PITFALLS PITFALLS

Pitfalls in synthetics
STEVE HENRY, GeoLearn, Houston, Texas, U.S.

The primary goal of seismic inter-

pretation is to make maps that provide geologic information (reservoir depth structure, thickness, porosity, etc.). However, even ideally acquired/ processed seismic data provide only an image of the subsurface. For geologic information, nearby wells must be correlated to seismic reflectors. Synthetic seismograms (synthetics) provide this link by converting rock properties from well logs to a synthetic trace. Synthetics make rocks look like wiggles, using the convolution model (T = RC * W), which states that traces (T) are the result of convolving (*) the reflection coefficient series (RC) with the wavelet (W). When seismic data are acquired, a source wavelet is sent into the earth, reflected back (convolved) to the surface at geologic boundaries (RC), and recorded as a trace (T). RC, however, remains unknown until a well is drilled and logged. It can then be calculated using the measured changes in rock properties (velocity and density). RC for normal incidence is RC = (r1v1- r2v2) /(r1v1+ r2v2)

Figure 1. Sonic and density logs used to calculate the RC series with the time-depth scale on the left. The top sand pick (low gamma values) is based on the gamma-ray log on the right. The synthetic is the result of convolving a zero-phase trapezoidal (8-14-25-40) filter with the RC series. The contribution plot illustrates the superposition (adding) of individual wavelets scaled by the magnitude of their associated RC. The large peak on the synthetic can be related to the velocity/density increase at 8415 ft and not the top of the reservoir.

where v1, v2 are P-wave velocities (sonic log) and r1, r2 are densities (density log) in the layer above (1) and below (2) the reflecting boundary. The normal incidence assumption is generally valid, except where velocity and density contrasts are very large (gas sands, coal, hard streaks, etc.). When these exceptions are critical to the interpretation, RC needs to be calculated as a function of angle (AVA) from more complex equations and a third parameter, S -wave velocity (shear log). Figure 1 shows the RC series for a well containing a thick (150-ft) producing sand. The sonic and density logs used to generate the RC values are on the left with the pay sand (low gamma values = top sand) easily identifiable on the gamma ray log. The synthetic was generated by convolving a trapezoidal (8-14-25-40) zero-phase filEditors note: This series is designed to update the classic Pitfalls in Seismic Interpretation by Tucker and Yorstan, first published by SEG in 1973. Contact Steve Henry (geolearn@aol. com) for information about contributing to this series.
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a)

b)

c)

Figure 2. Synthetic to seismic ties. (a) Routinely processed seismic data rarely tie zero-phase synthetics. Top sand marker does not correlate well with any reflector. (b) Correlation between synthetic and seismic is very good because both contain the same wavelet. Although the synthetic now looks as bad as the seismic, it still provides little help in identifying the reflector associated with the sand. (c) This phase-corrected seismic data now ties the zero-phase synthetic. Reservoir sands and overlying sealing shales are now easily identifiable. (Figures courtesy of Landmark Graphics.)
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ter (wavelet) with the RC. The contribution plot (center) allows convolution to be viewed as a superposition (i.e., adding) of wavelets, scaled by the sign and magnitude of individual RCs. Color coding allows RCs to be directly matched with their identically colored wavelets. The maximum value of the large peak (8415 ft) near the center of the sand is the result of having added all amplitudes () across the display at that time value (1824 ms). The wavelet contributing the most to this peak is the green wavelet associated with the large green RC at about 8440 ft. Alarge increase in velocity occurs at the same depth on the sonic log. This is due to tight sands found at the base of a fining-upward sequence (gamma ray). The top of the reservoir (8330 ft) is actually associated with a decrease in velocity (negative pink RC) due to the fluid-filled sands having a velocity slower (sonic log) than overlying shales. Real geology has now been correlated to the synthetic trace and can be used when setting an auto pick. In this example, selecting the zero crossing would best predict the top of this reservoir. This seismic character for this top reservoir, however, is true only if the seismic traces also contain the same zero-phase wavelet. The well log synthetic and the seismic data (at or near the well)

should correlate, because they have the same RC (geology). When they do not correlate, which is typical (Figure 2a), it is usually because of differences in their wavelets. The primary pitfall causing mis-ties between synthetic and seismic traces is when traces do not contain the same wavelet. Seismic data typically contain a mixed-phase wavelet (Henry, 1997; Ziolkowski et al., 1998), and synthetics are normally generated with a constant or minimum-phase wavelet. The wavelets used in synthetics are usually too simple to match the more complex seismic wavelet. The typical solution for correlating synthetics to seismic data is to extract the wavelet from the seismic data and convolve this wavelet with the RC series to generate the synthetic (Figure 2b). The synthetic and the seismic data now contain the same wavelet. This produces a good tie by making the synthetic look as bad as the seismic data. Unfortunately, it is no easier to correlate the geology (top sand) from the synthetic to the seismic. The solution is to phase correct the seismic to contain a zero-phase wavelet. The zero-phase synthetic will now tie (Figure 2c), and the quality of the seismic data is improved. Note how the reservoir sands and overlying sealing shales are now easily identifiable on the phase-corrected seismic.

Other pitfalls associated with synthetics can also result in mis-ties. Synthetics can be improperly converted from depth to time (lacking check shots, rapid lateral velocity variations), differences in datums (seismic, well, check shots), hydrocarbon effects (AVA) and poor quality (e.g., washouts, cycle skipping), or missing well logs. Seismic data can also have other problems in addition to containing a complex wavelet that will cause mis-ties. These include being incorrectly positioned in time (stacking velocities) or space (migration velocities), and having incorrect amplitude variations (e.g., expansions, filters). Any of the above pitfalls can result in a mis-tie, but they are difficult or impossible to sort out when the synthetic and seismic contain different wavelets. When seismic data are processed and verified (tied to a well) to contain a zero-phase wavelet, many interpretation pitfalls can be avoided.
Suggestions for further reading. Catch the seismic wavelet by Henry (AAPG Explorer, 1997). Zero phase can aid interpretation by Henry (AAPG Explorer, 1997). Wavelets, well ties, and the search for subtle stratigraphic traps by E Ziolkowski et al. (GEOPHYSICS, 1998). L
Corresponding author: geolearn@aol.com

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