Radioactivity - Introduction All substances are made of atoms.

These have electrons (e) around the outside, and a nucleus in the middle. The nucleus consists of protons (p) and neutrons (n), and is extremely small. (Atoms are almost entirely made of empty space!) In some types of atom, the nucleus is unstable, and will decay into a more stable atom. This radioactive decay is completely spontaneous. You can heat the substance up, or sub ect it to hi!h pressure or stron! ma!netic fields " in fact, do whatever you li#e to it " and you won$t affect the rate of decay in the sli!htest.

This form of %ithium is not radioactive " it$s ust an example of a simple atom. &ost radioactive substances have many more particles in their nucleus.

'hen an unstable nucleus decays, there are three ways that it can do so. It may !ive out("
) an alpha particle (we use the symbol *) ) a beta particle (symbol +) ) a !amma ray (symbol )

&any radioactive substances emit * particles and + particles as well as rays. In fact, you won$t find a pure source, anythin! that !ives off rays will also !ive off * and-or + too.

Types of Radioactive Rays Alpha Alpha radiation is a heavy, very short"ran!e particle and is actually an e ected helium nucleus. .ome characteristics of alpha radiation are(
) &ost alpha radiation is not able to penetrate human s#in. ) Alpha"emittin! materials can be harmful to humans if the materials are

inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed throu!h open wounds.

) A variety of instruments has been desi!ned to measure alpha radiation.

.pecial trainin! in the use of these instruments is essential for ma#in! accurate measurements.
) A thin"window /ei!er"&ueller (/&) probe can detect the presence of alpha

radiation.
) Instruments cannot detect alpha radiation throu!h even a thin layer of water,

dust, paper, or other material, because alpha radiation is not penetratin!.

) Alpha radiation travels only a short distance (a few inches) in air, but is not

an external ha0ard.
) Alpha radiation is not able to penetrate clothin!.

1xamples of some alpha emitters( radium, radon, uranium, thorium. Alpha Particles Alpha particles are made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. This means that they have a char!e of 32, and a mass of 4 (the mass is measured in "atomic mass units", where each proton & neutron=1) Alpha particles are relatively slow and heavy. They have a low penetratin! power " you can stop them with ust a sheet of paper. 5ecause they have a lar!e char!e, alpha particles ionise other atoms stron!ly.

Beta 5eta radiation is a li!ht, short"ran!e particle and is actually an e ected electron. .ome characteristics of beta radiation are(

) 5eta radiation may travel several feet in air and is moderately penetratin!. ) 5eta radiation can penetrate human s#in to the 6!erminal layer,6 where new

s#in cells are produced. If hi!h levels of beta"emittin! contaminants are allowed to remain on the s#in for a prolon!ed period of time, they may cause s#in in ury.
) 5eta"emittin! contaminants may be harmful if deposited internally. ) &ost beta emitters can be detected with a survey instrument and a thin"

window /& probe (e.!., 6panca#e6 type). .ome beta emitters, however, produce very low"ener!y, poorly penetratin! radiation that may be difficult or impossible to detect. 1xamples of these difficult"to"detect beta emitters are hydro!en"7 (tritium), carbon"84, and sulfur"79.
) :lothin! provides some protection a!ainst beta radiation.

1xamples of some pure beta emitters( strontium";<, carbon"84, tritium, and sulfur"79. Beta Particles 5eta particles have a char!e of minus 8, and a mass of about 8-2<<<th of a proton. This means that beta particles are the same as an electron. They are fast, and li!ht. 5eta particles have a medium penetratin! power " they are stopped by a sheet of aluminium or plastics such as =erspex. 5eta particles ionise atoms that they pass, but not as stron!ly as Alpha particles do.

Gamma

/amma radiation and x rays are hi!hly penetratin! electroma!netic radiation. .ome characteristics of these radiations are(
) /amma radiation or x rays are able to travel many feet in air and many

inches in human tissue. They readily penetrate most materials and are sometimes called 6penetratin!6 radiation.
) > rays are li#e !amma rays. > rays, too, are penetratin! radiation. .ealed

radioactive sources and machines that emit !amma radiation and x rays respectively constitute mainly an external ha0ard to humans.
) /amma radiation and x rays are electroma!netic radiation li#e visible li!ht,

radio waves, and ultraviolet li!ht. These electroma!netic radiations differ only in the amount of ener!y they have. /amma rays and x rays are the most ener!etic of these.
) ?ense materials are needed for shieldin! from !amma radiation. :lothin!

provides little shieldin! from penetratin! radiation, but will prevent contamination of the s#in by !amma"emittin! radioactive materials.
) /amma radiation is easily detected by survey meters with a sodium iodide

detector probe.
) /amma radiation and-or characteristic x rays fre@uently accompany the

emission of alpha and beta radiation durin! radioactive decay. 1xamples of some !amma emitters( iodine"878, cesium"87A, cobalt"B<, radium"22B, and technetium";;m. Gamma Rays /amma rays are waves, not particles. This means that they have no mass and no char!e. /amma rays have a hi!h penetratin! power " it ta#es a thic# sheet of metal such as lead, or concrete to reduce them si!nificantly. /amma rays do not directly ionise other atoms, althou!h they may cause atoms to emit other particles which will then cause ionisation. 'e don$t find pure !amma sources " !amma rays are emitted alon!side alpha or beta particles. .trictly spea#in!, !amma emission isn$t $radioactive decay$ because it doesn$t chan!e the state of the nucleus, it ust carries away some ener!y.

Type of Radiation Symbol Mass (atomic mass units) Char e Speed Ionisin ability Penetratin po!er Stopped by"

Alpha particle 4 32 slow hi!h low paper

Beta particle 8-2<<< "8 fast medium medium aluminium

Gamma ray < < very fast (speed of li!ht) < hi!h lead

Radioactive decay Cadioactive decay is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus spontaneously loses ener!y by emittin! ioni0in! particles and radiation. This decay, or loss of ener!y, results in an atom of one type, called the parent nuclide transformin! to an atom of a different type, called the dau!hter nuclide. Dor example( a carbon"84 atom (the 6parent6) emits radiation and transforms to a

nitro!en"84 atom (the 6dau!hter6). This is a random process on the atomic level, in that it is impossible to predict when a !iven atom will decay, but !iven a lar!e number of similar atoms the decay rate, on avera!e, is predictable. Alpha #ecay In alpha decay, the nucleus emits an alpha particle, an alpha particle is essentially a helium nucleus, so it$s a !roup of two protons and two neutrons. A helium nucleus is very stable. An example of an alpha decay involves uranium"27E( The process of transformin! one element to another is #nown as transmutation. Alpha particles do not travel far in air before bein! absorbed, this ma#es them very safe for use in smo#e detectors, a common household item.

Beta decay A beta particle is often an electron, but can also be a positron, a positively"char!ed particle that is the anti"matter e@uivalent of the electron. If an electron is involved, the number of neutrons in the nucleus decreases by one and the number of protons increases by one. An example of such a process is( In terms of safety, beta particles are much more penetratin! than alpha particles, but much less than !amma particles. Gamma decay The third class of radioactive decay is !amma decay, in which the nucleus chan!es from a hi!her"level ener!y state to a lower level. .imilar to the ener!y levels for electrons in the atom, the nucleus has ener!y levels. The concepts of shells, and more stable nuclei havin! filled shells, apply to the nucleus as well. 'hen an electron chan!es levels, the ener!y involved is usually a few eF, so a visible or ultraviolet photon is emitted. In the nucleus, ener!y differences between levels are much lar!er, typically a few hundred #eF, so the photon emitted is a !amma ray. /amma rays are very penetratin!, they can be most efficiently absorbed by a relatively thic# layer of hi!h"density material such as lead. A list of #nown nuclei and their properties can be found in the chart of the nuclides at the 5roo#haven Gational %aboratory.

Radioactive #ecay Seiries A radioactive decay series is the chain of decays that occur startin! with a radioactive isotope. An example of this is the uranium"radium series( Hranium"27E decays thorium"274 protactinium"274

Thorium"274 decays

=rotactinium"274 I decays to form uranium"274 Cadium"22B !oes throu!h five more decays and four more I decays to yield the non"radioactive isotope 2<B=b, or lead. This series is also called the 4n32 series, because the mass numbers of each of the isotopes in the series can be represented by 4n32, where n is an inte!er. The thorium series is a 4n series, it starts at thorium"272 and the end result is 2<EJ=b. The actinium series, or 4n37 series, be!ins with uKalf life of radioactive elements The half"life of a radioactive element is the time that it ta#es for one half of theatoms of that substance to disinte!rate into another nuclear form. These can ran!efrom mere fractions of a second, to many billions of years. In addition, the half"life of a particular radionuclide is uni@ue to that radionuclide, meanin! that #nowled!e of the half"life leads to the identity of the radionuclide. The Kalf"%ife Drom A ?ecay :urve 29B L82ET8-2T8-2M radioactive decay

T8-2 M 7 hours #efine Isotope Isotopes (/ree# isos M 6e@ual6, tNpos M 6site, place6) are any of the differenttypes of atoms (nuclides) of the same chemical element, each havin! adifferent atomic mass (mass number). Isotopes of an element have nucleiwith the same number of protons (the same atomic number) but differentnumbers of neutrons. Therefore, isotopes of the same element have differentmass numbers (number of nucleons). Cadioisotope A radioactive form of an element. A radioisotope consists of unstable atomsthat under!o radioactive decay emittin! alpha, beta or !amma radiation.Cadioisotopes occur naturally, as in the cases of radium and uranium, or maybe created artificially.Applications of Cadioactivity and Cadioisotopes Cadioisotopes find numerous uses in different areas such as medicine,chemistry, biolo!y, archaeolo!y, a!riculture, industry and en!ineerin!.

TracerTechni@uesCadioisotopes are fre@uently used as tracers or ta!!ed atoms invarious fields. In tracer techni@ue, a radioactive isotope is added to thereactants and its movement is studied by measurin! radioactivity indifferent parts. In medicine In order to find if blood is circulatin! to a wound or not, a radioactiveisotope is in ected into the blood stream. After a time period, bloodfrom the wound is examines for its radioactivity. If no radioactiveisotope is detected, it means that passa!e of blood is hindered. Therate of circulation can also be detected by this method. Tracer techni@ue is also used for the detection of thyroid disorder andbrain tumours.

:ancer therapy! " rays emitted by the radioisotopes can be used in the treatment of cancer. These radiations tend to destroy cancerous cells and the waycan arrest the spreadin! of the cancerous cells. B<:O is used in thetreatment of tumours and cancers.In A!riculture The upta#e of phosphorous by plants is studied by mixin! radioactivephosphorous with phosphatic fertilisers.In :hemistry Tracer techni@ue is used To find the solubility of sparin!ly soluble salt li#e lead sulphate. A leadsalt containin! #nown amount of radioactive lead is dissolved in water..ulphuric acid is added to the a@ueous solution to precipitate lead aslead sulphate. Tracer techni@ue is also used to study the path or mechanism of thereaction. :onsider the reaction The @uestion is how does the elimination of water ta#e place " does theoxy!en atom in water come from the alcohol or acid. This is studied bylabellin! or ta!!in! the

oxy!en in the alcohol molecule. In other words,the alcohol is prepared with O8E. Cesults show that the ester formed hasthe radioactive oxy!en. This shows that the starred oxy!en comes fromthe alcohol. Thus the "OK !roup of the acid and the K atom of the alcoholare eliminated in the form of water. ?an!ers of Cadioactive Cays The main dan!er from radioactivity is the dama!e it does to thecells in your body. &ost of this dama!e is due toionisationwhen the radiation passes, althou!hif levels of radiation are hi!h there can be dama!e due to heatin! effects asyour body absorbs the ener!y from the radiation, rather li#e heatin! food ina microwave oven. This is particularly true of !amma rays.

5eta =articles () "particles have a lon!er ran!e than $s, but ionise much less stron!ly,with the result that they do around 8-2<th of the dama!e done by the samedose of alpha particles.Kowever, they do have more penetratin! power, which means that they can!et throu!h your s#in and affect cells inside you. /amma Cays () /amma rays hardly ionise atoms at all, so they do not cause dama!e directlyinthisway.Kowever, !amma rays are very difficult to stop, you re@uire lead or concreteshieldin! to #eep you safe from them. 'hen they are absorbed by an atom,those atom !ains @uite a bit of ener!y, and may then emit other particles. If that atom is in one of your cells, this is not !ood! Guclear 1ner!y Guclear ener!y is released by the splittin! (fission) or mer!in! to!ether(fusion) of the nuclei of atom(s). The conversion of nuclear mass to ener!y isconsistent with the mass"ener!y e@uivalence formula P1 M Pm.cQ, in whichP1 M ener!y release, Pm M mass defect, and c M the speed of li!ht in a

Alpha =articles ()

Alpha particles are slow, have a short ran!e in air, and can be stopped by asheet of paper. You mi!ht therefore assume that alpha particles are the least dan!erous of the three types of radiation.'hilst they cannot penetrate your s#in, you couldeasily eat or drin# somethin! contaminated with ansource. This would put a source of particlesinside your body, wrea#in! havoc byionisin!atomsin nearby cells. If this happens to part of the ?GA inone of your cells, then that cell$s instructions abouthow to live and !row have been scrambled. The cellis then li#ely to do somethin! very different to whatit$s supposed to do, for example, it may turncancerous and start multiplyin! uncontrollably. Thus alpha particles, whilst they have a lowpenetratin! power, can be the most dan!erousbecause they ionise so stron!ly.

vacuum (a physical constant). Guclear ener!y was first discovered by Drenchphysicist Kenri 5ec@uerel in 8E;B, when he found that photo!raphic platesstored in the dar# near uranium were blac#ened li#e >"ray plates, which hadbeen ust recently discovered at the time 8E;9. Atomic &ass Hnit The atomic mass unit it the unit of mass for atoms and subatomicparticles such as the proton, neutron an electronR 8 atomic mass unit or 8 u is 828 of the mass of the carbon"82 atom.R The mass of one carbon"82 atom is 8.;;2B9 x 8<"2B #!

8 u M 2B8<;;2B9.8828STT #!8 u M 8.BB x 8<"2A #! &ass defect ?efinition( The distance between theoretical calculated mass andexperimentally measured mass of nucleus is called mass defect. It is denotedby Pm. It can be calculated as follows(&ass defect M (Theoretical calculated mass) " (measured mass of nucleus)i.e, (sum of masses of protons and neutrons) " (measured mass of nucleus)" In nuclear reactions, the ener!y that must be radiated or otherwiseremoved as bindin! ener!y may be in the form of electroma!netic waves,such as !amma radiation, or as heat. A!ain, however, no mass deficit can intheory appear until this radiation has been emitted and is no lon!er part of the system." The ener!y !iven off durin! either nuclear fusion or nuclear fission is thedifference between the bindin! ener!ies of the fuel and the fusion or fissionproducts. In practice, this ener!y may also be calculated from the substantialmass differences between the fuel and products, once evolved heat andradiation have been removed." 'hen the nucleons are !rouped to!ether to form a nucleus, they lose asmall amount of mass i.e. There is mass defect. This mass defect is releasedas (often radiant) ener!y accordin! to the relation 1 M mc2, thus bindin!ener!y M mass defect U c2 . This ener!y holds the nucleons to!ether and is#nown as bindin! ener!y. In fact, mass defect is a measure of the bindin!ener!y of the nucleus. The !reater the mass defect, the !reater is the

bindin! ener!y of the nucleus. Guclear DussionsR Guclear fission is the splittin! of a heavy nucleus into two li!hter nucleiR Dission occurs when the nucleus of an atom is bombarded with a neutron.R The ener!y of the neutron causes the tar!et nucleus to split into two (ormore) nuclei that are li!hter than the parent nucleus, releasin! a lar!eamount of ener!y durin! the process.=roblem .olvin! Involvin! Guclear Dussion The relationship between the mass and the ener!y(1 M mc2'here 1 M ener!y released, in oules, Vm M loss of mass or mass defect, in #!c M speed of li!ht M 7.< x 8<E m-s