the same cooling system cost. nuclear plants have a poorer efficiency. This is impossible because

-141-

TABLE 9.1

Comparison of Results to Previous Studies in Dry Cooling System Using High Back Pressure Turbines

United Engineers (Middletown)

Battelle Northwest (Wyodak)

This Study

Year of Pricing Fuel Type Incremental Cost Over Base Plant (mills/kW-hr)

January 1985 Fossil Nuclear 7.74

January 1976 Fossil 2.60 Nuclear 3.43

July 1977 Fossil 2.87 Nuclear 4.83

tResults doubtful

TABLE 9.2

Comparison of Results to Previous Studies in Dry Cooling System Using Conventional Turbines

United Engineers (Middletown)

Battelle Northwest (Wyodak)

This Study

Year of Pricing Fuel Type Incremental Cost Over Base Plant (mills/kW-hr)

January 1985 Fossil -Nuclear 8.48

January 1976 Fossil 3.98 Nuclear 4.01t

July 1977 Fossil 3.93 Nuclear 5.66

tResults doubtful

-142-

Further, both of these published studies only investigate the fullload power plant operation. Neither of them examined the sensitivity Depending on the situa-

to different methods of replacing lost capacity.

tion of a utility, lost capacity may be made up by purchased energy as discussed in Chapter 6. In our present work, considerable effort has

been placed on the examination of the effects of using different methods of making up summer-time lost capacity on the economic optimization of dry cooling tower systems in power plants. The results of this optimization study using the base case economic parameters are compared to these two published studies in Tables 9.1 and 9.2. Since the years of pricing are different, to facilitate the com-

parisons we can assume an inflation rate of 7% ayear and bring United Engineers' cost to the year of pricing for this study by dividing their costs in these two tables by 1.6. Similarly, to bring Battelle's costs

to the year of pricing of this study, we can multiply their costs by 1.1. With these estimations, except the doubtful results in Battelle's study on nuclear plants, it appears that the results of this study and those of the two published studies are in reasonable agreement. Also, an examinationof the results in this study indicates that the cooling system cost (mills/kW-hr) for a nuclear plant is about 50% higher than that for a fossil plant. Therefore, our results for the

nuclear plant are more acceptable than Battelle's published results. The major advantage of the optimization program in this study over other studies that use pre-designed dry tower modules is to allow the optimization of other new heat transfer surfaces rather than metal-

-143-

finned-tube heat exchangers.

For example, after modification, our pre-

sent program can accommodate the optimizations of the Periodic Cooling Tower and the new wet/dry plate at MIT.

9.3

Recommendations In this study, only dry towers using metal-finned-tube heat exchangers

have been considered.

Future work could possibly include an evaluation

of other heat transfer surfaces, for example, the Periodic Cooling Tower (PCT). A more effective and/or cheaper heat transfer surface could furThe present com-

ther reduce the cost of wet/dry cooling tower systems.

puter program should be modified to accommodate natural draft towers. Future work should consider other arrangements of wet and dry towers in wet/dry cooling tower systems. here for future study: Two tower arrangements are recommended

(a) two separate water circuits with a dual-

service surface condenser; and (b) parallel water flow circuit with a single condenser and a single waterbox. Finally, it will be interesting to see whether there is any economic advantage to using high back pressure turbines in wet/dry cooling tower systems.

-144-

REFERENCES

1.

Andeen, B.R. and L.R. Glicksman, "Dry cooling towers for cooling plants," DSR 73047-1, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass., Feb. 1972. Andeen, B.R., L.R. Glicksman, and W.M. Rohsenow, "Improvements of the environmental and economic characteristics of cooling towers, Part I: Optimized design program, fluidized bed, and non-metallic heat exchangers," MIT, Cambridge, Mass., June 1973. Andeen, B.R. and L.R. Glicksman, "Computer optimization of dry cooling tower heat exchanger," ASME Annual Mtg., 1973. Fryer, B.C., "A review and assessment of engineering economic studies of dry cooled electrical generating plants," BNWL-1976, Battelle, Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Richland, Wash., March 1976. Rossie, J.P., R.D. Mitchell, and R.O. Young, "Economics of the use of surface condensers with dry cooling systems for fossilfueled and nuclear generating plants' R.W. Beck and Assoc., Denver, Colo., Dec. 1973. Knudson, J.G. and D.L. Katz, Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, University of Michigan Press, 1953. Standards for Steam Surface Condensers, 6th ed., Heat Exchange Institute, 1970. Geiringer, P.L., High Temperature Water Heating, Its Theory and Practice for District and Space Heating Applications, New York: Wiley, 1963. Kays, W.K. and A.L. London, Compact Heat Exchangers, McGraw-Hill, 1964. "Engineering and economic evaluation of wet/dry cooling towers for water conservation," United Engineers and Constructors, Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 1976. Smith, E.C. and M.W. Larinoff, "Power plant siting, performance, and economics with dry cooling tower systems," American Power Conference, April 1970. Ard, P.A., et at., "Costs and cost algorithms for dry cooling tower systems," BNWL-2123, Battelle, Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Richland, Wash., Sept. 1976.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

-145-

13.

Marketing Information Letter No. 1017, Steam Turbine-Generator Marketing Dept., General Electric Co., Schenectady, N.Y., Feb. 1973. Rohsenow, W.M. and H.Y. Choi, Heat, Mass and Momentum Transfer, Prentice-Hall, 1964. Larinoff, M.W. and L.L. Foster, "Dry and wet-peaking tower cooling systems for power plant applications," J. Engrg. Power, Trans. ASME, 98(3), July 1976. Croley, T.E. et al., "The water and total optimization of wet and dry-wet cooling towers for electric power stations," Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research Rpt. 163, Jan. 1975. Surface, M.O., "System designs for dry cooling towers," Power Engrg. Sept. 1977, pp. 42-45. "Heat rates for fossil reheat cycle using General Electric steam turbine-generators 150,000 kW and larger," Steam Turbine-Generator Products Div., General Electric Co., Schenectady, N.Y., Feb. 1974. "Thermodynamic data for turbine-generator units matched to standard BWR/6 nuclear steam supply data," Marketing Information Letter, General Electric Co., Schenectady, N.Y., May 1973. Sebald, J.F., "Report on economics of LWR and HTGR nuclear power plants with evaporative and dry cooling systems sited in the United States," GAI Rpt. No. 1869, Gilbert Assoc., Inc., Reading, Pa., June 1975. "Waste heat management in the electric power industry: Energy conservation and station operation under environmental constraints," Interim Report, Energy Laboratory, MIT, Jan. 1978. Von Cleve, H.H., "Comparison of different combinations of wet and dry cooling towers," ASME Paper 75-WA/Pwr-10. Li, K.W., "Analytical studies of dry/wet cooling systems for power plants," Dry and Wet/Dry Cooling Towers for Power Plants, ASME, 1973. "Heat sink design and cost study for fossil and nuclear power plants," WASH-1360, United Engineers and Constructors Inc., Philadelphia, Pa., Dec. 1974. Lowe, H.J. nad Christie, "Heat transfer and pressure drop data on cooling tower packing, and model studies of the resistance of natural draft towers to airflow," Int'l Heat Transf. Conf., Denver, Colo. 1962, pp. 933-950.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

-146-

26.

Miliaras, E.S., Power Plants with Air-Cooled Condensing System, MIT Press, 1974. Rossie, J.P., "Research on dry-type cooling towers for thermal electric generation," Water Pollution Control Research Series, Environmental Protection Agency, 16130 EES 11/70. Larinoff, M.W. "Performance and capital costs of wet/dry cooling towers in power plant service," Waste Heat Management and Utilization Conference, Miami, May 9-11, 1977. Rossie, J.P., "Cost comparison of dry-type and conventional cooling systems for representative nuclear generating plants," TID 26007, March 1972. Electrical World, October 1, 1976, pp. 92-93. Electrical World, January 15, 1978, pp. 72-73. Electrical World, February 1, 1978, pp. 64-65. Smith, E.C. and M.W. Larinoff, "Alternative arrangement and designs for wet/dry cooling towers," Power Engrg., May 1976, pp. 58-61. Andeen, B.R., personal communication, March 1977. Krieth, F., Principles of Heat Transfer, 2nd ed., Intext Educational Publ., New York, 1973. Fryer, B.C. et al., "An engineering and cost comparison of three different all-dry cooling systems," BNWL-2121, Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Richland, Wash., 1976. Electrical World, July 15, 1975, pp. 25-27.

27.

28.

29.

30. 31. 32. 33.

34. 35.

36.

37.

-147-

APPENDIX I: EQUATIONS FOR HYDRAULIC PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION

The calculations of pressure drops in the condenser, piping, and dry tower heat exchanger use the equations of Knudson and Katz [6]:

Laminar flow:

f =

16 Re

for

Re < 2000

1
Fully turbulent flow: = 4 log

(d

dw/e
e
+ 2.28

~2e/

for

Re$

<

0.0 1

Transition region:

log

()

+ 3.48

4 log (1 + 2e+

where

= hydraulic diameter (inch);

e = roughness (inch) = 0.0018 for carbon steel

= 0.00006 for admiralty;

f = friction factor. The hydraulic pressure drop AP or where AP/L = = AP is given by

2fV2L

gD 0.7459* f* V 2 /D

V = water velocity (ft/sec); D = pipe diameter (inch); AP .. L

= hydraulic pressure drop

(ft H2 0 per ft of pipe).

-148-

APPENDIX II: COOLING SYSTEM COST DATA

The pumping system cost was estimated from Sebald

[20].

The cost

data for condenser, piping, heat exchanger, fan system, louver, tower structure, and foundation were taken from Ref. 12 and an escalation factor of 1.10was used to bring the cost up to date. Indirect cost

was assumed to be 20% of the cooling system direct capital cost.

II.A

Steam Condenser

(i)

Condenser Tube.

Tube cost ($/ft)

is given by

C
where C

(C

TM

*W

*C T ) *F*M T

TM

= tube material cost = $1.3/lb for admiralty; 2f7T(OD-t )t

WT = weight per foot of tube = T

~~~~~w w

= 0.5096 lb/ft

for 1 inch OD admiralty tube with No. 18 BWG; C' T = tubing added unit cost = 0 for admiralty;

F = tube length factor = 1.0 for tube length < 50 ft = 1.07 for 50 ft< tube length< 60 ft = 1.08 for tube length > 60 ft; M = tubing procuring, shipping, and handling cost factor = 1.10.

(ii)

Condenser Shell.

The cost algorithms for single pressure

condenser shells are:

CSH

[CBS *

(FSL + FCS)

+ CAX]

* NSH

-149-

where

SH

= number of condenser shells;

CBS = basic condenser shell costs. Basic condenser shell costs are a function of the number of tubes:

CBS where

ABS BS

NCT

BS

NCT = number of condenser tubes per shell;

CT

ABS = 10.836 for 1 inch outer diameter;

BS BS =
102181 for 1 inch outer diameter.

Shell length correction factor is given by

FSL SL =

(FTL L +F SM M+ Fs Cs

ADc C ) * L T +0.58

where

FTL = tube length correction factor = 0.0153; F = shell and tube factor = 0.00042

SM

FCS = condensate storage depth factor = 0.000035/inch; DCS

AD C
F

depth of condensate storage > 9".

CS

is the factor which covers variations in the tube sheets, water

boxes, water box pressure, and shell and water box surface preparations.

FCS

(ACS *

n NCT - BCS)

* FD

For admiralty tubes, Muntz tube sheets, and steel water boxes,

AC B

Cs
CS

= 0.0366 = 0.150

= factor for condenser tube diameter = 1.0 for 1 inch tube O.D.;

CAX= cost of condenser auxiliary equipment per shell = 0.30* condenser tube outside surface area per shell.

tube outside surface area per shell.

-150-

(iii)

Condenser Erection Cost.

Erection costs are given by:

ER

* condenser tube outside surface area per shell * NSH = C' ER SH

where

ER

= unit erection cost = $2.5/ft2;

NSH = number of shells.

With the manufacturer's multiplier of 0.88 and a shipping cost factor of 14% on the condenser shell costs and a general contractor's profit of 10%, the total installed condenser cost is

CCOND

= (CSH

0.88* 1.14 + CT + CR) * 1.10

II.B

Air Moving Equipment

(i)

Fan Costs.

Cost algorithm for fan costs is:

C FAN
where DFA N = fan diameter;

(D FAN

C + C') * N + C B B B FAN

FN
NB = number of blades in fan; CB = unit cost of blade = 25.2 for fan diameter of 28 ft;

C'? = blade cost constant = -105;

B

* FAN

C'

=hub and seal costs = 472.

(ii)

Fan Equipment Costs.

Fan equipment costs depend on horse-

power requirements. CE

The cost algorithm is:

(CsR+ FM + HP FM SR CFM) + CE

HPFM FM

-151-

where

CSR = speed reducer costs ($/hp) CFM = fan motor costs ($/hp)

$55/hp for spiral bevel gear;

$26.6/hp for 25< HP < 250 $24.3/hp for HP> 250;

CE ' = fan equipment constant = $1000 for

25< HP < 250 HP> 250 .

= $9000 for

(iii)

Plenum for Vertical Heat Exchanger.

The cost algorithm

for the plenum is:

CFR

FR

Cy 1**2 C' *W *D 1 08 FR FR FAN'

1. 10* 1.10* 1.10* 1.10

where

CFR = fan entry ring cost

($/fan);

C' = unit cost of entry ring including coating and fabrication; FR W. = unit weight of entry ring (lb/ft2); FR 1.10 = factor for manufacturer's overhead and profit and general

contractor's overhead and profit.

(iv)

Fan Recovery Stacks.

The cost algorithm is: 2 * 225* 110* 110, FAN

CVRS

VRS

*W

VRS

*D

where

CR

= fan velocity recovery cost; ($/lb)

C = unit cost of velocity recovery stack material CVRS $0.55/lb for galvanized steel; WVRs = unit weight of velocity recovery stack galvanized steel; I.l( -t),il .h't

$0.46/ft

for

r I()r Intllkll.IlAtl, ,r'li lr(JFit

,il

()vorlltd;(~.

-152-

Total fan system installed cost =

(C

FAN

+C

+C

FR

+C

VRS

1.10* 1.10

where 1.10 = factor for general contractor's profit and overhead.

II.C.

Piping System

A design pressure of 125 psig was assumed. material is carbon steel. Pipe wall thickness t

Piping and fittings is given by

tw
tw where

25~DP

2,S + 2 *P

+ 0.10)

P = design pressure = 125; D = pipe outside diameter; y = material coefficient = 0.4;

0.10 = corrosion allowance; 8/7 = manufacturer's tolerance allowance; S = allowable stress = 12000 psi.

The values of pipe wall thickness for pipe diameters from 12 to 144 in. with increments of 6 in. are given in Table II-1.

Pipe Installed Cost ($/ft) = (C *t +0.084 P w where C = unit weld cost = 20.17t - 2.33 w w = 34.79t -10.42 w for t

DC

+0p) * 1.10 P

< 0.5625" for tw > 0.5625";

Cp = basic material and shipping factor; Op other installation costs;

D = diameter (inches); 1.10 = cost factor. The values of C., C,

and

are shown in Table II-1.

-153-

The direct installed pipe cost ($/ft) vs. pipe diameter is shown in Fig. II-1 for both pipes installed above ground and below ground. Pipe Fitting Installed Cost ($/ea.) = (t *C where C 0
and x

+F

* D*C

+0 x ) * 1.10

x x

= basic material and shipping for fitting x; = other installation cost of fitting x;

can be a 45 elbow, a 90 elbow, a tee, or a reducer:

= = =

3.34 for elbows 5.01 for tees 1.67 (D + d) for reducers where D is the

larger diameter. The values of Table II-1. C and O for elbows, tees, and reducers are shown in

The costs of flanges and butterfly valves are also shown

in Table II-1.

II.D

Pumping System Pumping Cost ($) = 1496500 + 314.4 * KW

where

KW = pumping power in kilowatts.

II.E

Heat Transfer Bundles A tube bundle consists of heat transfer surfaces, headers, bundle

frame, and cross-supports.

-154-

fn

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-156-

DIRECT INSTALLED COST OF PIPE VERSUS PIPE DIAMETER

FIGURE
II-'

2000

cuRVE
A

MEANING PIPE IN4STALLED UNDER GRCUND PIPE INSTALLED ABOVE GRfND

IL

-<~ Ld 1.500
z -t 0
H

-J

U 1000
Q LU
-J IU.)

500
LI
a.
mL

.I

,48 96 PIPE DIAMETER ( INCH)

144

-157-

(i)

Tubing.

Tubing cost algorithm is given by

CT ($/ft)

(CTM*W

~TM

+ CT ) *F*M

where

CTM = tubing material cost ($/lb) = 1.3 for admiralty; CT ' = added tubing cost = 0 for admiralty;

WT = weight per foot (1 in. OD and 18 BWG) = 0.5096 lb/ft for admiralty tube; F = tube length factor; M = tube procuring, shipping, and handling cost factor = 1.10. For admiralty, F = 1.0 for length < 50 ft = 1.07 for length 50-60 ft = 1.08 for length 60-70 ft = 1.09 for length 70-80 ft.

(ii)

Finning.

The finning cost

CF

($/ft) is given by:

CF F where

C FM FMWsF SF +

CFBA FB B B

+CF F

CFM = fin material cost = $0.9/lb for wrap-on straight aluminum fin; W = fin material weight SF F (lb/ft)

$0.15/lb for wrap-on straight aluminum fin;

A B = area of bonding; CFB =

cost bonding of fin (a value of $0.2/ft cost of fin bonding (a value of $0.2/ft
2

as assumed). assumed). as

(iii)

Coating.

Surface coating cost

($/ft) is given by

CC

CCM CM * A S + CC

-158-

where

CM = coating material cost ($0.15/ft 2 was assumed);

cm

As = cooling surface area (ft2/ft of tubing);

C' = fixed coating cost ($0.1/ft 2 was assumed). C

(iv)

Spacers.

Tube spacers cost

CSp
D )

($ each) is given by:

C zinc *(PT T -

C
S

Cp SP
where

10

C zinc = zinc material cost = $0.5/lb; zinc P = tube ptich; T D

= fin root diameter;

C' = casting cost = $0.25 each.

The tube end preparation cost

CE

is given by

CE -

E~~~~~~ $1.00/tube

for all metal finned tubes.

CBS ($/bundle) is given by:

Total bundle surface cost

CBS where

CS

NB = number of tubes per bundle; LB = tube bundle length, ft; B C = $/ft of tube, given by CSC CS = C +C + + C + F S .. C (ft). SS LB LB Cp C

where

Sp = spacer separation

Sp

-159-

(v)

Header.

Bundle header costs

CH

is given by:

CH

12*WB* [4* Hd+2* (Np+

) *Hw]+2 *NP*

FA}

* f * t

+ C*tA * WB + [8*Hd+4* (Np+

1) * Hw]/12}

+ 4C

* (Hd/12+ b ) + Chh F d Wb hh *B*NB+C B nA*4*

(F /7T)

where

t
w

= 5/8 in. for steel headers (maximum water pressure of 100 psi); f = header size material thickness correction =

(vV)/7
A

PHM = 0.284 lb/in3 for steel header; Np = number of flow passes = 2 for double pass; Hd = header depth (inch); H
W w B

= header width (inch);

= header width = bundle width (ft);

FA = total flow area per pass (in2 ) = (tube flow area) * (number of tubes per pass);
A = 4 * (Np + 1) for all-welded header; B = hole factor = 1; CW = cost of header welding and inspection = $9* t

~~~~~~Ww

*f

per foot.

Cn = cost of nozzle and attaching = $[3+ 2* (FA/0)] for low pressure water headers; Chh = cost of tube hole preparation = $1.00/tube for rolled joint Cf = added cost of bolted header joint = $0/ft for all-welded construction;
C $(). '7/1 b or (alvanizoe( ;1. *1 header:.

-160-

(vi)

Frame.

The vertical bundle frame cost

CFR

($/bundle) is

given by the algorithm

CFR
where

Cs* ST

L B * (77+2*WB) B

CST = structural steel component cost = $0.53/lb for galvanized steel.

(vii)

Assembly.

The bundle assembly cost

($/bundle)

is given

by the algorithm CA A= ~ (CR RJ + CWj) WJ * N B where CRJ $1.0/tube for rolled joint;

CWj - $1.5/tube for welded joint.

Total heat transfer bundle cost

CHTB

is given by

HTB where

(CB+ CH +

FR+ CA ) *

10

1.10

1.10 = manufacturer's general overhead and profit.

II.F

Louver

The Louver cost algorithm is C

=

LU

(C * 1.06+ C )*A *1.15 LU LI LU

where

C'L = unit louver costs =$5.03/ft2 LU='; CL

LI

= field installation unit cost = $2.00/ft 2;

1.06 = cost factor for shipping; 1.15 = cost factorfor control; ALU = louver surface area per bundle.

-161-

II.G

Tower Structure and Foundation

The structural steel cost

CST

is given by the algorithm

CST

0.2458* V*

(0.00305* W + 0.878)

where W

V = building volume (ft3 ); = roof load in lb/ft 2 (a snow load of 40 lb/ft 2 was allowed).

The foundation cost

FN =

is given by the algorithm

0.019 * W2 + 0.82 * A

CFN

where

W 2 = bundle weight (lb);

A = tower area (ft2).

-162-

APPENDIX III: PIPING DESIGN WATER VELOCITY OPTIMIZATION

For a given water flow rate, a larger water velocity requires a smaller pipe diameter but a higher pumping power requirement. There-

fore, there is an economic trade-off between the capital cost of pipe and the cost of pumping power as illustrated in Fig. III-1. Figure III-2 is a graphical plot of total annual cost ($) per linear foot of pipe vs. pipe diameter for different flow rates indicated in the figure. The optimum pipe diameter vs. water flow rate Figure III-4 shows a plot of optimum water

is shown in Fig. III-3.

velocity vs. water flow rate. The above results were obtained by assuming a fixed charge rate of 17%. Operation and maintenance cost is 1% of pipe capital cost.

The cost of pumping power was assumed to be 25 mills/kW-hr.

-163-

TIAL COST

I
PITAL COST

I I

COST OF PUMPING POW OPTEM PIPE DIAMET ER

PIPE DAMErTR

FIGUJRE tI-1

ILLUSTRATICN OF ECCXUMIC TRADEOFF B1'UN PIPE COST AND PU4PING POU{ COST FOR A GIVEN WATER FLOW RATE

-164-

400

IL

Lu

z
-I

300

F-

U 200
_J
z z -j

100

C>-

144 48 96 PIPE DIAMETER (INCH )

FIGURE III-2 PIPING DESIGN WATER VELOCITY OPTI4IZATION

-165-

lA

I-

Li

i-J

2 WUj a0
_ -E

C] 0o

10

1 10 WATER FLOW RATE (GPM)

~~~~~6

FIGURE III-3 OPIrM PIPE DN4EER VERSUS

ATER FLOW RATE

-166-

>-

,b

ZU

W .J

> U

16

~12

Ad 8
I0 4 0
3 10

10 10c WATER FLOW RATE GPM)

106

FIGURE III-4 OPTIF

1TER VELOCITY VERSUS WATER FlICw RATE

-167-

APPENDIX IV: SPECIFICATIONS FOR A TYPICAL FINNED-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

Heat Exchanger Tube Outside Diameter Tube Wall Thickness Root Diameter Fin Diameter Fin Thickness Fins/inch Tube Pitch: Transverse Ptich Longitudinal Pitch Fin Area/Total Heat Transfer Area a a D (Heat Transfer Area/Unit Volume Heat Exchanger) (Free Flow Area/Frontal Area) (Equivalent Diameter)

1 inch 0.049 inch 1.024 inch 1.737 inch 0.012 inch 8.8 3.079 inch 2.0623 inch 0.825 58.1 0.643 0.0443 inch

eq

-168-

APPENDIX V: WET TOWER SPECIFICATIONS

Tower Cell: Width Length Fill Height Pumping Height Fan Diameter Air Loading Water Loading 36 ft 32 ft 60 ft 75 ft 28 ft 1800 lb/hrft 2 13 gpm/ft 2

Configuration:

Crossflow

-169-

APPENDIX VI: CONDENSER SPECIFICATIONS

Condenser Tube Material: Tube Outer Diameter: Tube Inner Diameter: Tube Wall Thickness:

Admiralty 1 inch 0.908 inch 0.049 inch

-170-

APPENDIX VII: COMPUTER PROGRAM LISTING FOR DRY COOLING TOWER SYSTEM

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-272-

APPENDIX IX: GLOSSARY OF VARIABLES IN COMPUTER PROGRAMS

AAIR ACAPCS ACAPIT ACSEC ACSH20 AFRLW AFRO(I) AFRWET AFTR

air-side heat transfer area of heat exchanger annual capital cost [mills/kW-hr] annual capital cost [$] [$] [$]

[ft 2]

annual cost of replacement energy annual cost of water for wet tower wet tower air loading [lb/hr-ft 2 ] heat exchanger frontal area [ft
2]

total air flow rate for wet tower

[lb/hr]

ratio of fin area to total air-side heat transfer area of heat exchanger annual fuel cost [$] [gal]

AFUEL ALH20 ALPHA

annual water consumption of wet tower

ratio of air-side heat transfer area to total volume of heat exchanger power production cost [mills/kW-hr] heat exchanger's number of transfer units annual operating cost [mills/kW-hr] annual operating cost [$] wet tower design approach [F] condenser heat transfer area per shell [ft
2]

ANNCOS ANTU AOPCS AOPER APDES AREAPS AREAPF AREAT ATRY(I)

condenser tube heat transfer area per unit length [ft2/ft] dry tower roof area [ft 2] [ft 2]

heat exchanger frontal area

-273-

AW

coefficient for calculating the number of transfer units of wet tower annual waste water treatment cost for wet tower [$] turbine back pressures for deciding which polynomial of heat rate factor vs. turbine back pressure to be used [in HgA] coefficient for calculating the number of transfer units of wet tower capital cost of replacement capacity [$] annual capacity factor heat exchanger assembling cost [$] condenser auxiliary equipment cost [$] heat exchanger bundle cost [$] replacement capacity cost [$/kW] replacement capacity cost [$] heat exchanger coating cost [$] direct installed cost of condenser [$]

AWWAS BP1 BP2 BP3 BW

CAPAC CAPF CASSEM CAX CBNDS CCCOS CCCST CCOAT CCOND CCSYS CEEQ

total capital cost of dry cooling tower system [$] direct installed cost dry tower fan system electrical equipment [$] saved value of CEEQ direct installed cost of elbows length of wet tower cell [ft] cost of heat exchanger end correction [$] []

CEEQ1 CELBW CELLTH CENDC CElC1 (I)

coefficient for calculating 45 elbow cost

CE1C2 (I,1) coefficient for calculating 45 elbow cost installed below

ground
CE1C2 (I,2) coefficient for calculating 45 elbow cost installed above

ground

-274-

CE2C1 (I)

coefficient for calculating 90 elbow cost

CE2C2 (I,1) coefficient for calculating 90 elbow cost installed below

ground
CE2C2 (I,2) coefficient for calculating 90 elbow cost installed above

ground
CF CFAN CFININ CFITIN CFLN CFPL CFUEL CHDER CHXER CLU CLUVER CNOZ CONF CONK CONK1 COSM CPIPE CPLNNW CPMPC1 CPMPC2 CPUMP

condenser cleanliness factor direct installed cost of fan [$] finning cost [$] cost of fittings [$1 cost of flanges [$] cost of fan plenum [$] fuel cost [$] cost of heat exchanger headering [$] direct installed cost of heat exchanger coefficient for calculating louver cost direct installed cost of louver cost of nozzles [$] conductivity of heat exchanger fin material [Btu/fthrF] condenser heat transfer constant saved value of CONK [Btu/hr-F] maintenance cost of dry cooling tower system [$] direct installed cost of piping system [$] construction cost of the scaled power plant [$] [Btu/hrF] [$] [$]

coefficients of polynomial for capital cost

alculating pumping system

direct installed cost of pumping system [$]

-275-

CRC

(I)

coefficient for calculating reducer cost

CRC2 (I,1) coefficient for calculating cost of reducer installed below

ground
CRC2 (I,2) coefficient for calculating cost of reducer installed above

ground
CRECE CSCCM CSPACE CSTEAM CSTEA1 CSTFN CSTFN1 CSTFAN CSUF CT CTBND CTCl (I)

direct installed cost of reducers [$] capital cost multiplier of cooling system heat exchanger tube spacing cost [$] capital cost of additional steam supply system [$] saved value of CSTEAM [$] direct installed cost of dry tower structure and foundation saved value of CSTFN $] [$]

direct installed cost of fan system [$] heat transfer surface cost [$] direct installed cost of tees heat transfer bundle cost [$] coefficient for calculating tee cost [$]

CTC2 (I,1) coefficient for calculating tee cost installed below ground CTC2 (I,2) coefficient for calculating tee cost installed above ground CTRY (I) CTUBL CTUBND CU CVALV CVFR CVRS

capacity ratio heat exchanger tubing cost [$] direct installed cost of heat exchanger tube bundles heat transfer constant of condenser cost of valves 1$] cost of vertical framing of heat exchanger cost of velocity recovery stacks [$] $] [$]

-276-

CWAR(I) CWARA CWQCC CWQCOP DELPA DELPW DEPA1 DEPTH DEPW1 DENM DEQ DFAN DFIN DIA(I) DIAME DIAMT DIAMT1 DIST DISTT DPCON DPCON1 DPCONT DPENT DPH DPIPA

capacity ratio capacity ratio capital cost of water quality control [$]

operating cost of water quality control air-side pressure drop across heat exchanger water-side pressure drop of heat exchanger saved value of DELPA depth of heat exchanger [ft] [lb/ft 2]

[ft H20]

saved value of DELPW [ft H20] average density of circulating water heat exchanger equivalent diameter dry tower fan diameter [ft] fin diameter [in] pipe daimeter [in] pipe daimeter [in] dry tower diameter [ft] [ft] [ft] [ft] [ft H 2 0] [lb/ft
3]

[ft]

saved value of DIAMT

distance between condenser and dry tower average length of main circulation pipes

total hydraulic pressure drop in condenser saved value of DPCON [ft H2 0]

pressure drop in condenser tube [ft H20] condenser entrance and exit pressure loss [ft H20] pressure drop in dry tower quadrant headers [ft H 2 0] pressure drop in main circulation pipes [ft H20]

-277-

DPPIP DPPIP1 DPR DPWB DTOW DTUBE EFF EFFB EFFF EFFIN EFFMX(I) EFFP EFS EGPM ELCSTA ELENG F FAC

pressure drop in piping system [ft H2 0] saved value of DPPIP [ft H2 0] pressure drop in dry tower distribution piping pressure drop in condenser water box [ft H20] [ft] [ft H20]

initializing value of dry tower diameter heat exchanger tubing diameter [in] heat exchanger effectiveness boiler efficiency efficiency of fan system fin efficiency

turbine efficiency at maximum allowable turbine exhaust pressure efficiency of pumping system efficiency of heat exchanger surface total water flow rate of wet tower elbow cost of main circulating pipe heat exchanger tube length [ft] friction factor coefficient for calculating heat exchanger air-side friction factor heat exchanger air-side friction factor coefficient for calculating heat exchanger air-side friction factor fan brake horsepower [hp] fuel price [$/MMBtu]. annual fixed charge rate [%] [$] [gpm] [$]

FAIR FAS

FBHP FCOS FCR FECST

condenser field erection cost

-278-

FILLMT FITC FLCST (I) FNTU FPOW GAIR GCF GPMCON GPMH GPMM GPMPF GPMR GPMSH GPMTOT GPMW HEIGHT HI HI1 HO HO1 HPFAN HRF HRFAC HRFACB

wet tower fill height [ft] fitting cost [$ each] flange cost [$ each] number of transfer units of wet tower dry tower fan power [MW] mass velocity of air [lb/ft 2 sec] condenser tubing gauge correction factor condenser circulating water flow rate [gpm] dry tower quadrant header piping water flow rate [gpm] main circulation piping water flow rate [gpm] capacity of condenser tube per foot of length gpm/ft]

dry tower distribution piping water flow rate [gpm] water flow rate per condenser shell [gpm] total water flow rate of cooling system [gpm]
wet tower fill water loading wet tower pumping height [ft] heat exchanger water-side heat transfer coefficient [Btu/hreft 2 F] saved value of HI [Btu/hrft 2 OF] heat exchanger air-side heat transfer coefficient saved value of HO [Btu/hr-ft2F] [hp] [Btu/hreft 2 F] [gpm/ft 2]

fan power of each fan heat rate factor heat rate factor

heat rate factor at turbine rating back pressure

-279-

HRFA1 HREJT

saved value of HRFAC heat rejection rate [$] [Btu/hr]

H20CST ( I ) water cost IBWG MTOW N Ni NBND NFAN NLM NLM1 NLTOT NP NPBND

condenser tube wall gauge number number of circular dry towers number of tubes deep in heat exchanger saved value of N number of heat exchanger bundles number of dry tower fans number of main circulation lines saved value of NLM number of main circulation supply lines number of heat exchanger tube passes number of tubes per heat exchanger bundle number of dry tower quadrants number of heat exchanger tubes per pass number of lines number of wet tower cells atmospheric pressure [psia]

NQUR
NRP NL NWTCEL PATM PDRP PER PFACT PGEN PLANC

wet tower pressure drop [in. H20] fixed percentage on capital cost to give maintenance cost [%] dry tower packing factor power plant generating capacity [MW] plant cost [$/kW]

-280-

POUT POWMX(I)

power plant net output

[MW]

power plant capacity at maximum allowable turbine exhaust pressure [MW] pumping power [MW] saved value of PPOW [MW] saturation pressure [psia] [MW]

PPOW PPOW1 PSA(I) PSIZE PSIZNW PTTHRO PTTURB

target demand capacity

scaled power plant rated output [MW] part load turbine throttle percent additional turbine-generator cost over conventional unit wet tower pumping power [MW]

PUMWET QIN QIN1 QREJ QREJ1 QREMX

energy flux at turbine inlet [Btu/hr] saved value of QIN heat rejection rate saved value of QREJ [Btu/hr] [Btu/hr] [Btu/hr]

heat rejection rate at maximum allowable turbine back pressure [Btu/hr] water range [F]

RANG(I) RANGE RANGT REAIR REAI1 RECOV RELR REFSV

water range [F] water range at off-design [F]

heat exchanger air-side Reynolds number saved value of REAIR recovery factor relative roughness reference specific volume of air [lb/ft
3]

-281-

REWAT REWA1 REYN PRF PRLG ROUGH(I) RTRY(I) S(I) SAC

heat exchanger water-side Reynolds number saved value of REWAT Reynolds number wet tower rating factor wet tower water loading to air loading ratio roughness of pipe or tubing [inch] range [F] elements in common block DTOW4 coefficient for calculating heat exchanger air-side heat transfer coefficient coefficient for calculating heat exchanger air-side heat transfer coefficient

SAS

SCF1 SCF2 SFACT SHCST SHLCST SIGMA STEAMC STPR SUPCC

coefficients for calculating condenser shell cost

scaling factor basic condenser shell cost total condenser shell cost [$] [$]
3] [ft2/fti

heat transfer area per unit volume of heat exchanger capital cost steam supply system [$/kW] Stanton number times Prandtl number

capital cost of supplementary cooling for turbine bearings, etc. [$] elements in common block COST1 ambient temperature [F]

S1(I) TA(I) TADRY TCA

ambient temperature above which wet tower has to be used [F] tee cost for main circulating lines [$ each]

-282-

TCF TCOS TCH TCOS1 TCSTA TD TDBD TDLM TEFF TEFFM TEFFMT TEND TFREQ THFIN

temperature correction factor total annual cost [mills/kW-hr] tee cost of quadrant headers [$1 saved value of TCOS direct installed cost of tees for main circulation lines [$] design ambient temperature [F] wet tower design dry bulb temperature [F] log mean temperature difference [.F] turbine efficiency of base unit [%] turbine efficiency at any exhaust pressure [%] turbine efficiency at off-design [%] ending temperature [F] probability of occurrence of a given ambient temperature heat exchanger fin thickness [in] [%]

THROTT(I) turbine load condition TIN TITD TITDEN TITDST TL TLSH TMEAN TOD TOUT TOWK

temperature of water entering dry tower [F] design initial temperature difference [F] ending value of design ITD [F] starting value of design ITD [F] condenser tube length [ft] condenser shell length [ft] average temperature of circulating water [F]

outer diameter of heat exchanger tube [in] temperature of water leaving dry tower [F] dry tower heat transfer constant [Btu/hrF]

-283-

TOWK1 TOP(I)

saved value of TOWK

[Btu/hrF]

coefficients of polynomial for calculating turbine heat rate factor saturation temperature of air steam saturation temperature [F] [F] [F] [F] [F]

TPS TSAT TSMAX TSMIN TSTAR TTD2 TUBLCF TUCST TW TWAT TWBD TWP(I) TWO TWL T1 T1MAX T4 T41 U US U1 VA

maximum saturation steam temperature minimum saturation steam temperature

starting value of design ambient temperature condenser terminal temperature difference condenser tube length correction factor total tube cost [$] [in]

[F]

pipe wall thickness water temperature

[F] [F]

wet tower design wet bulb temperature pipe wall thickness [in] [F]

wet tower exit water temperature total water loss [gal] [F]

saturated steam temperature

maximum allowable turbine exhaust steam temperature dry tower exit air temperature saved value of T4 [F] [F]

[F]

overall heat transfer coefficient of heat exchanger condenser heat transfer coefficient saved value of U [Btu/hrft2F] [lb/ft 3] [Btu/hrft 2 F]

[Btu/hrft2F]

specific volume of air

-284-

VAIR VAIR1 VAL (I)

velocity of air through dry tower [ft/sec] saved value of VAIR [ft/sec]

dry tower design variables

VALCST (I) valving cost [$] VAR (I) VAS (I) VEL VELCON VELW VISC VOL VWAT WBT (I) W(I)

dry tower design variables dry tower design variables water velocity ft/sec]

condenser water velocity [ft/sec] piping design water velocity [ft/sec] viscosity [lb/ft] volume of heat exchanger [ft 3] water velocity [ft/sec] wet bulb temperature [F] elements in common block DTOW5 water loss [gpm] pressure drop across wet tower fill [in H20] weight of fans in dry tower [lb] weight of heat exchanger tube per unit length [lb/ft] dry tower roof load [lb/ft 2] width-to-length ratio weight of heat exchanger bundle [lb] weight of water in heat exchanger bundles [lb] width of wet tower cell [ft] elements in common block COST2

WL(I)
WPDRD (I) WTFAN WTPFT WTRF WTRY (I) WTUBND WTWAT WWIDTH Wl (I)

-285-

XD XDEPA X4PASS XNPAS1 XNTS XNTS1 XW

longitudinal pitch of heat exchanger tubes

[in]
2]

minimum air-side pressure drop of dry tower [lb/ft number of condenser tube passes saved value of XNPASS number of condenser tubes per shell saved value of XNTS transverse pitch of heat exchanger tubes [in]

Workreported in this document was sponsored by the Department of Energy under contract No. EY-76-S-O2-4114,AQ01, This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the United States Goyernment. Neither the United States nor the United States Department of Energy, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product or process disclosed or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights.