4. BEAMS R.C.C. Structural Members Now a-days, plain and R.C.C.

structural members like foundation, beams, columns, lintels, roofs, etc., are abundantly used in the construction of all types of buildings. This type of construction has withstood the test time. Its ad antages are manifold. It is highly durable, strong, economical, !uickness in construction, impro ed appearance, etc. "ifferent types of finishes can be gi en to concrete. 4.1 R.C.C. BEAMS #eams are hori$ontal members of a structure, carrying trans erse loads. #eams carry the floor slab or the roof slab. They transfer all the loads %the dead and li e loads& including its selfweight to the ertical members of the structures. The ertical members may be columns or walls supporting the beams. 'ltimately, the loads from the columns or walls are transmitted to the foundation. (rom the foundation, the loads are safely transmitted to the sub-soil. The R.C.C. beam is sub)ected to bending moments and shear. "ue to the ertical e*ternal load, bending compresses the top fibers of the beam and elongates the bottom fibers. The strength of an R.C.C. beam depends on the composite action of concrete and steel. +ince concrete is strong in compression and weak in tension, Reinforcing ,ain +teel #ars are embedded in the tension $one to gi e the re!uired tensile strength. Concrete takes all the compressi e stresses and main steel bars take all the tensile stresses. In addition to the main reinforcement, ertical shear bars called +tirrups are pro ided to withstand shearing forces. DEFINITIONS Loads Acti ! o a Structure" %i& "ead load and %ii& -i e load. Dead Load" "ead load is the self-weight of the arious components of a building. Li#e Load" -i e load is the e*ternal superimposed load on a structure. -i e loads may be uniformly distributed load, uniformly arying load or concentrated load. $ori%o tal or Slo&i ! Beams" #eams may be mostly hori$ontal or sloping like roof beams. S&a " The distance between the two supports of a beam is called the +pan. Clear S&a " The clear hori$ontal distance between the two supports of a beam is called the clear span. E''ecti#e S&a " .ffecti e +pan of a beam is the hori$ontal distance between the center of one support to the center of the ne*t support. (or design purposes, the effecti e span is always considered. Mai Rei 'orceme t Bars" These are embedded in the tension $one to withstand the tensile stress. S(ear Bars i Beams" +hear #ars called +tirrups are pro ided to withstand the effect due to the shearing force. +hearing force is ma*imum, at the ends of the beam.

4.) T*+ES OF BEAMS "epending on the +upport, a beam may be of any one of the following types/ 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. +imply supported #eam (i*ed #eam Cantile er #eam Continuous #eam 5 erhanging #eam

1.Sim&l, Su&&orted Beam" 6 beam supported freely at the two ends on walls or columns is called a +imply +upported beam. It is important to note that in actual practi e, no beam rests freely on the supports %walls or columns& without fi*ing on the supports. 7ence, no beam is practi ally simply supported. .nd connections %supports& do not carry any end moments due to the non-continuity de eloped by the connections of beam and supports. ).Fi-ed beam" In (i*ed #eam, both the ends of the beam are rigidly fi*ed or embedded into the supports %walls or columns&. ,ain Reinforcement #ars and +hear #ars %+tirrups& are placed as in the case of simply supported beams. 7ere, bending is constrained at the supports. 6 moment can be carried across the end connection. ..Ca tile#er Beam" 8hen a beam is fi*ed in a wall or column at one end and the other end is free, it is called a Cantile er #eam. This type of beam has tension $one in the top side and compression $one in the bottom side. /ses" Cantile er beams are used to support slabs pro)ecting outside the wall or column. .*amples are/ 9ortico, #alcony, etc. 4.Co ti uous Beam" 6 beam is said to be a Continuous #eam when it is supported on more than two supports. This beam is more economical for any span lengths. T0Beam" 6s the name suggests, the section of this beam is in th shape of :T;. The design concept of T-#eam is the monolithic action of the +lab with the (lange and Rib portions of the beam. 6 T-#eam is de eloped when a slab is cast monolithically with the beam and the slab e*tends on both the sides of the beam. L. Beam" --#eam is de eloped when a slab e*tends on one side of the beam only and is monolithic. --#eam is used at the end walls of a room.

1.O#er(a !i ! Beam" 5 erhanging #eam is the beam in which its end e*tends beyond the wall or column support. 5 erhanging of the beam is the unsupported portion of the beam. It may be one side or both the sides of the support. De&e di ! o t(e Rei 'orceme t2 a beam ma, be classi'ied as 'ollo3s" a& Si !l, Rei 'orced Beam" If the main reinforcement of steel bars are pro ided only on one side of the beam, it is known as +ingly Reinforced #eam. b& Doubl, Rei 'orced Beam" If the main reinforcement of steel bars are pro ided both at top and bottom %tension and compression $ones& of the beam, it is known as "oubly Reinforced #eam. Co crete Co#ers" ,ain bars are placed uniformly along the perimeter of the column lea ing re!uired Co ers. Concrete co er is the distance berween the outer surface of the member and the nearest point of reinforcement. Bottom Co#er a d E d Co#er" The ,inimum #ottom Co er to be pro ided in the beam is 14 mm or the diameter of the bar, whiche er is more. The .nd Co er is 14 mm or twice the diameter of the bar, whiche er is more. 4.. T*+ES OF LOADIN4 ON BEAMS -oading on a beam may be of different types. They are/ %i& %ii& %iii& %i & Concentrated -oads, 'niformly "istributed -oads %'.".-.&, 'niformly <arying -oads 6rbitrary -oading.

4.4 STEEL BEAMS +teel #eams are generally Rolled +teel I-+ections. I-+ection with co er platesmay be used when a large modulus of section is re!uired. I-+ection may be split and re)oined by welding and used for beams with large spans and lighy loads=. +uch a beam is more resistant to bending as the modulus of the section is increased. 6n I-+ection along with a Channel +ection is used when the beam is sub)ected to lateral loads at the Compression (lange -e el of the section. 1. COL/MNS Column is a ertical structural member. It transmits the load coming from the slab %ceiling>roof& and beam, including its self-weighy to the foundation of the building. Columns may be sub)ected to a pure compressi e load %a*ial compression& or a combination of compressi e load and bending moment. 6 structural member sub)ected to an a*ial compressi e load is known as +trut.

Columns may be constructed of stone masonry, brick masonry, timber, structural steel sections or Reinforced Cement Concrete %R.C.C&. R.C.C. columns are the most widely used now-a-days. 1.1 DEFINITIONS Colum Failure" (ailure of a column depends upon the effecti e length of the column compared to its cross-section. E''ecti#e Le !t(" .ffecti e length of a column is not necessarily its 6ctual or True -ength. It depends upon the conditions of end supports of the column. T,&es o' Colum s" Columns are classified as long and short, based on the effecti e length. Lo ! Colum or Sle der" If the ratio of the effecti e length to the least lateral dimension of the column %or diameter of the column of circular cross-section& is more than 01,the column is known as -ong Column or +lender. +lender means narrow in width. In a long column, the ultimate load is go erned by the compressing and bending strengths of the material of the column and the dimensions of the cross section. In addition, the ultimate load is also influenced by slenderness. This slenderness produces additional bending due to trans erse deformations. Thus, for long columns, failure load is characteri$ed buckling or instability. S(ort Colum " If the ratio of the effecti e length to the least lateral dimension is less than or e!ual to 01, the column is known as +hort Column. In a short column, the ultimate load is go erned only by the compressi e strength of the material of the column and the dimensions of the cross section. (or short columns, the failure load is characteri$ed by yielding. I termediate Colum " Columns with lengths that are between the short and long columns is defined as Intermediate Columns. Intermediate columns fail by both yielding and buckling. 1.) R.C.C. COL/MNS If the effecti e length of a compression member is e!ual to or less than thrice the least lateral dimension, the member is made of 9lain Cement Concrete. If the effecti e length of a compression member is more than thrice the least lateral dimension, the member should be reinforced. Colum s o' S5uare a d Recta !ular a d Circular Sectio s Reinforced concrete columns may be s!uare, rectangular, circular, he*agonal or octangonal sections. They are cast-in-situ. +howing the typical details of the reinforced concrete columns of +!uare, Rectangular and Circular +ections. R.C.C. columns are reinforced with <ertical -ongitudinal +teel #ars and -ateral Ties. ,ain -ongitudinal +teel #ars are also known as <ertical ,ain Reinforcement #ars. These #ars are tied by lateral steel bars which act as -ateral Ties. -ateral ties are also known as #inders or -inks or +tirrups. ,inimum number of longitudinal steel bars is 3 for a s!uare section, ? for a circular section, etc.

Load Carr,i ! Ca&acit," The load carrying capacity of R.C.C. column depends on the strength of the conctete and steel. If the percentage of steel used is large in a column, the concrete fails first. If the percentage of steel used is less, the steel will reach its yield strengyh prior to concrete. The column will not fail, because it can take more load at this stage. "ue to this increase in load, steel will yield and concrete will attain its full strength. Thus, the strength of the column is fully utili$ed. ,ain ertical longitudinal bars are of 0@ to 3@ mm diameters. They carry compressi e loads in con)unction with concrete. Lateral Ties" -ateral ties are tying the main bars so that the main bars should not buckle outward under load. Thus, lateral ties pro ide lateral rigidity to the column. 6lso, these ties keep the main bar in position without getting dislocated during concreting and compaction. In the R.C.C. columns, longitudinal bars take the main load. These ties pre ent the buckling of longitudinal bars and keep them in position with respect to each other. S&aci !" The lateral reinforcement is pro ided in the form of indi idual ties at suitable inter als. +pacing of lateral ties should not e*ceed 2@ cm or the least lateral dimension of the section of the column. 5r, it should not be more than 01 times the diameter of the longitudinal bars. S&irall, Rei 'orced Colum -ateral ties may be indi idual pieces of steel rod, bent to the re!uired shape depending on the shape of the column. +ometimes, for circular column, these ties are made in the orm of a continuous spiral. It is called +pirally Reinforced Column. +itc(" In the case of spiral reinforcement, the pitch should be 4@ to A4 mm or not more than 0>? diameter of the column. Co crete Co#er" ,ain bars are placed uniformly along the perimeter of the column lea ing re!uired Co er. Co er is defined as the distance between the outer surface of the member and the nearest point of reinforcement. The ,inimum Co er for longitudinal bars of the column should be 3@ mm or the diameter of the thickest rod whiche er is more. +recautio s to be obser#ed i Colum Co structio 0. +rocess o' Co structio " Construction of concrete columns %i.e., concreting, compacting and curing& is simiBlar to the construction of any R.C.C. works such as beams, etc. 1. 6ertical (ei!(t o' Co crete" <ertical height of concrete placed in one layer should not e*ceed one meter in height. 2. Rate o' Co creti !" The rate of concreting of a column should not be more than 2@ minutes. 3. Colum s 'or more t(a o e Store," Concreting of columns of more than one storey is to be carried out ery accurately. The central lines of column must be accurately kept

one abo e the other for columns placed in different floors. This should be checked at e ery stage of construction. 5therwise, eccentricity in loading will result. 4. Load o t(e colum o' t(e To& Store," It is important to note that the loads on the top storey are relati ely lesser. 7ence, the cross section of the column designed for the top storey should be relati ely less. /ses" R.C.C. Columns are used in multi-storey buildings and hea ily loaded structures. R.C.C. Ccolumns are ery widely used now-a-days. Columns in steel sections are also in use. Columns can also be made of wood or brick or stone masonry, but these are not much used. 1.. STEEL COL/MN7 OR STANC$IONS +teel Columns are also known as +tanchions. These are widely used in industrial structures. +teel columns are fabricated using rolled steel )oists, channels, angles and plates. +teel column is a ertical compression member. It supports the floors or girders in a building. Cirder is a main load carrying member into which floor beams or )oists are connected. Doists are beam members, which are used to carry floors and roofs of buildings of light loads supported on long columns. The shape of the cross section of the steel section and the sectional area should be designed carefully to a oid buckling. The important property re!uired for a compression member is a high alue of moment of inertia. I-+ections, Tubular +ections and two e!ual 6ngle +teel +ections may be used for llighy loads. +ingle angle sections should be a oided for steel columns.

Built0u& Sectio s 'or Steel colum 8hen two or three steel sections of rolled sheets and plates are connected to form a column, it is known as a #uilt-up Column or #o* Column. #uilt-up +ections are compression structural members with wide (langes. 7ence, these are used for hea y loads. The type of built-up section to be used depends on the type of structure and the end connections of the column. 8.LINTELS -intel is a small beam with its ends built into a wall. It is a hori$ontal structural member placed o er small openings of the wall like door openings, window openings, entilator openings, cupboard openings, etc. 8idth of the lintel is e!ual to the width of the wall. The bearing of the lintel pro ided on the supporting wall should be e!ual to the height of the lintel. The function of a lintel is to carry the weight or load of the masonry wall constructed abo e it. It transmits the same to the supporting walls on its either side. 8.1 CLASSIFICATION OF LINTELS -intels are classified based on the construction materials as follows/

0. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Timber -intels +tone -intels #rick -intels +teel -intels R.C.C. -intels

1. Timber Li tels 6 Timber -intel is made of hard wood like Teak. It is embedded into the masonry wall at its ends. The embedded ends are painted with coal tar to protect it from rotting. These lintels are poor in strength. These are not fire resistant. These are liable to be attacked by white ants. Cost of timber is also high. Therefore, these lintels are not generally recommended. ). Sto e Li tels +tone -intels consist of chisel-dressed stone slabs. They may be pro ided as a single piece or more than a piece. These lintels are not suitable for large spans. They are ery hea y. They are used in stone masonry structures only. .. Bric9 Li tels #rick -intels consist of bricks placed on end or on edge. #rick lintels are weak in strength. 7ence, they can be used for light loads and for small openings or spans of up to 0 meter only. 4. Steel Li tels +teel -intels use +teel 6ngles and Channel +ections or Rolled +teel Doists. +teel angle lintels are used for small openings and hea y loads. Rolled steel )oists can be used for large openings with hea y loads. These sections may be embedded in concrete for protecting from rust and corrosion. 1. Rei 'orced Ceme t Co crete Li tels :R.C.C. Li tels; Ad#a ta!es" R.C.C. -intels are highly durable, strong, rigid, easy to form and fire proof. These are comparati ely economical to other forms of lintels and also simple in construction. These are most commonly used now-a-days, replacing practically all other materials for lintel. /ses" R.C.C. -intels can be used for any span length of openings and for carrying any load.

Li tel o#er I terior Door O&e i ! 6 lintel is designed as a small rectangular beam, resting on masonry wall at its ends. It is pro ided with longitudinal steel bar at bottom to pro ide ade!uate tensile strength. -intels may be pre-cast or cast-in-situ. 9re-cast R.C.C. -intels are preferred for small spans up to 1 m only. #ut, R.C.C. lintels are generally cast-in-situ. (ore cast-in-situ lintel, a centering is erected, reinforcement of suitable depth is placed and concreting is done, compacted and cured. Cenerally, 0 / 1 / 3 concrete is used in the construction of lintels. R.C.C. lintels may be of rectangular or s!uare in cross section. The thickness of lintel and its reinforcement depends on the length of opening, effecti e span, intensity of load and type of support. Li tel o#er E-terior 7i do3 O&e i ! 6 lintel pro ided o er a window opening in an e*terior wall. R.C.C. lintels for outer doors and windows ha e @.?@ m to @.A4 m o erhanging pro)ections. These pro)ections are called +unshades. +unshades protect the doors and windows from sun and rain. In this lintel type, the window sunshade is cast monolithically with the lintel. E''ecti#e Load o Li tel 7(e Li tel is &laced i t(e Middle o' 3all 6ssume that when a lintel is distributed uniformly o er its effecti e span for a height e!ual to half the effecti e span. The lintel is designed to take the load of the wall in a triangular portion. The base of the triangle is e!ual to the .ffecti e +pan of the lintel. The included angle of the triangle is ?@ deg. 7(e Li tel is &laced ear t(e E d o' t(e 7all 8hen the lintel is placed near the end of a wall, it is designed to support the load of the wall in the s!uare area as shown. In this, the side of the s!uare is e!ual to the effecti e span of the lintel. <.ROOFIN4 <.1 ROOFS 6 Roof is the topmost part of a building. It is supported on structural members such as beams, columns, etc. Roof pro ides a co er to the bulking by protecting it from sun, rain, wind, dust and snow. Re5uireme ts o' a 4ood Roo' 6 safe roof is )ust as important as a strong foundation. It should satisfy the following re!uirements/ 0. +rotecti#e Co#eri !" 6 roof should gi e a protecti e co ering by foofing materials, against the ad erse effects of the atmosphere. 1. Durabilit," Roof should be made of durable materials to withstand the ad erse effects of sun, wind, rain, dust and snow. 2. Drai i ! t(e Rai 7ater" Roof should ha e ade!uate slope to drain-off the rain water in the simplest and direct manners.

3. Structural Stabilit," Roof should be structurally stable. It should be strong enough to carry the loads coming on it. 4. 7ater +roo'" Roof should pre ent dampness under the roof. It should be water proof. ?. I sulatio 'rom $eat a d Sou d" Roof should pro ide insulation from heat and sound. A. A&&eara ce" Roof +hould ha e an aesthetically pleasing and architectural appearance. E. Fire Resista t" Roof should be fire resistant. B. Stre !t( o' Roo' Co#eri !" Roof co ering should be strong enough to withstand its own weight and of workmen who may occasionally climb up for maintenance. <.) T*+ES OF ROOFS The roofs are classified according to shape, span and structural design principles as follows: 1. Flat Roofs (i) R.C.C. Roof and (ii) Madras Terrace Roof 2. Sloping or Pitched Roofs (i) Single Roof, (ii) Double Roof and (iii) Trussed Roof 3. Curved Roofs (i) Shell Roof and (ii) Do e Roof <.. FLAT ROOFS (lat Roofs are used to buildings of any shape. They are economical also. They are suitable for buildings in plains or in hot regions, where rain fall is moderate and where there is no snow fall. (lat Roofs are of t3o types, namely, R.C.C. Roof and ,adras Terrace Roof :i; R.C.C. ROOF R.C.C. roof is commonly and most widely used. In this roof, concrete with steel reinforcement bars is used to form a flat roof. 6 R.C.C. Roof consists of an R.C.C. +lab, built monolithically with the supporting Columns. The slab is reinforced in both the principal directions. -oad is carried by the slab, which is directly supported by the columns. Thickness of roof slab depends on the span and loading conditions. R.C.C. #eam may also be pro ided to support the slab. The thickness of the roof slab, beam and reinforcement are designed based on the span of the roof and the loading conditions. Roof slab thickness may be E@ to 04@ mm. Columns are pro ided with enlarged heads known as Column 7eads. To support hea y loads, the thickness of the slab o er the columns may be increased. The thickened part of the slab is called "rop 9anel. Dam& +roo' Course" roof. It pre ents entry of moisture %dampness& due to leaking

7eat(eri ! Course or 7eat(er +roo' Course" It is pro ided on the top of R.C.C. roof to pre ent the roof from the weathering agencies like sun, rain, wind and snow. 6lso, it minimi$es the heat radiation into the room below the roof. +urki Concrete %broken brick aggregate and lime& is laid on the roof and compacted well. Thickness of weathering course is A4 mm. It is gi en with a slope of 0@ deg %0 in 4@ slope&, directed towards the rain water drain pipes. 6fter curing for ? days, two courses of flat tiles or one course of pressed tiles may be laid in a cement mortar of 0/2 mi*ed with crude oil. Co structio Details 1. Ce teri !" Centering +heets or 9lanks are arranged hori$ontally at the top le elof walls o er wooden or steel supports. ). 4rid o' Steel Bar" ,ain Reinforcement ,ild +teel #ars of diameter B to 0E mm are tied in the form of grid on the top of the centering sheets as per design. .. Co#er" R.C.C. slab bends downwards, causing tension at the bottom fibres. 7ence, steel bars are placed at the bottom of slab, keeping a minimum clear co er of 04 mm between the bars and centering sheets. 4. Mi-i ! Ceme t Co crete" Cement concrete of 0 / 1 / 3 mi* is mi*ed thoroughly with sufficient !uantity of water manually or in concrete mi*er and placed on the centering sheets. 1. Com&actio o' t(e Co crete" The concrete is compacted well manually or by using mechanical ibrator to the re!uired thickness and the top surface is le eled. 8. Slo&e o' t(e Roo'" +urface of the roof at the top of the building is gi en a gentle slope of up to 0@ deg for draining-off rain water easily and rapidly. <. Curi !" Curing is carried out for one or two weeks to facilitate continued hydration of cement. =. Lo ! S&a s a d T0Beam Slab" (or long spans, a :T; beam is de eloped by casting the roof slab monolithically with the beam and the slab e*tends on both sides of the beam. Ad#a 1. ). .. 4. 1. ta!es o' R.C.C. Flat Roo' R.C.C. flat roof is capable of withstanding concentrated loads. Construction and maintenance are easy. It can withstand hea y wind load. It does not re!uire false-ceiling. It re!uires lesser area of roofing material. The floor system re!uires lesser depth and therefore ther will ber reduction in the storey height. 8. It has better thermal and sound insulation. <. It is fire resistant. =. The construction of additional upper floors can be easily done o er the flat roof. >. (lat roof can be used as a terrace for onstructing o erhead water tank, installing solar heater, for gardening, drying , recreation, celebrating domestic functions, etc. 1?. It presents a good architectural appearance to the building. 11. It is economical compared to pitched roof. 1). It is most popularly used for roofs of residential and office buildings.

Disad#a ta!es o' R.C.C. Flat Roo' 0. (or large span, cracks may de elop due to large temperature ariations. 1. Improper drainage may lead to dampness on the ceiling, causing rusting of steel bars and leakage. :ii;Madras Terrace Roo' This type of roof construction was popularly used in the +outhern +tates of our country. +outhern +tates in the early 0B?@s were known as Combined ,adras +tate, and hence the name ,adras Terrace Roof. Compared to R.C.C. roof, ,adras Terrace Roof is not in use now-a-days. <.4 SLO+IN4 ROOFS or +ITC$ED ROOFS +loping roof is ha ing top sloping surface known as 9itched Roof. +loping Roof or 9itched Roof is commonly used at places of coastal regions of hea y rain fall and snow fall. These are comparati ely light in weight. Termi olo!, S&a " +pan is the distance between the supports of a roof or truss. +itc(" 9itch is the inclination of the sides of a roof to the hori$ontal. Ra'ter" Rafter is a inclined wooden member running from the ridge to ea e. 7all +late" 8all 9late is placed at the top of the walls to support the rafter. Ea#e Board" It is fi*ed along the ea e %lower edge of the inclined roof surface& )oining the pair of rafters. Rid!e +iece" Ridge 9iece is a hori$ontal member, running along the length of the roof. Batte s" #attens are small sections of the timber fi*ed to the rafters for placing the roofing material on the sloping roof. +urli s" 9urlins are hori$ontal members kept o er the tie beam to support the rafters. Truss" Truss is a frame work of triangles, used to carry the load of the roof co ering materials and other members of the roof.

+loping roofs are classified as/ :i; +ingle Roof :ii; "ouble or 9urlin Roof :iii; Trussed Roof :i; SIN4LE ROOF 6 +ingle Roof consists of only common Rafters, supporting the roofing material. Rafters are supported at the 8all 9lates and Ridge 9iece. +ingle roofs are used for spans up to 4 m, so that no intermediate support is re!uired for the rafters. The arieties of single roof are/ %a& -ean-to Roof, %b& Couple Roof, %c& Coupled Close Roof and %d& Collar #eam Roof. a; Lea 0to Roo'

-ean-to roof is the simplest type of sloping roof. It is used for erandahs, car sheds, out-houses, etc., attached to the main buildings. This roof pro)ects from the ,ain 8all of the building. Its span is limited to 1.4 m only. Common Rafters are pro ided at an angle of about 2@ deg to the hori$ontal. These are kept at uniform inter als along the length of the roof. These are secured on the wall plates at both the ends. 'pper wall plate rests on +tone or +teel Corbel on the ,ain 8all. #attens %wooden& are fi*ed to the Rafter. Roof Co erings are fi*ed to the #attens as shown. Roof co ering may be 6.C. +heets or Tiles. b; Cou&led Roo' In a coupled Roof, a +air or cou&le o' Ra'ters slope upwards from the walls. The rafters are kept at uniform inter als along the length of the roof. The rafters are connected at the upper end to a longitudinal beam called Ridge 9iece. The ridge piece is running along the length of the roof. The rafters are nailed to 8all 9lates at the lower ends. The wall plates are fi*ed on the supporting walls. The Roofing ,aterials +uch as 6.C. +heets or Tiles are supported on #attens, which are fi*ed to the rafters. Coupled roof is suitable for spans up to 2.4 meters. It is not fa oured, as the rafters ha e a tendency to spread out at the lower ends and thrust out of the wall. c;Cou&led Close Roo' This is similar to the coupled roof e*cept that, the lower ends of the rafters are connected to a Tie #eam at the bottom. There is a tie beam for each pair of rafters. 8hen the length of the rafters is becoming larger, the rafters will ha e a tendency to spread out and thrust out of the walls. The tendency of spreading out of rafters can be arrested with the Tie #eam. +uch a roof is called as a Coupled Close Roof. d;Collar Beam Roo' This is similar to the coupled close roof. The only difference is that the tie beam is fi*ed at a height of F to 0>2 of the ertical height between the wall and the ridge piece. This raised beam is called Collar #eam. The tie beam is raised to pre ent the coupled close roof from bending due to increase in load. This roof is suitable for spans of up to 4 meters. :ii;DO/BLE or +/RLIN ROOF In this type, additional members called 9urlins are pro ided at intermediate points. 9urlins support the Common Rafters. The si$e of rafters can be reduced by the use of 9urlins. 9urlins rest on the Collar #eam. This roof is suitable for spans up to 4.4 meters. .ach rafter is supported at four points, namely, %i&at the bottom, on the wall, %ii& at the top, by the ridge piece, %iii& at the center, by the collar beam and %i & at the intermediate supports, by 9urlins. :iii;TR/SSED ROOFS

6 number of straight members connected in the shape of triangle and form a frame is known as Truss. Trusses are wooden framed structures, pro ided where there are no inside walls to support the 9urlins. Trusses are pro ided at inter als of about 2 meters along the room length. The spacing of trusses depends upon the load on the roof, position of cross walls, span and material of the truss. .nds of 9urlins are supported by the trusses. The purling pro ides intermediate support to the Common Rafters, which in turn support the roof co ering. Trussed Roofs are used for spans e*ceeding 4 meters. De'i itio s Ties" Tension carrying members in the truss are called Ties. Struts" Compression members in the truss are called +truts. S&a " The distance between the supporting ends of a truss is called its +pan. Rise" The Rise of the truss is the ertical distance between the ape* and the line )oining the supports. +itc(" The ratio of the rise to the span is called the 9itch. +urli s" 9urlins pro ide intermediate support to the common rafters. The common types of trussed roofs are/ a& Ging-9ost Truss b& Hueen 9ost Truss c& +teel Roof Trusses a;@i !0&ost Truss Ging-9ost Truss is a timber truss. It consists of a king-post at the center, two inclined principal rafters and a tie beam at the bottom. The ertical central post which connects the Ridge 9iece with the Tie #eam is known as king-post. The truss rests on a bed block of stone or concrete at either end. The bed blocks rest on walls. The Roofing material is supported on Common Rafters. Common rafters are supported on wooden purlins pro ided at suitable inter als. 9urlins are supported by the 9rincipal Rafters. The king-post connects the ridge piece and the middle of the tie beam. The struts are connectedto the king-post at the bottom and the principal rafters at the top. +truts pre ent the principal rafters from bending at the center. The roofing material is fi*ed to the common rafters. These are used for spans in the range of 4 to B meters. It is usually built of wood completely or of wood combined with steel. +teel rods are used as tension members. b;Auee 0+ost Truss Hueen-9ost Truss is used for spans from B m to 01m. It is also a timber truss. It consists of two !ueen-posts instead of one as in king-post truss.

d; Steel Roo' Trusses

Timber trusses become ery hea y and costly, when the span e*ceeds 0@ meters. ,ild steel is readily a ailable in rolled sections of standard shapes and si$es namely, 6ngles, Channels, Tsections, I-+ections, etc. +teel roof trusses are mostly fabricated from 6ngles +ections. The reason is that they can resist both tension and compression effecti ely. +teel Roof Trusses are frames formed by a number of straight members, made of +teel 6ngles. These members are connected in the shape of triangles. The members are )oined together by welding or ri eting. .*ternal loads act at these )oints of the members. +hape and positioning of members in a +teel Roof Truss are designed such that the members are sub)ected to either tension or compression. The compression members are called +truts. The compression members should be short to a oid buckling. The tension members are known as Ties. - Trusses do not ha e any bending stresses in them. The 9rincipal Rafter and the ,ain Ties are generally make of two angle sections placed side by side. The +truts and Ties are generally made of single angle sections. Ad#a 0. 1. 2. ta!es o' Steel Roo' Trusses +teel trusses are more rigid and stronger than wooden trusses. ,embers of the steel trusses are e!ually strong in both tension and compression. They can be used o er any span length ranging from 3.4 m to ery large spans up to 2@ m. 3. They are easy to fabricate from rolled steel sections, which are readily a ailable in the re!uired dimensions. 4. They are more economical compared to timber trusses. ?. +teel trusses are permanent structures with durability of a ery long life. A. +teel trusses are more resistant to en ironmental>atmoshpheric agencies. E. They are fire resistant unlike timber. B. They are termite-proof unlike timber. 0@. They can be easily installed.

Disad#a ta!es o' Steel roo' Trusses +teel Roof Trusses are likely to get rusted. They must be painted with anticorrosi e paints. 7ence, +teel trusses need periodical maintenance. /ses %i& %ii& %iii& #uildings of large spans such as educational institutions, industries, auditoriums, theatres, godowns, warehouses, garages, etc., including bridges. No intermediate columns in the abo e type of buildings and a ailability of a clear and un-obstructed working space. 9laces of hea y rain fall or snow fall.

T,&es o' Steel Roo' Trusses The type, si$e, and relati e positions of members of a steel roof truss are based on the +pan, Roof slope, -oad coming o er the roof, Roof co ering material and Center-to-center of the truss. 0. @i !0+ost Steel Truss" The relati e positions of the members of the truss, namely, ,ain Tie, Tie, Rafters and +truts are shown. The steel truss can be for spans up to 3.4 meters.

1. Sim&le Fi 9 Steel Truss" (ink Type Truss is found to be ery satisfactory for ordinary buildings. These trusses are used for spans up to a meters. 2. Sim&le $o3eBs Steel Truss" These trusses are used for spans up to 01 meters. 3. Com&ou d Fi 9 Steel Truss or Fre c( Truss" These trusses are used for spans up to 04 meters. This type truss is also known as (rench Truss. 4. Com&ou d $o3eBs Steel Truss" These trusses are also used for spans up to 04 meters. In this truss, the diagonals are in compression and the erticals are in tension under dead load. ?. Nort( Li!(t Steel Truss" These trusses are used for spans up to 04 meters. This type of truss is used for industrial buildings to obtain ade!uate natural lighting for a wide building. In this, the steep sides of the truss are gla$ed. The gla$ed panel is faced towards North to a oid direct sunlight and direct glaring of the sun. This type of truss is also known as +aw Tooth. A. Bo3 Stri ! Steel Truss" These trusses are used for spans up to 2@ meters. <.1 C/R6ED ROOFS Cur ed Roofs are the modification of pitched roof. 6s the name implies, the roof surface is cur ed in one or more directions. +hell Roofs and "ome Roofs are the types of cur ed roof. %i&S$ELL ROOF +hell Roof is used for co ering big structures. 6s the shell section needed is ery thin, a lot of material is sa ed. "ead load is ery musch less. The shell acts as a membrane free from high bending stress. Common types of shell roofs are North-light +hell Roof and #arrel <ault +hell Roof. Nort(0li!(t S(ell Roo' It contains +hell Roof, Cla$ing, .dte #eam and <alley #eam. /ses" North-light shell roof is used where sunlight is essential. (or big buildings such as industrial buildings, assemble halls, libraries, etc., R.C.C. shells are used. In small buildings, catenary type shell roofs made of either brick or plain concrete is used. Barrel 6ault S(ell It has a long multiple cylindrical form withfeather edge beam. It is used where sunlight is not a must. :ii;DOME ROOF 6 "ome is a semi-spherical or semi-elliptical shape. It is used where the building is circular or he*agonal in plan. - It is supported on circular or regular polygon shaped walls. It is a ery thin structure. It is constructed of brick or stone or concrete. "ome is used where architectural treatment is needed. These are used o er circular spaces to create pleasing architectural effects. This type of roof is most suitable for ,onuments and places of worship. <.8ROOF CON6ERIN4S FOR SLO+IN4 ROOFS

Selectio Criteria Roof co erings are placed o er the roof frame work. The selection of roof co ering material depends upon the following factors/ 0. Type and nature of building 1. Type of roof structure 2. +lope of the roof 3. 6ppearance 4. Climate of the locality ?. 7eat insulation A. "urability E. (abrication facilities B. Resistance to fire 0@. Cost of roof co erings ROOF CO6ERIN4 MATERIALS 1.Asbestos Ceme t S(eets :A.C. S(eets; 6.C. +heet consists of asbestos and cement. 6sbestos is a silky fibrous material found in eins in maetamorphic rocks. It is found in se eral arieties. #ut, asbestos which is a compound of silica and magnesia is used. 6.c. +heets are good insulators. They are a ailable in three shapes, namely, %i& Corrugated 6.C. +heets, %ii& +emi-Corrugated %or Trafford& 6.C. +heets and %iii& 9lain or (lat 6.C. +heets. These sheets may be spanned safely up to a span to 0.?E meters. Ad#a 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. ?. A. ta!es o' A.C. S(eets 6.C. sheets are durable, tough and water-tight. They are cheap. They are of light weight and hence can be erected easily. ,aintenance is less. They are fire resistant and termite resistant. 6.C. +heets can be nailed, punched or sawn. They need not be painted at all.

/ses 0. Corrugated and +emi-corrugated 6.C. +heets are used for roof co ering. The sheets are fi*ed to the wooden battens from the top of the corrugations through 2 mm diameter holes using D-#olts. 1. 9lain or (lat +heets are used for partitioning work. They are also used in industrial buildings either independently or in combination with other type of sheets for paneling, false ceilings, wall claddings, etc. ).Tiles Clay Tiles are made similar to bricks. The si$es and shapes ha e impro ed from time to time. Concrete Tiles are used to a limited e*tent. 9lain Tiles are used along with special tiles such as ,angalore Tiles and 9an Tiles.

,angalore Tiles is a ery popular type of patented tile. These tiles are machine pressed clay tiles. They ha e better interlocking, resulting in better protection against hea y rain or wind. 9an Tiles are made out of clay. The roof is co ered by the use of #ent Tiles. This is comparati ely of less weight. There is no leakage at the )oints of the tiles. ..4al#a i%ed iro s(eets :4.I. S(eets; -ike 6.C. sheets, C.I. sheets ha e high durability, light in weight and fire resistant. C.I. sheet consists of thin iron metal sheet which is gal ani$ed with Iinc %hence called Iinc +heet& to protect it from rusting action of water. It is gi en the bent-shape or corrugation for additional strength. These sheets are widely used, though the appearance is not that good. "ue to the high cost of C.I. +heets, they are now replaced by 6.C. sheets. 4.Slate Roo'i ! +late is a sedimentary rock, which could be split into thin sheets. +lates are a ailable in different natural colours. ,ost common colour is arious shades of grey, black and red. 6 good !uality slate should ha e %i& 7ardness, %ii& . en Colour, %iii& . en te*ture. 6lso, in should be %i& Imper ious and %ii& "urable. It should also gi e a ringing sound when struck. It should not ha e white patches.