DEPARTMENT OF PROSTHODONTICS

Seminar on

Dental casting alloys

Dr nikhil .j
Post Graduate Student

Under the Guidance of' Dr. N.P. Patil

Prof & Head of Department

S.D.M. C !!"G" # D"N$%! SC&"NC"S & H SP&$%!' DH%()%D' *%(N%$%*%' &ND&%.

S.D.M. COLLEGE OF DENTAL SCIENCES AND HOSPITAL, DHARWAD, KARNATAKA, INDIA

CERTIFICATE
$his is to certify that the Seminar on +D"N$%! C%S$&NG %!! ,S+ -as presented .y Dr. Nikhil under my guidance' during the period /0012/003.

Date Place4 Dhar-ad

Dr. Narendra P. Patil,M.D.S. Prof & Head

&N$( D5C$& N .ecause pure metals are apt to .e soft and many tends to corrode rapidly and also .ecause high cost their use is 6uite limited in dentistry. $o optimi7e properties' most metals commonly used in dentistry are mi8tures of t-o or more metallic elements or one or more metal and9or non metals :$H" %!! ,;. C%S$&NG is one of the most -idely used methods for fa.rication of metal restorations out of the mouth. % pattern of lost tooth structure or the dental prosthesis to .e reproduced in metal is constructed in -a8. $he -a8 is surrounded .y an in<estment. %fter the in<estment has hardened the -a8 is remo<ed and the molten metal is forced into the mold space. My seminar deals -ith these dental casting alloys.

=What we will be tomorrow is because of what we are today and what we are today is because of what we were yesterday!" Some.ody ha-s rightly said that #istory is the best teacher and a .rief description of the e<olution of the currently marketed alloys is appropriate to understand the rationale for the de<elopment of the -ide <ariety of alloy formulations.

TABLE 19-1 ANUSAVICE PG NO 565

>. $he technological changes of dental prostheses. /. Metallurgic ad<ancements. 1. Price changes of no.le metals since >?3@ $aggartAs presentation to the Ne- ,ork dontological Group in >?0B on the fa.rication of cast inlay restorations often has .een ackno-ledged as the first reported application of lost -a8 techni6ue in dentistry. $he inlay techni6ue descri.ed .y $aggart -as an instant success and it soon lead to the casting of comple8 restorations such as inlays' onlays' cro-ns' fi8ed partial dentures and remo<a.le partial denture frame-orks. Cecause pure gold did not ha<e physical properties re6uired for those dental restorations e8isting je-elry alloys -ere 6uickly adopted. $hese gold alloys -ere further strengthened -ith copper' sil<er or platinum. &n >?1/ the dental materials Group at the National Cureau of Standards sur<eyed the alloys .eing used and roughly classified them as a $ype &' &&' &&& and &D. &n the follo-ing years se<eral patents -ere issued for alloys containing Palladium' as a su.stitute for Platinum. Cy >?E@ the composition of dental no.le metal alloys for lost metal restorations had .ecome rather di<erse' -irth these formulations' the tarnishing tendency of the original alloys apparently had disappeared. &t is no- kno-n that in gold alloys Palladium is added to counteract the tarnishing potential of sil<er. $he .ase metal remo<a.le partial denture alloys -ere introduced in the >?10s. Since that time' .oth Ni2Cr and Co2Cr formulati0ons ha<e .ecome increasingly popular compared -ith con<entional type &D gold alloys' -hich pre<iously -ere the predominant metals used for such prostheses. $he o.<ious ad<antages of .ase metal alloys are their lighter -eight' increased mechanical properties and their reduced cost.

!ike-ise .y >?B@' the price of gold -as clim.ing so rapidly attention focused on the no.le' metal alloys. $o reduce the the precious metal content and yet retain the ad<antages of no.le metals for dental use. D"S&(%C!" P( P"($&"S # D"N$%! C%S$&NG %!! ,S4 %ll casting alloys must first .e .iocompati.le and then e8hi.it sufficient physical and mechanical properties to ensure ade6-uate function and structural dura.ility o<erlong periods of time. >. C& C MP%S$&C&!&$,4 $heir material must tolerate oral fluids and must not release any harmful products into the oral en<ironment. /. C (( S& N ("S&S$%NC"4 Corrosion is defined as a chemical or a electrochemical process in -hich a solid usually a metal' is attacked .y an en<ironmental agent' resulting in partial or complete dissolution. Metals are generally more suscepti.le to such attacks .ecause of electrochemical reactions. Corrosion resistance is deri<ed either .y the component .eing too no.le to react in the oral en<ironment:".g.4 gold' palladium; or .y its a.ility to form an adherent passi<ating surface film -hich inhi.its any su.surface reactions: ".g.4 Co2Cr' Ni2 Cr and Co2Cr alloys and $i alloys in CP $i and in $i23%l2ED alloys;. 1. $%(N&SH ("S&S$%NC" =process .y -hich a metal surface is dulled or discolored -hen a reaction -ith sulfide' o8ide' chloride or chemical causes a the film to form. $hese films are generally found on gold alloys -ith relati<ely high sil<er content or on sil<er alloys. E. %!!"(G"N&C C MP N"N$S &NC %S$&NG %!! ,S4 % restorati<e material should not cause ad<erse health conse6uences to a patient. Ceryllium potentially to8ic under uncontrolled conditions. F. "S$H"$&CS 4 Considera.le contro<ersy e8ists o<er the optimal .alance among the properties of esthetics' fit' a.rasi<e potential' clinical sur<i<a.ility' and cost of cast metal prosthesis compared -ith direct filling restorations' ceramic .ased prosthesis:all ceramic and metal ceramic; and resin <eneer prosthesis. 3. $H"(M%! P( P"($&"S4 #or metal ceramic restorations the alloys or metals must ha<e closely' matching thermal "8pansion to .e compati.le -ith as gi<en porcelain' and they must tolerate high processing temperature. B. M"!$&NG (%NG"4 Must .e lo- enough to gGform smooth surfaces -ith the mold -all of the casting in<estment. @. C MP"NS%$& N # ( S !&D&#&C%$& N4 Compensation for casting shrinkage must .e achie<ed either through computer generated o<ersi7ed dies or through controlled mold e8pansion. $he fit of the cemented prosthesis must .e tailored to accommodate the alloys of .onding adhesi<e and the luting cement. ?. S$("NG$H ("H5&("M)N$S4 %lloys for .ridge-ork re6uire higher strength than alloys for single cro-ns. Copings for metal ceramic restorations re6uire sufficient elastic modulus :stiffness; to pre<ent elastic deflection from functional forces. >0. C%S$%C&!&$,4 $he molten metal must .e a.le to -et the in<estment mold material <ery -ell :decreased contact angle; and flo- into the most intricate

regions of the mold -ithout any apprecia.le interaction -ith the in<estment and -ithout forming porosity -ithin the su.surFface ands surface regions. >>. #&N&SH&NG # C%S$ M"$%!S4 Hardness' ductility :percentage elongation; and ultimate tensile strength are important properties in this regard. >/. P (C"!%&N C ND&NG4 % su.strate metal must .e a.le to form a thin' adherent o8ide' prefera.ly one that is light in color and also it must ha<e thermal e8pansion9contraction coefficients that are closely matched to that of porcelain. >1. "C N M&C C NS&D"(%$& NS4 $he cost of metals used in restorati<e dentistry is a function of the metal density and the cost per unit mass. C!%SS&#&C%$& N # D"N$%! C%S$&NG %!! ,S =E$en the %ro$erbial needle in the haystac& can be found if there is a system and method to the search! &n >?@E' the %D% proposed a simple classification for dental casting alloys. C I N >?2> %N5S%D&C" PG FB0. Cast dental alloys can .e classified according to the follo-ing fi<e categories4 >. 5S" :%ll metal inlays' cro-ns and .ridges' metal and ceramic prostheses' posts and cores' remo<a.le partial dentures' implants;. /. M%J ( "!"M"N$S 4: Gold .ased' palladium .ased' sil<er .ased' nickel .ased' co.alt .ased and titanium .ased; 1. N C&!&$,4 High no.le' no.le' predominantly .ase metal. E. P(&NC&P%! $H("" "!"M"N$S4 ".g.4 %u2Pd2%g Pd2%g2 Sn Ni2Cr2Ce Co2Cr2Mo etc E. D M&N%N$ PH%S" S,S$"M4 Single phase' "utectic' Peritectic' and &ntermetallic Mechanical properties :%NS&9 %D% Specifications' >??B;2 $a.le >?2/ pg FB> anusa<ice. M&C( S$(5C$5(" # %!! ,S M"$%!4 %n element -hose atomic structure rapidly loses electron to form positi<ely charged ions' and -hich e8hi.its metallic .onding' opacity good light reflectance from a poloished surface' and high electrical ands thermal conducti<ity. f the >01 elemnts listed oinm the periodic ta.le @0 are classed as metals and they e8hi.it the follo-ing properties4 >. Metallic luster /. Metallic ring. 1. Harder' stronger and denser than other elements E. Solids at room temperature: "8ception' mercury and gallium -hich are li6uids at room temperature and hydrogen -hich is a gas at room temperature;. F. Good conductors of heat and electricity. 3. pa6ue

B. Ductile and mallea.le @. "lectropositi<e %!! ,4 % crystalline su.stance -ith metallic properties that is composed of t-o or more chemical elements' at least one of -hich is a metal. %!! , S,S$"M is an aggregate of t-o or more metals in all com.inations. &n order to specify a particular alloy it is necessary to list the metals or elements Gpresent in the alloy and the amount of each element present. $-o methods are a<aila.le.4 >. $he -eight percentageof each element. /. $he atomic fraction or percentage. $he properties of an alloy relate more to the atomic percentage. PH%S" D&%G(%MS:C NS$&$5$& N D&%G(%M;. % graph of the phase field limits as a function of temperature and composition. Phase diagrams usually represent e6uili.rium conditions. 5S"S4 $hey sho- the phases that are present in an alloy system for different compositions and temperatures. D&%G(%M4#ig 321 pg >/3 and fig 32E pg >/B anusa<ice. C!%SS&#&C%$& N # %!! ,S C%S"D N $H"&( M&SC&C&!&$,4 >. S !&D S !5$& N S5CS$&$5$& N%! %ND &N$"(S$&$&%! $,P". /. C (&NG 1. "5$"C$&C %!! ,S E. P"(&$"C S,S$"M F. &N$"(M"$%!!&C C MP 5NDS P( P"($&"S # D&##"("N$ %!! ,&NG "!"M"N$S4 G !D4 >. Pure gold is soft' mallea.le' ductile metal that does not o8idi7e under atmospheric conditions and is attacked .y only a fe- of the most po-erful o8idi7ing agents. /. &t has a rich yello- color -ith a strong metallic luster. 1. %lthough it is the most mallea.le and ductile metal' it ranks much lo-er in strength. E. $he pure metal fuses at >030 degree Celsius F. Small amounts of impurities ha<e a pronounced effect on mechanical properties of gold and its alloys 3. $he presence of les than /K lead -ill cause the metal to .ecome e8tremely .rittle. B. Mercury in small 6uantities also has a harmful effect on its properties. @. Gold is nearly as soft as lead -ith the result that in dental alloys it must .e alloyed -ith copper' sil<er' platinum and other metals to de<elop the necessary hardness' dura.ility %nd elasticity ?. $he specific gra<ity of pure gold is .et-een>?.10 and >?.11 making it one of the hea<y metals >0. %ir or -ater at any temperature doesnAt tarnish gold. >>. &t is not solu.le in sulfuric' nitric or hydrochloric acids.

>1.CHN of /F >E. .oiling point of /?B0 degree Celsius >F.!inear coefficient of thermal e8pansion 0.>E/ $he puritiy of gold is e8pressed in karat or fineness *arat refers to parts of pure gold in /E parts of gold alloy #ineness refers to parts of pure gold in >000 parts of gold alloy. P%!!%D&5M4 >. Palladium is not used in pure state in dentistry .ut it is used in many dental alloys com.ined -ith either gold or sil<er. /. &t is cheaper than platinum and since it imparts many of the properties of platinum to dental alloys it is often used as a replacement for platinum. 1. Platinum is a -hite metal some -hat darker than platinum. E. &ts specific gra<ity is >>.E i.e.' a.out half that of platinum and a little more than half of gold. F. &t is a mallea.le and ductile metal -ith a melting point of>FFF degree Celsius -hich is the lo-est of the platinum group of metals. 3. &t hardens the alloy' imparts it -hiter color and compensates the reddening effect of copper. &ncrease the melting point of the alloy and renders sil<er tarnish resistant. S&!D"(4 >. Sil<er is mallea.le' ductile' -hite in color and .est kno-n for its conduction of heat and electricity. &t is stronger and harder than gold .ut softer than copper. /. Melting point of ?30.F degree Celsius 1. &t com.ines -ith sulfur' chlorine and phosphorus or their <apors E. Pure sil<er is seldom employed in dental restorations .ecause of the .lack sulfide formation on themetal in the mouth although it is used as small additions to many gold alloys. F. %ddition of palladium to sil<er containing alloys pre<ents the rapid corrosiojn of such alloys in the oral en<ironment. 3.Sil<er increases the hardness slightly'-hitens the alloy to o<er come the reddening effect of copper. Molten sil<er can dissol<e o8ygen and cause porosity in the casting and sil<er can encourage corrosion. C PP"( >.Hardens the alloy. /.(educes the melting point of alloy. 1. (educes the density of the alloy E. "8cessi<e copper renders the alloy more suscepti.le to tarnish and corrosion and reddens the alloy. L&NC4 >. &t is an o8ide sca<enger during melting of the alloy for casting procedure.

/. in the a.sence of 7inc sil<er a.sor.s o8ygen at high temperature from the atmosphere. $his o8ygen is rejected during solidification tending to produce porosity in the casting. &(&D&5M' (5$H"N&5M %ND (H D&5M4 &ridium is a hard metal that is 6uite .rittle -hite -ith a high specific gra<ity of //.E/ and an e8ceptionally high melting point of /EE0 degree Celsius. >.%s little as 0.00FK of &ridium is effecti<e in refining the grain si7e of cast gold alloys. /. (uthenium produces a similar effect. G%!!&5M4 5sed mainly in sil<er free alloys to compensate for the the decreased thermal e8pansion seen in sil<er free alloys. :Sil<er is a<oided in metal ceramics as it has as greening effect; &( N'$&N4 &ncreases the hardness. %lso pro<ides an o8ide coat -hich impro<es .onding of porcelain to alloy. H"%$ $("%$M"N$ # H&GH N C!" %ND N C!" M"$%! %!! ,S4 H M G"N&L%$& N4 $he cast alloy is held at a temperature near its solidus to achie<e the ma8imum amount of diffusion -ithout melting :up to a period of 3 hours in some instances; $his treatment allo-s atomic diffusion to occur -hich eliminates as2cast compositional nonuniformity. $his treatment results in4 >. &ncrease in tarnish and corrosion resistance. /. &ncrease in the ductility of the alloy. S !5$& N H"%$ $("%$M"N$4 &t in<ol<es heating the casting to a temperature .elo- the solidus:usually B00 degree Celsius; ' holding for a short period of time:typically >0 min; so that the alloy returns to random su.stitutional solid solution ' and then 6uenching to retain this atomic arrangement at room temperature. $he tensile strength' hardness and proportional limit are reduced .y such a treatment .ut the ductility is increased. $his treatment is indicated for structures that are to .e ground' shaped or other-ise cold -orked' either in or out of the mouth. H%(D"N&NG H"%$ $("%$M"N$4 $he age hardening of the dental alloys can .e accomplished in se<eral -ays. ne of the most practical hardening treatments is .y S %*&NG or %G"&NG the casting at a specific temperature for a definite time'usually >F to 10 minutes' .efore it is -ater 6uenched. $he ageing temperature depends on the alloy composition .ut is generally .et-een /00 and EF0 degree Celsius. $his treatment is indicated for metallic partial dentures' .ridges and other similar structures.

C%S$&NG SH(&N*%G"4 %ll metals and alloys of practical dental interest shrink -hen they change from li6uid to solid state. $his occurred in three stages4 >. $he thermal contraction of the li6uid metal .et-een the temperature to -hich it is heated and the li6uidus. /. $he contraction of the metal inherent in its change from the li6uid to the solid state. 1. $he thermal contraction of the solid metal that occurs on further cooling to room temperature. $%C!" # ( C%S$&NG SH(&N*%G"4Pg FBB' %N5S%D&C". $his casting shrinkage must .e compensated for .y ade6uate casting techni6ue: selection of proper in<estment material -hich compensates the shrinkage and yet -ill .e a.le to -ithstand the fusion temperature of the alloy' for e8ample; S&!D"( P%!!%D&5M %!! ,S4 $hese alloys are -hite and predominantly sil<er in composition .ut ha<e su.stantial amounts of palladium:at least /FK; that pro<ides no.ility and promote tarnish resistance. $hey may or may not ha<e copper and a small amount of gold. %DD%N$%G"S4 >. %de6uate strength properties. /. %ccepta.le casta.ility 1. !o- cost !&M&$%$& N4 >. Great potential for tarnish and corrosion. H&GH N C!" %ND N C!" %!! ,S # ( M"$%!2C"(%M&C P( S$H"S&S $he chief o.jections to the use of dental porcelain as a restorati<e material are its lostrength under tensile and shear conditions. % method .y -hich this disad<antage can .e minimi7ed is to .ond the porcelain directly to a cast alloy su.structure made to fit the prepared tooth. &n spite of <astly different chemical compositions all such alloys must share at least three common features4 >. $hey must ha<e the potential to .ond to dental porcelain. /. $hey posses coefficients of thermal contraction compati.le -ith those of dental porcelains. 1. $heir solidus temperature is sufficiently high to permit application of lo- fusing porcelains. E. the coefficients ofd thermal e8pansion tend to .e reciprocal to melting point of the alloys. F. high sag resistance. S%G D"# (M%$& N #ig >?.> G !D P%!!%D&5M S&!D"( %!! ,S :! ) S&!D"( C N$"N$; %DD%N$%G"S4 >. "conomical

/. "8cellent resistance to tarnish and corrosion 1. (elati<e freedom from techni6ue sensiti<ity D&S%DD%N$%G"4 $he potential for porcelain discoloration -hen sil<er <apor is released. G !D2 P%!!%D&5M2S&!D"( %!! ,S :H&GH S&!D"( C N$"N$; Gold alloys that contain >/K %g or more account for appro8imately /0K of the current alloy market. %DD%N$%G"S4 >. !o-er cost /. #a<ora.le physical properties D&S%DD%N$%G"4 Potential for porcelain discoloration. G !D P%!!%D&5M %!! ,S4 $he first alloy of this type -as introduced in >?BB .y J.#.Jelenko and Co. $his alloy -as designed to o<ercome the porcelain discoloration effect :.ecause it is sil<er free; and also to pro<ide an alloy -ith a lo-er thermal contraction coefficient than that of either %u2Pd2 %g or Pd2%g alloys. $heir gold content <aries from EF to F/K and palladium content <aries .et-een 1B2EFK. % slight thermal contraction mismatch is recommended to de<elop compressi<e hoop and a8ial stresses in porcelain -hich are protecti<e in nature. Ho-e<er' significantly higher mismatches may lead to porcelain cracking or metal2ceramic .ond failure .ecause of the de<elopment of tensile stresses -hich e8ceed the tensile strength of porcelain or the strength of the metal ceramic .ond. %nother cause is the de<elopment of radial tensile stresses that e8ceed the tensile strength of porcelain. %DD%N$%G"S4 $hese alloys are considered nearly ideal .ecause4 >. Contain no sil<er /. $heir surface o8ide layer is <irtually indiscerni.le 1. $heir sag resistance is .etter than that of %u2Pt2Pd alloys E. $heir casta.ility' corrosion resistance and adherence to porcelain are e8cellent F. Cost effecti<e P( P"($&"S4 >. HD of a.out /00 /. ,ield strength of FB0 MPa 1. "longation of /0K P%!!%D&5M G !D %!! ,S4 (elati<ely fe- alloys are a<aila.le in the market due to the price <olatility of palladium and their la.oratory and clinical performance has not .een ade6uately documented. P%!!%D&5M2G !D2S&!D"( %!! ,S4 $hese ha<e a potential for porcelain discoloration. Gold content is from F21/K and sil<er content from 3.F2>EK.

$hese alloys ha<e a range of thermal contraction coefficients that increase -ith an increase in sil<er content. P%!!%D&5M2S&!D"( %!! ,S4 $his alloy type -as introduced in the market in >?BE as the first gold free no.le alloy a<aila.le for metal ceramic restorations $he Pd content is F123>K and /@2E0K %g in addition to tin and9or indium. %DD%N$%G"S4 >. $he lo- specific gra<ity and their lo- cost make them attracti<e economic alternati<es to gold .ased alloys. /. %de6uate physical properties 1. %lloys of this type are easy to polish and .urnish E. %dherence to porcelain is accepta.le although a predominantly mechanical type of .onding has .een suggested for this alloy. D&S%DD%N$%G"S4 >. Sil<er discoloration effect is most se<ere for these alloys. Gold metal conditioners or ceramic coating agents may minimi7e this effect. &n addition many of todayAs porcelains are formulated to minimi7e this pro.lem.

P%!!%D&5M2C PP"(2G%!!&5M %!! ,S4 #irst introduced in >?@1' these alloys -ere <ery popular in >??0s. Ho-e<er the price <olatility of palladium re6uired dentists to use other alloys. % .ro-n or .lack o8ide layer is formed during o8idation and su.se6uent porcelain firing cycles. Cecause of all these factors these alloys ha<e not .een -ell accepted in the dental practice. P%!!%D&5M2G%!!&5M2S&!D"( %!! ,S4 $hese alloys ha<e a slightly lighter o8ide layer than Pd2Cu alloys and they are thermally compati.le -ith lo-er e8pansion porcelains. &n addition they ha<e a coparati<ely lohardness -hich allo-s the alloy to .e adjusted in the dental la. or the chair side. D&SC ! (%$& N # P (C"!%&N C, S&!D"(4 >. $he colloidal dispersion of sil<er atoms entering the .ody and incisal porcelain or the gla7ed surface from <apour transport or surface diffusion may cause color changes including green' yello-2green' yello-2orange' orange and .ro-n hues. $his phenomenon is termed G(""N&NG. /. Porcelains -ith higher sodium content are .elie<ed to e8hi.it more intense discoloration .ecause of mmore rapid sil<er diffusion in sodium containing glass. 1. $he intensity of discoloration increases for higher sil<er content alloys' is more in the cer<ical region' lighter shades' multiple firing procedures and certain .rands of porcelain and also in sil<er free alloys due to <apori7ation of sil<er from the -alls of contaminated furnaces. P("D"N$& N # D&SC ! (%$& N4 >. 5se of ultra lo- fusing porcelain or non greening porcelain

/. % pure gold film can .e fired on a metal su.strate to reduce the surface sil<er concentration. 1. % ceramic conditioner can .e fired as a .arrier .et-een the alloy and the porcelain. E. 5se of a graphite .lock routinely to maintain a reducing atmosphere. $H"(M%! C MP%$&C&!&$, %ND &NC MP%$&C&!&$, # M"$%!2C"(%M&C S,S$"MS $hermal compati.ility refers to the a.ility of a metal and its <eneering porcelain to contract at similar rates during cooling from the ceramic sintering temperature :M@B> degree Celsius for lo- fusing porcelains and N@B> degree Celsius for ultra lo- fusing porcelains;. #&G >?2E D"SC(&C" &N D"$%&! Stresses de<elop .ecause of the difference in the thermal coefficients .et-een metal and porcelain as a prosthesis is cooled .elo- the glass transition temperature of porcelain. #or todayAs porcelain this temperature lies -ithin the range of F00 and 3F0 degree Celsius. &t is also possi.le to de<elop failure le<el stresses in near the metal porcelain junction -hen the contraction coefficient of the porcelain is much lo-er than that of the metal. &ncompati.ility failures may result -ith compati.le systems -hen atypical cooling rates' e8cessi<e porcelain metal thickness ratios' -hen improper frame-ork or coping geometries are used' or -hen the num.er of cycles e8ceeds the num.er recommended .y the manufacturer. !eucite:*/ .%l/ 1.ES)i /; is the principal high e8pansion microstructural component of dentalporcelains and its presence may cause large increases in the contraction coefficients of porcelain -hen more than fi<e firing cycles are necessary.

PH,S&C%! P( P"($&"S # H&GH N C!" %ND N C!" %!! ,S $a.le >?2B pg F?E anusa<ice C%S" M"$%! %!! ,S # ( C%S$ M"$%! %ND M"$%! C"(%M&C P( S$H"S&S $he no of dental la.oratories using .ase metal alloys steadily increased through B0s and @0s. %lthough the increased acceptance of these alloys during this period -as greatly influenced .y the price fluctuation of the no.le metals' the trend continued through ?0s e<en -hen the prices of no.le metals had come do-n. $he Ni2Cr2Ce alloys ha<e retained their popularity despite the potential to8icity of .eryllium and the allergenic potential of nickel. $here are se<eral reasons for the use of nickel chromium and9or co.alt chromium alloys in dentistry >. Nickel is com.ined -ith Chromium to form a highly corrosion resistant alloy /. Cost effecti<eness 1. %lloys such as $iconium >00 ha<e .een used in reEmo<a.le partial denture frame-orks for many years -ith fe- reports of allergic reactions. E. %lthough Ceryllium is a to8ic metal' dentists and patients should not .e affected .ecause the main risk occurs mainly in the <apor form -hich is a concern for the technician. F. Nickel alloys ha<e e8cellent mechanical properties such as high elastic modulus' high hardness' high sag resistance and a reasona.ly high elongation :ductility; 3. !o-er density n the other hand it is also important the reali7e the limitations of these alloys' particularly Dis2a ODis metal ceramic restorations4 >. $hese alloys are more difficult to cast and presolder /. $he a.ility to o.tain accepta.le fitting castings may re6uire special procedures to ade6uately compensate for the higher solidification shrinkage 1. Potential for porcelain delamination as a result of separation of poorly adherent o8ide layer from the metal su.strate. E. #inishing and polishing re6uire special procedures and is not easy either in the la. or at chairside. F. (emo<al of defecti<e restorations may take time. 3. (epair of cro-ns -ith fractured porcelain <eneers -hich may .e simply performed on no.le metal su.strates using pin2retained facings or metal ceramic onlays' is more difficult to accomplish in .ase metal frame-orks. C MP S&$& N %ND P( P"($&"S # C%S" M"$%! %!! ,S4 $%C!" >?2@'>?2? Pg F?? %nusa<ice. C& ! G&C%! H%L%(DS %ND P("C%5$& NS !a. technicians may .e e8posed occasionally or routinely to e8cessi<ely high concentrations of .eryllium and nickel dust and .eryllium <apour. %lthough the amount

of .eryllium rarely e8ceeds /K .y -eight' the atomic concentration of .eryllium is around >0.BK. $he risk for .eryllium <apour e8posure is grteatest to dental technicians during alloy melting ' especially in the a.sencedof an ade6uate e8haust and filtration system. $he ccupational Health and Saftey %dministration : SH%; specifies that the e8posure to .eryllium dust in air should .e limited to a particulate .eryllium concentration of /micrograms9m1 of air : .oth respira.le and nonrespira.le particles; determined from an @ hr time -eighted a<erage. $he allo-a.le ma8imum concentration is Fmicrogram9m1:not to .e e8ceeded for a >F min period;. $he National &nstitute for ccupation Safety and Health :N& SH; recommends a limit of 0.F micrograms 9m1 .ased on a >10 min sample. Moffa et al reported that -hen a local e8haust system -as used the cocn of .eryllium -as reduced to safe le<els. Physiologic responses to .eryllium <ary from contact dermatitis to se<ere chemical pneumonitis -hich can .e fatal. Symptoms may range from coughing' chest pain and general -eakness to pulmonary dysfunction. %!!"(G, P $"N$&%! # N&C*"!4 f greater concern to dental patient is intra oral e8posure to nickel' especially for patient -ith a kno-n allergy to this element. &nhalation' ingestion and dermal contact on nickel or nickel containing alloys are common .ecause nickel is found in en<ironment sources such as air ' soil and food as -ell as synthetic o.jects such as coins' kitchen utensils and je-elry. Nickel allergy is determined .y patch test using FK Nickel sulfate. $he effects of nickel e8posure to humans ha<e included dermatitis' casncer of nasal sinus and laryn8' irritation and perforation of nasal septum' loss of smell' asthmatic lung disease' pulmonary pneumoconiosis' lung dysfunction and death. SH% standard4 @ hr time -eighted a<erage concentration limit of >000 microgram9m1 of nickel and nickel compounds. P%($&%! D"N$5(" %!! ,S %ND G5&D"!&N"S # ( S"!"C$& N "##"C$ # "%CH %!! , C NS$&$5"N$4 CH( M&5M4 Chromium content is responsi.le for the tarnish resistance and stainless properties of these alloys. )hen the chromium of an alloy is o<er 10K the alloy is more difficult to cast. &t also forms a .rittle phase kno-n as the 7igma phase. $herefore dental alloys of these types should not contain more than /@2/?K chromium. C C%!$ %ND N&C*"!4 $hey are some/-hat interchangea.le to a certain e8tent. Co.alt increases the elastic modulus' strength and harness of the alloy more than nickel does. Nickel may increase ductility. C%(C N C N$"N$P

$he hardness of co.alt .ased alloys is increased .y the increased content of car.on. % change in the car.on content in the order of 0./ K in these alloys changes their properties to cGsuch an e8tent that the alloy -ould no longer .e usa.le in dentistry. M !,CD"N5M4 $he presence of 123K moly.denum contri.utes to the strength of the alloy. %!5M&N&5M4 %l in Ni containing alloys forms a compound of Nickel and %luminium :Ni 12%l;.$his compound increases the ultimate tenmsile and yield strength. C"(,!!&5M4 > K of this element to Nickel .ased alloys reduces the fusion range of the alloy .y a.out >00 degree Celsius. &t also aids in solid solution hardening. &t impro<es the casting characteristics -hich possi.ly aid in porcelasin .onding. S&!&C N %ND M%NG%N"S"4 $hese are added to increase the casta.ility of these alloys. $hey are present primarily on o8ide to pre<ent o8idation of other elements during melting. $he presence of nitrogen -hich cannot .e controlled unless the castings are made in a controlled atmosphere as in <acuum or argon also contri.utes to the .rittle 6ualities of these cast alloys. )hen the nitrogen content of the final alloy ois more thamn 0.> K the ncasatings loose some of their ductility since the minor ingredients of car.on' nitroigen and ygen effecti<ely increase the properties of the final formulated and designerd in such a-eay as rto ma8imi7e the rigidity of the prosthesis. $he o.<ious approach -ould .e to increase the thickness of metal su.structure since dou.ling the tyhi?ckness increases the rigidity in .ending.y a factor of @. ho-e<er' the ma8imum thickness of the o<erall restorastion is limited e8ternally .y occlusion and proper anatomical contour internally .y the desire to retain as muc8h tooth structure as possi.le:esthtics re6uirEEes a minimal thickness of o<erlaying por<celain that results in se<ere Plimits asstothe- ma8imum thickneres s ofdthe metal; $&$%N&5M # ( C%S$&NG %PP!&C%$& NS4 $itanium -as first isolated thern named /00 years ago .ut the metal -e kno- is less than E0 years old. &t is the- fourth most a.undant metalin the easrthAs crust. &t is a reacti<e metal and hence difficult ti e8tract pure titanium. Dr. )ilhelm kroll in<ented useful metallurgical processes for the commercial production of titanium metal and hence heis called the father of titanium industry. P( P"($&"S # $&$%N&5M $he physical and mechanical properties of titanium and its alloys <ary greatly -ith the addition of traces of other elements such as o8ygen' iron and nitrogen. Commercially pure $i is a<aila.le in four grades :Grade & to Grade &D; .ased on the incorporation of small amounts of o8ygen' nitrogen' hydrogen' iron and car.on during purification procedures. $he most commonly used and important $i alloy is $i23%l2ED alloy .ecause of its desira.le proportion and predicta.le produci.ility.

P( P"($&"S # $&$%N&5M %ND &$S %!! , :$i23%l2ED; $a.le / O)ang9 #enton >. $i is the most .iocompati.le metal used for dental prostheses. /. High melting point of >33@ degree Celsius. 1. &t is highly resistant to tarnish and corrosion due to the formation of a coat of titanium o8ide on the surface. E. Cut as the o8idation rate of $i increases rapidly a.o<e a temperature of @F0 degree Celsius' it is desira.le to use ultra lo- fusing porcelains for $i2ceramic prostheses. F. % special casting machine -ith arc melting capa.ility and argon atmosphere is used along -ith a compati.le in<estment are used to ensure accepta.le casta.ility. 3. $he most -idely used $i alloy used in dentistry is $i23%l2ED -hich is a alpha2 .eta alloy. %lthough it is stronger than CP $i' it is not as attracti<e from a .iocompati.ility point of <ie- due to slo- release of %l and D atoms in <i<o. %!$"(N%$&D"S $ C%S$ M"$%! $"CHN ! G, $o a<oid the challenges and cost of associated -ith metal casting process' four technologies are a<aila.leP S&N$"(&NG # C5(N&SH"D # &!4 $he Captek system consists of three pairs of materials4 >. CaptekP layer -hich is adapted first to the die and fired at a temperature of >0BF degree Celsius /. Captek G -hich is applied o<er the Captek P coping and the former is dra-en .y capillary action into the net-ork structure of the Captek P coping <acated .y the adhesi<e .inder. 1. Captek (epair paste and Capfil -hich are used to add material to Captek structures. $he main %DD%N$%G" of Captek structures is the <ery lo- thichness of metal tjhat can .e achie<edehich ensures minimal tooth preparation and hence impro<ed esthetics. C%D2C%M P( C"SS&NG % C%D2C%M System electronically or digitally records surface co2ordinates of the prepared tooth and stores these retri<ed data in the memory of a computer. $he image data can then .e retrie<ed immediately to mill or grind a metal' ceramic or composite prosthesis .y computer control from a solid .lock of the chosen material. )ithin minutes the prosthesis can .e fa.ricated and placed in a prepared tooth and .onded or cemented in the mouth of a patient. $he optical scanning procedure eliminates the need for an impression. %n ad<antage of ceramics is that homogeneous' high 6uality materials -ith minimal porosity and other typical defects are designed for C%D2C%M applications. C P, M&!!&NG $his process is .ased on the principle of tracing the surface of a pattern that is then replicated from a .lank of ceramic' composite' or metal that is ground' cut or milled .y a

rotating -heel -hose motionis controlled .y a link through the tracing de<ice. "g 4 $he Celay 4 Mikrona $echnologies' Spreinten.ach' S-it7erland; "!"C$( # (M&NG % master cast of the prepared tooth is prepared and coated -ith a special die spacer to facilitate separation of the duplicating material. %fter applying aconducti<e sil<er layer to the duplicated surface :Gypsum product; ' the die is connected to a plating head and connected to a po-er source and then placed in a plating solution. %fter a sufficentlyu thick layer of gold or other material is deposited' the gypsum is remo<ed and the coping is sand.lasted. Su.se6uent ceramic layers are condensed and sintered in a con<entional -ay. ("D&") # !&$"(%$5(" P.J Crockhurst and (.).S Canon in >?@> e8amined the re6uirements of alloys for metal2 ceramic cro-ns and .ridge-ork and discussed the functional re6uirements and manipulati<e .eha<ior of as -ell as cost of alternati<es to high gold alloys. $hey concluded that .ase metal alloys functioned satisfactorily as compared to high no.le alloys pro<ided proper dental la. procedures -ere employed. Nickel and .eryllium did not appear to .e health ha7ards for them. J. (o.ert *elly and $homas C.(ose in >?@1 discussed the <arious physical properties' .iocompati.ility' porcelain .onding and corrosion resistance of <arious non precious alloys and concluded that though the manipulation of non precious alloys is techni6ue sensiti<e and e8acting' their .etter physical properties and clinical performance merited consideration. $hey -ere of the opinion that .eryllium -as not a health ha7ard pro<ided proper e8haust and <entilation -as used in the dental la. and that the allergenic potential of nickel needed further research. (ussel (. )ang and %aron #enton in >??3 re<ie-ed the literature on $itanium for prosthodontic applications. $hey descri.ed the de<elopment and properties of titanium for the purpose of e<aluating the present status and future trends in its use. M. Cag.y' S.J Marshall and G.) Marshall in >??0 re<ie-ed the literature on metal ceramic .io compati.ility. $hey discuseed the <arious tests to predict thermomechanical compati.ility and also for measuring compati.ility at the metal ceramic interface. Selcuk ruc and ,.rahim $ulunoglu in /000 e<aluated the marginal and inner fit of metal Ocramic restorations and frame-orks made -ith a Nickel2Chromium alloy :(emanium CS; and a commercially pure $itanium :(ematitan;. $hey concluded that the fit of .ase metal alloy metal ceramic cro-ns -as .etter than the commercially pure $itanium metal ceramic cro-ns. Ho-e<er .oth the artificial cro-ns -ere clinically accepta.le. John C. )ataha in /00/ discussed the properties that are rele<ant tot eh proper selection of an alloy for a gi<en clinical pro.lem. He summari7ed the <arious alloys a<aila.le till

date and their classification and also pro<ided simple guidelines to help dentists choose appropriate alloys for their practices.