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The Slialegic Sludies Inslilule (SSI) is pail of lhe U.S. Ainy Wai
CoIIege and is lhe slialegic-IeveI sludy agenl foi issues ieIaled
lo nalionaI secuiily and niIilaiy slialegy vilh enphasis on
geoslialegic anaIysis.
The nission of SSI is lo use independenl anaIysis lo conducl slialegic
sludies lhal deveIop poIicy ieconnendalions on:
- Slialegy, pIanning, and poIicy foi joinl and conlined
enpIoynenl of niIilaiy foices,
- RegionaI slialegic appiaisaIs,
- The naluie of Iand vaifaie,
- Malleis affecling lhe Ainys fuluie,
- The concepls, phiIosophy, and lheoiy of slialegy, and,
- Olhei issues of inpoilance lo lhe Ieadeiship of lhe Ainy.
Sludies pioduced ly civiIian and niIilaiy anaIysls concein
lopics having slialegic inpIicalions foi lhe Ainy, lhe Depailnenl of
Defense, and lhe Iaigei nalionaI secuiily connunily.
In addilion lo ils sludies, SSI pulIishes speciaI iepoils on lopics
of speciaI oi innediale inleiesl. These incIude ediled pioceedings
of confeiences and lopicaIIy oiienled ioundlalIes, expanded liip
iepoils, and quick-ieaclion iesponses lo senioi Ainy Ieadeis.
The Inslilule piovides a vaIualIe anaIylicaI capaliIily vilhin lhe
Ainy lo addiess slialegic and olhei issues in suppoil of Ainy
pailicipalion in nalionaI secuiily poIicy foinuIalion.
iii
!,-.,/012 !,451/6 '76,1,4,/
.75
)8!8 $-9: ;.- (<==/0/ >-/66
$!!%!!'+& "?% >%@>A%B! A'C%#$"'@+ $#DE
'+ "?% ?) F'+"$@ %#$
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"-.J16 ".77/-
%51,<-6
$H-1= KLMN
The vievs expiessed in lhis iepoil aie lhose of lhe aulhois and
do nol necessaiiIy ieecl lhe ofhciaI poIicy oi posilion of lhe
Depailnenl of lhe Ainy, lhe Depailnenl of Defense, oi lhe U.S.
Coveinnenl. Aulhois of Slialegic Sludies Inslilule (SSI) and
U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege (USAWC) Iiess pulIicalions enjoy fuII
acadenic fieedon, piovided lhey do nol discIose cIassihed
infoinalion, jeopaidize opeialions secuiily, oi nisiepiesenl
ofhciaI U.S. poIicy. Such acadenic fieedon enpoveis lhen lo
offei nev and sonelines conlioveisiaI peispeclives in lhe inlei-
esl of fuilheiing delale on key issues. This iepoil is cIeaied foi
pulIic ieIease, disliilulion is unIiniled.
*****
This pulIicalion is suljecl lo TilIe 17, Uniled Slales Code,
Seclions 1O1 and 1O5. Il is in lhe pulIic donain and nay nol le
copyiighled.
iv
*****
Connenls peilaining lo lhis iepoil aie inviled and shouId
le foivaided lo: Diiecloi, Slialegic Sludies Inslilule and U.S.
Ainy Wai CoIIege Iiess, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, 47 Ashluin
Diive, CaiIisIe, IA 17O13-5O1O.
*****
AII Slialegic Sludies Inslilule (SSI) and U.S. Ainy Wai
CoIIege (USAWC) Iiess pulIicalions nay le dovnIoaded fiee
of chaige fion lhe SSI velsile. Haid copies of lhis iepoil nay
aIso le ollained fiee of chaige vhiIe suppIies Iasl ly pIacing
an oidei on lhe SSI velsile. SSI pulIicalions nay le quoled
oi iepiinled in pail oi in fuII vilh peinission and appiopiiale
ciedil given lo lhe U.S. Ainy Slialegic Sludies Inslilule and U.S.
Ainy Wai CoIIege Iiess, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, CaiIisIe, IA.
Conlacl SSI ly visiling oui velsile al lhe foIIoving addiess:
!!!"#$%&$'()*#$+,)'-./-$)$+$'"&%01"0)2"
*****
The Slialegic Sludies Inslilule and U.S. Ainy Wai
CoIIege Iiess pulIishes a nonlhIy enaiI nevsIellei lo updale
lhe nalionaI secuiily connunily on lhe ieseaich of oui anaIysls,
iecenl and foilhconing pulIicalions, and upconing confei-
ences sponsoied ly lhe Inslilule. Lach nevsIellei aIso piovides
a slialegic connenlaiy ly one of oui ieseaich anaIysls. If you
aie inleiesled in ieceiving lhis nevsIellei, pIease sulsciile on lhe
SSI velsile al !!!"#$%&$'()*#$+,)'-./-$)$+$'"&%01"0)23/'!-2'$$'%"
ISN 1-58487-617-4
v
(@+"%+"!
Ioievoid ....................................................................vii
1. ./$%4,+*$)4/ ..............................................................1
David Lai and Roy Kanphausen
K8 56' 89'! :)-$4%)* ;)--)4/-<=
Rccc|icns cn Hu ]in|acs Mi|i|arq |cgacq ............31
DanieI M. Hailnell
3. Tnc |tc|u|icn cf Ccrc Ccnccp|s. Pccp|cs lar,
Ac|itc Dcfcnsc, Offsncrc Dcfcnsc ...........................81
Dennis }. Iasko
4. lna|s in a Nanc. 8ui|ding An|i-Acccss/
Arca Dcnia| Capaoi|i|ics ui|ncu| An|i-Acccss/
>%'& ?'/)&2 ?4*$%)/' ........................................... 129
Chiislophei I. Tvoney
5. Aspiring |c ]cin|ncss. P|A Training, |xcrciscs,
and Dcc|rinc, 2008-2012.......................................171
Wanda Ayuso and Lonnie HenIey
6. Tnc Rc|c cf |nfcrna|iza|icn in |nc Pccp|cs
|iocra|icn Arnq undcr Hu ]in|ac ........................ 2O7
}oe McReynoIds and }anes MuIvenon
7. Cninas |tc|ting Nata| S|ra|cgq and
Capaoi|i|ics in |nc Hu ]in|ac |ra ..........................257
Nan Li
8. Scccnd Ar|i||crq in |nc Hu ]in|ac |ra.
?4*$%)/' &/, @&A&B)2)$)'- ......................................3O1
MichaeI S. Chase
vi
9. lnc Carcs if Ycutc 8ccn in a lar?
Vc|cran Ac|itisn, S|a|c Rcprcssicn, and
Citi|-Mi|i|arq Rc|a|icns in Hu-|ra Cnina ...........355
NeiI }. Diananl
1O. Tcuard S|ra|cgic |cadcrsnip.
Cnincsc Ccnnunis| Par|q Pccp|cs |iocra|icn
>%01 C'2&$)4/- )/ $6' :+ D%& ..............................399
Tinolhy R. Healh
11. Trcnds in Pccp|cs |iocra|icn Arnq
|n|crna|icna| |ni|ia|itcs undcr Hu ]in|ac.............441
Kennelh AIIen
Aloul lhe Conliilulois ...........................................525
vii
O@#%;@#*
Il is ny pIeasuie lo inlioduce lhis 2O13 pulIicalion
ly lhe Slialegic Sludies Inslilule (SSI) of lhe U.S. Ainy
Wai CoIIege, lhe NalionaI uieau of Asian Reseaich
(NR), and lhe Uniled Slales Iacihc Connand, focus-
ing on A Rc|rcspcc|itc cf |nc Pccp|cs |iocra|icn Arnq in
|nc Hu ]in|ac |ra (2OO2-12). The papeis in lhis look pio-
vide a vaIualIe and insighlfuI ieviev of lhe IeopIes
Lileialion Ainys (ILA) nany inpiessive advances
ovei lhe pasl decade. SoIid schoIaiship on changes
laking pIace in lhe ILA heIps us undeisland hov lhe
Chinese viev lhe enpIoynenl of niIilaiy povei lo
suppoil lioadei poIicy ains. A hisloiicaI ieviev of
palleins and deveIopnenls in liaining, opeialions, ac-
quisilions, and poIilicaI niIilaiy ieIalions can giealIy
assisl lhal undeislanding. The oulslanding voik in
lhis joinlIy sponsoied sludy is an inpoilanl conliilu-
lion lovaid lhis end.
This voIune piovides unique insighls inlo lhe
ILAs achievenenls ovei lhe span of Hu }inlaos len-
uie as CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission Chaii fion 2OO2
lo 2O12. This peiiod sav a ienaikalIe giovlh in ca-
paliIilies and a ciilicaI expansion in lhe niIilaiys
nissions. The ILA incieased ils adoplion of infoi-
nalion lechnoIogies and advanced sensois inlo ils
nodeinizalion effoils. Il aIso inpioved ils aliIily lo
caiiy oul joinl liaining and nissions olhei lhan vai.
Reecling deveIopnenls in lhe Chinese Connunisl
Iaily, lhe ILA aIso expeiienced inpoilanl changes
in ils poIilicaI focus and nission. Mosl signihcanlIy,
Hu }inlao inlioduced lhe hisloiic nissions, vhich
oiienled lhe ILA lovaid a nuch giealei inleinalionaI
nission lhan il had pieviousIy undeilaken. Suppoil-
ing lhis nev inleinalionaI nission, lhe ILA expanded
ils pailicipalion in inleinalionaI niIilaiy exeicises, as
veII as peacekeeping opeialions and hunanilaiian as-
sislance and disaslei ieIief nissions alioad, incIuding
ils hisl evei peinanenl navaI depIoynenl alioad in
lhe counleipiiacy nissions in lhe CuIf of Aden. Un-
deislanding hov lhe ILA naluied and deveIoped in
lhe Hu eia is ciilicaI lo undeislanding lhe ILA loday,
and foi idenlifying oppoilunilies lo fuilhei coopeia-
lion lelveen oui lvo niIilaiies.
I connend lolh NR and SSI foi lheii con nilnenl
lo exceIIence vilh lhe ieIease of lhis voIune. > C'$%4-
spcc|itc cf |nc P|A in |nc Hu ]in|ac |ra is an essenliaI
iesouice foi lhose seeking lo undeisland hov lhe ILA
has evoIved. }usl as inpoilanlIy, lhe voIune heIps us
piepaie foi lhe oppoilunilies lefoie us.
SAMULL }. LOCKLLAR, III
AdniiaI, USN
Connandei, U.S. Iacihc Connand
viii
1
(?$>"%# M
'+"#@*)("'@+
*.J15 A.1
#<: G.9HI.46/7
The 2O12 IeopIes Lileialion Ainy (ILA) confei-
ence look pIace al a line vhen lhe Chinese Connu-
nisl Iaily (CCI) vas naking ils Ieadeiship liansilion
fion Hu }inlao lo Xi }inping. The agenda of lhe confei-
ence look advanlage of lhis occasion and focused lhe
confeience discussion on lhe deveIopnenls in Chinas
nalionaI secuiily and lhe ILA duiing lhe Hu }inlao
adninislialion fion 2OO2 lo 2O12. The pailicipanls of
lhe confeience aIso ieecled on lhe fuluie of Chinas
niIilaiy nodeinizalion undei Xi }inping.
WhiIe a conpiehensive anaIysis of lhese suljecl
nalleis vouId le ideaI, lhe pailicipanls had neveilhe-
Iess singIed oul sone key aieas vheie lhe ILA had
appaienlIy nade signihcanl changes. The discussion
papeis aie piesenled in lhis voIune. ul lefoie pie-
senling lhe key hndings, a liief ieviev of Chinas
niIilaiy nodeinizalion vilh Hus chaiacleiislics is
in oidei.
?)B! D$#G! '+ ?'!"@#EP
Duiing his ieign as lhe CeneiaI Secielaiy of lhe
CCI, Iiesidenl of lhe IeopIes RepulIic of China
(IRC, oi China foi shoil), and Chaiinan of lhe Cen-
liaI MiIilaiy Connission (CMC),
1
Hu }inlao has pul
an ofhciaI slanp on quile a fev najoi changes in Chi-
nas poIilicaI and nalionaI secuiily appaialus, as veII
as deveIopnenls in lhe ILA.
2
"I-// D1=/6,<7/68
Anong lhe najoi changes, lhiee aie of pailicuIai
signihcance. The hisl one is Hus cIean and conpIele
handovei of his poIilicaI, goveinnenlaI, and niIilaiy
lilIes lo his successoi, Xi }inping. ack in 2OO2, Hu
vas lhe hisl paily chief in lhe hisloiy of lhe CCI lo
assune lhe pailys Ieadeiship in an aigualIy oideiIy
vay. Lven so, lhis hisl oideiIy Iaily Ieadeiship lian-
silion vas oveishadoved ly Hus piedecessoi, }iang
Zenin, vho heId onlo conlioI of lhe gun ly ielaining
his posilion as Chaiinan of lhe CMC.
2
Hu }inlao had
lo vail 2 noie yeais lo lecone Chinas Connandei-
in-Chief.
Ten yeais Ialei, Hu nade hisloiy again ly ieIin-
quishing aII of his povei and posilions al once. We do
nol knov, and nay nevei knov, vhal look pIace le-
hind cIosed doois lefoie lhis decision~lhe CCI Iead-
eiship vas conpIeleIy siIenl aloul lhe signihcance of
lhis acl, and lhe Chinese veie appaienlIy piohililed
lo laIk oi viile aloul il (lheie vas haidIy any alleiy
viillen in lhe Chinese nedia). Yel lhis change is a
niIeslone in lhe CCIs ieIuclanl and nuch-conlioIIed
piocess of poIilicaI change. Il is a posilive slep in lhe
CCIs allenpl lo lecone a noie inslilulionaIized iuI-
ing paily and couId go a Iong vay lo heIp lhe CCI
nuiluie a noie slalIe paily-niIilaiy ieIalionship.
Anolhei Iandnaik nove in Chinas nalionaI se-
cuiily lhal leais Hu }inlaos nane is lhe piopagalion
of a Hisloiic Missions foi lhe ILA in lhe Nev Slage
of lhe Nev Cenluiy oi nev hisloiic nissions foi
shoil. The nev hisloiic nissions cane oul of a speech
Hu }inlao iepoiledIy deIiveied lo senioi ILA ofhciaIs
al an expanded neeling of lhe CenliaI MiIilaiy Con-
nission in Decenlei 2OO4 shoilIy aflei he lecane
3
Chaiinan of lhis poveifuI niIilaiy oiganizalion. The
fuII lexl of Hus speech vas nevei nade pulIic, lul
lhe coie conponenls veie videIy disseninaled. The
CCI and ILA ofhciaI nedia had chaiacleiized lhe
nev hisloiic nission as a Thiee-Iiovides-and-One-
RoIe deciee. SpecihcaIIy, lhe ILA is lasked lo:
- H-<J15/ an essenliaI guaianlee of slienglh foi
lhe CCI lo consoIidale ils iuIing posilion,
- H-<J15/ a sliong secuiily guaianlee foi safe-
guaiding lhe peiiod of inpoilanl slialegic op-
poilunily foi Chinas nalionaI deveIopnenl,
- H-<J15/ a poveifuI slialegic suppoil foi safe-
guaiding Chinas nalionaI inleiesls, and
- H=.: an inpoilanl ioIe in safeguaiding voiId
peace and pionoling connon deveIopnenl.
These nev hisloiic nissions veie Ialei codihed in
Chinas 2OO6 and sulsequenl Na|icna| Dcfcnsc lni|c
E&A'%- and ieafhined in lhe CCIs 17lh and 18lh paily
pIalfoins in 2OO7 and 2O12, iespecliveIy.
WhiIe eveiy eIenenl of lhe nev hisloiic nissions is
signihcanl lo lhe Chinese niIilaiy, lhe nosl nolevoi-
lhy aspecl of il is undoulledIy lhe CCI Ieadeiships
decision lo luin on lhe gieen Iighl foi lhe ILA lo go
gIolaI. Indeed, lhe nev hisloiic nissions pIace heavy
enphasis on Chinas need lo piolecl ils oppoilunily
foi deveIopnenl and ils expanding nalionaI inleiesls
voiIdvide. In lhe voids of a high-piohIe P|A Dai|q
ediloiiaI, Chinas nalionaI inleiesls aie spieading ev-
eiyvheie in lhe voiId, inlo lhe open seas, oulei space,
cyleispace, and so on. Today, China has an inleiesl
fionliei lhal iecognizes no leiiiloiiaI loundaiies.
3

The ILA nusl le piepaied lo defend lhese expanding
nalionaI inleiesls. To caiiy oul lhese nev hisloiic nis-
sions, lhe ILA nusl acl in vays connensuiale vilh
4
Chinas iising inleinalionaI slalus and foIIov Chinas
inleiesls, vheievei lhey go.
4

y any accounl, lhe nev hisloiic nissions aie ievo-
Iulionaiy foi lhe ILA. AuspiciousIy, lhe Chinese niIi-
laiy vas ieady lo neel lhe chaIIenges. Indeed, Chinas
acceIeialed niIilaiy nodeinizalion since lhe nid-
199Os had undoulledIy piepaied lhe Chinese ained
foices lo undeilake aclions alioad.
5
This is nosl evi-
denl in lhe ILAs quick iesponse lo lhe CCIs caII foi
il lo piolecl Chinese inleiesls in lhe CuIf of Aden in
Decenlei 2OO8.
In lhe Iale-2OOOs, videspiead ained iolleiy and
hijacking of neichanl vesseIs in lhe CuIf of Aden had
seveieIy endangeied fieedon of navigalion in one of
lhe voiIds lusiesl sea Ianes of lianspoilalion. The
Uniled Slales and olhei najoi naiiline poveis had
leen hghling againsl piiacy in lhis aiea foi yeais, lul
China had no pail of lhose opeialions, aIlhough il vas
one of lhe nosl affecled viclins~Chinese-dispalched
and China-lound caigo ships nade up aloul 4O pei-
cenl of lhe vesseIs saiIing lhiough lhe piiale-infesled
valeis.
6
In Decenlei 2OO8, lhe Uniled Nalions (UN)
adopled a U.S.-inilialed iesoIulion (UN Secuiily
CounciI ResoIulion 1851) caIIing foi lhe inleinalionaI
connunily lo suppoil lhe ongoing anli-piiacy effoils
in lhe CuIf of Aden and aulhoiizing lhe use of niIi-
laiy foice againsl lhe SonaIia-lased piiales. Lxpecla-
lion foi China lo lake pail in lhese inleinalionaI effoils
vas aIso nounling accoidingIy.
ConpeIIed ly lhe need lo piolecl Chinas inleiesl
and lIessed ly lhe UN nandale, Chinese Ieadeis de-
cided lo pul lhe nev hisloiic nissions lo a lesl. The
ILA Navy (ILAN) pionplIy assenlIed a conlingen-
cy eel, and a hisl-evei ILA conlal lean vas soon
on ils vay lo escoil Chinese neichanl ships in lhe
lioulIed valeis.
5
y nosl accounls, lhe ILAN escoil opeialions
have leen veII execuled. As of ApiiI 2O14, lhe ILAN
has successfuIIy dispalched 17 iolalions of lallIeships
lo lhe CuIf of Aden. WhiIe piolecling Chinas oveiseas
inleiesls, lhe ILAN najoi eels aIso look luins lo lesl
lheii capaliIilies in lhe escoil opeialions. This undei-
laking has luined oul lo le quile a Ieaining expeiience
foi lhe Chinese niIilaiy in ils oveiseas opeialions.
7

Moieovei, and fion a slialegic peispeclive, aI-
lhough lhe ILAN escoil eel is a snaII conlingency
foice vilh Iiniled conlal engagenenls (lhus fai), il is
no exaggeialion lo say lhal ils opeialion is a gianl slep
foi lhe ILA as il caiiies oul ils nev hisloiic nissions
and Chinas naich lo lecone a fuII-edged voiId
povei in inleinalionaI secuiily affaiis.
The lhiid signihcanl deveIopnenl is Hu }inlaos
connission of Chinas hisl aiiciafl caiiiei in Seplen-
lei 2O12.
8
Chinas quesl foi aiiciafl caiiiei capaliIily
has leen a suljecl of inleinaI delale and exleinaI ciili-
cisn. The nosl poinled queslion has leen: Is China
vasling ils line, effoil, and lieasuie lo puisue a con-
lal capaliIily lhal is decieasing in uliIily`
Chinese Ieadeis appaienlIy have ieady ansveis foi
lhis queslion. Iiisl, Chinese anaIysls and poIicynak-
eis sliongIy hoId lhal lhe alsence of aiiciafl caiiiei
capaliIily in lhe Iasl 6O yeais vas a painfuI nissing
piece in Chinas nalionaI secuiily deveIopnenl. As
China lakes sleps lo consoIidale and piolecl ils naii-
line inleiesls in lhe Weslein Iacihc and expanding
inleiesls voiIdvide in lhe nev hisloiic eia, Chinese
Ieadeis aie convinced lhal a caiiiei-Ied lIue valei
navy is essenliaI foi lhis nission.
9

6
Second, lhe Uniled Slales is sliII luiIding nev
F4%,-cIass nucIeai-poveied caiiieis piojecled lo op-
eiale in lhis cenluiy and leyond. Moieovei, Chinas
neighlois, India and }apan aie aIso puisuing caiiiei
capaliIilies (India has jusl Iaunched ils hisl hone-
luiIl caiiiei on Augusl 12, 2O13, }apan viII have ils
lvo heIicoplei deslioyeis, oi Iighl aiiciafl caiiieis
as lhe Chinese caII lhen, conpIeled in lhe nexl fev
yeais). Chinese see no ieason vhy lhey shouId foisake
lheii caiiiei diean.
Thiid, Chinese Ieadeis aie convinced lhal luiIding
aiiciafl caiiieis is an inpoilanl pail of Chinas niIi-
laiy nodeinizalion, il viII aIso have a spiIIovei effecl
on Chinas oveiaII nodeinizalion piogians.
China is cuiienlIy foIIoving a lvo-pionged ap-
pioach lo nodeinize ils niIilaiy. One piong conlin-
ues lhe nechanizalion of ils ained foices. Al lhe sane
line, lhe Chinese niIilaiy is aIso noving aggiessiveIy
lo luin ilseIf inlo a foinidalIe pIayei in lhe unfoIding
infoinalion age. WhiIe an aiiciafl caiiiei is an inpoi-
lanl pail of lhe foinei, il is aIso leconing an inlegiaI
conponenl of lhe Iallei. uiIding caiiieis lhus seives
Chinas niIilaiy nodeinizalion agenda on lolh fionls.
In addilion, aiiciafl caiiiei consliuclion is un-
doulledIy lhe ciovn jeveI of a nalions shipluiIding
indusliy in pailicuIai and indusliiaI-age lechnoIogy
in geneiaI. China is cuiienlIy lhe voiIds Iaigesl con-
neiciaI shipluiIding nalion
1O
and lhe second Iaigesl
pioducei of vaiships, vilh lhe polenliaI lo oveilake
lhe Uniled Slales and lecone nunlei one ly 2O2O.
11

Chinas line, effoils, and lieasuie invesled in luiIding
aiiciafl caiiieis viII pay gieal dividends foi Chinas
shipluiIding indusliy. Al lhe sane line, il viII lenehl
Chinas olhei indusliies, as aiiciafl caiiiei luiIding
invoIves lechnoIogies fion nany olhei indusliies and
7
ieecls lo a good exlenl lhe IeveI and capaliIily of a
nalions nodeinizalion.
12

AIlhough Chinas hisl aiiciafl caiiiei is a iefui-
lished ex-Soviel vesseI and IaigeIy a liaining pIalfoin,
Chinese lake lheii effoils as painfuI and necessaiy
hisl sleps lo Ieain and exceI. They aie conhdenl lhal
lhe coning of China-nade and noie capalIe aiiciafl
caiiieis acconpanied ly lallIe gioups viII onIy le a
nallei of line.
13
Moieovei, as ils econonic deveIop-
nenl conlinues, China viII have no Iack of noney lo
suppoil lhe deveIopnenl of aiiciafl caiiieis and lheii
suppoiling lallIe gioups.
Ioi lellei oi foi voise, Chinas lieaklhiough in
ils quesl foi naiiline povei viII nake ils inpacl
feIl in lhe Asia-Iacihc iegion and evenluaIIy, voiId-
vide. The one lhal viII cone in a foieseealIe fu-
luie is lhe piesence of Chinese aiiciafl caiiiei lallIe
gioup aiound lhe unsellIed and dispuled aieas in lhe
Weslein Iacihc.
Taivan viII have lo piepaie foi lhe days vhen Chi-
nese caiiiei lallIe gioups saiI aIong ils easlein coasl,
naking Taivan vuIneialIe on lolh sides (lhe veslein
side is facing nainIand China).
The Senkaku (Diaoyu) IsIands aie nol fai fion Tai-
van. Il is undoulledIy vilhin ieach of Chinas fuluie
caiiiei-Ied foices. }apan is conceined vilh Chinas
gioving naiiline povei. Il is luiIding lvo Iighl aii-
ciafl caiiieis, oi lhe 22DDH heIicoplei deslioyeis in
}apanese leins,
14
vilh lhe capacily lo caiiy lhe I-35
hghlei jels lhal can nake veilicaI lakeoff and Ianding
on loaid. This addilion lo }apans naiiline foices is
seen as }apans effoil lo nalch lhe Chinese caiiiei-Ied
capaliIilies.
Chinas Soulh China Sea neighlois, naneIy lhe
IhiIippines, Vielnan, and MaIaysia, shaie lhe sane
8
conceins. They aie iepoiledIy upgiading lheii naii-
line niIilaiy capaliIilies.
15
Il is cIeai lhal aIlhough
lhey nay nol have enough lo nalch lhe gioving
Chinese niIilaiy nighl, lhey aie piepaiing lo uphoId
lheii cIains on lhe dispuled leiiiloiies in lhe Soulh
China Sea.
The Uniled Slales is aIso valching cIoseIy Chinas
effoils lo luiId caiiiei capaliIilies. In opeialionaI
leins, Chinas caiiiei-Ied capaliIily viII fuilhei en-
hance Chinas anli-access and aiea-deniaI (A2/AD)
capaliIilies lhal have leen deveIoping since lhe nid-
199Os. They aie posing gieal chaIIenges lo U.S. povei
piojeclion caIcuIalions. Iion a slialegic peispeclive,
lhe deveIopnenl of Chinas caiiiei capaliIilies is ai-
gualIy luining lhe queslion of vhelhei lhe laIance
of povei in lhe Weslein Iacihc eslalIished and nain-
lained ly lhe Uniled Slales since lhe end of WoiId
Wai II viII le aIleied inlo a queslion of vhen and
lo vhal exlenl lhe shifling of povei viII lake pIace.
D42I >-.16/8
The Iandnaik changes highIighled alove aie veiy
signihcanl in Chinas nalionaI secuiily nodeiniza-
lion. Theie have leen nany olhei najoi changes dui-
ing Hus ieign as veII. Many of lhose changes have
leen noled in Chinas liannuaI Na|icna| Dcfcnsc lni|c
E&A'%- fion 2OO2 lo 2O12. The Ienlagon has aIso kepl
liack of lhe key deveIopnenls in Chinas niIilaiy ca-
paliIilies lhiough ils annuaI iepoil on lhe niIilaiy
povei of lhe IRC.
Duiing lhe CCI Ieadeiship liansilion, Chinese
ofhciaI nedia look lhe occasion lo piaise Hu foi his
conliilulions lo Chinas nalionaI secuiily affaiis
duiing his 1O-yeai ieign. On lhe eve of lhe CCIs
9
18lh Iaily Convenlion in Novenlei 2O12 (vheie lhe
change of paily Ieadeiship lelveen Hu and Xi look
pIace), lhe CCIs AichivaI Sludies Inslilule ()
[(, lhe cenliaI aulhoiily foi lhe CCIs his-
loiy) ieIeased ils docunenlalion of lhe najoi achieve-
nenls undei Hus Ieadeiship since lhe 16lh Iaily
Convenlion. The seclions on Chinas nalionaI secuiily
and niIilaiy nodeinizalion sunnaiized lhe deveIop-
nenls in 11 calegoiies.
16

1. LslalIishnenl of lhe scienlihc oulIook on deveI-
opnenl as lhe guiding piincipIe foi nalionaI secuiily
and niIilaiy nodeinizalion (]i|j)]
|1[|[|\),
2. Iulling foivaid lhe caII foi lhe inlegialion of
luiIding a piospeious nalion and deveIoping a pov-
eifuI niIilaiy ()][,),
3. Iiopagalion of lhe nev hisloiic nission (j
,|[j|),
4. The liansilion lo lhe guideIine of using infoina-
lion as lhe diiving foice and lhe geneialion of nev
lype of hghling povei as lhe piogiessive poinl (|]
], ,||)[\),
5. Lnphasis on lhe ILA IoyaIly lo lhe CCI and
slienglhening paily voiks in lhe niIilaiy (|[
|,|, ]j[[),
6. Taking foice nechanizalion as lhe lasis and
infoinalionizalion as lhe diiving foice, push foi lhe
inlegialion of nechanizalion and infoinalionizalion
(|]{, ], ||]]
{j1||{),
7. Iushing foi lhe iuIe of Iav in lhe niIilaiy (|
||, |,,),
8. Iushing foi liaining, eslalIishnenl of lhe in-
legialed opeialion syslen, Iogislic suppoil syslen,
niIilaiy indusliies, veapon acquisilion syslen, slan-
1O
daidized niIilaiy seivice syslen, veleian syslen, and
niIilaiy lenehls (i{,_, ||_,
),_, ]|_, y,)_, |][, |
jL][, ]][, j][, ;]|]
[),
9. Inlegiale niIilaiy and civiIian seclois ([{
}[),
1O. Iionole IeopIes Wai piincipIe undei infoi-
nalion-cenliic condilions (|];[,
[)]), and
11. Lnhance inleinalionaI secuiily coopeialion,
niIilaiy secuiily diaIogues (,][{, i
|]).
AIong lhe alove nenlioned Iines, lhe ILAs ;)2)-
$&%1 #*)'/*' jouinaI pulIished a seiies of ailicIes (28 of
lhen in foui speciaI issues) viillen ly niIilaiy ofh-
ceis piaising Hus conliilulions lo Chinas nalionaI
secuiily and niIilaiy nodeinizalion.
17
AIlhough lhe
ailicIes aie noslIy alleiy, Iack sulslance oi neaning-
fuI anaIysis, aie fuII of paily jaigon, and vindov-
diessed vilh Hus caII foi lhe scienlihc oulIook on
deveIopnenl (|j), lhey neveilheIess
shov us vhal lhe Chinese vanl olheis lo knov aloul
lhe najoi changes duiing lhe Hu adninislialion.
Chinese ofhciaI nevs nedia and poIicy anaIysls have
aIso joined lhe choius lo piaise Hu }inlao foi his
conliilulions.
18
?)B! (#%*'"P
Theie is no denying lhal Chinas nalionaI secuiily
and lhe ILA have expeiienced nany najoi changes
duiing lhe Hu adninislialion. Chinese ofhciaI viil-
ings have unceasingIy given ciedil lo Hu }inlao foi his
11
penelialing undeislanding (])) of Chinas
secuiily enviionnenl, slialegic vision (,[}
) on Chinas niIilaiy nodeinizalion nission, his
scienlihc oulIook on deveIopnenl (|j),
and insighlfuI lheoielicaI insliuclions (|)[
|) on piaclicaIIy eveiy aspecl of changes and
inpiovenenls in Chinas nalionaI secuiily affaiis and
niIilaiy oiganizalion. Of pailicuIai nole is lhal lhe
CCI Ieadeis vanled ladIy lo pIace Hu on a pai vilh
his piedecessois, }iang Zenin, Deng Xiaoping, and
Mao Zedong. Hus Thoughls () veie soughl
lo lecone pail of Chinas guiding piincipIes lo such a
degiee lhal Hus scienlihc oulIook on deveIopnenl
veie piopagaled lo an aInosl alsuid IeveI. Indeed,
aInosl eveiy change and deveIopnenl in China nov-
adays nusl go vilh a scienlihc oulIook on deveIop-
nenl, niIilaiy oi nonniIilaiy.
These unsoIiciled acciedilalions aie pieposleious
foi lvo nain ieasons. Iiisl, Hu }inlao is noie of a
foIIovei lhan an innovaloi. Thioughoul his poIilicaI
Iife, Hu has caiefuIIy foIIoved lhe paily Iine. In nany
vays, Hu is a lypicaI Chinese luieaucial and suivi-
voi of Chinas cenluiies-oId iepiessive poIilicaI cuI-
luie, vhich denands gioup confoinily lul veeds oul
lhose vho aie anlilious and capalIe. Hu vas seIecled
ly Deng Xiaoping lo le a successoi lo }iang Zenin
nol lecause of lhe inleIIecluaI alliilules unduIy as-
ciiled lo hin, lul lecause, quile lhe conliaiy, foi his
conspicuous Iack of lhen. A hunlIe foIIovei Iike Hu
}inlao posed no lhieal lo anyone, lul vas liusled lo
foIIov lhiough lhe CCIs agenda.
Second, as a caiefuI foIIovei, Hu is onIy a dedi-
caled caielakei. Duiing his lenuie as lhe CeneiaI Sec-
ielaiy of lhe CCI, Hu caiefuIIy nanaged paily affaiis,
Chinas nonunenlaI doneslic changes, and inleina-
12
lionaI oulieach. Hu nusl suieIy le gialefuI lhal lhe
counliy had ienained IaigeIy inlacl vhen he handed
il ovei lo his successoi, Xi }inping.
The deveIopnenl in Chinas nalionaI secuiily and
niIilaiy nodeinizalion undei Hus valch is noie
of a conlinualion of lhe CCIs nodeinizalion nis-
sion lhal vas IaigeIy sel ly Deng Xiaoping and lo a
snaIIei exlenl, nodihed ly }iang Zenin, vho, unIike
Hu }inlao, vas nuch noie aggiessive. Ioi inslance,
Deng Xiaopings olseivalion on peace and deveIop-
nenl as lhe piincipaI lhene in lhe evoIving voiId
(1`j`|[) has leen lhe dehn-
ing viev in eveiy najoi Chinese ofhciaI assessnenl
of Chinas secuiily Iandscape, e.g., lhe CCIs paily
pIalfoins and Chinas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc lni|c Pa-
A'%-. Chinas 3-slep slialegy (',[) foi ils
niIilaiy nodeinizalion as ailicuIaled in lhe 9&$)4/&2
Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcrs is consislenl vilh Deng Xiaop-
ings piesciiplion foi Chinas oveiaII nodeinizalion.
Moieovei, Deng Xiaopings slipuIalions foi lhe ILA
lo le poIilicaIIy-coiiecl, capaliIily-nodeinized,
and oiganizalion-slandaidized (, )|,
|), lo luin fion a quanlily-lased foice inlo a
quaIily-lased one () |] ), and
lo lecone a veII-educaled and liained niIilaiy aie
aII guiding piincipIes foi Chinese Ieadeis. IinaIIy, lhe
caIIs foi a piospeious nalion vilh a sliong niIilaiy
(]), a voiId-cIass niIilaiy indusliy (;
`[), and nany noie can aII liace lheii
oiigins lo Deng Xiaopings leaching.
Deng Xiaoping, hovevei, did nol Iive Iong enough
lo see lhe infoinalion ievoIulion lhal is changing lhe
voiId and vaifaie in fundanenlaI vays. }iang Zenin
aigualIy deseives sone ciedil foi liinging Chinas
niIilaiy nodeinizalion up lo speed vilh lhe lians-
13
foinalion of niIilaiy affaiis in lhe infoinalion age.
His suggeslions foi China lo vin IocaI vais undei
high-lech and infoinalion condilions (|||Z
1][j,), effoils in junp-slailing
lhe liansfoinalion of niIilaiy affaiis vilh Chinese
chaiacleiislics (]|][) foIIoving
lhe vakeup caIIs fion lhe Uniled Slales vilh lhe U.S.
shov and use of foice in lhe posl-CoId Wai voiId, and
lhe slialegy foi lhe ILA lo puisue lhe duaI lasks
and deveIop in a Ieap-foivaid vay () and
j]j) aie piine exanpIes.
Hu }inlao, lhough nol a lhoughlfuI oi insighlfuI
innovaloi, and Chinese unquaIihed piaise nolvilh-
slanding, deseives ciedil foi his dedicaled inpIenen-
lalion of lhe voik caived oul foi hin.
Of pailicuIai nole is lhal Hu had vaged iepealed
lallIes againsl lhe so-caIIed Weslein conspiiacy lo
coiiupl lhe ILA (]j[[,) duiing
his iuIe. Indeed, lhioughoul lhe Hu yeais, Chinese
poIilicaI and niIilaiy Ieadeis had dognalicaIIy iesisl-
ed lhe caIIs foi ienoving lhe CCI fion lhe niIilaiy
([();), de-poIilicizing lhe niIilaiy
([(|,), and nalionaIizing lhe niIilaiy
([]). Ioi lhis, Hu eained a high piaise
fion ILA senioi Ieadeiship foi keeping lhe soIdieis
IoyaI lo lhe CCI. An ailicIe ly CeneiaI Li }inai in
lhe P|A Dai|q aloul Hu's effoil in lhis iegaid is lhe
lesl leslinony.
19
NeveilheIess, Chinas nalionaI se-
cuiily and niIilaiy nodeinizalion have expeiienced
vhal lhe Chinese caII a goIden decade of deveIop-
nenl, lhanks lo Hu }inlaos caiefuI nanagenenl and
vhoIeheailed suppoil.
14
Q'B! "'D% O@# D@#% (?$+&%P
Since laking ovei lhe heIn, Xi }inping has nade
quile a fev highIy pulIicized caIIs such as lhe China
Diean, lhe ILA leing capalIe lo hghl and vin vais,
China slanding hin on leiiiloiiaI dispules, a nev
lype of gieal-povei ieIalions vilh lhe Uniled Slales,
so on and so foilh, lo fuilhei advance Chinas nalionaI
secuiily goaIs. These caIIs appeai lo indicale lhal Xi is
ieady lo pionole diaslic changes in Chinas nalionaI
secuiily and niIilaiy nodeinizalion. Hovevei, lhis
nay nol le lhe case, foi a nunlei of ieasons. Iiisl, Xis
caIIs aie ieaIIy nol nev. They aie naluiaI oulgiovlhs
of Chinas expanding nalionaI povei. The China
diean has Iong leen an inspiialion foi successive Chi-
nese Ieadeis. Il is onIy nov lhal China has nade nuch
piogiess on ils nodeinizalion and lhe diean appeais
lo le vilhin ieach lhal Xi }inping has laken lhe Iead lo
caII il oul Ioud.
Second, Xi }inpings noves aie a conlinualion of
Chinas Iongslanding deveIopnenl effoils. Ioi in-
slance, lhe pioposed nev lype of gieal-povei ieIalions
vilh lhe Uniled Slales is, in essence, anolhei iound
of inleiaclion vilh lhe Uniled Slales ovei lhe povei
liansilion lelveen China and lhe Uniled Slales.
2O
Ten yeais ago, China pul foivaid a caII foi ils peace-
fuI deveIopnenl as an allenpl lo addiess lhe deadIy
issues slenning fion lhe changing ieIalions lelveen
China and lhe Uniled Slales as a iesuIl of Chinas iap-
id iise. Al lhe heail of Chinas peacefuI deveIopnenl
caII is lhe Chinese Ieadeis pionise lhal China vouId
nol iepeal nislakes nade ly pasl gieal poveis undei-
going siniIai povei liansilion piocesses. In iesponse
lo Chinas nove, lhe Uniled Slales caIIed foi China
lo lecone a iesponsilIe slakehoIdei of lhe exlanl
15
U.S.-Ied inleinalionaI syslen, fion vhich China had
lenehled lienendousIy since il slailed ils econonic
iefoin in 1978.
AIlhough lhis goodviII exchange lelveen China
and lhe Uniled Slales naiks a veiy posilive slep in lhe
ieIalionship lelveen lhe lvo gieal poveis, il cannol
secuie lhis conpIicaled ieIalionship foievei. Indeed,
conicl of inleiesl has conlinued lo lioulIe lhe lvo
nalions and lioughl lhe lvo lo lesls of viII fion line
lo line. Recognizing lhe need foi lop-IeveI Ieadeiship,
on his hisl visil lo China in Novenlei 2OO9, Iiesidenl
aiack Olana inviled his Chinese counleipails lo
join lhe Uniled Slales in a slialegic ieassuiance con-
sliucl. y nany accounls, Xi }inpings caII foi a nev
lype of gieal-povei ieIalionship is a Iong-oveidue
iesponse lo lhe U.S. inilialive, aflei aII, Xis caII con-
lains lhe foIIoving: 1) avoid confionlalion, 2) pionole
nuluaI iespecl, and 3) seek coopeialion and vin-
vin soIulions, aII of vhich aie eIenenls of slialegic
ieassuiance.
IinaIIy, Xi }inping, Iike Hu }inlao, is aIso a veII-le-
haved Chinese luieaucial. The diffeience lelveen Xi
and Hu is lhal Xi is a piinceIing and has sliongei lies
lo lhe Chinese niIilaiy. Xi can le noie conhdenl and
asseilive lhan Hu, lul nol as aggiessive as o XiIai, a
disgiaced high-poveied piinceIing and pulalive iivaI
lo Xi. o XiIai is accused of coiiuplion. ul lhe ieaI
ieason lehind his faII is noie IikeIy a povei sliuggIe
foi Ieadeiship in lhe CCI. o vas oveiIy aggiessive,
he sluck his neck oul and gol hanneied (he had jusl
gone lhiough a slaged liiaI in China al lhe line of
lhis viiling).
Accoiding lo lhe cuiienl CCI design, Xi }inping
viII seive lvo 5-yeai leins unliI 2O23. He is going lo
oveisee lhe conpIelion of lhe second slep in Chinas
16
niIilaiy nodeinizalion, naneIy lhe conpIelion of
foice nechanizalion and najoi advance in infoina-
lion-lased capaliIilies. Wilh Xis chaiacleiislics of
Ieadeiship, Chinas niIilaiy nodeinizalion viII nosl
IikeIy deveIop accoiding lo lhe veII-specihed pIan
undei Xis valch in lhe nexl 1O yeais.
G%E O'+*'+&!
ack in 2OO8, DanieI Hailnell nade a lhoiough
anaIysis of lhe ILAs nev hisloiic nissions.
21
In
Chaplei 2, Hailnell anaIyzes a fev key ILA aclivilies
as diiecl iesuIls fion lhe nev hisloiic nission. One
naiked deveIopnenl is lhe ILAs effoil lo lioaden ils
geogiaphic and funclionaI aiea of focus and acquiie
nev skiIIs and capaliIilies. The ILA has slienglhened
ils aliIily lo defend Chinas naiiline leiiiloiiaI in-
leiesls. This incIudes incieasing ILAN palioIs of dis-
puled naiiline leiiiloiies, cooidinalion vilh civiIian
naiiline enfoicenenl agencies, and deveIopnenl of
a nascenl aiiciafl caiiiei capaliIily. Today, Hailnell
sees lhe foIIoving fuluie possiliIilies. Iiisl, ovei line,
lhe ILA nay lake a sliongei posilion on peiceived vi-
oIalions of Chinas naiiline leiiiloiiaI cIains. Of pai-
licuIai nole is lhal lhe Uniled Slales shouId expecl lhal
lhe ILA viII pIay a Iaigei ioIe in Chinas naiiline lei-
iiloiiaI dispules vilh olhei slales, such as lhose vilh
U.S. liealy aIIies, }apan and lhe IhiIippines.
Second, so Iong as lhe Chinas Ieadeiship feeIs
lhal lhe ILA is incapalIe of fuIhIIing lhe nev hisloiic
nission, addilionaI iesouices foi lhe Chinas niIilaiy
nodeinizalion effoils viII le juslihed. Theiefoie, lhe
Uniled Slales shouId anlicipale lhal lhe ILA viII,
anong olhei lhings, conlinue lo inpiove ils naiiline,
space, and cyleispace capaliIilies~key foci of lhe
17
nissions. Thiid, lhe Uniled Slales shouId anlicipale
lhal lhe ILA viII conlinue lo inciease ils gIolaI pies-
ence as il seeks lo defend Chinas expanding oveiseas
inleiesls. IinaIIy, lhe inheienl lension in lhe nev his-
loiic nissions lelveen liadilionaI leiiiloiiaI defense
nissions and oveiseas nissions piovides lhe Uniled
Slales vilh an oppoilunily lo inuence lhe ILAs fu-
luie liajecloiy. The ILA shouId le encouiaged lo pai-
licipale in nissions aiound lhe voiId lhal lenehl lhe
connon good, such as defending inleinalionaI fiee-
don of navigalion. Such a diieclion nay piovide Chi-
na vilh an incenlive lo suppoil cuiienl inleinalionaI
noins and inslilulions, ialhei lhan liansfoining lhen
lo suil eijings paiochiaI inleiesls.
In Chaplei 3, Dennis Iasko discusses lhe IeopIes
Wai docliine, lhe Aclive Defense, and Offshoie De-
fense slialegies in lhe conlexl of lhe nev hisloiic nis-
sions. The piincipIes of IeopIes Wai, Aclive Defense,
and Offshoie Defense have conlinued lo le lhe lasis
foi Chinese niIilaiy oiganizalion, docliine, and opeia-
lions since hisl ailicuIaled. AII have leen adapled and
nodihed foi lhe 21sl cenluiy. These Chinese docliines
do nol seek lo iniliale vai, ialhei, vaihghling is lo le
undeilaken onIy if deleiience faiIs. Hovevei, lhis Iasl
asseilion shouId le suljecl lo delale. Il is queslion-
alIe vhelhei lhe Chinese enpIoyed lhe piincipIes of
IeopIes Wai, Aclive Defense, and Offshoie Defense
lo deaI vilh lhe leiiiloiiaI dispules since 2OO9, oi in
olhei voids, can lhose Chinese acls le caIIed nod-
ein naiiline IeopIes Wai` UnfoilunaleIy, neilhei
lhe Chinese noi lheii foieign counleipails have an
ansvei lo lhe queslion.
In Chaplei 4, Chiislophei Tvoney discusses Chi-
nas inleinaI discussion on vhal lhe Uniled Slales caIIs
anli-access and aiea deniaI (A2/AD) capaliIilies. Cen-
18
liaI lo Chinas appioach lo facing Aneiican niIilaiy
capaliIilies in Lasl Asia has leen lhe deveIopnenl of
lhe A2/AD foices. The ILA, hovevei, does nol use
lhe U.S. lein lo desciile ils capaliIilies. In lhe Chinese
secuiily and defense discouise, lhe leins of counlei-
inleivenlion, assassins nace, liunp veapons, syslen
of syslens, aclive slialegic counleiallacks on exleiioi
Iines, and lhe lhiee nons~nonIineai, nonconlacl,
nonsynneliic (oi asynneliic)~aie fiequenlIy used.
WhiIe lhe Chinese have no agieenenl on lhe
piopei leins foi lhe eneiging A2/AD capaliIilies,
lheii depIoynenl of lhose capaliIilies has oulpaced
lhe deveIopnenl of docliine lo nanage lhe appIica-
lion of lhose capaliIilies. This shoilconing ieduces
lhe oveiaII conlal povei lhese capaliIilies nighl cie-
ale, and suggesls a Iack of consideialion on lhe pail of
senioi ILA Ieadeis as lo hov niIilaiy lechnoIogy is
changing and hov lhese changes nighl inpacl navaI
vaifaie loday.
WhiIe lhis sel of ciicunslances shouId nol le
vieved as an invilalion foi conpIacency on lhe pail
of lhe Uniled Slales, il does suggesl lhal conlinuing
lo noniloi Chinese docliinaI deIileialions viII pio-
vide signihcanl vaining lo foieign anaIysls and pIan-
neis lefoie any najoi inpiovenenls in lhis iegaid
nanifesl.
On lhe olhei hand, lhe ILA is noie deepIy consid-
eiing lhe inpIicalions of lhe infoinalion lechnoIogies
and nelvoiks foi conicl. China is alIe lo diav heavi-
Iy on oulside lhinking aloul lhese inpIicalions, nany
of vhich aie liied and lesled ly lhe Uniled Slales in
vailine. SliII, lhe inlegialion of nev A2/AD capaliIi-
lies vilh nev docliine viII ienain a chaIIenging aiea
foi lhe ILA given liadilionaI luieaucialic iigidilies.
19
In Chaplei 5, Wanda Ayuso and Lonnie HenIey
discuss lhe ILAs aspiialion lo joinlness. They exan-
ine ILA liaining, exeicises, and docliine deveIopnenl
fion 2OO8 lo 2O12. They found lhal in 2OO6, Hu }inlao
issued guidance on liansfoining ILA liaining ly hisl
liaining connandeis and slaff on joinl opeialions
concepls. ILA effoils lovaid joinl opeialions since
2OO8 have cenleied on deveIoping facuIly expeilise
in niIilaiy educalionaI inslilulions, gelling ILA con-
nandeis lo lhink in leins of joinl liaining, and deveI-
oping infoinalion syslens lo faciIilale joinl connand.
These effoils aie nol pioducing iapid iesuIls, and Chi-
nese niIilaiy Ieadeis aie avaie lhal lhe ILA has nol
ieached lhe IeveI of joinl opeialions deveIopnenl lhey
seek. NeveilheIess, lhe ILA has gained knovIedge in
joinl opeialions fion ils inleiaclion vilh olhei coun-
liies in liIaleiaI and nuIliIaleiaI exeicises. ILA cadels
have ieceived lheoielicaI liaining on joinl opeialions
lul Iack opeialionaI expeiience.
Despile effoils lo incuIcale lasic concepls of joinl
opeialions in an acadenic selling, connandeis con-
linue lo faII shoil in lheii aliIily lo Iead joinl opeia-
lions invoIving acluaI foices. Oulside lhe acadenic
selling, onIy a handfuI of niIilaiy exeicises addiess
issues of joinl connand. }oinl opeialions concepls
have leen sIov lo deveIop since lhe niIilaiy and ils
Ieadeiship have had lo adapl lo a iadicaIIy diffeienl
vay of lhinking aloul niIilaiy conicl. CenliaIized
liaining guidance, slandaidized equipnenl, and in-
piovenenls lo acadenic liaining nay piovide lhe
iighl looIs lo fuilhei lhe liansfoinalion lo vhich niIi-
laiy Ieadeis aspiie.
IinaIIy, achieving a nodein slandaid of niIilaiy
effecliveness viII iequiie lhe ILA lo inleinaIize joinl
opeialions concepls and appIy lhen in noie ieaIislic,
nuIli-seivice liaining exeicises.
2O
In Chaplei 6, }oe McReynoIds and }anes MuIve-
non discuss liends in infoinalionizalion of lhe ILA
undei Hu }inlao. Duiing Hus leins, lhe ILA fuIIy
enliaced infoinalizalion as a cenliaI guiding piinci-
pIe of niIilaiy lheoiy and docliine, an undeiIying hi-
nanenl uniling ILA concepls such as lhe ievoIulion
in niIilaiy affaiis (RMA) vilh Chinese chaiacleiislics,
inlegialed joinl opeialions, civiI-niIilaiy inlegialion,
and syslen-of-syslens vaifaie, and lying lhen lo
Chinas lioadei civiIian infoinalizalion effoil. Hov-
evei, lhis lheoielicaI sophislicalion nasks signihcanl
opeialionaI dehcils, and lhe ILAs iecenl lechnoIogi-
caI advances viII nol geneiale voiId-cIass conlal
aliIilies if lhey aie nol nalched ly nodeinized pei-
sonneI and oiganizalionaI sliucluies. This viII le lhe
nexl najoi huidIe foi lhe ILAs infoinalizalion effoil,
and Hus piinaiy infoinalizalion Iegacy is his Iaying
lhe poIicy gioundvoik lhal, in line, nay enalIe lhe
ILA lo oveicone lhese sliucluiaI chaIIenges.
MuIvenon and McReynoIds lheiefoie suggesl lhal
U.S. niIilaiy slialegisls shouId hisl focus on scenaiios
invoIving China and nusl undeisland lhe inpacl of
infoinalizalion liends nol onIy in leins of specihc
veapons and suppoil pIalfoins lul aIso in leins of
inlegialion lelveen niIilaiy and civiIian infoinaliza-
lion and nelvoiks, lolh in peaceline and in defense
noliIizalion oi conicl scenaiios. AccuialeIy undei-
slanding lhese Iinkages viII enalIe lellei piediclion
of lolh lhe oulpuls of Chinas ieseaich, deveIopnenl,
and acquisilion (RD&A) piocesses and lhe aclions of
Chinese poIilicaI and niIilaiy aclois in vai oi ciisis
scenaiios.
Second, hovevei, infoinalizalion shouId le un-
deislood as a souice nol onIy of incieased niIilaiy
slienglh and povei piojeclion capaliIilies, lul aIso of
21
nev syslenic vuIneialiIilies. As lhe ILA deveIops ad-
vanced connand, conlioI, connunicalions, conpul-
eis, and inleIIigence suiveiIIance and ieconnaissance
(C4ISR) lechnoIogies and inlegialion vilh civiIian
nelvoiks, lhey aie IikeIy lo lecone incieasingIy ieIi-
anl on lhose syslens lhiough liaining and docliine,
uIlinaleIy iepIicaling lhe supposedIy asynneliic
vuIneialiIilies in lhese aieas lhal ILA lheoielicians
have liadilionaIIy noled in lheii anaIyses of lhe U.S.
niIilaiy. Shaied vuIneialiIilies couId polenliaIIy give
iise lo shaied inleiesls vilh lhe Uniled Slales, opening
an addilionaI palh ly vhich China nay nove lovaid
leconing a slalus quo povei in lhe space and cylei
donains.
In Chaplei 7, Nan Li Iooks al Chinas evoIving
navaI slialegy and capaliIilies undei Hu }inlao. In
navaI slialegy, Hu has nade lvo conliilulions. He
iequiied lhe ILA lo safeguaid Chinas nevIy eneig-
ing oveiseas inleiesls, vhich dehnes ILANs fai-seas
nissions, and he endoised lhe concepl of infoinalion
syslens-lased syslen of syslens opeialions, vhich
inpacls on hov ILAN conducls opeialions. ILAN
slialegisls leIieve lhal neai-seas nissions aie lhe pii-
oiily lecause lhey aie noie ciilicaI lo Chinas physicaI
secuiily. Ieilaining lo syslen of syslens opeialions,
sone ILA slialegisls aigue lhal lhe pienise lhal ILA
can achieve supeiioiily lhiough infoinalion syslens
inlegialion is aved, and lhal ILA opeialions shouId
sliII le guided ly ils liadilionaI aclive defense slial-
egy, vhich is pienised on lhe concepl of infeiioi
hghling supeiioi.
As lo capaliIilies, lhe ILANs acquisilion of an aii-
ciafl caiiiei, deslioyeis, fiigales, and Iighl fiigales can
le accounled foi ly lhe need lo consliucl a naiiline
syslen of syslens as veII as ILAs liadilionaI aclive
22
defense slialegy. Olhei conliiluling faclois incIude
avaiIaliIily of nev shipluiIding lechnoIogies and
funding, and lhe need lo iepIace olsoIele ships.
Li suggesls lhal 1) lecause ILANs fai-seas opeia-
lions aie diiven nainIy ly econonic conceins and lhe
IeveI of U.S.-China econonic inleidependence is high,
such opeialions offei oppoilunilies foi coopeialion
lelveen lhe U.S. Navy and lhe ILAN, pailicuIaiIy
in nonliadilionaI secuiily opeialions lo enhance sea
Ianes secuiily, 2) Chinas dependence on naiiline
liade and lhus secuie sea Ianes is IikeIy lo inciease,
lul lhe ILANs fai-seas eel iesponsilIe foi secuiing
lhese sea Ianes sliII has Iiniled capaliIilies. olh ien-
dei lhe Chinese econony vuIneialIe. This vuIneialiI-
ily piovides inilialives foi lhe Uniled Slales in nan-
aging U.S.-China naiiline ieIalions ly adopling lolh
coeicive and coopeialive neasuies, and 3) as noie
Chinese navaI ships aie depIoyed oul lo sea noie
fiequenlIy, lhey opeiale noie in excIusive econonic
zones (LLZs) of olhei counliies. Theii expeiience of
leing inleiiupled in olheis LLZs nay giaduaIIy
change lhe peispeclive lhal undeiIies Chinese dis-
agieenenl vilh lhe Uniled Slales ovei niIilaiy ac-
livilies in LLZs. This nay offei an oppoilunily foi lhe
Uniled Slales lo voik oul iuIes vilh China lo nanage
navaI ships inleiaclions lo pievenl incidenls al sea.
In Chaplei 8, MichaeI Chase Iooks al lhe docliine
and capaliIilies of lhe Second AiliIIeiy in lhe Hu }in-
lao eia. Duiing lhe Hu }inlao eia, lhe Second AiliIIeiy
nade inpiessive piogiess in docliinaI deveIopnenl,
foice nodeinizalion, and liaining, eneiging as a coi-
neislone of Chinas gioving niIilaiy povei. The ILA
pulIished inpoilanl voIunes eIaloialing ils docliine
foi nissiIe foice deleiience opeialions and canpaigns.
Aflei decades of vuIneialiIily, lhe ILAs Second Ai-
23
liIIeiy Ioice (ILASAI) depIoynenl of ioad-noliIe in-
leiconlinenlaI laIIislic nissiIes (ICMs) enhanced lhe
suivivaliIily of lhe nucIeai nissiIe foice and slienglh-
ened lhe ciediliIily of Chinas slialegic deleiienl. The
Hu eia aIso fealuied lhe expansion of ILASAIs con-
venlionaI capaliIilies, giving eijing nev oplions lo
enpIoy convenlionaI nissiIes foi deleiience, inlini-
dalion, and piecision sliike opeialions. In addilion,
Second AiliIIeiy inpioved ils connand aulonalion,
inleIIigence, suiveiIIance, and ieconnaissance (ISR),
and connunicalions capaliIilies, and incieased lhe
ieaIisn and conpIexily of nissiIe foice liaining.
Chase suggesls lhal Chinas gioving nucIeai and
convenlionaI nissiIe capaliIilies have fai-ieaching
inpIicalions foi lhe Uniled Slales. SpecihcaIIy, 1) Chi-
nas gioving nucIeai capaliIilies aie IikeIy lo conpIi-
cale fuluie ains conlioI negolialions, and aspecls of
ILASAI docliine couId cieale seiious ciisis slaliIily
and escaIalion nanagenenl chaIIenges, 2) slialegic
diaIogue on lhese issues is iequiied lo niligale escaIa-
lion iisks and Iay lhe gioundvoik foi fuluie Chinese
pailicipalion in nuIliIaleiaI ains conlioI discussions,
3) ILASAIs gioving convenlionaI nissiIe capaliIi-
lies viII aIIov China lo pose an incieasingIy seiious
lhieal lo laigels Iike iegionaI lases and suiface ships,
and, 4) lhis viII iequiie lhe Uniled Slales lo ielhink
aspecls of ils liadilionaI appioach lo niIilaiy opeia-
lions, deleiience, and assuiance of aIIies and pailneis
in lhe iegion.
In Chaplei 9, NeiI Diananl Iooks al Chinas veleian
affaiis as an eIenenl of civiI-niIilaiy ieIalions. Look-
ing lo nove leyond piopagandislic inages of heioic
soIdieis in lhe ofhciaI nedia, he hnds lhal, oveiaII,
nany ILA veleians have had difhcuIly adjusling lo
lhe nassive changes in lhe iefoin peiiod, vilh nany
24
of lhen hnding lhenseIves in a piecaiious posilion
in lhe slale and sociely. Diananl fuilhei aigues lhal
veleians, incIuding ofhceis, aie nol a vialIe lhieal lo
lhe iegine nainIy on accounl of lheii oId age, physi-
caI piolIens, Iack of Iaige scaIe oiganizalion, and de-
pendence on lhe slale. Iuilhei nodeinizalion of lhe
ILA on lhe lasis of foice ieduclion is unpiolIenalic,
given lhe iesouices lhe CCI has invesled in doneslic
secuiily unils.
Diananl suggesls lhal vhen olseiving paliiolic
oi nalionaIislic piolesls in China, lhe Uniled Slales
vouId do veII lo avoid oveieslinaling lhe Chinese
pulIics suppoil foi lhe ILA, oi conicl. AIlhough
lheie is a popuIai eIenenl in lhese aclivilies, lheie is
aIso a signihcanl degiee of slale oicheslialion lhal is
inlended lo gain Ieveiage in negolialions.
Second, lhe Chinese pulIics suppoil foi lhe ILA
is nol ieexive oi lIind, in facl, nany oppose niIi-
laiy lenehls and iefuse lo considei niIilaiy seivice
lhenseIves. If lheie aie signihcanl cosls lo a niIilaiy
exchange~inpacling liade, enpIoynenl, slaliIily,
inveslnenl and liaveI oppoilunilies, lhe Chinese pul-
Iic viII nol suppoil il. The Uniled Slales shouId ie-
nind China of lhese polenliaI cosls in a vaiiely of foia.
In eveiy poIicy aiena, Chinese poIicynaking nusl
le concepluaIized lhiough lhe piisn of fiagnenla-
lion, decenliaIizalion, conpelilion lelveen faclions,
and uncIeai Iines of aulhoiily~veiy nuch conliaiy lo
lhe inage piesenled ly lhe IRC goveinnenl lo lhe
voiId al Iaige. The ILA is lul one inslilulion vying
foi povei, iesouices and pieslige. When consideiing
lhe possiliIily of a aie-up in lhe Soulh China Sea,
lhe inleiesls of nuIlipIe nonniIilaiy agencies nusl le
evaIualed as veII.
25
In Chaplei 1O, Tinolhy Healh Iooks al lhe eneig-
ing paily-niIilaiy ieIalionship. Duiing lhe eia of Hu
}inlao, lhe CCI deepened iefoins lhal loIsleied ils
aliIily lo Iead a piofessionaIizing niIilaiy. The ie-
foins ained lo slienglhen lhe CCI as an oiganiza-
lion, iendei paily-niIilaiy ieIalions noie funclionaI
and iesiIienl, and inpiove lhe CCIs aliIily lo pio-
vide slialegic Ieadeiship. These changes have enalIed
a giealei degiee of dynanisn and exiliIily in lhe
CCIs Ieadeiship of lhe ILA. Hovevei, lhe iefoins
have aIso encouiaged a fiagnenlalion of paily au-
lhoiily aIong nalionaI and niIilaiy Iines. This fiag-
nenlalion of aulhoiily, exaceilaled ly lhe peisislence
of veak slale and niIilaiy inslilulions and lhe CCIs
oveiaII poIilicaI vuIneialiIilies, inlioduces nev chaI-
Ienges lo ensuiing lhe ILAs IoyaIly.
Healh suggesls lhal iefoins designed lo inpiove
lhe effecliveness of paily Ieadeiship vilhoul suiien-
deiing conlioI of lhe niIilaiy aie IikeIy lo conlinue un-
dei Xis CCI Ieadeiship. These iefoins have iesuIled
in a noie exilIe, conpelenl CCI iegine capalIe of
Ieading lhe niIilaiys peaceline aclivilies. So Iong as
lhe CCI conlinues lo nake necessaiy adjuslnenls lo
ils Ieadeiship slyIe, lhe ILA has consideialIe ioon lo
giov as a piofessionaI foice even as il ienains a paily
Ied niIilaiy.
Second, lhe Iong-lein suivivaI of lhe ILA as a pai-
ly-Ied niIilaiy, hovevei, is Iess cIeai. The Iong-lein
piospecls foi lhe pailys evoIving slyIe of Ieadeiship
uIlinaleIy depends on lhe CCIs viIIingness lo adopl
changes lhal louch on fundanenlaI piincipIes of Le-
ninisl iuIe, such as neasuies lhal Iinil paily penelia-
lion and conlioI of aII oiganizalions.
Thiid, despile lhe iefoins, lhe ILA conlinues lo
suffei fion lhe CCIs lioadei piolIens of poIili-
26
caI veakness and fiagnenlalion of aulhoiily. These
vuIneialiIilies aie IikeIy lo exaceilale piolIens of
connand and conlioI in unanlicipaled silualions.
Undeislanding lhe conpIexily of lhe ieIalionship le-
lveen nalionaI CCI and ILA Ieadeiship can heIp U.S.
poIicynakeis navigale secuiily-ieIaled foieign poIicy
ciises vilh eijing.
In lhe hnaI chaplei, Kennelh AIIen exanines
liends in ILA inleinalionaI inilialives undei Hu }in-
lao. The puipose of Chaplei 11 is lo idenlify and as-
sess inleinalionaI inilialives ly lhe ILA fion lhe line
Hu }inlao lecane lhe Chaiinan of lhe CCIs CenliaI
Connillees MiIilaiy Connission (CMC/CenliaI
MiIilaiy Connission) in Seplenlei 2OO4, aflei having
seived as one of lhe lhiee Vice Chaiinen since 2OO2,
unliI Xi }inping, vho had seived as a Vice Chaiinan
since Oclolei 2O1O, iepIaced hin duiing lhe 18lh Iai-
ly Congiess in Novenlei 2O12. Xi aIso iepIaced Hu as
lhe Chaiinan of lhe Slale CMC duiing lhe 12lh Na-
lionaI IeopIes Congiess (NIC) in Maich 2O13. WhiIe
il is difhcuIl lo deleinine vhich specihc inleinalionaI
inilialives can le diieclIy alliiluled lo Hu, il appeais
lhal enpIoying niIilaiy dipIonacy lo enhance Chi-
nas sofl povei vas cIeaiIy inpIenenled as a concepl
undei Hu, and lhal lhe ILA legan lo lecone acliveIy
invoIved in inleinalionaI hunanilaiian assislance and
disaslei ieIief (HA/DR) and niIilaiy opeialions olhei
lhan vai (MOOTW) aclivilies as a diiecl iesuIl of Hus
foui hisloiic nissions. In addilion, lhe ILA cIeaiIy
inpioved lianspaiency undei Hu. Looking foivaid,
lhe ILA viII IikeIy conlinue lo expand lhe scope of ils
gIolaI invoIvenenl undei Xi }inping, lheiely sIovIy
leconing noie conhdenl and piepaiing foi fuluie
conicl al oi leyond ils loideis8
27
AIIen lhus suggesls lhal: 1) shouId lheie le civiI
uniesl in counliies vheie Chinese aie Iiving and
voiking, lhe ILA viII nosl IikeIy lecone noie ac-
liveIy invoIved in heIping lo evacuale lhen lo safely.
Chinas incieasing focus on HA/DR viII iequiie spe-
cihc lechnoIogicaI deveIopnenls, incIuding equip-
nenl, infoinalion lechnoIogy, and Iogislics and nain-
lenance suppoil. AIlhough lhese capaliIilies vouId
le necessaiy lo suppoil an innediale need, such as
a naluiaI disaslei, lhey vouId aIso enhance lhe ILAs
aliIily lo suppoil niIilaiy opeialions leyond ils loi-
deis. esides Ieaining hov lo ienain al sea foi Ienglhy
peiiods of line, lhe ILANs incieased depIoynenls
alioad have slienglhened ils foieign ieIalions. 2) The
lianspaiency of Chinas niIilaiy has inpioved in ie-
cenl yeais undei Hu. Hovevei, lheie ienains deep
inleinalionaI unceilainly aloul key aieas of lhe ILAs
foice conposilion and gioving capaliIilies. 3) Look-
ing foivaid lo lhe ioIe of niIilaiy dipIonacy undei
Xi }inping, lhe ILA viII nosl IikeIy conlinue lo ex-
pand ils gIolaI invoIvenenl in HA/DR aclivilies and
conlined exeicises vilh foieign counliies, as veII
as send noie deIegalions alioad lo Ieain fion and
aloul olhei counliies niIilaiies. Al lhe sane line, lhe
ILA conlinues lo piovide sone liaining foi foieign
niIilaiies in China.
%+*+@"%! R (?$>"%# M
1. The CCI has a CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission. The Chinese
goveinnenl aIso has a CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission (CMC).
These aie essenliaIIy lhe sane oiganizalions vilh lhe sane peo-
pIe in chaige. In lheii ovn voids, lhe Chinese say lhal lhis is one
oiganizalion vilh lvo nanes. ul lhe CCIs CMC is dehnileIy
noie ofhciaI. This viiling foIIovs lhe Chinese cuslon.
28
2. }iang Zenin vas handpicked ly Chinas paianounl Ieadei
Deng Xiaoping duiing lhe }une 4, 1989, poIilicaI luinoiI in Chi-
na lo lecone lhe CCI Secielaiy CeneiaI and Ialei Iiesidenl of
China. Hovevei, Deng Xiaoping slayed as Chaiinan of lhe CMC
foi a fev noie yeais afleivaids and slepped dovn ieIuclanlIy
onIy vhen he vas ceilain lhal }iang vouId caiiy on lhe couise
he (Deng) had sel foi China. In 2OO2, }iang Zenin foIIoved Deng
Xiaopings foolsleps lo vilhhoId conlioI of lhe niIilaiy povei.
3. On lhe ILAs Hisloiic Mission in lhe Nev Slage of lhe
Nev Cenluiy, LdiloiiaI, P|A Dai|q, }anuaiy 9, 2OO6.
4. Huang KunIun, Walching ILA IuIhII ils Nev Mission
fion lhe CuIf of Aden: ILAs Mission WiII Lxlend lo Wheievei
NalionaI Inleiesls Lxpand, P|A Dai|q onIine, }anuaiy 4, 2OO9.
5. Chinese Ieadeis sel Chinas niIilaiy nodeinizalion in
nolion foIIoving lhe so-caIIed vakeup caIIs fion lhe Uniled
Slales vilh ils shov of foice againsl Saddan Hussein in 1991, in
lhe Taivan Sliail ciisis of 1996, and in lhe Kosovo aii canpaign in
1999. They appaienlIy acceIeialed lhis nonunenlaI undeilaking
upon seeing lhe U.S. niIilaiy Iaunch anolhei ievoIulionaiy niIi-
laiy aclion againsl Saddan Hussein in 2OO3.
6. Wu }iao, Navies Seeking ellei Ways lo allIe Iiiales,
@6)/& ?&)21, Novenlei 6, 2OO9. }iao, hovevei, did nol specify
vhelhei lhe vesseIs veie Chinese ovned, Chinese agged, oi
Chinese ienled.
7. See Andiev S. Liickson and Auslin M. Sliange, Leain-
ing lhe Ropes in Iue Walei: The Chinese Navys CuIf of Aden
DepIoynenls Have oine WoilhvhiIe Lessons in Iai-Seas Op-
eialions~Lessons lhal Co eyond lhe Anlipiiacy Mission, U.S.
NavaI Inslilule E%4*'',)/(-, VoI. 139, No. 4, ApiiI 2O13, pp. 34-38,
foi an up-lo-dale discussion.
8. See David Lai, Chinas Aiiciafl Caiiiei: lhe Cood, lhe ad,
and lhe UgIy, Slialegic Sludies Inslilule Op-Ld., Oclolei 27,
2O11, foi an accounl of lhe Chinese unyieIding effoil lo acquiie
lhe caiiiei.
29
9. Theie have leen nuneious Chinese viilings ieecling on
lhe inleinaI delale in China aloul lhe need, neiil, and cosl of
puisuing aiiciafl caiiiei in lhe pasl 2 decades. The pioponenls
have appaienlIy pievaiIed in lhe dale.
1O. aiiy RogIiano SaIIes (RS), Al a Lov Lll, >//+&2
C'G)'! 4H #6)AB+)2,)/( ;&%I'$, 2O13.
11. Andiev S. Liickson and Cale CoIIins, China Caiiiei
Deno ModuIe HighIighls Suiging Navy, 56' 9&$)4/&2 ./$'%'-$,
Augusl 6, 2O13.
12. See David Lai, The Agony of Leaining: The ILAs Tians-
foinalion in MiIilaiy Affaiis, Roy Kanphausen, David Lai, and
Tiavis Tannei, eds., |carning oq Dcing. Tnc P|A Trains a| Hcnc and
>B%4&,, CaiIisIe, IA: Slialegic Sludies Inslilule, U.S. Ainy Wai
CoIIege, 2O12, foi an exlended discussion of Chinas decision lo
deveIop aiiciafl caiiiei capaliIily.
13. Zhao Huanxin, We Aie Ready lo uiId Moie Caiiieis,
@6)/& ?&)21, Novenlei 2O, 2O12. Theie aie aIso inages on lhe In-
leinel shoving China luiIding aiiciafl caiiieis in ils najoi ship-
yaids in nid-2O13. See Liickson and CoIIins.
14. ]ancs poinls oul lhal lhe 22DDH vesseIs 'couId quile
easiIy doulIe up as lhe kind of Iighl aiiciafl caiiiei lhal lhe U.S.
Maiine Coips uses foi expedilionaiy opeialions. . . . AIlhough
designaled foi heIicopleis, lhe vesseI vouId aIso le capalIe of
Iaunching jels capalIe of veilicaI lake-offs and Iandings. Quoled
ly }uIian RyaII, Tokyo Mainlains a Sleady Couise on MiIilaiy
Spending, #4+$6 @6)/& ;4%/)/( E4-$, }anuaiy 23, 2O13.
15. Lu Minghui ()|), ]]]][|
(Soulh China Sea Dispules and Soulheasl Asian Nalions MiIi-
laiy Lxpansion), ];{( (#4+$6'&-$ >-)&/ >HH&)%-), No. 4,
2OO6.
16. Zhang Ning (), Chief Ldiloi, |j
[] (Tnc Vicu cn Scicn|ijc Dctc|cpncn| and Tnccrc|ica|
Adtanccs sincc |nc 16|n Par|q Ccntcn|icn), eijing, China: [
[ (CCI CenliaI AichivaI IulIicalion), 2O12.
3O
17. The ailicIes aie in ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*', No. 6, 2O1O, and Nos. 4,
5, and 6, 2O11.
18. }ia Yong (), Cao Zhi (), and Li XuanIiang (
|), ,|[|]|[|, (Recoid
of NalionaI Defense and MiIilaiy DeveIopnenl undei lhe Lead-
eiship of CeneiaI Secielaiy Hu }inlao), J)/6+& 9'!- >('/*1,
eijing, China: Seplenlei 12, 2O12, Zhang Sulang ()
'$ &2., ,|[,]|, (An
Oveiviev of Chinas NalionaI DeveIopnenl undei lhe Hu }inlao-
Ied CCI since lhe 16lh CCI Iaily Convenlion), J)/6+& 9'!-
>('/*1, Novenlei 5, 2O12, }ia Yong (), Cao Zhi (), and Li
XuanIiang (|), |]|1[j6O+,
(6O Yeais of DeveIopnenl in NalionaI Defense and MiIilaiy
undei lhe CCI and CMC), J)/6+& 9'!- >('/*1, Seplenlei 29,
2OO9, Ieng Chunnei (]]), ),[,
1`j[]| (AnaIysis of Inpoilanl Slialegic
AnaIysis), ;[[ (Pccp|cs Dai|q Nc|), Novenlei 3, 2O12, Zhang
Xiaolong (|)), ]|1[|[j (Nev
DeveIopnenls in NalionaI Defense and MiIilaiy since lhe 16lh
CCI Iaily Convenlion), ]);[ (@@E 9'!- 9'$), No-
venlei 9, 2O12, Yang Cuihua (|') and Liu Yun ([), 2O
,9O+|]|1[|[)j (Majoi Achieve-
nenls in NalionaI Defense and MiIilaiy since lhe 199Os of lhe 2Olh
Cenluiy), [|( (Tnccrc|ica| S|udics cn P|A Pc|i|ica|
lcr|), Augusl 2O12, Ha Da (), [_]|1[
|[j, (Achievenenls and Lxpeiience in NalionaI De-
fense and MiIilaiy DeveIopnenl since lhe CCIs 17lh Iaily Con-
venlion), | (Tnccrc|ica| lcr|s), No. 8, 2O12.
19. Li }inai (,|), ),[|,|[||
] (Scienlihc Cuidance foi IoIilicaI Woiks in lhe MiIilaiy in lhe
Nev Lia), P|A Dai|q, Novenlei 2, 2O12.
2O. See David Lai, 56' K/)$', #$&$'- &/, @6)/& )/ E4!'% 5%&/-)-
$)4/, CaiIisIe, IA Slialegic Sludies Inslilule, U.S. Ainy Wai CoI-
Iege, 2O11, foi an exlensive discussion of povei liansilion.
21. DanieI M. Hailnell, 54!&%,- & L24B&221 F4*+-', @6)/'-' ;)2-
)$&%1= 56' :)-$4%)* ;)--)4/- 4H $6' @6)/'-' >%0', F4%*'-" E%4M'*$ >-)&,
AIexandiia, VA: The CNA Coipoialion, 2OO8.
31
(?$>"%# K
"?% S+%; ?'!"@#'( D'!!'@+!TU
#%OA%("'@+! @+ ?) F'+"$@B! D'A'"$#E
A%&$(E
*.71/= D8 ?.-,7/,,
The vievs piesenled in lhis chaplei aie enliieIy lhe
aulhois, and do nol ieecl lhe vievs of any oiganiza-
lion vilh vhich he is oi vas afhIialed.
This chaplei exanines a sel of nissions piovided
lo lhe Chinese niIilaiy in 2OO4 and lhe inpacl lhese
nissions have had on lhe niIilaiys deveIopnenl and
aclivilies since lhen. Il aigues lhal lhese nev nissions
naik a signihcanl luining poinl foi Chinas niIilaiy,
lhe IeopIes Lileialion Ainy (ILA). esides ieinfoic-
ing liadilionaI oljeclives such as nainlaining Chinese
Connunisl Iaily (CCI) iuIe and defending Chinas
soveieign leiiiloiy, lhe nev nissions foi lhe hisl line
iequiie lhe ILA lo defend Chinas expanding ovei-
seas inleiesls. As a iesuIl, lhe ILA has soughl lo adapl
ilseIf lo lhese nev iequiienenls ly lioadening ils
geogiaphic and funclionaI aiea of focus and acquiiing
nev skiIIs and capaliIilies.
>@A'(E 'D>A'($"'@+!
The Nev Hisloiic Missions heavy enphasis on
lhe need lo defend Chinas leiiiloiiaI soveieignly viII
IikeIy iesuIl in lhe ILA laking a sliongei posilion on
peiceived vioIalions of Chinas naiiline leiiiloiiaI
cIains. The Uniled Slales shouId expecl lhal lhe ILA
viII pIay a Iaigei ioIe in Chinas naiiline leiiiloiiaI
32
dispules vilh olhei slales, such as lhose vilh U.S.
liealy aIIies, }apan and lhe IhiIippines.
- So Iong as lhe Chinas Ieadeiship feeIs lhal lhe
ILA is incapalIe of fuIhIIing lhe Nev Hisloi-
ic Missions, addilionaI iesouices foi Chinas
niIilaiy nodeinizalion effoils viII le juslihed.
Theiefoie, lhe Uniled Slales shouId anlicipale
lhal lhe ILA viII, anong olhei lhings, conlinue
lo inpiove ils naiiline, space, and cyleispace
capaliIilies~key foci of lhe nissions.
- The Uniled Slales shouId anlicipale lhal lhe
ILA viII conlinue lo inciease ils gIolaI pies-
ence as il seeks lo defend Chinas expanding
oveiseas inleiesls.
- The inheienl lension in lhe Nev Hisloiic Mis-
sions lelveen liadilionaI leiiiloiiaI defense
nissions and oveiseas nissions piovides lhe
Uniled Slales vilh an oppoilunily lo inuence
lhe ILAs fuluie liajecloiy. The ILA shouId le
encouiaged lo pailicipale in nissions aiound
lhe voiId lhal lenehl lhe connon good, such
as defending inleinalionaI fieedon of naviga-
lion. Such a diieclion nay piovide China vilh
an incenlive lo suppoil cuiienl inleinalionaI
noins and inslilulions, ialhei lhan liansfoin-
ing lhen lo suil eijings paiochiaI inleiesls.
'+"#@*)("'@+
In lhe faII of 2O12, China undeivenl a signihcanl
change in Ieadeiship as lhe hflh geneialion of Ieadeis
assuned povei. Duiing lhe CCIs 18lh Iaily Con-
giess (Novenlei 2O12), China's lhen pieniei Ieadei,
Hu }inlao, ieIinquished povei lo Xi }inping. y lhe
end of lhe congiess, Xi look ovei as geneiaI secielaiy
33
of lhe CCI and chaiinan of Chinas supiene niIilaiy
connand, lhe CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission (CMC)~
in effecl leconing lhe head of lolh lhe CCI and lhe
niIilaiy.
1
Aflei 1O yeais as head of lhe CCI and lhe
Chinese slale and 8 yeais as Ieadei of lhe ILA, Hu }in-
lao ofhciaIIy passed fion lhe poIilicaI slage in eijing.
2

If lhe pasl is any piecedence, Chinas nev Ieadei viII
voik quickIy lo nake his naik upon China ly enacl-
ing poIicy guidance on issues he hnds of concein. As
vilh poIilicaI liansilion in any counliy, il is IikeIy lhal
sone of Xis guidance viII change oi possilIy even
counlei poIicies and goaIs sel duiing lhe Hu eia. AI-
ieady lheie is evidence lhal lhis is leginning lo occui,
as one incieasingIy heais vhal appeais lo le a nev
calchphiase foi lhe Xi eia, naneIy Chinas Diean.
3

In oidei lo lellei undeisland any nev poIicies lhal
Xi nay inpIenenl, il is usefuI lo Iook lack al sone of
lhe acconpIishnenls of lhe pievious Chinese adnin-
islialion undei Hu. WhiIe a fuII assessnenl of Hus
line al lhe heIn of China is leyond lhe scope of lhis
chaplei, il is possilIe lo exanine one aiea, naneIy
Hus conliilulions lo lhe ILA ovei lhe pasl 8 yeais. In
pailicuIai, lhis chaplei Iooks al lhe inpacl on lhe ILA
fion a sel of nev nissions Hu piovided lo lhe niIi-
laiy shoilIy aflei he lecane chaiinan of lhe CMC in
2OO4.
4
These nev nissions, ofhciaIIy iefeiied lo as lhe
Hisloiic Missions of Oui MiIilaiy in lhe Nev Cen-
luiy of lhe Nev Ieiiod (;|]j|), oi
sinpIy lhe Nev Hisloiic Missions,
5
aie a sel of foui
lasks, sunnaiized as foIIovs:
- #/17V<-2/ ,I/ 91=1,.-:B6 =<:.=,: ,< ,I/ ((>"
y ienaining IoyaI lo lhe CCI, lhe niIilaiy can
heIp ensuie lhal lhe CCI nainlains ils giasp on
povei in China.
34
- %764-/ (I17.B6 2<7,174/5 /2<7<912 5/J/=<HR
9/7, W: 5/V/75170 (I17.B6 6<J/-/107,:X ,/-R
-1,<-1.= 17,/0-1,:X .75 5<9/6,12 6/24-1,:" The
niIilaiy shouId pievenl inleinaI and iegionaI
piolIens, such as Taivan and elhnic sepaialisl
novenenls, leiiiloiiaI dispules, nonliadilionaI
secuiily piolIens, and doneslic sociaI slaliI-
ily issues, fion disiupling Chinas econonic
deveIopnenl.
- */V/75 (I17.B6 /YH.75170 7.,1<7.= 17,/-/6,6X
/6H/21.==: 17 ,I/ 9.-1,19/X 6H.2/X .75 2:W/-R
6H.2/ 5<9.176" The niIilaiy shouId lioaden
ils dehnilion of secuiily fion sinpIy leiiilo-
iiaI defense againsl liadilionaI niIilaiy lhieals
lo aIso defending expanding Chinese inleiesls
in key exlialeiiiloiiaI aieas~naneIy lhe naii-
line, space, and cyleispace donains~as veII
as defending China againsl a gioving iange of
nonliadilionaI secuiily conceins, such as lei-
ioiisn.
- Prcvcnt thc nutbrcak nf cnn0Ict" The ILA
shouId do vhal il can lo pievenl lhe oullieak
of conicl lhal couId inpacl Chinas nalionaI
deveIopnenl goaIs ly suppoiling inleinalionaI
peace opeialions, inpioving ils ciises iesponse
capaliIilies, and slienglhening ils deleiienl
and vaihghling capaliIilies.
This chaplei aigues lhal lhe Nev Hisloiic Mis-
sions aie one of lhe dehning niIilaiy poIicies enacled
duiing Hus lenuie in ofhce. esides ieinfoicing lia-
dilionaI ILA nissions, such as ensuiing lhe niIilaiys
IoyaIly lo lhe Iaily and safeguaiding leiiiloiiaI de-
fense, lhe nissions aIso expand lolh lhe dehnilion
and geogiaphic scope of Chinas secuiily inleiesls. On
35
lhe one hand, lhe Hisloiic Missions lioaden lhe leiii-
loiy in vhich lhe ILA is expecled lo defend Chinas
nalionaI inleiesls. As a iesuIl, lhe ILA is no Iongei
expecled lo sinpIy piolecl Chinas inleiesls vilhin
ils loideis. Iuilheinoie, lhe nev nissions codify lhe
nolion lhal lhe niIilaiy shouId aIso incIude a lioadei
dehnilion of secuiily, lo incIude defending againsl
nonliadilionaI secuiily lhieals, such as leiioiisn and
naiiline piiacy.
As a iesuIl, in lhe yeais since lhe Nev Hisloiic
Missions veie announced, signihcanl changes have
occuiied in Chinas niIilaiy piocuienenl, foice nod-
einizalion and iefoin effoils, and niIilaiy aclivilies.
Il is leyond lhe scope of lhis chaplei lo poinl oul aII
deveIopnenls lhal have leen inuenced ly lhe nis-
sions. Hovevei, seveiaI aieas aie voilh nenlion-
ing. Iiisl, lhe niIilaiy appeais lo le inpIenenling
an aInosl canpaign-Iike allenpl lo ieinfoice ils Ioy-
aIly lo lhe Iaily. Second, lhe ILA is slienglhening
ils aliIily lo safeguaid Chinas naiiline leiiiloiiaI
inleiesls. Thiid, lhe ILA is expanding ils capaliIi-
lies and opeialions in lhiee key aieas: lhe naiiline,
space, and cyleispace donains. AII of lhese deveI-
opnenls appeai lo ieecl lhe inuence of Hus Nev
Hisloiic Missions.
This chaplei is divided inlo lhiee seclions. In lhe
hisl seclion, lhe luIk of lhis chaplei, an in-deplh de-
sciiplion of lhe conlenl and signihcance of lhe Nev
Hisloiic Missions is piovided in oidei foi lhe ieadei
lo undeisland exaclIy vhal lhe nissions aie and vhal
lhey iequiie of lhe ILA. The second seclion, sone of
lhe noie nolalIe exanpIes of hov lhese nissions have
inuence lhe deveIopnenl of lhe ILA aie desciiled.
In lhe hnaI seclion, sone inpIicalions foi lhe Uniled
Slales aie piovided.
36
Ioi souices, lhis chaplei diavs fion a vaiiely of
Chinese Ianguage viilings, augnenled vilh Weslein
viilings as necessaiy. In pailicuIai, il ieIies on lvo in-
vaIualIe souices of infoinalion. Iiisl is lhe puipoiled
speech ly Hu lo an expanded session of lhe CMC on
Decenlei 24, 2OO4. In lhis speech, Hu ailicuIales~
possilIy foi lhe hisl line~lhe Nev Hisloiic Missions
lo lhe allending deIegales. The second invaIualIe
souice is a seiies of Iessons on lhe nissions lhal lhe
ILAs CeneiaI IoIilicaI Depailnenl (CID) pulIished
in 2OO6. As lhe ILAs nain oiganizalion iepiesenling
lhe CCI vilhin lhe niIilaiy, il is voilh paying allen-
lion lo anylhing lhal lhe CID pioduces. Indeed, as
viII le denonslialed leIov, lhe CIDs Iessons~sev-
en in lolaI~piovide a veaIlh of addilionaI infoina-
lion aloul lhe CCIs lhinking on lhe signihcance and
specihc conlenl of lhese nissions.
;I., .-/ ,I/ +/Z ?16,<-12 D1661<76P
The Nev Hisloiic Missions aie a nev sel of foui
nissions piesenled lo lhe ILA duiing an expanded
session of lhe CMC on Decenlei 24, 2OO4. They ie-
infoice sone liadilionaI ILA oljeclives as veII as
piovide lhe niIilaiy vilh nev iequiienenls. The foui
nissions aie a signihcanl deveIopnenl foi Chinas
niIilaiy foi lvo ieasons. Iiisl, lhey appeai lo le a
nev enliy lo lhe sacied lody of Chinese niIilaiy
lhoughl (). Second, ofhciaI Chinese docu-
nenls nov ioulineIy incoipoiale lhe nissions inlo
lheii lexl, fuilhei signifying lheii ieIevance. These
lvo poinls aie voilh discussing fuilhei.
37
Since lheii announcenenl in 2OO4, lhe Nev His-
loiic Missions have leen sIaled foi incoipoialion inlo
lhe coIIeclion of lheoiies lhal nakes up lhe coipus
of neaiIy saciosancl Chinese niIilaiy lheoiies. This
Iexicon of Chinese niIilaiy lhoughl incIudes lhe nain
niIilaiy-ieIaled viilings and speeches of lhe Ieadei of
each geneialion of Chinas Ieadeiship. As each Ieadei
nakes vay foi lhe nexl, lhe niIilaiy conliilulions of
lhe oulgoing Ieadei aie enshiined in lhis coIIeclion.
Iieniei in lhis panlheon of Chinese niIilaiy deni-
gods is none olhei lhan Mao Zedong. Maos conliilu-
lion lo lhis coIIeclion, encapsuIaled in lhe concepl of
;&4 N',4/( ;)2)$&%1 564+(6$ (;), spans
decades of his viilings and speeches, and cIeaiIy is
lhe hoIisl of lhe gioup. IoIIoving Mao is Deng Xiaop-
ings conliilulion, coIIecliveIy knovn as ?'/( J)&4A-
ing Tncugn| cn Arnq 8ui|ding in |nc Ncu Pcricd (
`)[|). IuIIed piinaiiIy fion Dengs
viilings duiing lhe Refoin and Opening Ieiiod in lhe
198Os, lhey naluiaIIy focus on issues such as iefoining
and nodeinizing lhe ILA in Iighl of lhen-ongoing so-
ciaI and econonic changes in China. }iang Zenins in-
pul, lhe lhiid conponenl, is capluied undei lhe iuliic
of ]iang Zcnin Tncugn| cn Na|icna| Dcfcnsc and Arnq
8ui|ding (;[]|1[|). Of nole, lhe
liansilion fion }iang as Chinas Ieadei lo }iang as Chi-
nas foinei Ieadei piovides a lil of insighl inlo hov
ones viilings aie incIuded in lhis sacied coIIeclion.
In lhe Iale-199Os, }iangs niIilaiy lhoughl vas iefeiied
lo as inpoilanl exposilions ()).
6
Hovevei,
since lhe eaiIy-2OOOs, Chinese souices have iefeiied lo
}iangs niIilaiy conliilulion as a lhoughl, ofhciaIIy
on pai vilh Mao and Dengs conponenls.
7
IoIIoving lhe pallein sel ly }iangs niIilaiy
lhoughl, il appeais lhal iecenlIy lhis Iisl has expanded
38
lo incIude Hu }inlaos inpul, conpiised in pail ly lhe
Nev Hisloiic Missions. Since lhe nissions veie an-
nounced, connenls ly high-IeveI Chinese niIilaiy
ofhciaIs have hinled lhal lhe nissions veie deslined
foi incIusion in lhe Iisl of niIilaiy lhoughl of Chinas
pievious Ieadeiship. Ioi exanpIe, in 2OO5, IoIil-
luio nenlei and CMC vice chaiinan, CeneiaI Cuo
oxiong, slaled lhal lhe nissions aie:
|Tjhe piogiessive innovalion of lhe Iailys guiding
niIilaiy lheoiy, lhe succession lo and enhancenenl
of Mao Zedong MiIilaiy Thoughl, Deng Xiaoping
Thoughl on Ainy uiIding in lhe Nev Ieiiod, and
}iang Zenin Thoughl on NalionaI Defense and Ainy
uiIding.
8
The CID nakes a siniIai aigunenl in lhe hisl of
ils Iessons on lhe nissions:
In lhe diffeienl hisloiicaI peiiods of lhe ievoIulion,
consliuclion, and iefoin, oui Iaily in succession
foined lhe lhiee gieal niIilaiy lheoiy iesuIls of Mao
Zedong MiIilaiy Thoughl, Deng Xiaoping Thoughl on
Ainy uiIding in lhe Nev Ieiiod, and }iang Zenin
Thoughl on NalionaI Defense and Ainy uiIding. . . .
Chaiinan Hu insisled on laking Maixisl niIilaiy lheo-
iies as a guide, ciealiveIy used lhe successfuI expeii-
ences in Ieading nalionaI defense and ainy luiIding
of lhe Iailys lhiee geneialions of coie Ieadeiship lo
conpIeleIy and piofoundIy ieveaI lhe :)-$4%)* ;)--
sicns cf Our Mi|i|arq in |nc Ncu Ccn|urq cf |nc Ncu Pc-
%)4,, and open up nev heIds of vision foi us in piaclice
lo peisisl in and deveIop Maixisl niIilaiy lheoiies.
9
Iuilhei signifying lhe inpoilance of lhis nev sel
of niIilaiy nissions, lhe Hisloiic Missions have leen
incIuded in a vaiiely of ofhciaI Chinese docunenls.
39
Ioi exanpIe, since 2OO6, eveiy Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr~
aulhoiilalive lienniaI slalenenls aloul Chinas secu-
iily silualion~has nenlioned lhe ioIe of lhese nis-
sions in guiding lhe ILAs nodeinizalion piocess.
1O

The 2O1O Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr lesl denonsliales lhis
vhen il alliilules vaiious ongoing ILA iefoins as an
effoil lo fuIhII lhe nissions:
|The ILAj inlensihes lheoielicaI sludies on joinl op-
eialions undei condilions of infoinalionizalion, ad-
vances lhe deveIopnenl of high-lech veaponiy and
equipnenl, deveIops nev lypes of conlal foices,
sliives lo eslalIish joinl opeialion syslens in condi-
lions of infoinalionizalion, acceIeiales lhe liansilion
fion niIilaiy liaining undei condilions of nechani-
zalion lo niIilaiy liaining in condilions of infoina-
lionizalion, piesses ahead vilh inpIenenlalion of lhe
slialegic piojecl foi laIenled peopIe, invesls giealei
effoils in luiIding a nodein Iogislics capaliIily, and
enhances ils capaliIilies in acconpIishing diveisihed
niIilaiy lasks in oidei lo vin IocaI vais undei lhe
condilions of infoinalionizalion, 6< .6 ,< .22<9H=16I
1,6 I16,<-12.= 91661<76 ., ,I/ 7/Z 6,.0/ 17 ,I/ 7/Z
2/7,4-: |sic, enphasis addedj.
11
Lven nondefense-ieIaled ofhciaI docunenls in-
cIude a iefeience lo lhe Nev Hisloiic Missions. Ioi
exanpIe, lhe 17lh Iaily Congiess Woik Repoil, de-
Iiveied in 2OO7 ly none olhei lhan Hu, slaled lhal lhe
ILA vas lo fuIIy caiiy oul lhe hisloiicaI nissions
|sicj.
12
The CCIs 2OO7 conslilulion aIso incoipoiales
Hus nissions, fuilhei signifying lheii inpoilance.
13

In eaiIy-2O13, lhe ofhciaI svilch of Hus inpoilanl
exposilions lo niIilaiy lhoughl occuiied vhen an
ApiiI 2O13 P|A Dai|q ailicIe iefeiied lo Hus inpul as
Hu ]in|ac Tncugn| cn Na|icna| Dcfcnsc and Arnq 8ui|d-
)/( (,]|1[|).
14
Of nole, lhis ailicIe
4O
aIIegedIy vas a synopsis of an addiess lhal Chinas
nev Ieadei, Xi }inping, gave lo lhe ILA deIegales
of Maich 2O13 NalionaI IeopIes Congiess, fuilhei
denonslialing lhe ofhciaI naluie of lhe shifl in
leininoIogy.
Nov lhal lhe inpoilance of lhe Nev Hisloiic Mis-
sions has leen delaiIed, il is line lo exanine lhe ac-
luaI nissions. Whal exaclIy is lhe conlenl of lhese foui
nev nissions` The nexl seclions desciile each of lhe
foui nissions in luin.
D1661<7 MU >-<J15/ . ><Z/-V4= &4.-.7,// V<- ,I/
>.-,: ,< (<76<=15.,/ ',6 #4=170 ><61,1<78
The hisl of lhe foui nissions caIIs upon lhe niIi-
laiy lo piovide an inpoilanl guaianlee foi lhe Iaily
lo consoIidale ils iuIing posilion (||j
|j])[]j). Al ils coie, lhe inlenlion is
lo ensuie lhal lhe ILA ienains IoyaI lo lhe CCI in
lhe evenl of a poIilicaI ciisis. Duiing his speech lo lhe
CMC, Hu juslihed lhis nission ly noling lhal lhe Iai-
ly faced nuneious doneslic and inleinalionaI lhieals
lo ils conlinued iuIe. Accoiding lo Hu, lhe lhieals lhe
Iaily faced veie lhiee-foId: lhe supeiioiily of noie
deveIoped nalions, ideoIogicaI allacks fion hos-
liIe Weslein foices, and doneslic sociaI piolIens
lioughl aloul ly 3 decades of iefoin and deveIop-
nenl. In his speech, he asseils:
Upon enleiing lhe nev cenluiy of lhe nev peiiod
and conpiehensiveIy suiveying lhe inleinalionaI and
doneslic silualions, ve face lolh iaie oppoilunilies
foi deveIopnenl and seiious chaIIenges. We sliII face
piessuie fion deveIoped nalions vilh lheii econonic,
scienlihc and lechnoIogicaI, and niIilaiy supeiioiilies.
HosliIe Weslein foices have nol given up lhe viId
41
anlilions of liying lo suljugale us, inlensifying lhe
poIilicaI slialegy of vesleinizing and dividing up
China, and allenpling lo use lheii poIilicaI nodeIs
and vaIue syslens lo change us. Oui counliys iefoin
and deveIopnenl is cuiienlIy al a ciuciaI peiiod. So-
ciaI inleiesl ieIalions aie even noie conpIicaled, vaii-
ous hosliIe foices sliiiing up lioulIe ly expIoiling ly
hook oi ly ciook a fev conliadiclions and piolIens
piesenl in oui ieaIizalion of a sociaIisl Iife, and aie cai-
iying oul disluilances and desliuclion. InleinalionaI
and doneslic foices aie coIIaloialing and voiking in
conceil. Theii hnaI goaI is lo oveilhiov lhe iuIing po-
silion of oui Iaily, oveilhiov lhe nalionaI povei of
lhe IeopIes Denocialic Diclaloiship and ieveise oui
nalions sociaIisl syslen.
15
Wilhoul lhe ILAs IoyaIly and suppoil, lhe Iaily
feais lhal il viII le incapalIe of deaIing vilh lhese
lhieals. ConveiseIy, aIlhough nol diieclIy slaled, lhe
inaliIily of lhe Iaily lo ensuie lhe IoyaIly of lhe niIi-
laiy couId iesuIl in lhe Iailys denise. Accoiding lo
Hu, onIy if oui Iaily cIoseIy ieIies upon aII lhe peo-
pIe and hinIy conlioIs lhe IeopIes Ainy, viII lheie
le no Iaige disluilances in China, and ve viII le alIe
lo 'face dangei vilh conhdence no nallei vhal piol-
Iens aiise.
16

In oidei lo guaianlee conlinued CCI iuIe in China,
lhe Iaily nusl nol onIy slienglhen ils conlioI ovei lhe
niIilaiy and ensuie lhe niIilaiys IoyaIly lo lhe CCI,
lul aIso seek lo ensuie lhal lhe niIilaiy is capalIe of
deaIing vilh lhese lhieals:
Theiefoie, ve nusl lighlIy giasp insisling on lhe fun-
danenlaI piincipIe and syslen of lhe Iailys also-
Iule Ieadeiship ovei lhe ainy, and slienglhening lhe
ainys ievoIulionizalion, nodeinizalion, and slan-
daidizalion as lhe inpoilanl slialegic lasks of Iaily
42
iuIe, lhus ensuiing lhal oui niIilaiy is alIe lo undeigo
vaiious lallIe lasks and vaiious lesls in conpIicaled
enviionnenls, and aIvays is lhe lacklone foice foi
lhe Iaily lo consoIidale ils iuIing posilion.
17
The CIDs Iessons on lhe Hisloiic Missions de-
sciile hov lo achieve lhis lasks oljeclive, slaling lhal
il is essenliaI lo ensuie lhal lhe niIilaiy:
18
- #/9.176 =<:.= ,< ,I/ ((> (/7,-.= (<991,,//
.75 (D(: OnIy ly ensuiing lhe Iailys deci-
sive Ieadeiship ovei lhe niIilaiy can lhe Iaily
consoIidale ils iuIing posilion. Theiefoie, if
lhe Iaily says sonelhing, lhen ve iepeal il, if
lhe Iaily oideis us lo do sonelhing, lhen ve
do il, if lhe Iaily poinls lo sonevheie, lhen ve
nove lo lheie.
- (<9H=/,/6 .== ,.6[6 /7,-46,/5 ,< 1, W: ,I/ >.-R
,:: In a sonevhal ciicuIai aigunenl, lhe CID
noles lhal lhe niIilaiys piinaiy lask is lo fuI-
hII ils olIigalions lo lhe Iaily, vhich in essence
neans lhal lhe niIilaiy is lo successfuIIy caiiy
oul ils Hisloiic Missions.
- O10I,6 .0.176, .== ,I-/.,6 ,< >.-,: -4=/: In oidei
lo confionl lhe peiceived lhieals confionling
lhe Iaily, lhe CID slales lhal lhe ILA needs
lo slienglhen ils poIilicaI acunen and poIili-
caI iesponsiliIily. In pailicuIai, lhe CID noles
lhal lhe niIilaiy needs lo iesisl caIIs lo nake
lhe ILA uIlinaleIy iesponsilIe lo lhe Chi-
nese slale, ialhei lhan lhe CCI as is cuiienlIy
lhe case.
43
D1661<7 KU >-<J15/ . ><Z/-V4= !/24-1,: &4.-.7,//
V<- !.V/04.-5170 ,I/ '9H<-,.7, !,-.,/012 @HH<-,4R
71,: >/-1<5 <V +.,1<7.= */J/=<H9/7,8
The second lask, lo piovide a poveifuI secuiily
guaianlee foi safeguaiding lhe inpoilanl Slialegic
Oppoilunily Ieiiod of nalionaI deveIopnenl (
|]j[),[|)j][]
|), caIIs upon lhe niIilaiy lo pievenl doneslic oi
inleinalionaI disiuplions lo Chinas puisuil of fuilhei
econonic deveIopnenl. This nission in pailicuIai ie-
quiies lhe ILA lo defend vhal is iefeiied lo as Chi-
nas Slialegic Oppoilunily Ieiiod (,[|)), a
slock phiase foi ioughIy lhe hisl 2O yeais of lhe 21sl
cenluiy. IossilIy hisl used ly Hus piedecessoi }iang
duiing lhe Ialleis deIiveiy of lhe 16lh Iaily Congiess
Woik Repoil in Novenlei 2OO2, lhe Slialegic Oppoi-
lunily Ieiiod inpIies lhal doneslic and inleinalionaI
enviionnenls favoi Chinas econonic and sociaI de-
veIopnenl, and lheiefoie shouId le expIoiled. In lhal
voik iepoil, }iang noled lhal |ajn oveiviev of lhe sil-
ualion shovs lhal foi oui counliy, lhe hisl 2 decades
of lhe 21sl cenluiy aie a peiiod of inpoilanl slialegic
oppoilunilies vhich ve nusl seize lighlIy and vhich
offei liighl piospecls.
19
The CID noles lhal lhis pe-
iiod lenehls Chinas conlinued deveIopnenl lecause
al lhe inleinalionaI IeveI, lhe oveiaII silualion is peace-
fuI, lhe IikeIihood of gieal povei conicl is Iov, and
lhe voiId is noving lovaid nuIlipoIaiizalion and
gIolaIizalion. Al lhe doneslic IeveI, Chinas econony
conlinues lo giov, lenehlling lhe Chinese popuIace.
2O

The inpoilance of lhe Slialegic Oppoilunily Ie-
iiod is capluied in Hus Nev Hisloiic Mission speech,
vheie he slales lhal:
44
The hisl 2O yeais of lhis cenluiy is lhe inpoilanl Slia-
legic Oppoilunily Ieiiod lhal ve nusl lighlIy giasp
and le alIe lo fuIIy acconpIish. Ciasping lhe oppoilu-
nily lo pionole deveIopnenl is of lhe ulnosl inpoi-
lance lo fuIIy luiId a nodeialeIy veII-off sociely and
speed up lhe pionolion of sociaIisl nodeinizalion.
The Slialegic Oppoilunily Ieiiod is haid eained and
defended, and expIoiling lhe Slialegic Oppoilunily
Ieiiod iequiies expending even noie aiduous effoil.
In oidei lo defend and use lhe Slialegic Oppoilunily
Ieiiod, ve shouId defend nalionaI secuiily, guaid
nalionaI soveieignly and leiiiloiiaI inlegiily, and
piovide a poveifuI secuiily guaianlee foi nalionaI
deveIopnenl, lhus ciealing a peacefuI inleinalionaI
enviionnenl and a hainonious sociaI enviionnenl.
21
Hovevei, vhiIe Chinas oveiaII inleinalionaI and
doneslic silualion duiing lhe Slialegic Oppoilunily
Ieiiod is seen in a posilive Iighl, lheie aie aIso a nun-
lei of peiceived olslacIes vhich couId deiaiI piogiess
duiing lhis peiiod. Hus speech noles foui piolIen
aieas in pailicuIai: 1) leiiiloiiaI dispules vilh neigh-
loiing counliies, 2) sepaialisl novenenls on Taivan,
3) olhei sepaialisl novenenls, and 4) doneslic sociaI
slaliIily piolIens. Accoiding lo Hu:
CuiienlIy, lheie aie sliII a Iol of faclois lhal aie inu-
encing lhe Slialegic Oppoilunily Ieiiod. Oui nalions
hisloiicaI Iand loidei piolIens have yel lo le con-
pIeleIy iesoIved. Moie lhan haIf of lhe lhiee niIIion
kn
2
of naiiline suiface aiea ovei vhich China has
soveieignly and juiisdiclion is invoIved in leiiiloiiaI
valei oi naiiline iighls and inleiesl dispules vilh
neighloiing slales. Taivan Independence sepaial-
isl foices and lheii aclivilies aie pioducing seiious
lhieals foi nalionaI soveieignly and leiiiloiiaI inleg-
iily. Llhnic sepaialisl foices aie conlining lo hain
lhe slaliIily of lhe loidei aieas. Teiioiisl aclivilies aie
45
negaliveIy inuencing nalionaI secuiily and slaliIily.
AIong vilh lhe deep liansfoinalion of Chinas sociaI
sliucluie, vaiious cuIluies of lhoughl aie agilaling
each olhei, vaiious sociaI conliadiclions aie inuenc-
ing each olhei, and faclois haining sociaI slaliIily aie
incieasing. The lhieals facing nalionaI soveieignly,
lhe chaIIenges facing lhe unihcalion of lhe nolhei-
Iand, and lhe piolIens facing sociaI slaliIily, if one
aspecl is nol piopeiIy guaided againsl, foughl againsl
vilhoul effoil, oi nisnanaged, lhey couId aII possilIy
inuence and seiiousIy affecl lhe inpoilanl Slialegic
Oppoilunily Ieiiod foi nalionaI deveIopnenl.
22
In ils Iessons on lhe Nev Hisloiic Missions, lhe
CID eIaloiales on lhese lhieals lo China:
23
- ".1Z.7 175/H/75/72/ 9<J/9/7,: Wiiling in
2OO6 vhen nainIand-Taivan ieIalions veie al
a Iov poinl, il is undeislandalIe lhal lhe CID
vouId asseil lhal Taivan independence is lhe
nosl seiious lhieal inuencing lhe Slialegic
Oppoilunily Ieiiod. Of nole, lhis lhieal aIso
incIudes lhe possiliIily of a U.S. inleivenlion
on lehaIf of Taivan shouId conicl eiupl.
- A.75 .75 9.-1,19/ ,/--1,<-1.= 516H4,/6: Refei-
iing lo Chinas vaiious leiiiloiiaI dispules as
a hidden dangei, lhe CID conlends lhal, if
nol sellIed, lhese issues couId hain Chinas
chances foi conlinued deveIopnenl. The CID
aIso slales lhese dispules oflen aie exaceilaled
ly lhe neddIing of inleinalionaI foices.
- "/--<-169 .75 7.,1<7.= 6/H.-.,16, 9<J/9/7,6:
The CIDs Iessons nole lhal leiioiisn is on lhe
iise on Chinas loidei aIong lhe aic fion Cen-
liaI Asia, lhiough Soulh Asia, and inlo Soulh-
easl Asia. The CID aIso asseils lhal leiioiisn
is nov a doneslic piolIen, and nenlions in
46
pailicuIai Xinjiangs Lasl Tuikislan sepaialisl
novenenl~lhe onIy gioup Iisled ly nane.
- \.-1<46 5<9/6,12 5/6,.W1=1]170 V.2,<-6: The h-
naI calegoiy of faclois lhal couId deiaiI Chinas
conlinued deveIopnenl is doneslic sociaI fac-
lois. AIlhough lhe CID doesnl piovide delaiIs
aloul lhese faclois, il does nole lhal iising pei
capila incone and incone inequaIily in China
aie pailiaIIy lo lIane.
In oidei lo conlal lhese vaiious lhieals, Hu slales
lhal lhe niIilaiy shouId:
|IjiinIy iesisl foieign invasions, and ensuie lhal Chi-
nas leiiiloiiaI seas, leiiiloiiaI aiispace, and loideis
aie nol vioIaled. They shouId counlei and consliain
Taivan Independence sepaialisl foices and lheii
aclivilies, eaineslIy defend againsl and allack elhnic
sepaialisl foices, nevei aIIoving lhe vaiious pIans of
lhe sepaialisl foices and veslein hosliIe poveis lo di-
vide China and deslioy hei soveieignly and leiiiloiiaI
inlegiily lo pievaiI. They shouId suppoil nalionaI ieI-
evanl depailnenls, eaineslIy defending againsl and
iesoIuleIy allacking leiioiisl aclivilies. They shouId
cIoseIy pay allenlion lo lhe sociaI silualion, acliveIy
suppoil and acconpany IocaI Iaily connillees and
goveinnenls lo appiopiialeIy handIe vaiious sociaI
conliadiclions and issues, doing a good jol of safe-
guaiding sociaI slaliIily.
24
uiIding upon Hus speech, lhe CID Iisls lhiee ai-
eas vheie lhe ILA needs lo acl:
25
1. */V/75 (I17.B6 ,/--1,<-1.= 6<J/-/107,:: In pai-
licuIai, lhe CID caIIs upon lhe ILA lo cIoseIy noni-
loi changes in lhe inleinalionaI and iegionaI secuiily
silualion, pay cIose allenlion lo ieadjuslnenls in
47
iegionaI niIilaiy depIoynenls, sliive lo inpiove ils
nalionaI defense capaliIilies, and sliive lo le alIe lo
vin IocaI vais undei infoinalized condilions.
2. (<47,/- ".1Z.7 6/H.-.,169: The CID noles
lhal lhe ILA needs lo do a good jol al conpIeling ils
niIilaiy conlal piepaialions
26
in oidei lo dissuade
Taivan fion seeking independence. Iuilheinoie,
shouId peacefuI neans le exhausled, lhen lhe ILA
needs lo le ieady lo use niIilaiy foice lo lhoioughIy
iesoIve lhe Taivan issue.
3. (<47,/- 5<9/6,12 ,/--<-169 .75 /764-/ 5<9/6R
,12 6,.W1=1,:: Accoiding lo lhe CID, lhe ILA shouId
acliveIy guaid againsl leiioiisn and elhnic sepaial-
isn, and pievenl lhese gioups fion joining up vilh
hosliIe veslein foices. The ILA shouId aIso assisl
vilh pievenling doneslic piolIens fion deslaliIiz-
ing China.
D1661<7 ^U >-<J15/ . ><Z/-V4= !,-.,/012 !4HH<-, V<-
!.V/04.-5170 +.,1<7.= '7,/-/6,68
The lhiid nission iequiies lhe niIilaiy lo piolecl
Chinas expanding nalionaI inleiesls. Refeiied lo as
lhe need foi lhe niIilaiy lo piovide a poveifuI slia-
legic suppoil foi safeguaiding nalionaI inleiesls
(|]]j]|[,[|), lhis nission
focuses on lhe need lo defend Chinas expanding na-
lionaI inleiesls in lhiee ieaIns: naiiline, space, and
cyleispace.
27
Chinese viilings slale lhal lhe juslihca-
lion foi lhe lioadening of nalionaI secuiily inleiesls
Iies vilh lhe expansion of Chinas nalionaI inleiesls.
As desciiled in an ailicIe fion Chinas ofhciaI nevs
agency, J)/6+&, vhen China vas al an eaiIiei slage
of deveIopnenl, ils nalionaI inleiesls veie conhned
vilhin ils geogiaphic loideis. Today, hovevei, lhe
48
effecls of infoinalizalion (]) and gIolaIizalion
have Ied Chinas nalionaI inleiesls lo giaduaIIy spiead
oul inlo lhe ocean, space, and cyleispace.
28
Accoiding
lo Hu:
The piogiess of lhe peiiod and lhe deveIopnenl of
China have caused oui nalionaI secuiily inleiesls lo
giaduaIIy go leyond lhe scope of oui leiiiloiiaI Iand,
seas, and aiispace, and conlinuaIIy expand and slielch
lovaids lhe ocean, space, and |cyleispacej. ;&%)$)0'
sccuri|q, spacc sccuri|q, and jcqocrspacc] sccuri|q natc a|-
%'&,1 B'*40' &/ )0A4%$&/$ &%'& 4H /&$)4/&2 -'*+%)$1" |Ln-
phasis addedj
The CID Iessons expand upon lhis aigunenl:
IeopIes undeislanding of lhe oceans and deveIop-
nenl of naiiline capaliIilies conlinues lo iise, causing
lhe oceans lo lecone an inpoilanl aiea in inleinalion-
aI sliuggIes of lhe 21sl Cenluiy. The discoveiy and use
of nan-nade saleIIiles, spaceciafl, and space shullIes
has caused space lo lecone lhe nev aiea foi nalionaI
inleiesls. The videspiead use of eIeclionic conpuleis
and infoinalion nelvoiks has again caused |cylei-
spacej lo enlei inlo lhe calegoiy of nalionaI inleiesls.
The deveIopnenl of nodein nalionaI inleiesls nani-
fesls lhe liends of deveIoping fion one dinensionaI of
lhe pasl lo lhe nuIlidinensionaI and onnidiieclionaI
space of Iand, ocean, aii, space, and |cyleispacej.
29
In olhei voids, lecause Chinas deveIopnenlaI
inleiesls have noved inlo lhese ieaIns, so loo shouId
Chinas secuiily inleiesls.
In oidei lo caiiy oul lhis lask, Hu slaled lhal lhe
niIilaiy nusl lioaden ils dehnilion of nalionaI se-
cuiily lo incIude piolecling Chinas nevIy expand-
ed inleiesls in lhe naiiline, space, and cyleispace
donains:
49
We nusl expand oui secuiily slialegy and oui niIilaiy
slialegic heId of vision, nol onIy shouId ve pay cIose
allenlion lo and defend nalionaI suivivaI inleiesls,
lul aIso pay allenlion lo and defend nalionaI deveI-
opnenl inleiesls, nol onIy shouId ve pay allenlion lo
and defend lhe secuiily of oui leiiiloiiaI Iand, valeis,
and aii, lul aIso pay allenlion lo and defend naiiline
secuiily, space secuiily, and |cyleispacej secuiily, as
veII as olhei aspecls of nalionaI secuiily.
3O
As evidenced fion lhe alove quoles, lhis lhiid
nission focuses on lhiee aieas in pailicuIai vheie
lhe ILA is iequiied lo deveIop lhe capaliIilies lo
safeguaid Chinas expanding inleiesls: lhe naiiline,
space, and cyleispace donains. Lach aiea is fuilhei
delaiIed as foIIovs.
;&%)$)0' #'*+%)$1.
The Nev Hisloiic Missions nole lhe gioving in-
poilance of lhe oceans lo China. Accoiding lo Hu,
lhe ocean is lhe gieal ioule of inleinalionaI conlacl
and a slialegic iesouice lieasuie-house foi lhe suslain-
alIe deveIopnenl of hunanily.
31
The CID asseils
lhal |ajIong vilh oui nalions econonic and sociaI
deveIopnenl, oui nalionaI inleiesls aie conlinuaIIy
expanding and exlending inlo lhe naiiline space.
32

China has lvo lypes of inleiesls in lhe naiiline ie-
gion: econonic and secuiily inleiesls.
Maiiline Lcononic Inleiesls. China has piinaiiIy
lvo lypes of naiiline econonic inleiesls: sea Ianes
(and lhe goods lhal liaveise lhen) and naiiline ie-
souices.
33
The naiiline enviionnenl is of incieasing
vaIue lo eijing due lo Chinas gioving ieIiance upon
inleinalionaI sea Ianes foi Chinas conlinued deveIop-
5O
nenl.
34
In 2O1O, lhe WoiId ank eslinaled lhal lhe vaI-
ue of Chinas lolaI foieign liade (inpoils and expoils)
vas equivaIenl lo 55 peicenl of Chinas gioss dones-
lic pioducl.
35
The najoiily of Chinas foieign liade, as
nuch as 9O peicenl accoiding lo one Chinese eslinale,
liaveIs ly sea.
36
Iuilheinoie, since 1993, China has
leen a nel inpoilei of oiI, and in 2O1O il inpoiled ovei
52 peicenl of ils consuned oiI.
37
Maiiline naluiaI ie-
souices, such as pelioIeun, nineiaIs, and hsheiies, aie
aIso incieasingIy inpoilanl lo Chinas econony. This
inpoilance, lolh ieaIized and polenliaI, is evidenl in
lhe nunlei of naiiline deveIopnenl pIans China has
ieIeased in iecenl yeais. Ioi exanpIe, al lhe nalionaI
IeveI, eveiy Iive Yeai IIan (IYI) since lhe 7lh (1986-
9O) has noled lhe need lo deveIop Chinas naiiline
iesouices, vilh lhe nosl iecenl, lhe 12lh IYI (2O11-
15), devoling an enliie chaplei lo lhis issue.
38
TalIe
2-1 leIov conlains a snaII sanpIe of Chinas nalionaI
naiiline deveIopnenl pIans.
".W=/ KRMU !/=/2, (I17/6/ +.,1<7.= D.-1,19/
%2<7<9: */J/=<H9/7, >=.768
!"#$ &#'( )*$+",-./ !01+0#'2!"#$ &#'( )3.,$(-(/ 4(#0
7th12th Five Year Flans h/A 1O8G+
The 0eveloment o China's Maritime
Enterrises
]];[j 1OO8
0utline o the hational 0cean Economy
0eveloment Flan, 2OO12O1O
]];]j|; 2OO8
The Maritime Engineering Equiment
Manuacturing ndustry Long Term
0eveloment Flan, 2O112O2O
]];]j|;
];|]|)j
|
2O12
51
ecause of lhe inpoilance China alliilules lo nai-
iline econonic inleiesl, eijing feeIs lhe need lo le
alIe lo defend lhen if necessaiy. As lhe nosl iecenl
Chinese Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr noles:
The seas and oceans piovide innense space and
alundanl iesouices foi Chinas suslainalIe deveIop-
nenl, and lhus aie of vilaI inpoilance lo lhe peopIes
veIIleing and chinas fuluie. Il is an essenliaI nalionaI
deveIopnenl slialegy lo expIoil, uliIize and piolecl
lhe seas and oceans, and luiId china inlo a naiiline
povei. Il is an inpoilanl duly foi lhe ILA lo iesoIule-
Iy safeguaid Chinas naiiline iighls and inleiesls.
39
Maiiline Secuiily Inleiesls. China aIso has naii-
line secuiily inleiesls in lhe iegion. Accoiding lo
lhe CID:
China has a Iaige quanlily of isIand juiisdiclion and
naiiline iighls dispules vilh peiipheiaI counliies.
Moie lhan haIf of lhe naiiline suiface aiea ovei
vhich China has soveieignly and juiisdiclion is dis-
puled ly peiipheiaI slales. China has uniesoIved loi-
dei denaicalion piolIens in lhe YeIIov, Lasl China,
and Soulh China seas vilh sone nalions, and lheie aie
a Iol of dispules ovei naiiline iesouice deveIopnenl
issues.
4O
Safeguaiding lhese naiiline inleiesls iequiies lhe
ILA lo focus noie on lhe naiiline donain, faiIuie
lo do so couId negaliveIy inpacl Chinas conlinued
econonic and sociaI deveIopnenl:
Safeguaiding lhe naiiline iesouices foi suppoiling
Chinas conlinued econonic deveIopnenl, deveIop-
ing and safeguaiding lhe secuiily of Chinas foieign
naiiline liade shipping ioules and pelioIeun Iines,
allacking lhe piolIens of naiiline leiioiisn, piiacy,
52
snuggIing, and liansnalionaI ciines, and luiIding
a peacefuI and good iegionaI naiiline secuiily oi-
dei, aie aII Chinas inpoilanl naiiline secuiily in-
leiesls, and concein lhe enliie nalions secuiily and
deveIopnenl.
41
#A&*' #'*+%)$1.
Like lhe naiiline donain, China sees space as an
incieasingIy inpoilanl aiea foi econonic and secuiily
ieasons. Accoiding lo Hu:
space is lhe nev aiea foi conlenpoiaiy inleinalionaI
coopeialion, conpelilion, and confionlalion, lhe de-
veIopnenl and use of space iesouices open up a lioad
piospeclive foi lhe fuluie deveIopnenl of hunan so-
ciely. A fev gieal poveis aie cuiienlIy inlensifying
lhe puisuil of a niIilaiy advanlage in space, and lhe
piocess of space veaponizalion is speeding up.
42

Space has aIso lecone slialegic leiiain foi Chinas
deveIopnenl and secuiily. Chinese viilings have fie-
quenlIy aigued lhal space has lecone lhe nev fion-
liei in nankinds deveIopnenl.
43
The inpoilance of
deveIoping space lo lhe Chinese goveinnenl is den-
onslialed ly lvo conponenls of lhe 11lh Iive Yeai
IIan (IYI), vhich coveis 2OO6 lo 2O1O.
44
The hisl is an
11lh IYI foi space deveIopnenl, foIIoved ly an 11lh
IYI foi aeiospace deveIopnenl.
45
Tiends lovaid lhe
niIilaiizalion of space veie aIso noled as juslihcalion
foi safeguaiding space secuiily:
The conpelilion foi space is noie inlense on a daiIy
lasis. Space is a veiy inpoilanl nalionaI inleiesl aiea,
and il is aIso an endIess aiea. The gieal vaIue of space
in niIilaiy, econonic, science and lechnoIogy, and so-
ciaI aieas is aIieady giving daiIy iise lo eveiy nalions
allenlion.
46

53
Chinese viilings aloul hov lo defend Chinas
inleiesls in space piovide Iess delaiIs lhan sone nay
Iike. The CID, foi exanpIe, onIy noles lhal lhe ILA
nusl deveIop space defenses and inpiove ils space
capaliIilies, lul Iisls fev delaiIs:
China has aIvays advocaled foi lhe peacefuI use of
space and leen againsl lhe veaponizalion of space.
Hovevei, facing secuiily lhieals fion space, ve nusl
undeilake suilalIe neans lo inpIenenl effeclive de-
fenses, foinuIale scienlihc and ialionaI Iong-lein
pIans, sliive lo deveIop space lechnoIogy, acliveIy de-
veIop space, pailicipale in inleinalionaI space coopei-
alion, and slienglhen lhe consliuclion of space foices,
lhus ensuiing lhal |ouij nalionaI space inleiesls aie
effecliveIy safeguaided.
47
@1B'%-A&*' #'*+%)$1.
The hnaI donain specihcaIIy noled in lhe lhiid
lask is cyleispace. As vilh lhe lvo pievious donains,
lhe Hisloiic Missions aIso considei cyleispace inpoi-
lanl foi lolh Chinas deveIopnenl and secuiily. In his
speech, Hu slales lhal:
|cyleispacej is a naleiiaI space lhal has giaduaIIy
alliacled hunanilys allenlion aIong vilh lhe vide-
spiead use of infoinalion lechnoIogy, in niIilaiy af-
faiis il is lhe 'hflh lallIeheId aflei lhe Iand, sea, aii,
and space lallIeheIds.
48

54
The CID piovides a lil noie delaiI on lhis donains
gioving inpoilance lo China:
AIong vilh lhe deveIopnenl of infoinalion lechnoI-
ogy~especiaIIy conpulei lechnoIogy~lhe |cylei-
spacej has had an incieasingIy Iaigei use in econonic
and sociaI deveIopnenl. Lach nalion of lhe voiId
pIaces deveIoping and vying foi lhe inilialive in |cy-
leispacej in a pioninenl posilion, and ciuciaI S&T
ieseaich aieas of deveIoped nalions aie |cyleispacej-
ieIevanl infoinalion, connunicalions, and supeicon-
ducloi lechnoIogies.
49
In oidei lo defend Chinas inleiesls in cyleispace,
lhe ILA needs lo inciease ils knovIedge of cylei
lhieals and inpiove ils cylei secuiily capaliIilies. Iei
lhe CID:
We shouId cIoseIy foIIov secuiily lhieals in |cylei-
spacej and undeilake effeclive counleineasuies lo de-
fend againsl lhen. We shouId cIoseIy liack advanced
gIolaI eIeclionic and infoinalion lechnoIogy deveI-
opnenls, voik vilh ieIevanl cenliaI depailnenls lo
slienglhen lhe consliuclion of infoinalion secuiily
suppoil syslens, and oplinize secuiily neasuies fion
a IegaI, adninislialive, and lechnicaI angIe. We shouId
exlensiveIy caiiy oul educalion on |cyleispacej secu-
iily, and iaise and lioaden lhe lioops consciousness
aloul and disposilion lovaids safeguaiding |cylei-
spacej. Thiough feasilIe neans, ve shouId ensuie
lhal nalionaI econonic and sociaI aclivilies funclion
noinaIIy, ensuie lhal ainy luiIding is caiiied oul
snoolhIy, and lhal ve aie vicloiious in fuluie infoi-
nalized vais.
5O
55
WhiIe hinIy adnilling lhal lhe alsence of evidence
is nol lhe sane as lhe evidence of alsence, il is voilh
nenlioning lhal al Ieasl in Hus speech and in lhe
CIDs Iessons, lheie is no nenlion of <VV/761J/ cylei
capaliIilies. Hovevei, lhis is nol lo say lhal lhe ILA
is nol invesligaling hov lo conducl offensive cylei
capaliIilies. The U.S. Depailnenl of Defense (DoD)
2O13 iepoil on Chinas niIilaiy capaliIilies noles lhal
Chinas deveIopnenl of conpulei nelvoik opeia-
lions capaliIilies aie fungilIe foi conpulei nelvoik
allacks as veII.
51
Theiefoie, a noie ciedilIe expIana-
lion foi lhe Iack of offensive cylei capaliIilies is lhal
lhe lopic is consideied loo sensilive lo le discussed in
open souices, and lheiefoie discussions on lhis issue
aie IikeIy nol avaiIalIe foi lhe diafling of lhis chaplei.
D1661<7 NU &1J/ >=.: ,< ,I/ '9H<-,.7, )6/ <V !.V/R
04.-5170 ;<-=5 >/.2/ .75 >-<9<,170 (<99<7
*/J/=<H9/7,8
The hnaI lask of lhe Hisloiic Missions iequiies lhe
ILA lo iespond lo inleinalionaI ciises, since China is
no Iongei isoIaled fion oulside evenls ly geogiaphy
aIone. This lask, lo give pIay lo lhe inpoilanl use of
safeguaiding voiId peace and pionoling connon
deveIopnenl (|;1`j)]j|
)j), is nainIy diiven ly lhe Chinese peicep-
lion lhal lecause of gIolaIizalion, China is incieas-
ingIy connecled lo lhe oulside voiId, especiaIIy lhe
gIolaI econony. As a iesuIl of lhis incieased inlei-
conneclivily, China is no Iongei innune lo oveiseas
evenls~evenls onIy langenliaI lo Chinas inleiesls
couId nov adveiseIy inpacl lhe MiddIe Kingdon.
Iuilheinoie, vhal happens in China aIso inpacls lhe
oulside voiId.
52
Accoiding lo Hu:
56
Lcononic gIolaIizalion liends conlinue lo deveIop,
causing lhe econonies of lhe voiIds nalions lo Iink
lighlIy logelhei Iike nevei lefoie, naking il difhcuIl
foi any nalion lo deveIop in an isoIaled fashion ly
dislancing ilseIf fion lhe gIolaI econony. Since lhe
Refoin and DeveIopnenl |Ieiiodj, in oidei lo pio-
nole lhe iapid deveIopnenl of oui nalions econony,
ve peisisled on lhe lasic poIicy of opening up lo lhe
oulside, conpIeleIy iaising oui IeveI of openness lo
lhe oulside, anpIy using lolh doneslic and foieign
naikels, and eaineslIy ieaIizing supeiioi conpIenen-
lalion and connon deveIopnenl. IiesenlIy, Chinas
econony and lhe gIolaI econony foin an oveiaII
silualion of nuluaI dependence. Chinas deveIopnenl
cannol do vilhoul lhe voiId and lhe voiIds deveIop-
nenl aIso cannol do vilhoul China.
53
China nainlains lhis viev unliI loday, as denon-
slialed in Chinas iecenl Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, vhich
asseils lhal:
Chinas secuiily and deveIopnenl aie cIoseIy con-
necled vilh lhe peace and piospeiily of lhe voiId
as a vhoIe. Chinas ained foices have aIvays leen a
slaunch foice uphoIding voiId peace and iegionaI sla-
liIily, and viII conlinue lo inciease coopeialion and
nuluaI liusl vilh lhe ained foices of olhei counliies,
pailicipale in iegionaI and inleinalionaI secuiily af-
faiis, and pIay an aclive ioIe in inleinalionaI poIilicaI
and secuiily heIds.
54
In oidei lo fuIhII lhis lask, Chinese viilings nole
lhal lhe ILA nusl le alIe lo:
- (<7,-1W4,/ ,< 17,/-7.,1<7.= H/.2/[//H170 /VR
V<-,6: As lhe CID poinls oul, China is a pei-
nanenl nenlei of lhe Uniled Nalions Secuiily
CounciI (UNSC), and lheiefoie shouIdeis a ie-
sponsiliIily lo lhe inleinalionaI connunily. As
57
such, China iequiies a niIilaiy lhal suils a na-
lion lhal diieclIy pailicipales in poIicies lhal
affecl gIolaI secuiily and iegionaI slaliIily, and
has a decisive ioIe in inleinalionaI affaiis.
55
- #/6H<75 -.H15=: ,< 7<7Z.- 2-16/6: Accoiding
lo lhe CID, lhe hnaI nission iequiies a ILA
lhal has a iapid iesponse capaliIily so lhal il
can handIe ciises lefoie lhey deveIop inlo na-
joi conicls. In addilion, il slales lhal lhe ILA
shouId inpiove ils aliIily lo conducl nonvai
((,) aclivilies duiing peaceline, such as
hunanilaiian assislance and disaslei iesponse.
The ILA shouId aIso inpiove ils aliIily lo co-
oidinale vilh olhei IeopIes RepulIic of China
(IRC) goveinnenl agencies lo effecliveIy ie-
spond lo ciises.
56
- */,/- .75 2<7,.17 Z.-: ecause of lhe gioving
desliucliveness of nodein vaifaie, lhe ILA
shouId seek lo pievenl lhe oullieak of vai oi
conlain lhe escaIalion of vai shouId il occui~
pailicuIaiIy a vai lhal invoIves China. The
CID enphasizes lhal lhe ILA shouId lolh
pay cIose allenlion lo pIanning and caiiying
oul hin piepaialions foi vai and sliess avoid-
ing vai lhiough ciisis conlioI.
57
Olhei viil-
ings aIso enphasize lhe need lo slienglhen
|lhe ILAsj slialegic deleiience capaliIily.
58
- ;17 . Z.-X 6I<4=5 1, W/ 7/2/66.-:: Reecling
Tiolskys aphoiisn lhal you nay nol le inlei-
esled in vai, lul vai is inleiesled in you, lhe
CID slales lhal if vai cannol le avoided, lhen
ve nusl ciush lhe enenys schenes vilh svifl
and vioIenl conlal opeialions. In pailicuIai,
lhe ILA nusl le capalIe of defealing a supeii-
oi opponenl in a nodein high-lechnoIogy vai,
58
iefeiied lo in ILA paiIance as a LocaI Wai un-
dei Infoinalized Condilions.
59
!@D% D$+'O%!"$"'@+! @O "?%
?'!"@#'( D'!!'@+!
So hov have lhe Hisloiic Missions inuenced
lhe ILA` Did Hu sinpIy give a speech lhal lhe niIi-
laiy pionplIy ignoied` Oi does lhe niIilaiy sinpIy
piovide Iip seivice lo lhe nev iequiienenls of lhese
nissions` This chaplei aigues lhal lhe nissions have
indeed leen inleinaIized ly lhe ILA, slienglhening
sone piogians and poIicies lhal veie aIieady in pIace
and ciealing nev ones vheie nolhing exisled lefoie.
This seclion of lhe chaplei piovides an oveiviev of
sone of lhe noie IikeIy Chinese niIilaiy deveIop-
nenls ovei lhe pasl 8 yeais lhal appeai lo sliongIy
coiieIale vilh~if nol diieclIy ov fion~lhe nev
nission sel lhal Hu piovided lo lhe ILA. Il is nol a
lhoiough discussion of eveiylhing lhal lhe ILA has
done, oi lhal couId polenliaIIy le connecled lo lhe Nev
Hisloiic Missions. In pailicuIai, lhis seclion poinls
oul lhiee deveIopnenls: ieinfoicing ILA IoyaIly lo
lhe CCI, slienglhening lhe ILAs aliIily lo defend
Chinas naiiline leiiiloiiaI inleiesls, and inpioving
lhe ILAs capaliIilies lo safeguaid Chinas expanding
oveiseas inleiesls. Lach is liiey discussed in luin.
#/17V<-2170 >A$ A<:.=,: ,< ,I/ ((>8
As denonslialed pieviousIy, lhe hisl~and IikeIy
nosl inpoilanl~nission of lhe Nev Hisloiic Mis-
sions caIIs upon lhe ILA lo ieinfoice ils IoyaIly lo
lhe Iaily. This idea of CCI conlioI ovei lhe niIilaiy
is succinclIy sunnaiized in Mao Zedongs slalenenl
59
al lhe 1929 Culian Confeience lhal lhe Iaily con-
nands lhe gun and lhe gun nusl nevei le aIIoved
lo connand lhe Iaily.
6O
Al lhis confeience, Mao
and his suppoileis eslalIished a syslen vheiely lhe
CCI vas lhoioughIy enledded vilhin lhe ILA, and
lhe ILA nade suloidinale lo Iaily iuIe.
61
AIlhough
a slapIe of civiI-niIilaiy ieIalions in China foi ovei 8
decades, in iecenl yeais lhe caII lo ensuie CCI con-
lioI of lhe niIilaiy seens lo have slienglhened. Ioi
exanpIe, a P|A Dai|q ediloiiaI cIained on lhe 85lh
anniveisaiy (2O12) of lhe founding of lhe ILA lhal
|vje nusl noie soIidIy and noie effecliveIy inpiove
ideoIogicaI and poIilicaI luiIding, guaianlee lhal lhe
foices viII iesoIuleIy oley lhe pailys connand and
le alsoIuleIy IoyaI and ieIialIe.
62
In a 2O12 ailicIe in
lhe CCIs pieniei jouinaI, O)+-6) (), Du }incai,
depuly diiecloi of lhe CID, enphasized lhe need lo
slienglhen ideoIogicaI and poIilicaI educalion vilhin
lhe ILA, and asseiled lhal lhe piioiily lasks foi lhe
ILA aie lo hinIy foIIov lhe Iailys insliuclions and
shov alsoIule IoyaIly lo lhe Iaily.
63
Nol aII of lhese
caIIs cone fion niIilaiy souices, eilhei. InleieslingIy,
Chinas 12lh Iive Yeai Iiogian noles lhe enphasis on
slienglhening lhe ILAs IoyaIly lo lhe Iaily:
We viII enhance lhe ainys ideoIogicaI and poIilicaI
luiIding, peisisl in lhe lasic piincipIe and syslen of
lhe Iailys alsoIule Ieadeiship ovei lhe ainy, peisisl
in lhe fundanenlaI puipose of lhe peopIes ainy,
giealIy caiiy foivaid lhe exceIIenl liadilion of foIIov-
ing lhe connand of lhe paily, of seiving lhe peopIe,
and of leing liave and of good al hghling, and nui-
luie lhe coie vaIue concepl of lhe conlenpoiaiy ievo-
Iulionaiy ainy nen.
64
6O
Many of lhese caIIs lo slienglhen CCI conlioI ovei
lhe ILA sinuIlaneousIy enphasize lhe need lo iesisl
allenpls lo sepaiale lhe ILA fion lhe Iaily. This no-
lion is capluied undei lhe ofl-seen caIIs lo iesisl lhe
eiioneous lhinking lo ienove lhe Iaily |fion
lhe niIilaiyj ((), de-poIilicize |lhe niIilaiyj
((|,), and nalionaIize |lhe niIilaiyj
(])~in olhei voids, lo nake lhe niIilaiy uIli-
naleIy lehoIden lo lhe slale and nol lhe CCI.
65
!,-/70,I/7170 ,I/ >A$B6 $W1=1,: ,< */V/75 (I17.B6
D.-1,19/ "/--1,<-1.= '7,/-/6,68
SeveiaI high piohIe deveIopnenls ovei lhe Iasl
yeai shov lhe deveIopnenl of ILA capaliIilies lo
safeguaid Chinas dispuled naiiline leiiiloiies in lhe
Lasl and Soulh China seas. Thiee aie noled leIov:
1. '72-/.6170 >A$ +.J: _>A$+` H.,-<=6 <V 516R
H4,/5 9.-1,19/ ,/--1,<-1/6: Denonslialing lhe aliIily
lo safeguaid Chinas dispuled naiiline leiiiloiies in
lhe Lasl China Sea, a IRC Minisliy of NalionaI De-
fense spokesnan slaled in Seplenlei 2O12 lhal lhe
ILAN vouId palioI dispuled naiiline aieas such as
lhe Senkaku (Diaoyu) IsIands, asseiling lhal il is en-
liieIy piopei and IavfuI foi Chinese navaI vesseIs lo
caiiy oul iouline conlal-ieadiness palioIs and liain-
ing in valeis undei oui juiisdiclion.
66
Chinas 2O13
Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr cIeaiIy asseils lhal lhe ILA has a
ioIe lo pIay in lolh defending Chinas naiiline inlei-
esls in lhe iegion, as veII as lacking up olhei Chinese
goveinnenl agencies lasked vilh lhe sane nission~
such as Chinas civiI naiiline foices.
67
Recenl nedia
iepoils of ILA Navy vesseIs palioIIing lhe valeis
neai lhe Senkaku (Diaoyu) IsIands denonsliale lhal
lhese aie nol sinpIy enply slalenenls.
68

61
2. (<<-517.,1<7 Z1,I 21J1=1.7 9.-1,19/ /7V<-2/R
9/7, .0/721/6: Ansveiing a queslion aloul ILA
iesponses lo lhe ongoing Senkaku (Diaoyu) IsIands
lensions vilh }apan, a Chinese Minisliy of NalionaI
Defense (MND) spokesnan slaled lhal:
lhe Chinese niIilaiy coopeiales cIoseIy vilh lhe na-
iine suiveiIIance, hsheiies adninislialion, and olhei
such depailnenls, pioviding secuiily suppoil foi lhe
slales enfoicenenl of Iavs al sea, hsheiies pioduclion,
oiI and gas deveIopnenl, and olhei such aclivilies.
69

This slalenenl vas fuilhei deveIoped in Chinas
nosl iecenl Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, vhich, foi lhe hisl
line evei, conlained a seclion delaiIing hov lhe ILAN
is cooidinaling vilh and ieinfoicing effoils ly civiIian
naiiline foices lo safeguaid Chinas naiiline iighls
and inleiesls.
7O
A nolalIe exanpIe of lhis cooidina-
lion occuiied duiing lhe 2OO9 .0A'**&B2' Incidenl,
vhen a ILAN auxiIiaiy geneiaI inleIIigence vesseI
and a IRC uieau of Maiiline Iisheiies palioI vesseI,
a IRC Slale Oceanogiaphic Adninislialion palioI ves-
seI, and lvo Chinese-agged hshing vesseIs haiassed
lhe Uniled Slales NavaI Ship (USNS) .0A'**&B2' in lhe
Soulh China Sea.
71

3. */J/=<H9/7, <V . 7.62/7, .1-2-.V, 2.--1/- 2.H.R
W1=1,:U AIlhough China puichased ils hisl aiiciafl cai-
iiei fion lhe Ukiaine piioi lo Hus Hisloiic Missions
speech, il is nol difhcuIl lo see hov lhe caiiiei couId
suppoil lhe ILAs iequiienenl lo defend Chinas dis-
puled naiiline leiiiloiiaI cIains and naiiline eco-
nonic inleiesls. As a Xinhua ailicIe asseiled shoilIy
aflei lhe caiiiei vas connissioned in Seplenlei, lhe
Iegilinacy and necessily of deveIoping lhe aiiciafl
caiiiei lechnoIogy lo safeguaid |Chinasj nalionaI in-
leiesls in lhe ocean is seIf-evidenl |-)*j.
72
Iossession
62
of an aiiciafl caiiiei vouId, anong olhei lenehls,
piovide lhe ILA lhe aliIily lo lellei ieach lhe noie
fai-ung of Chinas naiiline leiiiloiiaI cIains.
'D>#@\'+& "?% >A$B! ($>$C'A'"'%!
"@ !$O%&)$#* (?'+$B! %Q>$+*'+&
@\%#!%$! '+"%#%!"!
As noled pieviousIy, lhe ciux of lhe lhiid nission
is lo expand lhe ILAs focus on defending Chinas
nalionaI inleiesls leyond lhe liadilionaI geogiaphic
scope of Chinas soveieign leiiiloiy. Accoiding lo lhis
nission, lhe ILA shouId nov aIso focus on defend-
ing Chinas expanding nalionaI inleiesls, pailicuIaiIy
in lhiee key aieas: lhe naiiline, space, and cylei
donains.
D.-1,19/ *<9.178
Tvo deveIopnenls in pailicuIai exenpIify lop-Iev-
eI caIIs foi lhe ILA lo expand ils aliIily lo defend Chi-
nas naiiline inleiesls~lhe incieased aiea of opeia-
lions of lhe ILA Navy, and lhe ongoing ILA suppoil
lo inleinalionaI anlipiiacy opeialions off lhe Hoin of
Afiica. Iiisl, ly aII accounls, lhe ILAN is expanding
ils aiea of opeialions. As slaled in Chinas 2OO6, 2OO8,
and 2O1O Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcrs, lhe ILAN is allenpling
lo expand ils opeialing iange.
73
The 2O13 Dcfcnsc lni|c
E&A'% in pailicuIai desciiles hov lhe ILAN is deveI-
oping lIue valei capaliIilies of conducling noliIe
opeialions, caiiying oul inleinalionaI coopeialion,
and counleiing non-liadilionaI secuiily lhieals, and
enhances ils capaliIilies of slialegic deleiience and
counleiallack.
74
This slalenenl is coiioloialed ly
DoDs 2O13 iepoil on Chinas niIilaiy povei, vhich
63
noles lhal lhe ILAN conlinues lo puisue lIue valei
capaliIilies, aIlhough lhe iepoil aIso asseils lhal lhe
navys capaliIilies aie nodesl lul gioving.
75
IossilIy lhe nosl olvious nanifeslalion of lhe
Nev Hisloiic Missions in ILA aclivilies, and nosl ap-
pIicalIe lo lhis heaiings focus, is lhe ILANs ongoing
pailicipalion in anli-piiacy opeialions off lhe Hoin of
Afiica. Iiisl dispalched in Decenlei 2OO8, lhe ILAN
is nov in ils 14lh depIoynenl in suppoil of lhis ef-
foil. AIlhough lhe ILAN lask foices aie snaII in size,
geneiaIIy jusl lhiee ships al a line, lhey have voiked
veII vilh olhei inleinalionaI pailneis lo escoil civiI-
ian caigo ships saiIing on inpoilanl sea Ianes in lhe
iegion.
76
!H.2/ *<9.178
One of lhe noie infanous aclivilies lhal lhe ILA
conducled as a denonslialion of ils aliIily lo fuIhII
lhe Hisloiic Missions is ils 2OO7 anlisaleIIile (ASAT)
lesl. On }anuaiy 11, 2OO7, China Iaunched a vaiianl of
ils Dongfeng-21 nediun-iange laIIislic nissiIe al one
of ils ovn vealhei saleIIiles, successfuIIy deslioying il
upon inpacl.
77
Accoiding lo one iepoil, lhis lesl vas
nol eijings hisl. Iiioi lo lhe successfuI 2OO7 ASAT
lesl, lhe ILA conducled al Ieasl lvo unsuccessfuI lesls
in 2OO5 and 2OO6.
78
This liend aIigns vilh Chinas 2OO6
Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, vhich slales lhal inpioving space
defense lechnoIogy vas a key goaI foi lhe nalionaI de-
fense indusliiaI conpIex.
79
In addilion lhe ILAs na-
scenl ASAT capaliIily, lhe 2O12 DoD iepoil on Chinas
niIilaiy povei desciiles hov China is expanding ils
space-lased suiveiIIance, ieconnaissance, navigalion,
neleoioIogicaI, and connunicalions saleIIile consleI-
Ialions.
8O
The depailnenls 2O13 iepoil echoes lhis,
64
and aIso noles lhal lhe ILA is deveIoping a nuIlidi-
nensionaI piogian lo inpiove ils capaliIilies lo Iinil
oi pievenl lhe use of space-lased assels ly adveisai-
ies duiing lines of ciisis oi conicl.
81
(:W/-6H.2/8
Theie is IillIe doull lhal lhe ILA has inleinaIized
lhe iequiienenl lo inpiove ils cylei capaliIilies. Re-
poils of ILA cylei opeialions fiequenlIy appeai in
lhe nedia and foieign goveinnenl iepoils. DoD, foi
exanpIe, noles lhal aulhoiilalive |Chinesej viilings
and Chinas peisislenl cylei inliusions indicale lhe
IikeIihood lhal eijing is using cylei nelvoik opeia-
lions as a looI lo coIIecl slialegic inleIIigence.
82
The
depailnenls 2O11 iepoil is even haishei, asseiling
lhal lhe ILA is deveIoping a fuII suile of cylei opeia-
lions, lo incIude conpulei nelvoik allack, conpulei
nelvoik expIoilalion, and conpulei nelvoik defense.
Iuilheinoie, accoiding lo lhe iepoil, |ljhe ILA has
eslalIished infoinalion vaifaie unils lo deveIop
viiuses lo allack eneny conpulei syslens and nel-
voiks.
83
(@+(A)*'+& "?@)&?"!
So vhal does lhis aII nean foi China and lhe ILA`
This chaplei concIudes vilh lvo olseivalions. Iiisl,
vhiIe il appeais lhal lhe Chinese niIilaiy is acliveIy
allenpling lo fuIhII lhe iequiienenls of lhe Nev His-
loiic Missions, il is uncIeai hov veII lhe niIilaiy can
acconpIish lhen. In oidei lo fuIhII lhe nissions, lhe
ILA iequiies nuch noie lhan sinpIy liighl shiny
nev equipnenl. Much noie difhcuIl is lhe soflei side
of niIilaiy nodeinizalion~lhe liaining, ieoiganizing,
65
and deveIoping of nev noins and cuIluies~so lhal
lhe niIilaiy ofhceis and lioops can effecliveIy and efh-
cienlIy caiiy oul lhe lasks assigned lo lhen. If lhe ILA
soIeIy focuses on acquiiing nev equipnenl, veapons,
and pIalfoins, il IikeIy viII le incapalIe of fuIIy ie-
aIizing lhe capaliIilies iequiied ly lhe Nev Hisloiic
Missions. Iuilheinoie, nany of lhese iequiienenls,
such as lhe aliIily lo conducl lIue valei opeialions,
viII onIy le acquiied ovei line, as Iessons fion acluaI
opeialions aie disliIIed, deconsliucled, and inleinaI-
ized as Iessons Ieained. Any luieauciacy is difhcuIl
lo adjusl lo nev changes, and lhe ILA is no excep-
lion. Ils Iaige size and vaiious paiochiaI inleiesls viII
lhiov up ioad lIocks lo lhe snoolh liansilion fion a
leiiiloiiaI-lased niIilaiy, lo lhe gIolaI foice lhal lhe
CCI appaienlIy desiies lhe ILA lo lecone. This is
nol lo say lhal lhe ILA viII nol lecone gIolaI. On
lhe conliaiy, lhis aulhoi vouId aigue lhal lhe ILA is
aIieady an inchoale gIolaI niIilaiy, as denonslialed
ly ils navaI and peacekeeping opeialions aiound lhe
voiId. Hovevei, hov fai and hov quickIy il viII
piogiess lo leconing a liue gIolaI niIilaiy ienains
lo le seen.
One indicalion lhal lhings nay nol le going as
snoolhIy as lhe CCI and ILA Ieadeiship nighl Iike
is lhe fiequenl iefeience lo lhe lvo inconpalilIes
(||).
84
Iiisl nenlioned in 2OO6, lhe lvo
inconpalilIes iefeis lo lhe nolion lhe ILA does nol
have lhe capaliIilies lo hghl a nodein vai as pei-
ceived ly ILA Ieadeiship, and lhal lhe ILA is unalIe
lo fuIhII ils hisloiic nissions. In lhe voids of lhe oiigi-
naI P|A Dai|q ailicIe:
lhe piincipaI conliadiclions $6&$ $6' 04,'%/)P&$)4/ 2'G'2
4H 4+% &%0', H4%*'- 6&- 1'$ $4 0''$ $6' %'Q+)%'0'/$- H4%
66
uinning |cca| uars undcr infcrna|izcd ccndi|icns, and |na|
$6' 0)2)$&%1 *&A&B)2)$)'- 4H 4+% &%0', H4%*'- &%' 1'$ $4 2)G'
+A $4 $6' 6)-$4%)*&2 0)--)4/ $6'1 &%' -64+2,'%)/( &$ $6' A%'--
'/$ /'! -$&(' )/ $6' /'! *'/$+%1.
85
(Lnphasis added.)
Since lhen, lhe lvo inconpalilIes have ieceived
a sleady diunleal fion ILA senioi Ieadeiship, nosl
iecenlIy in a Decenlei 2O12 ailicIe pulIished in Chi-
nas pieniei niIilaiy jouinaI, @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'.
86

WhiIe il ienains lo le seen vhelhei lhe lvo incon-
palilIes suivives inlo lhe Xi eia, il is cIeai lhal, unliI
lhal line, lhe ILA Ieadeiship feeIs lhal lhe ILA has
nol fuIIy ieached lhe IeveI lhal lhe Ieadeiship leIieves
necessaiy lo successfuIIy caiiy oul lhe Nev Hisloiic
Missions. In lhe neanline, ILA nodeinizalion effoils
IikeIy viII conlinue lo sliess deveIoping capaliIilies
suiled lo inpIenenling lhese nissions.
Second, Iooking lovaid fuluie ILA deveIopnenl,
il is voilh noling lhal lheie is a lil of lension conlained
vilhin in lhe Nev Hisloiic Missions. On lhe one hand,
lhe hisl lvo nissions iequiie lhe ILA lo focus on ils
liadilionaI, hisloiicaI lasks, naneIy, devoling oveiaII
IoyaIly lo lhe CCI and defending Chinas soveieign
leiiiloiy. These nissions have leen al lhe heail of
vhal lhe ILA has done since al Ieasl Chinas found-
ing in 1949, if nol eaiIiei. One couId aigue lhal al lhe
end of lhe day, lhis is lhe coie focus of lhe ILA and
ils nodeinizalion effoils. Yel on lhe olhei hand, lheie
is a nev denand signaI vhich is iequiiing lhe ILA lo
lhink as a gIolaI niIilaiy confionling nuIlipIe lypes
of nissions, sone of vhich aie nol even liue conlal
opeialions, such as counleipiiacy and peacekeeping
nissions. The expanded geogiaphic iequiienenl and
nev focus on nonliadilionaI niIilaiy nissions iequiie
nev skiIIs, knovIedge, and capaliIilies lhal lhe ILA is
67
onIy nov leginning lo deveIop.
SinuIlaneous deveIopnenl of lhe capaliIilies
necessaiy lo fuIhII lolh lhe ILAs liadilionaI iequiie-
nenls and nevIy eneiging ones viII le difhcuIl foi
lhe ILA (as il vouId foi any niIilaiy). WhiIe nany
capaliIilies aie fungilIe foi lolh sels of opeialions,
jusl as nany, if nol noie, aie nol, and iequiie deveI-
oping sepaialeIy. Despile enjoying yeaiIy incieases in
ils ludgel, ILA iesouices aie sliII hnile. Iunding used
lo deveIop and piocuie lhe haidvaie lo inpIenenl
an anli-access/aiea deniaI slialegy neans Iess noney
lo puichase undeivay iepIenishnenl ships lo suppoil
lIue valei opeialions. Lnphasis on liaining foi najoi
conlal opeialions, such as leiiiloiiaI defense, is veiy
diffeienl lhan piaclicing foi slaliIily opeialions~as
lhe U.S. niIilaiy has discoveied ovei lhe pasl decade.
DeveIoping peisonneI vilh a gIolaI undeislanding
iequiies diffeienl cuiiicuIuns lhan undeislanding
hov lo conducl canpaign opeialions. WhiIe none of
lhis is leyond lhe aliIily of lhe ILA lo do, il viII IikeIy
eilhei Ienglhen lhe line iequiied lo deveIop lhe skiIIs,
oi iesuIl in a nislaIanced appioach vheiely lhe ILA
enphasizes one capaliIily sel, lul onIy gives Iip sei-
vice lo lhe olhei. Il nay even iesuIl in a ILA lhal aclu-
aIIy can do neilhei veII, since focusing on noie lhan
one coie conpelency has leen lhe dovnfaII of nany
pievious oiganizalions.
><=12: '9H=12.,1<76 V<- ,I/ )71,/5 !,.,/68
This chaplei offeis seveiaI poIicy inpIicalions foi
lhe Uniled Slales. Iiisl, given lhe Nev Hisloiic Mis-
sions enphasis on defending Chinas soveieign leiii-
loiy, lhe Uniled Slales shouId expecl China lo lake an
incieasingIy sliongei posilion on peiceived vioIalions
68
of Chinas leiiiloiiaI cIains. In pailicuIai, lhe ILA is
IikeIy lo pIay a noie aclive ioIe in defending Chinas
dispuled naiiline cIains in lhe Lasl and Soulh China
Seas. Ioi ovei 8 yeais, lhe ILA has inleinaIized lhe
iequiienenl lo safeguaid Chinas leiiiloiiaI inleiesls.
As a iesuIl, lhe ILA has leen focusing on deveIoping
lhe capaliIilies lo do jusl lhal. Recenl incidenls vilh
}apan and lhe IhiIippines denonsliale lhal lhe ILA is
IikeIy lo push lhe loundaiies in oidei lo denonsliale
lo lhese lvo U.S. liealy aIIies~and lo lhe Uniled
Slales~lhal lhe ILA is seiious aloul defending Chi-
nas cIains. Iuilheinoie, lhe deveIopnenl of Chinas
naiiline, space, and cylei capaliIilies viII IikeIy in-
sliII lhe ILA vilh conhdence in ils aliIily lo defend
Chinas inleiesls in lhese donains, fuilhei gaIvaniz-
ing lhe ILA lo lake a haid Iine on eijings lehaIf.
Second, so Iong as lhe CCI and ILA Ieadeiship
sulsciile lo lhe leIief lhal lhe ILA is cuiienlIy in-
capalIe of fuIhIIing lhe Nev Hisloiic Missions, lhe
Uniled Slales can expecl lhal lhe ILA viII conlinue lo
deveIop ils naiiline, space, and cyleispace capaliIi-
lies. As pasl evenls have denonslialed, lhe ILA has
nade signihcanl piogiess in lhese aieas. The deveI-
opnenl of Chinas nascenl lIue valei capaliIilies, a
space and counleispace capaliIily, and neai-conslanl
iepoils of ILA cylei aclivilies ieecl lhe inuence of
lhese nissions. Hovevei, lhe conlinued exislence of
lhe lvo inconpalilIes IikeIy piovides annunilion
lo lhose vilhin lhe Chinese Ieadeiship and ILA vho
desiie foi lhe niIilaiy lo conlinue lo deveIop ils capa-
liIilies. Olseiveis of lhe Chinese niIilaiy shouId nol
le suipiised in lhe fuluie vhen lhe ILA denonsliales
fuilhei piogiess in any of lhese aieas.
Thiid, ieecling lhe inuence of lhe hnaI nission,
lhe Uniled Slales shouId anlicipale lhal in lhe fuluie,
69
lhe ILA viII conlinue lo inciease ils gIolaI piesence.
The ILA is aIieady opeialing oulside of Chinas in-
nediale peiipheiaI aiea, aIleil on a Iiniled scaIe. In
lhe coning yeais, lhis phenonenon is onIy IikeIy lo
inciease. As lhe ILA gains lhe conhdence and aliI-
ily lo opeiale oveiseas and Chinas oveiseas inleiesls
conlinue lo expand, lhe ILA viII inciease ils piesence
aiound lhe voiId. Whal foin of aclivilies lhe ILA
undeilakes ienains lo le seen. Hovevei, al lhe veiy
Ieasl, lhe Uniled Slales shouId anlicipale lhal lhe ILA
viII conlinue lo pailake in inleinalionaI peacekeeping
and hunanilaiian assislance/disaslei ieIief opeia-
lions, as veII as olhei inleinalionaI piesence aclivilies,
such as poil caIIs and inleinalionaI exeicises. The ILA
nay aIso acl noie paiochiaIIy lo defend Chinas ovei-
seas inleiesls, shouId eijing feeI lhe need. The ILAs
pailicipalion, hovevei snaII, in lhe 2O11 evacualion
of Chinese cilizens fion Lilya is one exanpIe.
Iouilh, given lhe inheienl lension in lhe nissions
lelveen lhe enphasis on liadilionaI defensive opeia-
lions and lhe need foi lhe ILA lo go gIolaI, lhe Uniled
Slales shouId seek lo encouiage lhe Iallei. To dale, lhe
ILAs gIolaI aclivilies have leen IaigeIy in Iine vilh
and suppoilive of inleinalionaI noins. The ILA has
pailicipaled in inleinalionaI niIilaiy aclivilies lo de-
fend lhe gIolaI connons and nainlain fieedon of
navigalion, such as ILAN Hoin of Afiica opeialions.
Of lhe hve peinanenl nenleis of lhe UNSC, China
piovides lhe Iaigesl nunlei of peopIe lo peacekeep-
ing opeialions. In iecenl yeais, lhe ILA has legun
conducling hunanilaiian assislance opeialions. These
liends shouId le suppoiled and encouiaged. The
ILA, aflei neaiIy 3 decades of iefoin and nodein-
izalion, is al a ciossioads lelveen leconing a niIi-
laiy lhal acliveIy conliilules lo opeialions lenehlling
7O
lhe connon good and one lhal aggiessiveIy defends
Chinas inleiesls iegaidIess of vheie lhose inleiesls
aie Iocaled. CIeaiIy lhe foinei is lellei foi lolh lhe
Uniled Slales and lhe iegion.
%+*+@"%! R (?$>"%# K
1. Xi aIso lecane piesidenl of China, aIlhough lhis vas nol
ofhciaIIy announced unliI aflei lhe annuaI neeling of Chinas
highesl IegisIaluie, lhe NalionaI IeopIes Congiess, in Maich
2O13. Wilh lhal posilion, Xi nov occupies aII lhiee seals of povei
in eijing.
2. AIlhough Hu assuned Ieadeiship of lhe CCI and slale in
2OO2, he did nol gain hnaI conlioI ovei lhe niIilaiy unliI his pie-
decessoi, }iang Zenin, ieliied fion lhe CMC in 2OO4.
3. RusseII Leigh Moses, Nov Shaipei, Xi }inpings 'China
Diean Maiks Depailuie fion Iasl, @6)/& C'&2 5)0' (la|| S|rcc|
]curna|), ApiiI 3, 2O13, avaiIalIe fion B24(-"!-M"*403*6)/&%'&2-
|inc/2013/04/03/ncu-snarpcr-xi-jinpings-cnina-drcan-nar|s-dcpar-
|urc-frcn-pas|/.
4. Il is inpoilanl lo iecognize lhal lhese nev nissions veie
piovided lo aII of lhe Chinese ained foices, lo incIude lhe ILA,
lhe paianiIilaiy IeopIes Ained IoIice, and lhe niIilia. Hovev-
ei, lhis chaplei focuses soIeIy on hov lhese nissions inpacled
lhe ILA.
5. AIlhough oflen liansIaled as lhe hisloiicaI nissions~lo
incIude in Chinese LngIish-Ianguage viilings~il is lhis aulhois
opinion lhal hisloiic nissions is a noie accuiale liansIalion.
Accoiding lo Tnc Ancrican Hcri|agc Dic|icnarq cf |nc |ng|isn |an-
(+&(', hisloiicaI iefeis lo vhalevei exisled in lhe pasl, vhelhei
iegaided as inpoilanl oi nol. The lein hisloiic, hovevei ie-
feis lo vhal is inpoilanl in hisloiy: lhe hisloiic hisl voyage lo
lhe noon. Since il is IikeIy lhal Hu did nol piovide a ieliospecl
on lhe ILAs pasl nissions, lhe hisloiic nissions is lheiefoie a
lellei liansIalion.
6. See foi exanpIe, China: eijing HoIds Ioiun on Ainy
uiIding, MiIilaiy Thinking, J)/6+&, }uIy 25, 1997, as liansIaled
71
in lcr|d Ncus Ccnncc|icn (WNC), docunenl Ioieign ioadcasl
Infoinalion Seivice (IIS)-CHI-97-2O9, China: Chi Haolian
on NalionaI Defense, J)/6+&, Augusl 2, 1997, as liansIaled in
WNC, docunenl IIS-CHI-97-214, and China: Iu Quanyou on
1998 MiIilaiy Woik, J)/6+&, Decenlei 22, 1997, as liansIaled in
WNC, docunenl IIS-CHI-97-356.
7. As fai as lhis aulhoi can leII, lhis svilch nay have ofhciaIIy
occuiied in }uIy 2OO3, vhen lhe CMC ialihed a CID-pioduced
oulIine (;) lo sludy ]iang Zcnin Tncugn| cn Na|icna| Dcfcnsc
and Arnq 8ui|ding. Since lhen, Chinese niIilaiy viilings have
soIeIy iefeiied lo }iangs inpul as a lhoughl.
.;[]|[| (CMC Issues a Nolice: Sludy
}iang Zenin Thoughl on NalionaI Defense and Ainy uiIding),
China Nevs Nelvoik ([), }uIy 31, 2OO3, avaiIalIe fion !!!"
cnina.ccn.cn/cnincsc/P|-c/376434.n|n. Accoiding lo lhis ailicIe,
lhe nane of lhe nolice vas ;[]|1[|;
(OulIine on }iang Zenin Thoughl on NalionaI Defense and
Ainy uiIding).
8. Cao Zhi (), ,|/.,]j|[
) (Cuo oxiong: Sludy Hu }inlaos Inpoilanl Lxposi-
lions on Oui MiIilaiys Hisloiic Missions<), J)/6+&, Seplenlei
27, 2OO5.
9. CeneiaI IoIilicaI Depailnenl (CID) (|), ],:
,|]j|j[) (Lesson 1: Oui MiI-
ilaiy in lhe Nev Cenluiy of lhe Nev Ieiiod~The Cieal Signih-
cance Raised ly lhe Hisloiic Missions), Augusl 9, 2OO6, avaiIalIe
fion uuu.qcgfjq.ccn/ar|ic|c_sncu.asp?ar|ic|c|D=2280. Heieaflei
iefeiied lo as CID, Lesson 1.
1O. Infoinalion Ofhce of lhe Slale CounciI, Cninas Na|icna|
Dcfcnsc in 2006, Chap. II, Decenlei 2OO6, Infoinalion Ofhce of lhe
Slale CounciI, Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2008, Chap. II, }anuaiy
2O, 2OO9, Infoinalion Ofhce of lhe Slale CounciI, Cninas Na|icna|
Dcfcnsc in 2010, Chap. II, Maich 31 , 2O11, and Infoinalion Ofhce
of lhe Slale CounciI, Tnc Ditcrsijcd |np|cqncn| cf Cninas Arncd
F4%*'-, Chap. I, ApiiI 16, 2O13.
11. Infoinalion Ofhce of lhe Slale CounciI, Cninas Na|icna|
Dcfcnsc in 2010, Chap. II, Maich 31, 2O11.
72
12. Hu }inlao, HoId High lhe annei of SociaIisn vilh Chi-
nese Chaiacleiislics and Sliive foi Nev Vicloiies in uiIding a
ModeialeIy Iiospeious Sociely in aII, C'A4%$ $4 $6' #'G'/$''/$6
Par|q Ccngrcss cf |nc Ccnnunis| Par|q cf Cnina, Oclolei 15, 2OO7,
avaiIalIe fion uuu.cnina.crg.cn/cng|isn/ccngrcss/229611.n|n.
13. @4/-$)$+$)4/ 4H $6' @6)/'-' @400+/)-$ E&%$1 (in LngIish),
anended and adopled al lhe 17lh NalionaI Congiess of lhe Con-
nunisl Iaily of China, Oclolei 21, 2OO7, avaiIalIe fion !!!"BM%'-
ticu.ccn/cn/dccuncn|/|cx|/2007-12/13/ccn|cn|_90532.n|n.
14. ""j+),[| (IiinIy Adheie lo
lhe Iailys Oljeclive of Slienglhening lhe MiIilaiy undei lhe Nev
Silualion), P|A Dai|q (j|), Maich 19, 2O13, p. 1.
15. Hu }inlao (,), ,|]j|
(See CIeaiIy oui MiIilaiys Hisloiic Missions in lhe Nev Cen-
luiy of lhe Nev Ieiiod), Decenlei 24, 2OO4, avaiIalIe fion (HM1"
jiangxi.gct.cn/qi|.asp?id=11349.n|n. Heieaflei, iefeiied lo as Hu,
Hisloiic Missions.
16. .B),.
17. .B),.
18. The foIIoving is diavn fion CID (|), ],:
||j|j])[]j (Lesson 2: Iiovide an
Inpoilanl Ioice Cuaianlee foi lhe Iaily lo ConsoIidale ils RuI-
ing Iosilion), Augusl 9, 2OO6, avaiIalIe fion !!!"1*(HM1"*403
Ar|ic|c_Prin|.asp?Ar|ic|c|D=2281. Heieaflei iefeiied lo as CID,
Lesson 2.
19. }iang Zenin, uiIding a WeII Off-off Sociely in an AII-
Round |sicj Way and Cieale a Nev Silualion in uiIding SociaI-
isn vilh Chinese Chaiacleiislics, ]iang Zcnin Rcpcr| |c 16|n Par|q
@4/(%'--, seclion III, Novenlei 8, 2OO2, avaiIalIe fion '/(2)-6"
pccp|cdai|q.ccn.cn/200211/18/cng20021118_106983.sn|n|.
2O. CID (|), ],: |]j[),[|
)j][]| (Lesson 3: Iioviding a Sliong Secuiily
Cuaianlee foi Safeguaiding lhe Inpoilanl Slialegic Oppoiluni-
73
ly Ieiiod of NalionaI DeveIopnenl), Augusl 9, 2OO6, avaiIalIe
fion uuu.qcgfjq.ccn/Ar|ic|c_Prin|.asp?Ar|ic|c|D=2282. Heieaflei
as CID, Lesson 3.
21. Hu, Hisloiic Missions.
22. .B),.
23. The foIIoving is deiived fion CID, Lesson 3.
24. Hu, Hisloiic Missions.
25. The foIIoving is deiived fion CID, Lesson 3.
26. The lein niIilaiy conlal piepaialions (()
iefeis lo lhe lype of vaifaie lhe ILA nusl le piepaied lo hghl.
See David M. IinkeIslein, Chinas NalionaI MiIilaiy Slialegy:
An Oveiviev of lhe 'MiIilaiy Slialegic CuideIines, Roy Kan-
phausen and Andiev ScoleII, eds., Rign| Sizing |nc Pccp|cs |iocra-
|icn Arnq. |xp|cring |nc Ccn|curs cf Cninas Mi|i|arq, CaiIisIe, IA:
Slialegic Sludies Inslilule, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, Seplenlei
2OO7, p. 9O.
27. AIlhough lhe Chinese lein used liansIales diieclIy as
eIeclionagnelic space (|[), a cIosei ieading of Hus
Hisloiic Mission speech and olhei suppoiling naleiiaIs shovs
lhal a noie accuiale liansIalion of lhe concepl inpIied is vilh
lhe LngIish lein cyleispace. Theiefoie, lhis iepoil viII use
cyleispace lhioughoul. See Hu, Hisloiic Missions, and CID
(|), ],: |]]j]|[,[| (Les-
son 4: Iiovide a poveifuI slialegic suppoil foi safeguaiding na-
lionaI inleiesls), Augusl 9, 2OO6, avaiIalIe fion !!!"1*(HM1"*403
Ar|ic|c_Prin|.asp?Ar|ic|c|D=2283.
28. ;[j|]]j]|[,[| (ILA
lo Iiovide a IoveifuI Slialegic Suppoil foi Safeguaiding Na-
lionaI Inleiesls), J)/6+&, Oclolei 2O, 2OO5, avaiIalIe fion /'!-"
Xinnuanc|.ccn/ni|/2005-10/20/ccn|cn|_3652447.n|n.
29. CID (|), ],: |]]j]|[,[
| (Lesson 4: Iiovide a poveifuI slialegic suppoil foi safe-
guaiding nalionaI inleiesls), Augusl 9, 2OO6, avaiIalIe fion
74
uuu.qcgfjq.ccn/Ar|ic|c_Prin|.asp?Ar|ic|c|D=2283. Heieaflei ie-
feiied lo as CID, Lesson 4.
3O. Hu, Hisloiic Missions.
31. .B),.
32. CID, Lesson 4.
33. .B),.
34. Sun Kejia, Liu Ieng, Liu Yang, and Lin Ieixiong, eds.,
Zncngsni |uxing Xinsniji Xinjicduan lcjun |isni Snining (|ai|nfu||q
Carrq Ou| Our Mi|i|arq's His|cric Missicns in |nc Ncu Pcricd cf |nc
Ncu Ccn|urq), eijing: Haichao IulIishing, 2OO6, pp. 67-81, and
CID, Lesson 4.
35. The WoiId ank, China-Tiade as Ieicenlage of CDI,
WoiId ank Dala ank, n.d., avaiIalIe fion ,&$&B&/I"!4%2,-
oan|.crg/ddp/n|n|-jsp/Quic|VicuRcpcr|.jsp?RcuAxis=lD|_
C|rq~cCc|Axis=lD|_Tinc~cPagcAxis=lD|_Scrics~cPagc
AxisCap|icn=Scrics~cRcuAxisCap|icn=Ccun|rq~cCc|AxisC
ap|icn=Tinc~cN|l_R|PORT_SCA||=1cN|l_R|PORT_
PR|C|S|ON=0cncuRcpcr|=qcscROl_COUNT=1cCO|UMN_
COUNT=5cPAG|_COUNT=3cCOMMA_S|P=fa|cs.
36. Yang }ianian, Iieedon and Safely of Navigalion in lhe
Soulh China Sea and Ils Inpoilance lo lhe Lcononic DeveIop-
nenl and Iiospeiily of Lasl Asia and lhe WoiId, velsile of lhe
Shanghai Inslilule of InleinalionaI Sludies, Decenlei 15, 2O11,
avaiIalIe fion uuu.siis.crg.cn/cn/znuan|i_ticu_cn.aspx?id=10116.
37. Lneigy Infoinalion Adninislialion, Counliy AnaIy-
sis iiefs: China, Novenlei 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion !!!"')&"(4G3
D;DK3*&B-3@6)/&3A,H"A,H"
38. Slale CounciI (China), ].|];]j
(Chaplei 14: Iush Ioivaid lhe DeveIopnenl of lhe Maiiline
Lconony), ][]1j]+|; (The
12lh Iive Yeai IIan foi NalionaI Lcononic and SociaI DeveIop-
nenl), Maich 16, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion !!!"/,%*"(4G"*/3HP(63(6!B3
gjjn/P020110919592208575015.pdf.
75
39. Tnc Ditcrsijcd |np|cqncn| cf Cninas Arncd |crccs.
4O. CID, Lesson 4.
41. .B),.
42. Hu, Hisloiic Missions.
43. Sun Kejia '$ &2., p. 73, CID, Lesson 4.
44. Ling Zhu, Chinas Space Iiogian Seeks Nev ieak-
lhioughs in 5 Yeais, J)/6+&, Maich 7, 2OO6, avaiIalIe fion '/(-
|isn.gct.cn/2006-03/07/ccn|cn|_220680.n|n.
45. See J)/6+&, China Appioves Iive-Yeai Space DeveIop-
nenl IIan, May 14, 2OO7, pei #A&*' ?&)21, avaiIalIe fion !!!"
-A&*',&)21"*403%'A4%$-3*6)/&R&AA%4G'-RH)G'R1'&%R-A&*'R,'G'24A-
ncn|_p|an_999.n|n|, and CCTV, 11lh Iive-Yeai IIan foi Aeio-
space Iiogian, Oclolei 2O, 2OO7, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&"4%("
cn/2007-10/ccn|cn|_1229001.n|n.
46. CID, Lesson 4.
47. .B),.
48. Hu, Hisloiic Missions.
49. CID, Lesson 4.
5O. .B),.
51. Ofhce of lhe Secielaiy of Defense, >//+&2 C'A4%$ $4 @4/-
grcss. Mi|i|arq and Sccuri|q Dctc|cpncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs Rc-
puo|ic cf Cnina 2013, Washinglon, DC: Depailnenl of Defense,
May 2O13, p. 36.
52. CID (|), ],: |;1`j)]
j|)j< (Lesson 5: IIay an Inpoilanl RoIe in Up-
hoIding WoiId Ieace and Iionoling Connon DeveIopnenl),
Augusl 21, 2OO6, avaiIalIe fion !!!"1*(H1"*403&%$)*2'R-64!"
asp?ar|ic|c|D=2284 (heieaflei: CID, Lesson 5.), and Sun Kejia
'$ &2., pp. 81-91.
76
53. Hu, Hisloiic Missions.
54. Tnc Ditcrsijcd Usc cf Cninas Arncd |crccs, Chap. V.
55. CID, Lesson 5.
56. .B),.
57. .B),.
58. Sun Kejia '$ &2., p. 9O.
59. CID, Lesson 5.
6O. Mao Zedong, IiolIens of vai and slialegy, SeIecl-
ed Woiks, VoI. II, eijing, China: Ioieign Languages Iiess,
1975, p. 224.
61. Laiiy WoilzeI, The CeneiaI IoIilicaI Depailnenl and lhe
LvoIulion of lhe IoIilicaI Connissai Syslen, }anes C. MuIve-
non and Andiev N. D. Yang, eds., Tnc Pccp|cs |iocra|icn Arnq
as Organiza|icn. Rcfcrcncc Vc|. 10, Sanla Monica, CA: RAND,
2OO2, p. 225.
62. .](=_[/ (LdiloiiaI: }oyfuIIy
Meel lhe Opening of lhe 18lh CIC NalionaI Congiess vilh IuII
Conhdence), P|A Dai|q (j|), Augusl 1, 2O12, avaiIalIe
fion uuu.szncus.ccn/znuan|i/ccn|cn|/2012-08/03/ccn|cn|_7027396.
6$0. See aIso China Voice: Why CIC UphoIds AlsoIule
Leadeiship ovei Chinas MiIilaiy, J)/6+&, Augusl 1, 2O12,
avaiIalIe fion uuu.cnina.crg.cn/cnina/Off_|nc_lirc/.../ccn|cn|_
26095036.n|n"
63. Du }incai (|/), ),)
1[[|,| (LneigelicaIIy Slienglhen and In-
piove Unil IdeoIogy and IoIilicaI Lducalion lo Adapl lo lhe
Nev Requiienenls of lhe Nev Silualion and Nev Tasks),
(#''I)/( 5%+$6), No. 18, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion !!!"Q-$6'4%1"*/3
zxd|/2012/201218/201209/|20120912_181090.n|n.
64. ';[)1]][]1j]+|
; (OulIine of lhe 12lh Iive-Yeai Iiogian foi NalionaI Lco-
77
nonic and SociaI DeveIopnenl of lhe IeopIes RepulIic of Chi-
na), J)/6+&, Maich 16, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion /'!-"J)/6+&/'$"*403
pc|i|ics/2011-03/16/c_121193916.n|n.
65. Ioi one Weslein aulhois lake on lhis phenonenon, see
Andiev ScoleII, Chinas LvoIving CiviI-MiIilaiy ReIalions:
Cieeping Cuojiahua, >%0', F4%*'- S #4*)'$1, VoI. 31, No. 2,
pp. 227-244. Ioi iecenl exanpIes of lhis caII, see ""j
,,[7; (IiinIy Ciasping asic ConcIusion of
lhe Lxpeiience in Ainy uiIding and Ainy Managenenl),
j| (P|A Dai|q), Augusl 6, 2OO7, p. 1, )))|,
|[ (Iulling Ciealei Lnphasis on IdeoIogicaI, IoIili-
caI uiIding of Ained Ioices), j| (P|A Dai|q), Maich 18,
2O11, p. 1, China Voice: Why CIC UphoIds AlsoIule Lead-
eiship ovei Chinas MiIilaiy, J)/6+&, Augusl 1, 2O12, avaiI-
alIe fion uuu.cnina.crg.cn/cnina/Off_|nc_lirc/2012-08/02/ccn-
|cn|_26095036.n|n, Du }incai (|/), ),
)1[[|,| (LneigelicaIIy Slienglhen
and Inpiove Unil IdeoIogy and IoIilicaI Lducalion lo Adapl lo
lhe Nev Requiienenls of lhe Nev Silualion and Nev Tasks),
(#''I)/( 5%+$6), No. 18, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion !!!"Q-$6'4%1"*/3
zxd|/2012/201218/201209/|20120912_181090.n|n, |,.
[({|j( (CeneiaI IoIilicaI Depailnenl: Disseni-
nalois of Renoving lhe Iaily fion lhe Ainy have UIleiioi Mo-
lives), China NalionaI Radio (][+_), }uIy 31, 2O12, avaiIalIe
fion ncus.163.ccn/12/0731/10/87O3CHOO00014]85.n|n|.
66. Minisliy of NalionaI Defense (]|), 2O12+ 9]|]
||{ (Minisliy of NalionaI Defense Rouline Iiess Confei-
ence, Seplenlei 2O12), #)/&"*40, Seplenlei 27, 2O12, avaiIalIe
fion ni|.ncus.sina.ccn.cn/2012-09-27/1643702337.n|n|.
67. Danien McLIioy, Chinese Media Wains of Wai vilh
IhiIippines, 56' 5'2'(%&A6, May 1O, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion !!!"
|c|cgrapn.cc.u|/ncus/ucr|dncus/asia/pni|ippincs/9258225/Cnincsc-
ncdia-uarns-cf-uar-ui|n-Pni|ippincs.n|n|, Iive ILA vesseIs ap-
pioaching lhe IhiIippines: Duovei, lan| Cnina Tincs, May 16,
2O12, avaiIalIe fion uuu.uan|cnina|incs.ccn/ncus-suoc|ass-cn|.as
px?cid=1101cMainCa||D=11cid=20120516000008.
68. See, foi exanpIe, Ida Toiies, China Sends NavaI Ships lo
IalioI Waleis neai Dispuled Senkakus, ]apan Dai|q Prcss, ApiiI
78
17, 2O13, avaiIalIe fion japandai|qprcss.ccn/cnina-scnds-nata|-
snips-|c-pa|rc|-ua|crs-ncar-dispu|cd-scn|a|us-1727188.
69. Minisliy of NalionaI Defense (]|), 2O12+ 9]|]
||{ (Minisliy of NalionaI Defense Rouline Iiess Confei-
ence, Seplenlei 2O12), #)/&"*40, avaiIalIe fion Seplenlei 27,
2O12, avaiIalIe fion ni|.ncus.sina.ccn.cn/2012-09-27/1643702337.
6$02.
7O. Tnc Ditcrsijcd |np|cqncn| cf Cninas Arncd |crccs, eijing,
China: Infoinalion Ofhce of lhe Slale CounciI, ApiiI 16, 2O13.
71. }onalhan C. Odon, The Tiue 'Lies of lhe .0A'**&B2' In-
cidenl: Whal ReaIIy Happened, Who Disiegaided InleinalionaI
Lav, and vhy Lveiy Nalion (Oulside of China) ShouId le Con-
ceined, Micnigan S|a|c ]curna| cf |n|crna|icna| |au, VoI. 18, No. 3,
2O1O, p. 6. Duiing lhe Maich 8, 2OO9, .0A'**&B2' Incidenl, hve
Chinese vesseIs shadoved and haiassed lhe USNS .0A'**&B2', a
U.S. ocean suiveiIIance ship, vhiIe lhe vesseI vas conducling
iouline opeialions in lhe inleinalionaI valeis of lhe Soulh China
Sea. Iox Nevs, RAW DATA: Ienlagon Slalenenl on Chinese
Incidenl vilh U.S. Navy, Maich 9, 2OO9, avaiIalIe fion !!!"
fcxncus.ccn/pc|i|ics/2009/03/09/rau-da|a-pcn|agcn-s|a|cncn|-cni-
ncsc-incidcn|-natq/#ixzz28qrjc|df.
72. Connenlaiy: Chinas Aiiciafl Caiiiei Ioses No Thieal lo
WoiId, J)/6+&, Cnina Dai|q, Seplenlei 25, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.cninadai|q.ccn.cn/Xinnua/2012-09-25/ccn|cn|_7104384.n|n|"
73. Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2006, eijing, China: Infoina-
lion Ofhce of lhe Slale CounciI, Decenlei 29, 2OO6, Cninas Na-
|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2008, eijing, China: Infoinalion Ofhce of lhe
Slale CounciI, }anuaiy 2O, 2OO9, and Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in
2010, eijing, China: Infoinalion Ofhce of lhe Slale CounciI,
Maich 31, 2O11.
74. Tnc Ditcrsijcd |np|cqncn| cf Cninas Arncd |crccs,
Chap. II.
75. Mi|i|arq and Sccuri|q Dctc|cpncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs
Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina 2013, p. 38.
79
76. Thon Shankei and Ian }ohnson, In China, Ianella Says
Aneiican Iocus on Asia Is No Thieal, 56' Ncu Ycr| Tincs, Sep-
lenlei 18, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion uuu.nq|incs.ccn/2012/09/20/
ucr|d/asia/panc||a-ncc|s-ui|n-xi-casing-dcuo|s-cn-cnincsc-|cadcr.
n|n|?_r=0.
77. }oseph Kahn, China Conhins Tesl of Anli-SaleIIile Weap-
on, Tnc Ncu Ycr| Tincs, }anuaiy 23, 2OO7, avaiIalIe fion !!!"
nq|incs.ccn/2007/01/23/ucr|d/asia/23cnd-cnina.n|n|?npccx=116961
4800ccn=d9317a9a60f6acoocci=5094cpar|ncr=ncncpagcc_r=0.
78. See, foi exanpIe, ShiiIey A. Kan, Chinas Anli-SaleIIile
Weapon Tesl, @C# C'A4%$ H4% @4/(%'-- Washinglon DC: CRS,
ApiiI 23, 2OO7, p. 5.
79. Chinas NalionaI Defense in 2OO6.
8O. Ofhce of lhe Secielaiy of Defense, >//+&2 C'A4%$ $4 @4/-
grcss. Mi|i|arq and Sccuri|q Dctc|cpncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs Rc-
puo|ic cf Cnina 2012, Washinglon, DC: Depailnenl of Defense,
May 2O12, pp. 8-9.
81. Mi|i|arq and Sccuri|q Dctc|cpncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs Rc-
puo|ic cf Cnina 2013.
82. .B),., p. 9.
83. Ofhce of lhe Secielaiy of Defense, >//+&2 C'A4%$ $4 @4/-
grcss. Mi|i|arq and Sccuri|q Dctc|cpncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs Rc-
puo|ic cf Cnina 2011, Washinglon, DC: Depailnenl of Defense,
May 6, 2O11, p. 37.
84. The aulhoi is indelled lo Dennis }. Iasko foi poinling
lhis oul.
85. ""j]|1[|[)|\ (IiinIy Ciasp
lhe Inpoilanl CuideIines foi NalionaI Defense and lhe Ainy
uiIding), P|A Dai|q (j|), }anuaiy 1, 2OO6, avaiIalIe fion
ncus.Xinnuanc|.ccn/ni|/2006-01/01/ccn|cn|_3995828.n|n.
86. Tang Xiaohua and Li }ie, '|]),|
[ ,_ (Reeclions on Iuilhei Iionoling lhe Tiansfoi-
nalion of Oui MiIilaiys Tiaining Melhods and Theoiy), @6)/&
;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*' (]|), No. 6, 2O12, pp. 11O-111.
8O
81
(?$>"%# ^
"?% %\@A)"'@+ @O (@#% (@+(%>"!U
>%@>A%B! ;$#X $("'\% *%O%+!%X $+*
@OO!?@#% *%O%+!%
*/7716 F8 C=.6[<
This chaplei exanines lhe conlinuing ieIevance of
IeopIes Wai, Aclive Defense, and Offshoie Defense
lo IeopIes Lileialion Ainy (ILA) docliine, oiganiza-
lion, and opeialions. The piincipIes of IeopIes Wai
and Aclive Defense, aIong vilh ils navaI conponenl,
Offshoie Defense conlinue lo le lhe lasis foi Chinese
niIilaiy oiganizalion, docliine, and opeialions. AII
have leen adapled and nodihed foi lhe 21sl cenluiy.
IeopIes Wai piincipIes aie evidenl in lhe disliilu-
lion of peisonneI anong lhe seivices in lhe IeopIes
Lileialion Ainy (ILA), ils equipnenl invenloiy, lhe
sliucluie of lhe chain of connand al MiIilaiy Disliicl
IeveI and leIov, and lhe conlinuing enphasis on no-
liIizalion of lhe pulIic and econony lo suppoil lhe
niIilaiy.
Aclive Defense is lased on lhe pienise of sliik-
ing onIy aflei lhe eneny has sliuck, lul viII enpIoy
offensive opeialions al aII IeveIs of vai and al aII slag-
es of conicl. Deleiience is lhe piefeiied nelhod of
achieving poIilicaI oljeclives, vilh vaihghling lo le
used onIy if deleiience faiIs. Lven lhen, piudence and
caulion aie advised lefoie inilialing lhe hisl lallIe
and piepaialions nusl le nade foi pioliacled con-
icl. The ILA Navy (ILAN) cuiienlIy is consideied
capalIe of execuling Offshoie Defense vhiIe il legins
lo expIoie and piaclice opeialions in dislanl valeis,
focusing hisl on coopeialion nissions.
82
Chinas niIilaiy Ieadeis conslanlIy evaIuale lhe
capaliIilies of lheii foices and ofhciaIIy see lhen-
seIves as Iagging lehind lhe capaliIilies of advanced
niIilaiies.
>@A'(E 'D>A'($"'@+!
- As an eIenenl of Chinas effoils lo lecone
noie lianspaienl, a iolusl ofhciaI Chinese Iil-
eialuie on lhese slialegic concepls exisls.
- Chinese docliine does nol seek lo iniliale vai,
ialhei, vaihghling is lo le undeilaken onIy if
deleiience faiIs.
- IiincipIes of IeopIes Wai, Aclive Defense, and
Offshoie Defense can le found in Chinas as-
seilive lehavioi in soveieignly and leiiiloiiaI
dispules undeivay in lhe Soulh and Lasl China
Seas since 2OO9 in vhal couId le caIIed a nod-
ein, naiiline IeopIes Wai.
IeopIes Wai is a foin of oiganizalion of vai,
and ils ioIe has nolhing lo do vilh lhe IeveI of
niIilaiy lechnoIogy. The concepl of IeopIes
Wai is nol conhned lo lhe vai of Iov lechnoI-
ogy onIy.
Aclive defense is lhe essenliaI fealuie of
Chinas niIilaiy slialegy and is lhe keyslone
of lhe lheoiy of Chinas slialegic guidance.
1
'+"#@*)("'@+
Since Seplenlei 2OO4, even as lhe ILA has nod-
einized, nechanized, infoinalionized, and assuned
nev nissions undei Hu }inlao, ils fundanenlaI slia-
legic foundalion has conlinued lo le lhe piincipIes
of IeopIes Wai (;[,) and Aclive Defense (
83
||#), and, as a sulsel of Aclive Defense, ils navaI
conponenl, Offshoie Defense (]|#). AII of lhese
concepls have leen adapled and nodihed foi lhe 21sl
cenluiy and have pioven lo le conpalilIe vilh Hus
Scienlihc DeveIopnenl Concepl and Hisloiic Mis-
sions. They conlinue lhe lasic niIilaiy piincipIes
eslalIished ly Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping, and }i-
ang Zenin. As nighl le expecled, Hu did nol ievoIu-
lionize ILA niIilaiy lhinking, inslead,liadilionaI coie
concepls have evoIved as condilions changed.
This chaplei exanines each of lhese concepls and
iIIusliales lheii ongoing inuence on ILA docliine
and foice sliucluie. ased on anaIysis of lhese piin-
cipIes, lhey have leen appIied in lhe Chinese gov-
einnenls nuIliagency aclions in asseiling ils cIains
lo soveieignly in lhe lhiee China Seas duiing Hus
lenuie as Chaiinan of lhe CenliaI MiIilaiy Connis-
sion (CMC). Wilh 2O-2O hindsighl, ve can see lhal lhe
Chinese goveinnenl foieshadoved in a nunlei of
ofhciaI pulIicalions nany of lhe asseilive aclions
undeilaken fion 2OO9 lo lhe piesenl.
>%@>A%B! ;$# $+* $("'\% *%O%+!%a"?%
C$!'(!X !"#!$ Mb^c
IeopIes Wai and Aclive Defense aie lvo inlei-
ieIaled concepls lased upon Mao Zedongs viilings
duiing lhe vais againsl lhe Kuoninlang (KMT) and
lhe }apanese in lhe 193Os.
2
Mao desciiled nuneious
slialegic, opeialionaI, and laclicaI Iessons Ieained
lhiough lhe Red Ainys eaiIy lallIeheId expeiience
in seveiaI essays lhal foined lhe lasis foi his niIilaiy
lhoughl. Much of lhe conlenl of lhese essays discuss-
es silualions pailicuIai lo lhe canpaigns againsl lhe
KMT and }apanese lhal aie of noslIy hisloiicaI inlei-
84
esl foi lhe nodein ILA loday. Olhei Iessons enduie
and foin lhe foundalion foi Chinas niIilaiy slialegy
and opeialionaI concepls inlo lhe 21sl cenluiy.
Ieihaps lhe lhiee giand piincipIes of Maos niIi-
laiy lhoughl enledded in IeopIes Wai and Aclive
Defense lhal have enduied aie 1) lhe slialegicaIIy
defensive posluie foiced upon a veak China and
lhe Chinese Connunisl Iaily (CCI), 2) lhe need lo
invoIve lhe enliie counliy lhiough noliIizalion lo
achieve niIilaiy oljeclives dehned ly lhe Iaily, and
3) lhe iequiienenl foi lhe IoyaIly of aII lhe Chinese
ained foices lo lhe Iaily.
3
Mao sav lhe exislence of lhe CCI lhiealened hisl
ly lhe KMT and Ialei ly lhe }apanese occupalion of
China. The young Iaily and Red Ainy veie poIili-
caIIy, econonicaIIy, and niIilaiiIy veakei lhan lheii
enenies and foiced inlo iuiaI soviels lo suivive. The
Iaily and Ainy soughl lo luiId upon lhe slienglh of
Chinas Iaige Iandnass and popuIalion as il assuned
a slialegicaIIy defensive posluie lefoie going on lhe
offense lo achieve ils poIilicaI oljeclives. Aflei lhe
CCI look conlioI of lhe counliy, China vas veakei
econonicaIIy and niIilaiiIy lhan lhe Uniled Slales
and lhe Soviel Union. eijings peiceplion of ieIalive
veakness juslihes lhe nosl fundanenlaI eIenenl of
cuiienl Chinese docliine: ils slialegicaIIy defensive
posluie. This assessnenl of niIilaiy veakness, es-
peciaIIy ieIalive lo lhe Uniled Slales, has legun lo
change as Chinas econony has giovn and ils niIilaiy
has nodeinized, lul il sliII ienains as a fundanenlaI
ieaIily in Chinas peiceplion of ils conpiehensive
nalionaI povei.
Despile lhe slialegicaIIy defensive naluie of ILA
docliine, Chinese niIilaiy Ieadeis undeisland fuIIy
lhe need foi offensive aclions al lhe laclicaI and opeia-
85
lionaI IeveIs of vai and, vhen condilions denand, al
lhe slialegic IeveI. In 1936, Mao used lhe lein Aclive
Defense lo iIIusliale lhis concepl:
$2,1J/ 5/V/76/ 16 .=6< [7<Z7 .6 <VV/761J/ 5/V/76/,
oi defense lhiough decisive engagenenls. . . . lhe onIy
ieaI defense is aclive defense, defense foi lhe puipose
of counlei-allacking and laking lhe offensive. . . . D1=1R
,.-1=: 6H/.[170X <4- Z.-V.-/ 2<7616,6 <V ,I/ .=,/-7.,/
46/ <V ,I/ 5/V/761J/ .75 ,I/ <VV/761J/.
4
(enphasis
added)
As lhe veakei povei, lhe key vas lo shape lhe
lallIeheId so lhal Chinas slienglhs vouId aIIov lhen
lo lake lhe offensive even if onIy in Iiniled, specihc
aieas. Mao expecled inilialive, exiliIily, and good
judgnenl fion his connandeis (We do nol peinil
any of oui Red Ainy connandeis lo lecone a lIun-
deiing holhead
5
) and foi lhen lo enpIoy deceplion
and slialagen lo achieve vicloiy. Connandeis ana-
Iyzed nislakes and adapled lheii nelhods of opeia-
lion and veie encouiaged lo nainlain avaieness of
lhenseIves, lheii lioops, lhe eneny, and lhe oljec-
live naleiiaI foundalions, i.e., lhe niIilaiy, poIilicaI,
econonic and naluiaI condilions.
6
This nuIlidinen-
sionaI oulIook piesaged lhe concepl of conpiehen-
sive nalionaI povei lhal eijing uses lo neasuie
Chinas slanding in ieIalion lo olhei nalions.
7
The need foi noliIizalion vas iIIuslialed in one of
lhe eaiIiesl iefeiences lo IeopIes Wai in 1937:
Thioughoul lhe Wai of Resislance Chiang Kai-shek
opposed aII-oul peopIes vai in vhich lhe enliie peo-
pIe aie noliIized . . . lhus his aclions conpIeleIy vio-
Ialed his ovn Lushan slalenenl lhal 'once vai lieaks
oul, eveiy peison, young oi oId, in lhe noilh oi in lhe
soulh, nusl lake up lhe iesponsiliIily of iesisling }a-
pan and defending oui honeIand.
8
86
This idea conlinues in nodein ILA docliine in
lhe noliIizalion of lhe peopIe, econony, science and
lechnoIogy, and lhe enphasis on niIilaiy-civiI inle-
gialion ([{) in niIilaiy opeialions and conlin-
ing niIilaiy vilh civiIian iequiienenls in lhe defense
indusliies ([;{).
LoyaIly of aII lhe Chinese ained foices lo lhe Iaily
can le liaced lack lo Maos voids: Lveiy Connunisl
nusl giasp lhe liulh, 'IoIilicaI povei giovs oul of lhe
laiieI of a gun. Oui piincipIe is lhal lhe paily con-
nands lhe gun, and lhe gun nusl nevei le aIIoved
lo connand lhe paily.
9
Iaily conlioI of lhe niIilaiy
vas ieinfoiced in lhe hisl eIenenl of Hu }inlaos His-
loiic Missions, vhich iequiies lhe ained foices lo
piovide an inpoilanl souice of slienglh foi consoIi-
daling lhe iuIing posilion of lhe Connunisl Iaily of
China.
1O
In lhe yeais since Hu issued lhis guidance,
lhis piincipIe has leen undeiscoied ly lhe iepealed
canpaigns lo oppose ienoving lhe paily fion lhe
niIilaiy ([(), lhe de-poIilicizalion of lhe
niIilaiy ([(|,), and lhe nalionaIizalion
of lhe niIilaiy ([]).
11

MoliIizalion and poIilicaI IoyaIly aie oflen Iinked
logelhei ly lhe sIogans lhal lhe ILA is lolh lhe Ieo-
pIes Ainy and lhe Iailys Ainy. In oidei foi il
lo le successfuI, lhe ILA needs lhe suppoil of peopIe
jusl as il nusl aIvays le a seivanl of lhe CCI. ul lhe
ILA nusl aIso iespecl lhe peopIe, and aflei lhe iup-
luie caused ly lhe ILAs aclions in 1989, lhe niIilaiy
has voiked haid lo ieeslalIish ils inage as a Ieo-
pIes Ainy lhiough ils suppoil lo nalionaI econonic
consliuclion and pailicuIaiIy in ils conliilulions lo
disaslei ieIief opeialions lhioughoul lhe counliy.

87
Anolhei vay lo Iook al lhe ieIalionship of lhe niIi-
laiy lo lhe peopIe and CCI is lhiough lhe unily le-
lveen lhe ILA and lhe goveinnenl and lelveen lhe
ILA and lhe peopIe (|[[;). As Mao viole
in 1945 in lhe essay, On CoaIilion Coveinnenl:
The soIe puipose of lhis ainy is lo sland hinIy vilh
lhe Chinese peopIe and lo seive lhen vhoIe-heailed-
Iy. . . . InleinaIIy, lheie is unily lelveen ofhceis and
nen, lelveen lhe highei and Iovei ianks, and le-
lveen niIilaiy voik, poIilicaI voik and ieai seivice
voik, and exleinaIIy, lheie is unily lelveen lhe ainy
and lhe peopIe, lelveen lhe ainy and goveinnenl
oiganizalions, and lelveen oui ainy and lhe fiiendIy
ainies. Il is inpeialive lo oveicone anylhing lhal in-
paiis lhis unily.
12
These exacl lhenes veie iepealed in a slaff con-
nenlaloi ailicIe, AIvays Caie Aloul lhe Safely and
WeII-leing of lhe Masses, P|A Dai|q, in Seplenlei
2O12, vhich aIso nenlioned lhe piolIens of a ceilain
snaII nunlei of paily nenleis:
The iools, lhe lIoodIine, and lhe slienglh of oui paily
Iie anong lhe peopIe. . . . undei a condilion of hoId-
ing lhe goveining slalus foi a Iong line, in lhe envi-
ionnenl of iefoin, opening up, and deveIoping lhe
sociaIisl naikel econony, a snaII nunlei of paily
nenleis did nol adheie lo lhe pailys fundanenlaI
piincipIe, did nol keep in nind lhe pailys nass-ieIal-
ed vievpoinl and nass Iine, lecane indiffeienl lo lhe
difhcuIlies and suffeiings of lhe peopIe. The dangei of
leing divoiced fion lhe nasses is noie saIienl lhan
any line lefoie. . . . Iiaclice shovs lhal onIy vhen ve
liuIy caie aloul lhe nasses viII lhe nasses caie aloul
us, onIy vhen ve lieal lhe nasses as oui faniIy nen-
leis viII lhe nasses aIso lieal us as lheii kinfoIk.
13
88
On CoaIilion Coveinnenl aIso acknovIedged
lhal lhe Ainy had ciealed a syslen of slialegy and
laclics vhich is essenliaI foi lhe peopIes vai and had
lecone skiIIed in lolh gueiiiIIa and noliIe vaifaie,
depending on lallIeheId condilions. AddilionaIIy,
Mao noled lhe Ainy vas divided inlo lvo pails: nain
foices and iegionaI foices, lhe Iallei concenlialing on
defending lheii ovn IocaIilies and allacking lhe en-
eny lheie in co-opeialion vilh lhe IocaI niIilia and
lhe seIf-defense coips.
14
Many of lhe concepls in Maos eaiIy viilings on
IeopIes Wai aie found vilhin lhe lexls of lni|c Pa-
A'%- 4/ 9&$)4/&2 ?'H'/-' issued ovei lhe pasl decade
and in lhe nosl iecenl edilion of 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1
Sl%&$'(1.
15
Moieovei, lhe sane lasic oiganizalionaI
sliucluie sliII exisls foi lhe ILA and niIilia as Mao
desciiled in 1945.
>%@>A%B! ;$# $+* $("'\% *%O%+!%a
$*$>"%* O@# "?% KM!" (%+")#E
In oidei lo undeisland lhe conlinuily and change
in lhe concepls of IeopIes Wai and Aclive Defense
duiing lhe peiiod of Hu }inlaos CMC chaiinanship,
a ieviev of slalus of lhese concepls jusl piioi lo hin
assuning lhal posilion is usefuI. The conlinualion of
nany Maoisl piincipIes is appaienl in lhe 2OO2 lni|c
E&A'% 4/ 9&$)4/&2 ?'H'/-'~lefoie Hu lecane Chaii-
nan of lhe CMC. The seclion on NalionaI Defense
IoIicy slales:
China inpIenenls . 91=1,.-: 6,-.,/0: (,[) of
aclive defense. SlialegicaIIy, China puisues a piin-
cipIe fealuiing defensive opeialions, seIf-defense and
allack onIy aflei leing allacked. In iesponse lo lhe
piofound changes in lhe voiIds niIilaiy heId and lhe
89
iequiienenls of lhe nalionaI deveIopnenl slialegy,
China has foinuIaled . 91=1,.-: 6,-.,/012 0415/=17/
(,[\) of aclive defense in lhe nev peiiod.
16

(enphasis added)
Ioi leininoIogy luffs, in a singIe paiagiaph, Ac-
live Defense is caIIed lolh a niIilaiy slialegy and
niIilaiy slialegic guideIine. This disciepancy in lei-
ninoIogy peisisls in sulsequenl lni|c Papcrs.
Iuilheinoie, lhe guideIine appeais lo encon-
pass lhe concepl (oi lhoughl, ) of IeopIes
Wai as il expIains:
This guideIine is lased on vinning IocaI vais undei
nodein, especiaIIy high-lech condilions . . . sliesses
lhe deleiience of vai |],, oflen liansIaled as
conlainnenl of vaij . . . |andj highIighls and caiiies
foivaid lhe concepl of peopIes vai (;[,).
17
IeopIes Wai is expIained as:
In lhe face of nev changes in nodein vaifaie, China
peisisls in ieIying on lhe peopIe in nalionaI defense
luiIding, enhancing lhe popuIai avaieness of nalionaI
defense, and insliluling an ained foice syslen of con-
lining a snaII lul capalIe slanding ainy vilh a pov-
eifuI ieseive foice, uphoIds lhe piincipIe of conlining
peaceline fooling vilh vailine fooling, uniling lhe
ainy vilh lhe peopIe, and having a ieseive anong
lhe peopIe, inpioving lhe noliIizalion nechanisn
vilh expanded noliIizalion scope, and eslalIishing a
nalionaI defense noliIizalion syslen in Iine vilh lhe
iequiienenls of nodein vaifaie, and adheies lo ex-
ilIe appIicalions of slialegies and laclics, ciealing nev
vays of hghling so as lo give fuIIei pIay lo lhe slienglh
of a peopIe s vai.
9O
The 2OO2 lni|c Papcr cIeaiIy enuneiales lhe lasic
fundanenlaIs of Chinas niIilaiy slialegy: slialegi-
caIIy seIf-defensive, enphasizing deleiience of vai in
geneiaI, nol onIy nucIeai vai, and conlining niIilaiy
vilh civiIian faclois lhiough noliIizalion. Iuilhei-
noie, il sliesses lhe exilIe appIicalion of IeopIes
Wai slialegies and laclics and specihcaIIy idenlihes
ciealing nev vays of hghling vilhin lhese paian-
eleis. In shoil, Aclive Defense and IeopIes Wai aie
concepls adaplalIe lo changing condilions.
The nodihcalion of leininoIogy foi lhese piin-
cipIes is seen in lhe 2OO4 lni|c Papcr, issued jusl a fev
nonlhs aflei Hu assuned lhe chaii al lhe CMC. e-
cause Hu had leen lhe civiIian Vice Chaiinan since
1999, he undoulledIy vas invoIved in lhe foinuIalion
and appiovaI of lhese changes duiing lhe consensus-
luiIding, sludy-diiven piocess of decisionnaking
vilhin lhe CMC. The 2OO4 lni|c Papcr iepeals (in lhe
LngIish veision) lhal China adheies lo lhe 0)2)$&%1
sl%&$'(1 of aclive defense (lhough lhe Chinese used
niIilaiy slialegic guideIine) and adds foi lhe hisl
line in a lni|c Papcr and voiks lo speed up lhe
RMA |RevoIulion in MiIilaiy Affaiis, ]|]
j vilh Chinese chaiacleiislics.
18
This Iallei lein
is expIained in ils ovn chaplei lhal legins vilh lhe
senlence:
The ILA, aining al luiIding an infoinalionaIized
foice and vinning an infoinalionaIized vai, deepens
ils iefoin, dedicales ilseIf lo innovalion, inpioves ils
quaIily and acliveIy pushes foivaid lhe RMA vilh
Chinese chaiacleiislics vilh infoinalionaIizalion al
lhe coie.
91
The seclion on lhe RMA vilh Chinese chaiacleiis-
lics conlains delaiIs of lhe ILAs foice sliucluie, pei-
sonneI poIicies, connand and Ieadeiship sliucluie,
and deveIopnenls in Iogislics, educalion, liaining,
and equipnenl nodeinizalion. Thus, fion lhe ILAs
peispeclive, lhe concepl of lhe RMA vilh Chinese
chaiacleiislics enlaiIs .== .6H/2,6 <V .-9: W41=5170
in geneiaI and incIudes noie lhan inlegialing nev
veapons and syslens inlo lhe foice and deveIoping
nev nelhods of hghling.
IeopIes Wai is nenlioned nuIlipIe lines, pai-
licuIaiIy in lhe sane paiagiaph lhal inlioduces lhe
concepl of vinning IocaI vais undei lhe condilions
of infoinalionaIizalion (|][j,
). The 2OO4 lni|c Papcr speaks of deveIoping lhe
slialegies and laclics of IeopIes Wai, aIong vilh giv-
ing piioiily lo deveIoping nev veapons and equip-
nenl and luiIding inlegialed joinl opeialionaI capa-
liIilies (indicaling IeopIes Wai is nol conhned lo lhe
vai of Iov lechnoIogy). Moieovei, lhe chaplei on na-
lionaI defense noliIizalion and ieseive foice luiIding
legins vilh lhe slalenenl:
China adheies lo lhe piincipIe of having aII peopIe
engaged in nalionaI defense vilh an ain al 01J170
V4== H=.: ,< ,I/ <J/-.== .5J.7,.0/6 <V ,I/ H-/6/7,R5.:
H/<H=/B6 Z.- so as lo pionole lhe nalionaI defense
noliIizalion and ieseive foice luiIding on lhe lasis of
lhe oveiaII nalionaI slienglh. (enphasis added)
MoliIizalion of lhe nalionaI econony is idenlihed
as a poveifuI deleiience lo vai (once again ],
is used). MoliIizalion of nalionaI econony incIudes
noliIizalion of indusliy, agiicuIluie, connunica-
lion and lianspoil, posl and leIeconnunicalions, sci-
ence and lechnoIogy, nedicaI caie and heaIlh, uilan
92
consliuclion, conneice and liade, and hnance~Iil-
eiaIIy aII aspecls of sociely. Taking nole of 2OO2 guid-
ance on slienglhening uilan niIilia voik, lhe lni|c
E&A'% slales lhe uilan niIilia shouId le piepaied foi
vinning peopIes vais undei high-lech condilions,
nol yel undei lhe condilions of infoinalionaIizalion
lhe aclive foice is piepaiing foi.
The 2OO6 lni|c Papcr uses Aclive Defense onIy
once as a seclion heading InpIenenling lhe niIilaiy
slialegy of aclive defense (once again using ,
[\, niIilaiy slialegic guideIine). This seclion
nenlions piepaialion foi niIilaiy sliuggIe (
(), vinning IocaI vais undei condilions of infoi-
nalionizalion, and upgiading and deveIoping:
lhe slialegic concepl of peopIes vai, and voik foi
cIose cooidinalion lelveen niIilaiy sliuggIe and
poIilicaI, econonic, dipIonalic, cuIluiaI, and IegaI
endeavois, uses slialegies and laclics in a conpie-
hensive vay, and lakes lhe inilialive lo pievenl and
defuse ciises and delei conicls and vais (],,
1,).
19
The seclion on The IeopIes Lileialion Ainy
adds a veiy inpoilanl nodihcalion lo lhe concepl of
IeopIes Wai slaling:
The Navy is enhancing ieseaich inlo lhe lheoiy of na-
vaI opeialions and expIoiing lhe slialegy and laclics
of 9.-1,19/ H/<H=/B6 Z.- 475/- 9<5/-7 2<751,1<76
()|];[,).
The lni|c Papcr does nol fuilhei expIain lhis slale-
nenl, hovevei, as viII le seen, a siniIai idea had leen
discussed in lhe 2OO1 Chinese edilion of 56' #*)'/*' 4H
;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1 and in lhe LngIish-Ianguage liansIa-
lion avaiIalIe lo foieign anaIysls.
93
The 2OO8 lni|c Papcr iepeals lhe sane veiliage
as in 2OO2: China inpIenenls a niIilaiy slialegy of
aclive defense and ends lhe paiagiaph iefeiiing lo
Aclive Defense as a niIilaiy slialegic guideIine. The
paiagiaphs lhal foIIov aie veiy siniIai lo lhe 2OO2
lni|c Papcrs discussion of IocaI vai (lhis line undei
condilions of infoinalionizalion), deleiience, and
IeopIes Wai, lul aIso add foi lhe hisl line a paia-
giaph on diveisihed niIilaiy lasks ({
) and niIilaiy opeialions olhei lhan vai (MOOTW,
(,|). This seclion concIudes vilh a Iongei
seclion aloul lhe ieIalionship of lhe ILA lo lhe peopIe
and nalionaI econonic deveIopnenl adding a nev
viinkIe lo IeopIes Wai.
China is sliiving lo nake innovalions in lhe conlenl
and foins of peopIes vai, expIoiing nev appioaches
of lhe peopIe in pailicipaling in vaifaie and suppoil
foi lhe fionl, and deveIoping nev slialegies and lac-
lics foi H/<H=/B6 Z.- 17 2<751,1<76 <V 17V<-9.,1<71].R
,1<7 (];[,). Moieovei, lhe IeopIes
Lileialion Ainy (ILA) suloidinales ils deveIopnenl
lo lhe oveiaII nalionaI consliuclion, suppoils IocaI
econonic and sociaI deveIopnenl, and consoIidales
lhe unily lelveen lhe ILA and lhe goveinnenl, and
lelveen lhe ILA and lhe peopIe.
2O
(enphasis added)
This is lhe hisl appeaiance of lhe lein peopIes
vai in condilions of infoinalionizalion in a lni|c
E&A'%. Il had appeaied al Ieasl once lefoie in lhe P|A
?&)21 in a Novenlei 2OO7 ailicIe aloul niIilaiy civiI-
ian inlegialion
21
and has appeaied onIy a fev lines
afleivaids, lul nol in Ialei lni|c Papcrs.
The 2O1O lni|c Papcr iepeals lhe foinuIalion Chi-
na inpIenenls lhe niIilaiy slialegy of aclive defense
of lhe nev eia (using lhe Chinese foi niIilaiy slia-
94
legic guideIine) onIy once and lhen speaks of inpIe-
nenling Aclive Defense as one of lhe iesponsiliIilies
of lhe Slale NalionaI Defense MoliIizalion Connis-
sion oi Connillee (]]|))). Inleiesling-
Iy, IeopIes Wai undei any lype of condilions is nol
nenlioned al aII. The lni|c Papcr on The Diveisihed
LnpIoynenl of Chinas Ained Ioices, pulIished
in ApiiI 2O13 nenlions lhe niIilaiy slialegy Aclive
Defense onIy once and ieninds ieadeis lhal lhe ILA
conslanlIy liings foivaid nev ideas foi lhe sliale-
gies and laclics of peopIes vai.
22
Thus, iefeiences
lo IeopIes Wai conlinue lo le found in lhe Chinese
niIilaiy Iileialuie, lul peihaps lhe nosl exlensive ex-
pIanalion of ils conlenl is found in lhe 2OO1 Chinese-
Ianguage edilion of 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1 and
ils 2OO5 LngIish liansIalion.
>%@>A%B! ;$# % '$ ()* +!"*,!* -. /"'"($#0
!"#$(*10a'D>@#"$+" *%"$'A!
As can le seen in lhe exceipls fion lhe lni|c Pa-
A'%-, lhe geneiaI conponenls of IeopIes Wai and Ac-
live Defense aie consislenl vilh lhe piincipIes Mao
desciiled ovei 5O yeais ago. 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1
Sl%&$'(1 adds inpoilanl delaiI lo lhose geneiaI piin-
cipIes, Iooking al pasl conicls and piojecling hov
fuluie vais nay le foughl.
Despile lhe associalion of IeopIes Wai and Ac-
live Defense vilh Mao, 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1
ciedils Iiiediich LngeIs vilh lheii lheoielicaI oiigins:
In 1849, LngeIs dehnileIy suggesled lhe concepl of
peopIes vai.Defensive vai does nol excIude allack-
ing aclion. Aflei lhe eneny slails vai, lhe side lhal
is foiced lo nake iesponse is fuIIy enlilIed lo lake
aclive aclion lo hghl lack unliI lhe eneny is lolaIIy
defealed.
23
95
ShoilIy lheieaflei, LngeIs aIso is ciled as lhe souice
of lhe idea lhal lechnoIogy deleinines laclics (|
Z,Z) in lhe slalenenl, The deveIopnenl of
science and lechnoIogy Ied lo lhe change of node
and vay of opeialions.
24
The evoIulionaiy piocess
of lechnoIogy shaping opeialionaI nelhods is inpIicil
in lhe leininoIogy suiiounding IeopIes Wai and Lo-
caI Wai as lhese concepls shifl fion a lasic condilion
vilh no nodiheis lo undei nodein condilions lo
undei high lechnoIogy lo undei infoinalionized
condilions as ciicunslances have changed.
Maos niIilaiy slialegic lheoiy (,[) is
caIIed a China slyIe Maixisl slialegic lheoiy hinIy
iooled in Chinese liadilionaI slialegic cuIluie. Ils
nosl inpoilanl pails aie lhe slialegic guiding piin-
cipIes (,[|)]) of peopIes vai and lhe sliale-
gic lhinking (,[) of aclive defense.
25
Iion lhis
foinuIalion, IeopIes Wai and Aclive Defense vouId
appeai lo have equaI slalus is lhe hieiaichy of Chi-
nese niIilaiy leininoIogy. Hovevei, lhe piide of hisl
iefeience goes lo Aclive Defense in Chaplei 1 vheie
Chinas nalionaI niIilaiy slialegy in lhe nev eia is
sunnaiized as:
Slra|cgq (cr ni|i|arq slra|cgq) in Cninas ncu pcricds jsic]
)- $&I)/( 234 56278569 :8;<=4345>7?4 <8@4= &- )$- H4+/-
da|icn, |nc |ncugn| (T 4H 6:27?4 A4B45>4 &- )$- (+),-
ancc (|), and uinning |cca| uar undcr nign-|ccn ccndi-
$)4/- &- )$- B&-)* A4)/$ $4 *4/slruc| and cxcrcisc ni|i|arq
slrcng|n, and carrqing cu| |nc ctcra|| and unc|c-ccursc
4A'%&$)4/ &/, (+),&/*' 4H !&% A%'A&%&$)4/- &/, !&% H4% $6'
A+%A4-' 4H A%4$'*$)/( /&$)4/&2 -4G'%')(/$1 &/, -'*+%)$1.
26

(.$&2)*- in oiiginaI, W<=5 added)

96
IeopIes Wai is nol nenlioned diieclIy lul is in-
pIicil in lhe incIusion of lhe concepl of conpiehensive
nalionaI povei. The lexl expIains lhis paiagiaph ly
ieninding ieadeis of lhe slialegic defensive naluie of
Chinas niIilaiy slialegy, lhal conpiehensive nalionaI
povei invoIves noie lhan niIilaiy slienglh, and lhal
slialegy appIies lolh lo vaihghling and lo delei (|
]), pievenl (|), and consliain (];) vai. Lalei in
lhe chaplei, Aclive Defense is dehned as Chinas niIi-
laiy slialegy (,[), vhich is conposed of seivice
slialegies (,[), anong lhen lhe ILAN slial-
egy of Offshoie Defense.
27
The hisl chaplei ends ly
poinling oul lhal niIilaiy foice can le used foi lolh
vaihghling (,|j) and nonvai-hghling uliIi-
zalion ((,|j), oi nonconlal uses, and lhal
lhe nain pallein ({]) of vai has lecone
high-lech IocaI vai, lul lhe expIoialion of lhe guid-
ing Iavs of lhis nev foin of vai shouId le a najoi
heId foi sludying lhe Iavs of slialegic guidance. Spe-
cihcaIIy, lhe science of slialegy nusl addiess Hov
a deveIoping counliy Iike China vages peopIes vai
undei nodein ciicunslances vilh faiiIy lackvaid
niIilaiy lechnoIogy lo defeal supeiioiily ly infeiioii-
ly and pievaiI ovei lhe high-lechnicaIIy |sicj equipped
opponenl.
28
This appeais lo le lhe hisl use of IeopIes Wai in
56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1 focusing on lhe ILAs
infeiioiily lo advanced niIilaiies. In lhe yeais aflei
lhe looks pulIicalion, nany of lhese concepls have
evoIved, as seen in lhe pievious discussion of lhe
lni|c Papcrs. Ioi exanpIe, lhe nain pallein of vai
has lecone IocaI vais undei condilions of infoi-
nalionizalion, and lhe concepl of non-vaihghling
uliIizalion has evoIved inlo MOOTW and lhe iange
of conlingencies expanded.
29
Undei Hu, MOOTW
97
lecane an inpoilanl conponenl of lhe ILAs
opeialionaI focus.
>/<H=/B6 ;.- .75 */,/--/72/8
Thioughoul lhe ienaindei of 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)-
$&%1 Sl%&$'(1, lhe piincipIes of IeopIes Wai and Aclive
Defense aie najoi lhenes, lolh as lhe look discusses
Chinas caIcuIus of deleiience and as il addiesses
vaihghling docliine. We luin hisl lo Chaplei 9 on
Slialegic Deleiience lo exanine lhe ioIe of IeopIes
Wai in Chinas deleiience posluie, acknovIedged as a
piefeiied nelhod lo achieve Sunzis oljeclive of sul-
duing lhe eneny vilhoul hghling.
The chaplei opens vilh lhe senlence, Waihghling
and deleiience aie lvo najoi funclions of lhe ained
foices.
30
Deleiience is lased on possessing an ad-
equale deleiienl foice, having lhe viII lo use lhal
foice, and ensuiing lhe opponenl undeislands Chinas
capaliIilies and viII. Deleiience nay le enpIoyed ,<
51664.5/ an opponenl fion laking an aclion oi il nay
le used ,< H/-64.5/ an opponenl lo do sonelhing. In
peaceline, lhe piincipaI ioIe of slialegic deleiience
is lo deIay oi cuil oullieak of vai ly enpIoying lhe
slialegic slienglh of nalionaI niIilaiy, poIilics, econo-
ny, cuIluie, and dipIonacy, elc.
31
In vai, deleiience
nay le used lo denonsliale lo lhe eneny lhe dangei-
ous silualion he is in oi lo dispIay slienglh lhiough a
snaII vai oi suigicaI sliike (nol specihed heie as
such, lul such aclions faII vilhin lhe concepl of Aclive
Defense
32
). ased on lhe pienise lhal Chinas sliale-
gic deleiience is seIf-defense in essence, 56' #*)'/*' 4H
;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1 oulIines deleiience goaIs lhal go veII
leyond nucIeai deleiience:
98
lhe ioIe of Chinas slialegic deleiience is chiey lo
delei foieign invasion, defend lhe soveieignly, iighls
and inleiesls, and lo delei lhe conspiiacies of inlei-
naI and exleinaI iivaIs foi sepaialing and sulveiling
China, so as lo piolecl lhe slaliIily of nalionaI poIili-
caI silualion, defend leiiiloiiaI inlegiily and nalionaI
unihcalion.
33
IeopIes Wai has a najoi ioIe in lhis nuIliIeveI de-
leiience slialegy of nucIeai, convenlionaI, space and
infoinalion deleiience:
China cuiienlIy has a Iiniled lul effeclive nucIeai de-
leiience and a ieIaliveIy poveifuI capaliIily of con-
venlionaI deleiience and . 9.661J/ 2.H.21,: <V 5/R
,/--/72/ <V H/<H=/B6 Z.-. y conlining lhese neans
of deleiience, an inlegialed slialegic deleiience is
foined, Z1,I 2<9H-/I/761J/ 7.,1<7.= H<Z/- .6 ,I/
W.616, convenlionaI foice as lhe nainslay, nucIeai
foice as lhe lackup povei and ieseive foice as lhe
suppoil.
34
(enphasis added)
Chinas inlegialed slialegic deleiience depends
on aII eIenenls of conpiehensive nalionaI povei, nol
jusl niIilaiy slienglh. Hovevei, deleiience nay faiI
and vai oi vai escaIalion nay le liiggeied if one
nishandIes lhe conpIex silualion.
35
Theiefoie, cau-
lion nusl le laken in decisionnaking and conpIele
anaIysis and neasuienenl of lhe advanlages and lhe
disadvanlages nade. Slialegic deleiience is consid-
eied a neans of allaining lolh niIilaiy and poIilicaI
oljeclives as ils iisks and cosls aie Iess lhan slialegic
opeialion. 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1 iepealedIy
enphasizes piudence in naking lhe decision lo go lo
vai and ieconnends lhal vaihghling le used onIy
vhen deleiience faiIs and lheie is no aIleinalive.
99
In lhe end, slialegic deleiience is lased on vai-
hghling. . . . The noie poveifuI lhe vaihghling ca-
paliIily, lhe noie effeclive lhe deleiience. MiIilaiy
foices nusl le capalIe and veII piepaied, lhose
naking puieIy lIufhng lhieals and inlinidalions
haidIy can affoid deleiience.
36
Deleiience is nol on-
nipolenl, and vai pIanneis nusl exanine lhe voisl
and lhe loughesl scenaiios and le veII piepaied in
advance, so as lo sleadiIy and effecliveIy cope vilh
lhe opponenl in case of faiIuie of deleiience.
37
Olhei
chapleis highIighl lhe hghling piincipIes lo enpIoy if
deleiience faiIs.
Pcnp!c's War and WarghtIng.
Chaplei 3, LvoIulion and Lavs of Slialegic Theo-
iies, ievievs Maos niIilaiy slialegic lheoiy lased
on conlal in lhe 193Os and 194Os. Il uses seveiaI pages
lo discuss lhe slialegic piincipIes of IeopIes Wai and
lhe slialegic lhoughl of Aclive Defense.
38
In a seclion
on The MiIilaiy Slialegy in lhe Nev Age, il slales
IeopIes Wai as a fundanenlaI slialegy, is sliII a vay
lo vin nodein vai. Aflei quoling Deng on ils ieI-
evance, }iang Zenin enphasizes Al no line shouId
ve diop lhe idea of peopIes vai. We shouId insisl on
lhe nagic veapon (,) of peopIes vai. . . .
39
Lalei in Chaplei 1O, IiincipIes of Slialegic Ac-
lion, Maos lheoiies aie slaled lo have alsoiled lhe
quinlessence of slialegic lheoiies al aII lines and in
aII counliies and liiey Iisls 1O piincipIes of IeopIes
Wai.
4O
This Iisl of piincipIes is diffeienl lhan lhal
found in Chaplei 3, lul has nany aieas of oveiIap.
The foinei Iisl incIudes ilens specihcaIIy ieIaled lo
lhe ievoIulionaiy vai peiiod (foi exanpIe, lhe iefei-
ence lo lase aieas), vhiIe lhe Iallei legins vilh Sunzis
1OO
guidance lo Knov lhe eneny and knov youiseIf
and adds inpoilanl opeialionaI delaiIs aloul con-
nand and use of aII Chinese capaliIilies. Iiguie 3-1
conpaies lhe lvo Iisls of piincipIes (vilh connonaIi-
lies highIighled in W<=5). Assuning fuilhei evoIulion
of ILA docliine, nany of lhese piincipIes aie ceilain
lo le conlinued, as aie olhei opeialionaI delaiIs found
in lhe 2OO1 edilion of lhe look.
O104-/ ^RM8 >-1721H=/6 <V >/<H=/B6 ;.-X
(34 +:745:4 8B /79726=C +2=624DC8
560#6(+,7 89,:#$7( !0,$7,;"(- 1<
!(1;"(=- >#0? 3.#;6(0 @
560#6(+,7 !0,$7,;"(- <10 !(1;"(=- >#0?
3.#;6(0 AB
AC D1 !0(-(0E( F90-("E(- #$: G$$,.,H
"#6( 6.( *$('I
2. Founding Base Areas and Creating
Battleleld Are Strategic Tasks
8. Change That's Timely to the Main
Forms o 0erations in Accordance
with the 0eveloment and Changes o
war
JC K,+.6 &1 L#66"( M$;0(;#0(: #$: &16
590( 61 >,$? #$: K10'9"#6( 560#6(+I
L(<10(.#$: L#-(: 1$ >10-6 31$:,6,1$
5. You Fight in Your way and we Fight
in 0urs. we will Fight There s a Fos
sibility to win, not, we will Move
NC 31$7($60#6( 59;(0,10 K107(- 61 G$H
$,.,"#6( 6.( *$('I K107(- F$( OI F$(
7. The Main Target s to Annihilate the
Enemy's Eective Strength Regardless
o the Cain or Loss o 0ne or Two Cities
or Flaces
PC L( ;09:($6 ,$ 6.( K,0-6 L#66"(
#$: K,+.6 6.( Q(7,-,E( L#66"( 61 F90
G:E#$6#+(
1. Knowing ourselves and the enemy
RC !0(-(0E,$+ 190-("E(- #$: :(-601IH
,$+ 6.( ($('I
8. Striving or the initiative and avoiding
the assive
4. Emloying military orces and tactics
Nexibly
5. Combining closely the three battle
orms o mobile war, ositional war,
and guerrilla war
NC 31$7($60#6,$+ -9;(0,10 <107(- #$:
:(-601I,$+ 6.( ($('I 1$( OI 1$(
SC K,+.6,$+ $1 O#66"( 9$;0(;#0(:?
HghIIng no baIIIa you ara noI sura oI
T,$$,$+
8. 8aIng rudanI In HghIIng Iha InIIIaI
O#66"(
O. bniying command and being coordi
nated and united
1O. Closely coordinating military and
nonmilitary struggles, etc
1O1
These piincipIes aie diieclIy ieIaled lo lhe hve
conlinalions of IeopIes Wai vhich nix 1) ieguIai
lioops vilh lhe nasses, enphasizing Chinas inIand
and coaslaI loidei iegions, 2) ieguIai navaI vaifaie
vilh gueiiiIIa vaifaie on lhe sea and deveIop lhe slial-
egy and laclics of IeopIes Wai on lhe Sea (];[
,), 3) liunp caid (]) veapons vilh ex-
ilIe slialegy and laclics, especiaIIy in pIaying hide
and seek vilh lhe eneny, 4) high-lech veapons vilh
connon veapons, undeislanding lhal lhe phenon-
enon lhal seveiaI geneialions of veapons and equip-
nenl viII coexisl foi a Iong line, and 5) niIilaiy
vaifaie vilh poIilicaI and econonic vaifaie lo pies-
enl lhe videsl fionl possilIe lo lhe eneny.
41
IeopIes
Wai on lhe Sea incIudes laclics of spaiiov vaifaie
and salolage, anlush, and coveiing opeialions.
42
The guidance, You hghl in youi vay, and ve hghl
in ouis, is a connon lhene in ILA docliine and is
Iinked vilh sliiving foi fuII inilialive.
43
These ideas
aIIov Chinese slialegisls lo foin a sliav nan fion lhe
diffeiences lelveen Chinese and U.S./Weslein sliale-
gic lhinking. Undei lhe Lavs of Slialegic Thinking,
56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1 accuialeIy slales lhal,
Ciealivily is lhe souI of slialegic lhinking.
44
Hov-
evei, il lhen goes on lo piesenl a faIse dicholony lhal
Slialagen lype lhinking enphasizes vinning ly
slialegy and foice lype lhinking enphasizes vinning
ly slienglh.
The idea of vinning vicloiy ly slialagen has aIvays
leen lhe nain idea of liadilionaI Chinese slialegic
lhinking. Il neans lhe use of Iiniled foice lo achieve
vicloiy oi ieaIize lhe ain of lhe vai. . . . Weslein
slialegic lhinking pays noie allenlion lo lhe conlesl
of slienglh, enphasizing diiecl confionlalion. . . .
The nodein Aneiican slialegy is a lypicaI slialegic
1O2
lhinking nodeI of foice lype, vilh supeiioi niIilaiy
slienglh as ils lasis. . . . US slialegic lhinking has nol
shaken off ils liadilionaI nodeI of allaching inpoi-
lance lo slienglh and lechnoIogy.
45
Though lhe aulhoi of lhis chaplei piolalIy exag-
geialed lhe diffeience lelveen slialagen and foice
lype lhinking foi effecl, he faiIs lo acknovIedge lhal
lolh appioaches can and shouId le inlegialed. As lhe
ILA nodeinizes, il lecones noie lied lo slienglh and
lechnoIogy, vhiIe ceilainIy ielaining ils penchanl foi
slialagen. Likevise, lheie aie nuneious iecenl ex-
anpIes of U.S. and aIIied foices using slialagen and
deceplion in lhe vais since 199O-91. Ieihaps a noie
solei exaninalion of lhe inleiaclion lelveen sliala-
gen and slienglh viII le foilhconing in a nev edilion
of 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1.
$+ %\@A)"'@+$#E !"%> O@# $("'\%
*%O%+!%
Thioughoul lhe look, lhe nain piincipIe of lhe
Aclive Defense, sliiking onIy aflei lhe eneny has
sliuck, is iepealed and is lhe lasis foi Chinas cIain
lhal il viII aIvays have lhe IegaI and noiaI high
giound if foiced lo hghl. Hovevei, vhiIe il sliesses
Chinas slialegicaIIy defensive posluie, lhe chaplei
on Slialegic Cuidance of High-lech LocaI Wai pio-
vides juslihcalion foi opeialionaI oi laclicaI pieenp-
live sliikes:
Undei high-lech condilions, foi lhe defensive side, lhe
slialegy lo gain nasleiy ly sliiking onIy aflei lhe en-
eny has sliuck 5</6 7<, 9/.7 Z.1,170 V<- /7/9:B6
6,-1[/ H.661J/=:. 'Sliiking onIy aflei lhe eneny has
sliuck in slialegy is lased on lhe 'vicloiy in advance
of conpiehensive nalionaI defense consliuclion. Il is
1O3
lhe neans lo vin poIilicaI and noiaI inilialives. . . .
'thc rst shnt' nn thc p!anc nf pn!ItIcs and stratcgy
must bc dIffcrcntIatcd frnm 'thc rst shnt' nn thc
H=.7/ <V ,.2,126. . . . if any counliy oi oiganizalion
vioIales lhe olhei counliys soveieignly and leiiiloiiaI
inlegiily, lhe olhei side viII have lhe iighl lo 'hie lhe
hisl shol on lhe pIane of laclics. The niIilaiy coun-
leiallacks 9.: W/ ,.[/7 ly lhe foIIoving oplions: lo
diive lhe invadeis oul of lhe leiiiloiy, oi lo Iaunch lhe
sane allacks on lhe enenys honeIand, oi lo allack
lhe enenys foieign niIilaiy lases, laigels al sea oi in
lhe aii.
46
(enphasis added)
CIeaiIy, lhe ied Iine of vhal is 'lhe hisl shol on
lhe pIane of poIilics and slialegy viII vaiy accoiding
lo lhe adveisaiy and lhe issue undei conlenlion. Hov-
evei, lhe key is lhal lefoie hiing 'lhe hisl shol on lhe
pIane of laclics, lheie viII le sone peiiod of incieased
poIilicaI lensions, and an adveisaiy viII have laken
sone soil of aclion lhal China can inleipiel as vioIal-
ing ils soveieignly oi leiiiloiiaI inlegiily. The Chinese
piopaganda and IegaI nachineiy viII voik in conceil
lo piove such aclions veie piovocalion foi vhalevei
sleps China lhen lakes. In olhei voids, sliiking onIy
aflei lhe eneny has sliuck does nol iequiie China
lo have acluaIIy suffeied a physicaI hisl lIov, Aclive
Defense piovides lhe lasis foi pieenplive aclion.
56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Slra|cgqs hnaI chaplei lakes
pieenplion a slep fuilhei ly pioposing an aclive
>2=624D7: counleiallack on exleiioi Iines.
47
WhiIe ie-
ileialing lhal Aclive Defense is lhe essenliaI fealuie
of Chinas niIilaiy slialegy, il is necessaiy lo adjusl
oui vay of lhinking and eniich lhe conlenls of aclive
defense on lhe lasis of lhe chaiacleiislics and Iavs of
lhe nodein IocaI vai. The aclive slialegic counleial-
lack diffeis fion olhei pieenplive aclions lecause il
1O4
is laken al lhe slialegic IeveI of vai and conducled
al lhe leginning of a vai. Il is aIIeged 7<, lo le a
conponenl of lhe expansive and exlioveil offensive
slialegy, lul a slialegicaIIy defensive and aclive seIf-
defense counleiallack. The look does nol specify ex-
aclIy hov such an opeialion vouId le conducled oi
exaclIy vhal ils nain laigels vouId le (olhei pails of
lhe look delaiI geneiic laigel Iisls). Ralhei, lhis pas-
sage ends ly slaling lhe ILA shouId choose lhe un-
expecled line, pIace, and pallein of vai vhich lhe en-
eny hnds nosl ieIuclanl and difhcuIl lo deaI vilh.
48

An hisloiic exanpIe of aclive slialegic counleiallack
nighl le DooIillIes 1942 iaid on Tokyo ialhei lhan
lhe loIl fion lhe lIue }apanese allack on IeaiI Hai-
loi. The ILA has nol conducled such a joinl allack al
slialegic deplhs in ils hisloiy, vilh lhe cIosesl exanpIe
peihaps leing lhe coveil novenenl of voIunleeis
inlo Koiea in lhe faII of 195O. Tiends in ILA nodein-
izalion ovei lhe pasl 15 yeais have giealIy incieased
Chinas oplions foi lhis kind of opeialion vilh lhe po-
lenliaI foi cylei allacks, Iong-iange nissiIe (laIIislic
and ciuise) allacks againsl Iand and sea laigels, and
lhe use of speciaI opeialions foices al consideialIe
dislance fion Chinas shoies.
IinaIIy, fuluie niIilaiy opeialions (incIuding de-
leiience opeialions) aie divided inlo lhiee lypes:
1. Iievenlive slialegic aclion oi opeialions lhal
seek lo pievenl a silualion fion deleiioialing, vhich
nay incIude exeicises, iaising aIeil slalus, eslalIish-
ing no-y/no navigalion zones, oi Iov inlensily op-
eialions, such as use of speciaI opeialions foices oi
snaII-scaIe joinl opeialions.
2. ConlioIIalIe opeialions lo iesloie and slaliIize
lhe silualion, of nediun- oi of nediun-Iov-inlensily,
such as iegionaI lIockade, nissiIe assauIl, aii allack,
1O5
isIand allack oi defense, fionliei counleiallack, and
nediun- oi Iaige-scaIe joinl opeialions.
3. Decisive opeialions lo piolecl lhe counliys
fundanenlaI nalionaI inleiesls and aie usuaIIy ne-
diun-Iaige scaIe, nediun-high inlensily opeialions
lhal usuaIIy aie decisive and lheiefoie nusl le suie
lo vin.
49
These cIassihcalions enphasize lolh deleiience
and vaihghling, peihaps unieaIislicaIIy seek lo ovei-
cone lhe unceilainly of vai, and piovide a slandaid-
ized nelhod foi pIanning and liaining and enpIoy-
ing lioops lased on a coiiecl eslinale of lhe silualion.
56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1 does nol iuIe oul lhe
possiliIily lhal lhe goaI of hghling a quick and deci-
sive couId evoIve inlo a Iong-lein confionlalion oi
pioliacled vai.
5O
This lhoughl piocess enphasizes a
piofessionaI allilude lovaid liaining and allaining
opeialionaI ieadiness, lul uiges caulion in naking
lhe decision lo go lo vai.
Theiefoie, inpiudenl decision lo use foice is nevei
peinilled. . . . The ieason foi lhe exislence of lhe ainy
is lo pievenl and vin a vai. . . . We nay nol Iaunch
a vai in a hundied yeais lul ve can nevei le unpie-
paied foi vai foi even one day. . . . OnIy vhen an
ainy is fuIIy piepaied foi vai, can il le piudenl lo
slail a vai and ieacl quickIy in vai.
51
As ILA capaliIilies inpiove, shouId ciicun-
slances denand and lhe Iaily Ieadeiship so oideis,
lhe ILAN is IikeIy lo le invoIved in any Iong-iange,
slialegic opeialion al lhe leginning of a vai, aIong
vilh lhe Aii Ioice and Second AiliIIeiy. Theiefoie,
lhe docliinaI foundalion foi lhe ILANs aclions have
lecone of giealei inleiesl lo lhe voiId.
1O6
@OO!?@#% *%O%+!%a$ #%A$"'\%AE
+%; (@+(%>"
In 1985, lhe CMC appioved Offshoie Defense as
lhe navaI conponenl of lhe Aclive Defense slialegic
guideIines.
52
As such, il confoins lo lhe lasic lenels of
Aclive Defense and IeopIes Wai desciiled pievious-
Iy. The inpelus foi ciealion of lhe Offshoie Defense
concepl is alliiluled lo Liu Huaqing, connandei of
lhe Navy in 1982, vhen he oideied ieseaich lo legin
on lhe lopic.
Liu consideied Offshoie Defense lo le a iegionaI
defensive slialegy focusing ils opeialions hisl, and
foi a ieIaliveIy Iong line, in lhe YeIIov, Lasl China,
and Soulh China Seas, oi vilhin lhe Iiisl IsIand Chain.
He expecled lhe ILANs opeialionaI aieas lo expand
0-.54.==: lo lhe noilhein Iacihc and oul lo lhe Second
IsIand Chain. No linefiane vas nenlioned foi lhis
giaduaI expansion in opeialionaI aiea. Liu iejecled
lhal lhe ILA vas lo lecone a lIue valei offensive
foice Iike lhose of lhe Uniled Slales oi Soviel Union.
54
Liu iegaided Offshoie Defense as noie lhan a
coaslaI defense slialegy. Though no ofhciaI nininun
oi naxinun dislances veie associaled vilh lhe con-
cepl, anaIysis pulIished ly lhe U.S. Ofhce of NavaI
InleIIigence in 2OO7 slaled lhal foi nany ILAN ofh-
ceis, lhe Navys opeialionaI ieach is a funclion of lhe
ILAs Iand-lased aiiciafl and lhe Navys anlisulna-
iine vaifaie capaliIilies.
55
Despile lhe facl lhal Offshoie Defense has leen
an ofhciaI conponenl of ILA docliine foi nuIlipIe
decades, lhe aulhois of lhe Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcrs have
leen inconsislenl in ils chaiacleiizalion. In 2OOO, lhe
Navy vas said lo have acquiied lhe capaliIily of
offshoie defensive opeialions (]|#,).
56
The
1O7
lein vas nol used in 2OO2, lul in 2OO4, lhe Navy vas
iepoiled lo have expanded lhe space and exlended
lhe deplh foi offshoie defensive opeialions.
57
In 2OO6,
lhe LngIish veision said lhe Navy ains al giaduaI
exlension of lhe slialegic deplh foi offshoie defen-
sive opeialions, lul lhe Chinese chaiacleis caIIed il a
slialegy (]|#[,[).
58
In 2OO8, lhe nosl fuIsone
desciiplion vas incIuded, iepoiling lhe ieaIizalion
of a slialegic liansfoinalion lo an offshoie defen-
sive slialegy, and a nev concepl nenlioned, dislanl
valeis (]):
Since lhe198Os, lhe Navy has ieaIized a slialegic lians-
foinalion lo 4HH-64%' ,'H'/-)G' 4A'%&$)4/- (]|#[,
[). Since lhe leginning of lhe nev cenluiy, in viev of
lhe chaiacleiislics and Iavs of IocaI naiiline vais in
condilions of infoinalionizalion, lhe Navy has leen
sliiving lo inpiove in an aII-iound vay ils capaliIilies
of inlegialed offshoie opeialions, slialegic deleiience
and slialegic counleiallacks, and $4 (%&,+&221 ,'G'24A
)$- *&A&B)2)$)'- 4H *4/,+*$)/( :88<4=62785 in ,)sl&/$ !&-
$'%- and ccun|cring ncn-|radi|icna| sccuri|q |nrca|s, so
as lo push foivaid lhe oveiaII liansfoinalion of lhe
seivice. . . .
./ 2)/' !)$6 $6' %'Q+)%'0'/$- 4H 4HH-64%' ,'H'/-' sl%&$'(1,
lhe Navy . . . enhances inlegialed conlal capaliIily
in conducling 4HH-64%' *&0A&)(/- and lhe capaliIily of
nucIeai counleiallacks.
59
(ilaIics and loId added)
In 2O1O, lhe slialegy vas nenlioned onIy once, lul
an inpoilanl liansIalion eiioi vas nade conceining
capaliIilies in dislanl valeis:
./ 2)/' !)$6 $6' %'Q+)%'0'/$- 4H 4HH-64%' ,'H'/-' sl%&$'(1,
lhe ILA Navy (ILAN) endeavois lo acceIeiale lhe
nodeinizalion of ils inlegialed conlal foices, enhanc-
1O8
es ils capaliIilies in slialegic deleiience and counlei-
allack, and ,'G'24A- )$- *&A&B)2)$)'- )/ *4/,+*$)/( 8<4=6E
2785> )/ ,)sl&/$ !&$'%- and in ccun|cring ncn-|radi|icna|
-'*+%)$1 $6%'&$-. . . . 8q crganizing nata| tcssc|s fcr dri||s
)/ ,)slan| ua|crs, i| dctc|cps |raining ncdc|s fcr MOOTl
0)--)4/-.
6O
(enphasis and W<=5 added)
The oiiginaI Chinese aloul deveIoping capaliIilies
in dislanl valeis ('j]{(|,
|]) is lhe sane in lolh yeais (excepl in 2O1O, lhe
void giaduaIIy |'j is diopped), lul lhe void {
is nisliansIaled in 2O1O as opeialions inslead of
coopeialion as found in 2OO8.
61
The 2O13 lni|c Papcr slaled, lhe ILAN endeav-
ois lo acceIeiale lhe nodeinizalion of ils foices foi
conpiehensive offshoie opeialions and is deveIop-
ing lIue-valei capaliIilies of conducling noliIe op-
eialions, caiiying oul inleinalionaI coopeialion, and
counleiing non-liadilionaI secuiily lhieals.
62
This is
lhe hisl lni|c Papcr liansIalion of ] as lIue-
valei, lhough lhe oId foin of dislanl sea valeis
is aIso found. The lni|c Papcr aIso specihcaIIy slales
lhe oljeclive of deveIoping noliIe lIue-valei op-
eialionaI capaliIilies in addilion lo inleinalionaI co-
opeialion and MOOTW lasks.
CIeaiIy an evoIulionaiy liansilion is undeivay,
vilh dislanl valeis opeialions Iinked piinaiiIy lo lolh
vaihghling and nonliadilionaI secuiily/MOOTW
nissions. The ILANs successfuI pioseculion of lhe
anli-piiacy nission in lhe CuIf of Aden has had a
najoi inpacl and appaienlIy is inuencing docliinaI
deveIopnenl. NonelheIess, Offshoie Defense ienains
lhe docliinaI lasis foi ILAN opeialions vhiIe lhe shifl
lo opeialions in dislanl valeis lakes pIace. Opeialions
in dislanl valeis iequiie capaliIilies onIy nov legin-
ning lo enlei lhe ILAN invenloiy, such as caiiiei op-
1O9
eialions, and lhe inpiovenenl of exisling, lul veak,
capaliIilies such as anli-sulnaiine vaifaie, aiea aii
defense, and Iong-dislance suppIy and lianspoil.
63
$+$AE!'!
Despile peisonneI ieduclions and foice sliucluie
changes ovei lhe pasl decade, lhe ILA is sliII oiga-
nized accoiding lo IeopIes Wai concepls. The Iand-
oiienled, conlinenlaI defense sliucluie is olseivalIe
in lhe disliilulion of peisonneI anong lhe ILA seivic-
es: ainy, appioxinaleIy 1.6 niIIion, navy, 235,OOO, aii
foice, 398,OOO, Second AiliIIeiy, 1OO,OOO (eslinaled).
64

Ovei 5OO,OOO ILA ieseivisls and eighl niIIion niIilia
peisonneI nay suppoil lhe aclive-duly foice. The ILA
is fuilhei lioken dovn inlo noliIe and IocaI foices,
vhich, aIong vilh lhe niIilia, is a sliucluie siniIai lo
lhal of lhe Red Ainy.
Ovei 6O peicenl of aclive-duly peisonneI aie Ainy.
Likevise, lhe najoiily of peisonneI in lhe ieseives and
niIilia suppoil lhe ainy.
65
oidei and coaslaI defense
is lhe piinaiy nission foi hundieds of lhousands of
ainy, navy, and IeopIes Ained IoIice (IAI) peison-
neI. Oul of a lolaI of ovei 35O navaI conlalanls (in-
cIuding sone 71 sulnaiines of aII lypes, 78 deslioyeis
and fiigales, and ovei 2OO palioI and coaslaI conlal-
anls), lhe palioI and coaslaI conponenl conpiises
neaiIy 6O peicenl of lhe foice ly nunlei.
66
The Iaigesl
nuneiicaI giovlh of aII ILAN ships has leen in lhe
:+B') Type O22 nissiIe palioI loal eel, vhose Iin-
iled enduiance gives il an opeialionaI iange of aloul
3OO naulicaI niIes fion Chinas coasl.
67
The :+B')
foice vouId IikeIy le enpIoyed in conjunclion vilh
ILAN giound-lased, anli-ship ciuise nissiIe coaslaI
defense ieginenls and nany Iegacy suiface conlal-
11O
anl and sulnaiine unils lhal aIso have Iiniled opeia-
lionaI ianges. LocaI aii defense is lhe nain nission foi
aloul haIf of Aii Ioice and NavaI Avialion hghleis,
68

Ainy and Aii Ioice anli-aiiciafl ailiIIeiy and suiface-
lo-aii nissiIe unils, and ovei one-lhiid of lhe ieseives.
Ovei lhe pasl 15 yeais, Ainy heIicoplei and spe-
ciaI opeialions foices (SOI) unils have expanded,
lhough lhey aie sliII snaII foi such a Iaige foice. Moie
inpiessive has leen lhe expansion of Second AiliIIeiy
convenlionaI nissiIe (lolh shoil- and nediun-iange)
unils and lhe evoIulion of infoinalion/cylei vaifaie
unils capalIe of inleIIigence coIIeclion, defense, and
allack in aII lhe seivices and lhe ieseives/niIilia.
69
In
lolaI, lhese veapons and unils have incieased dianal-
icaIIy lhe dislance lhe ILA, suppoiled ly even Iongei-
iange infoinalion/cylei opeialions, can sliike.
NonelheIess, lhe najoiily of ILA unils aie opli-
nized foi conlinenlaI and coaslaI defensive nissions
and lhe aliIily of lhe ILA lo piojecl signihcanl niIi-
laiy foices leyond a fev hundied niIes fion Chinas
loideis is Iiniled ly Iong-iange aii and sea lianspoil.
CiviIian capaliIilies aie leing deveIoped lo augnenl
aii and sea lianspoil capacilies, and nev civiIian
lianspoilalion infiasliucluie, such as ioads, iaiI Iines,
aiipoils, and poils, aie fiequenlIy designed foi duaI-
use nalionaI defense puiposes.
ILA foice sliucluie aIso confoins lo lhe hve
conlinalions of IeopIes Wai as ils unils nix oIdei
veapons and equipnenl vilh nevei veapons and
high lechnoIogy equipnenl. In geneiaI, foi neaiIy aII
calegoiies of veapons in lhe ILA, onIy aloul 5O pei-
cenl oi Iess of lhe invenloiy is consideied nodein ly
slandaids dehned ly lhe U.S. Depailnenl of Defense
(DoD).
7O
Ovei line, lhese peicenlages aie changing as
oIdei veapons aie ieliied and nevei veapons inlio-
111
duced. The 2O1O lni|c Papcr desciiled lhis silualion
as The ILA is voiking lo inpiove lhe quaIily and
oplinize lhe conposilion of ils veaponiy and equip-
nenl. Il has foined a syslen vilh second-geneialion
equipnenl as lhe nain lody and lhiid geneialion as
lhe lacklone.
71
IeopIes Wai focus on noliIizalion is ieecled in
lhe connand sliucluie exisling leIov MiIilaiy Re-
gion. Sone 3O ainy-Ieadei giade piovinciaI MiIilaiy
Disliicl and Caiiison headquaileis oveisee appioxi-
naleIy 34O division-Ieadei giade piefecluiaI MiIilaiy
Suldisliicl and Caiiison headquaileis vhich supei-
vise ioughIy 2,8OO ieginenl-Ieadei giade counly-IeveI
IeopIes Ained Ioices Depailnenls.
72
Al lhe lollon
of lhis chain aie giassiools (lovnship, viIIage, and
Iaige indusliiaI unil) IeopIes Ained Ioices Depail-
nenls lhal piolalIy nunlei in lhe lens of lhousands
and aie nanned ly IocaI civiIian goveinnenl cadie.
This hieiaichy is iesponsilIe foi connanding IocaI
foices (incIuding loidei and coaslaI defense unils)
and lhe niIilia, as veII as foi consciiplion, denoli-
Iizalion, and noliIizalion (niIilaiy-civiI inlegialion)
voik. Such an exlensive, nanpovei inlensive head-
quaileis sliucluie vas necessaiy in pievious decades
lefoie Chinas lianspoilalion and connunicalions
infiasliucluie vas nodeinized. Hovevei, vilh ceII
phones, conpuleis, lhe Inleinel, and aulonoliIes
nov avaiIalIe lo cadie al aII IeveIs of goveinnenl, lhe
efhciency of lhe oId syslen is open lo queslion. This
indeed is a IeopIes Wai connand sliucluie lhal nay
have oulIived ils uliIily.
IeopIes Wai noliIizalion piincipIes aie fuilhei
inpIenenled as aII eIenenls of lhe Chinese ained
foices suppoiled ly civiIian agencies and enleipiises
ioulineIy iespond lo disaslei ieIief effoils lhioughoul
112
lhe counliy. LocaI foices of aII lypes aie hisl iespond-
eis lhen, depending on lhe need, lhey aie oflen aug-
nenled ly unils fion dislanl iegions.
OpeialionaIIy, IeopIes Wai concepls have leen
denonslialed in Chinese goveinnenl aclivilies as il
seeks lo asseil ils soveieignly ovei dispuled naiiline
leiiiloiies and delei foieign niIilaiy opeialions in ils
excIusive econonic zones (LLZ). Duiing lhe lenuie of
Hu as CMC Chaiinan, lhe civiIian Maiiline SuiveiI-
Iance Ioice, Maiiline Safely Adninislialion, Iishei-
ies uieau, Cuslons Anli-SnuggIing uieau, and lhe
naiiline eIenenls of lhe IAI oidei Secuiily Ioice
(knovn as China Coasl Cuaid) have aII leen nod-
einized and given Iead ioIes in piolecling and asseil-
ing Chinese soveieignly in Chinas lhiee seas.
In 2OO9, civiIian hshing vesseIs and ships fion
Chinas Iav enfoicenenl agencies lacked up ly
ILAN ships and aiiciafl haiassed lvo U.S. MiIilaiy
SeaIifl Connand ocean suiveiIIance ships opeialing
in inleinalionaI valeis in Chinas LLZ in vhal veie
aInosl ceilainIy cooidinaled aclions (lhough lhe pie-
cise IeveI of goveinnenl diiecling lhese aclivilies is
uncIeai). In lhese and olhei incidenls, Chinese civiI-
ian hshing loals opeialed in cIose pioxinily lo foi-
eign vesseIs using laclics lhal couId le calegoiized as
a nodein veision of spaiiov vaifaie in a naiiline
IeopIes Wai. SiniIai, lul Iess physicaIIy dangeious,
laclics have conlinued, exenpIihed ly cooidinalion
lelveen hsheinen and Maiiline SuiveiIIance ships
al lhe Scailoiough ShoaI and lhe dispalch of Maii-
line SuiveiIIance ships and aiiciafl lo palioI aiound
lhe Senkaku (Diaoyu) IsIands in 2O12.
73
In lhe hisl 4
nonlhs of confionlalion ovei lhe Senkaku (Diaoyu) Is-
Iands (Seplenlei lhiough Decenlei 2O12), accoiding
lo }apanese iepoiling, Chinese naiiline suiveiIIance
113
vesseIs enleied }apanese leiiiloiiaI valeis suiiound-
ing lhe isIands 2O lines, oflen foi nuIlipIe days.
74

China senl a naiiline suiveiIIance aiiciafl lo lhe is-
Iands foi lhe hisl line on Decenlei 13.
75
MeanvhiIe,
accoiding lo Chinese souices, ILAN ships indepen-
denlIy conducled lhiee palioIs in lhe aiea.
76
This pal-
lein denonsliales lhe Ieading ioIe of Chinas civiIian
Iav enfoicenenl agencies in execuling lhis slialegy,
vhiIe Ieaving no doull lhal lhe niIilaiy is ieady lo
iespond if iequiied.
As China allenpls lo defend ils soveieignly in dis-
puled aieas, lhe decision lo pul civiIian Iav enfoice-
nenl assels on lhe fionl Iine is a sonevhal Iess pio-
vocalive neasuie lhan using ILAN ships in lhal ioIe,
adding sleps lo lhe ciisis escaIalion Iaddei, and con-
pIicaling olhei goveinnenls ieaclion, especiaIIy foi
counliies vilh piinaiiIy niIilaiy oplions avaiIalIe in
lhe iegion (Iike lhe Uniled Slales), vilh veak niIilai-
ies (Iike lhe IhiIippines), oi snaIIei Iav enfoicenenl
eels (Iike }apan). Hovevei, as denonslialed ly lhe
.0A'**&B2' and U)*$4%)4+- incidenls, naiiline IeopIes
Wai laclics (Iike aII IeopIes Wai laclics) deciease in
effecliveness lhe failhei fion Chinas nainIand lhey
aie inpIenenled. Moieovei, lhey couId (and do) faiI
and escaIalion ensues. Lven vhen successfuI, IeopIes
Wai laclics nay pioIong a conicl oi slandoff and
nay nol achieve Chinas poIilicaI oljeclive. If execuled
vilhoul adequale piovocalion (fion lhe peispeclive
of lhose oulside China), such laclics aIso vioIale lhe
lasic piecepl of Aclive Defense, sliiking onIy aflei
lhe eneny has sliuck. In nany ciicunslances, Ieo-
pIes Wai nay nol le as nagic as lhe Chinese cIain
il sliII lo le. Moieovei, sone Chinese Ieadeis (nosl
IikeIy civiIians) nay confuse poIilicaI enlhusiasn vilh
niIilaiy conpelency and nisjudge lhe ILAs acluaI
opeialionaI ieadiness.
114
(@+(A)!'@+!
IeopIes Wai and Aclive Defense ienain lhe fun-
danenlaI lasis foi lhe oiganizalion and opeialions of
lhe Chinese ained foices. Offshoie Defense ienains
lhe cuiienl navaI conponenl of lhe niIilaiy slialegic
guideIine of Aclive Defense. As Chinas econonic con-
dilions inpiove, doneslic and inleinalionaI enviion-
nenls change, and niIilaiy nodeinizalion iesuIls in
incieased capaliIilies, aII lhiee concepls aie suljecl lo
adaplalion. Lvidence of lhis adaplion duiing lhe CMC
chaiinanship of Hu }inlao can le found in lhe govein-
nenls seiies of lni|c Papcrs and olhei aulhoiilalive
niIilaiy pulIicalions. Lven giealei docliinaI change
9.: occui vhen Chinas caIcuIalions of Conpiehen-
sive NalionaI Iovei shifl in ils favoi, lhough lhe 2O1O
lni|c Papcr slales, China viII nevei seek hegenony,
noi viII il adopl lhe appioach of niIilaiy expansion
nov oi in lhe fuluie, no nallei hov ils econony
deveIops.
77
As denonslialed pieviousIy, lhe nunlei of iefei-
ences lo IeopIes Wai and Aclive Defense in lhe ex-
leinaIIy oiienled lni|c Papcrs have decieased even
vhiIe lheii oiganizalionaI and opeialionaI piincipIes
aie sliII inuenliaI. MeanvhiIe, lhe leins aie sliII used
ieguIaiIy ly lhe inleinaIIy diiecled Chinese-Ianguage
P|A Dai|q, aIleil lo a Iessei degiee lhan a decade ago
foi IeopIes Wai. Iiguie 3-2 chails lhe appeaiance of
lhese lvo leins in P|A Dai|q fion 2OO2 lo 2O11.
78
115
O104-/ ^RK8 +49W/- <V #/V/-/72/6 ,< >/<H=/B6 ;.-
.75 $2,1J/ */V/76/ 17 F'$ G679C8
As lhe ILA lecones noie lechnoIogicaIIy ad-
vanced, peihaps lhe nosl inpoilanl lenels of IeopIes
Wai~lhe piincipIes of lhe suppoil of lhe peopIe and
lhe need foi lhe noliIizalion of aII of Chinas slienglhs
lo achieve ils poIilicaI oljeclives~aie unIikeIy lo
change. Chinas Ieadeis undeisland lhal lhe ained
foices nusl le hIIed ly viIIing and capalIe peison-
neI, even if nany aie sliII consciipled. olh lhe ILA
and lhe cenliaI and IocaI goveinnenls lheiefoie con-
linue lo expend signihcanl effoil in a nalionaI defense
educalion piogian lo infoin lhe popuIace of lhe niIi-
laiys nissions and encouiage young peopIe lo voI-
unleei lheii seivice. Iail of lhis piogian incIudes lhe
annuaI niIilaiy liaining given lo noie lhan 17 niIIion
sludenls in 2,OOO coIIeges and univeisilies and 22,OOO
high schooIs.
79
116
In lhe evenl lhal Chinas Ieadeis peiceive lhe need
lo use niIilaiy foice, lhey viII seek lo noliIize lhe
peopIe poIilicaIIy lo suppoil any such aclion. IoIili-
caI noliIizalion aIso appIies lo psyching up lhe lioops
lhiough denanding liaining, enphasizing physicaI
slanina, and poIilicaI indocliinalion.
8O
ul lheie is a
Iinil lo lhe niIilaiy effecliveness of poIilicaI noliIiza-
lion. IoIilicaI enlhusiasn does nol slop luIIels, guide
nissiIes, oi delecl sulnaiines and sleaIlh aiiciafl.
Moie piaclicaIIy speaking, noliIizalion of civiIian
lianspoilalion is essenliaI foi niIilaiy opeialions lolh
vilhin and leyond Chinas loideis in conpensalion
foi acknovIedged ILA veaknesses. ILA and IAI
foices aie incieasingIy depIoying on liaining nissions
vilhin China using chaileied civiIian aiiciafl, and aIso
ioulineIy depIoy in snaII nunleis on oveiseas peace-
keeping and liaining nissions. MiIilaiy use of civiIian
shipping is leing enhanced ly lhe connissioning of
lhe 23,OOO-lon O)/(-6&/,&4 civiIian passengei, ioII-
on/ioII-off ship, lhe hisl of seveiaI of ils lype, vhich
vas designed vilh niIilaiy needs in nind.
81
Hovevei, in a iapidIy deveIoping, high-lechnoI-
ogy silualion, lhe noliIizalion of lhe econony and
especiaIIy lhe science and lechnoIogy secloi nay
nol le as ieIialIe as lhe peopIes poIilicaI and civiI-
ian lianspoilalion suppoil. Civen lhe diffeiences in
nodein advanced veapons syslens conpaied lo
lheii indusliiaI eia piedecessois, il nay nol le as easy
lo shifl indusliiaI pioduclion lo veapons as il vas
7O yeais ago. Though noliIizalion of lhe econony
and of science and lechnoIogy is pail of lhe lheoiy
of IeopIes Wai, il nay le Iess ieIevanl in piaclice
nov lhan in decades pasl, especiaIIy in nissions lhe
ILA nay undeilake oulside lhe loideis of China. On
lhe olhei hand, in peifoining MOOTW, econonic
117
noliIizalion nay sliII use civiIian naleiiaIs, such as
food, valei, Iiving suppIies, elc., lul lhe ilens do nol
need lo le pioduced lo lhe sane slandaids as
niIilaiy-use ilens.
As niIilaiy piofessionaIs, ILA Ieadeis aie unIikeIy
lo disassociale lhenseIves fion Sunzis guidance (and
lhe IeopIes Wai piincipIe) lo Knov lhe eneny and
knov youiseIf. The ILAs inslilulionaI diive lo sludy
and Ieain fion olhei niIilaiies oiganizalions, opeia-
lions, and docliine is appaienl fion even a cuisoiy
ieading of 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1. ul noie
inpoilanl is lheii ovn assessnenl of vheie lhe ILA
slands vilh iespecl lo lhe capaliIilies of olhei niIilai-
ies in lhe iegion and voiId. Wilh foieign counleipails,
ILA Ieadeis oflen slale, as did Defense Minislei Liang
CuangIie in 2O11:
I aIso hinIy leIieve lhal in leins of lhe IeveI of nod-
einizalion of lhe ILA, ve can ly no neans caII oui-
seIves an advanced niIilaiy foice. The gap lelveen
us and lhal of advanced counliies is al Ieasl 2 lo 3
decades.
82

Ioi inleinaI consunplion, since 2OO6 a vaiiely of
ofhciaI niIilaiy and Iaily pulIicalions have iepeal-
edIy iefeiied lo lhe najoi conliadiclion (/
() of lhe lvo inconpalilIes (||) al-
liiluled lo Hu }inlao lhal:
CuiienlIy, oui niIilaiys IeveI of nodeinizalion is
inconpalilIe vilh lhe iequiienenls of vinning IocaI
vai undei infoinalized condilions and lhal oui niIi-
laiy capaliIily is inconpalilIe vilh lhe iequiienenls
of caiiying oul ils hisloiic nissions al lhe nev slage of
lhe nev cenluiy.
83
118
This assessnenl is inlended lo encouiage lhe
lioops lo conlinue lhe effoils necessaiy in lhe ILAs
nuIlidecade piocess of nodeinizalion and nay aIso
le used lo juslify incieasing defense ludgels. This
judgnenl of lhe senioi ILA Ieadeiship fion lhe CMC
dovn lo MiIilaiy Region and opeialionaI unil Ieadeis
conliasls vilh lhe nuch noie pulIicized, oflen ag-
giessive, voids of niIilaiy pundils such as Luo Yuan
(|), Liu Mingfu ([|), and Dai Xu (;). Il sug-
gesls lhal lhe senioi niIilaiy Ieadeiship nay le noie
piudenl in hghling lhe iniliaI lallIe lhan sone civiI-
ian Ieadeis, niIilaiy nedia anaIysls, and nalionaIislic
eIenenls in sociely nighl piefei. In lhe end, hovevei,
accoiding lo Maos piincipIe lhal lhe Iaily con-
nands lhe gun, lhe niIilaiy Ieadeiship viII oley lhe
oideis of lhe Iaily, even if sone civiIian CCI Ieadeis
nay nol le fuIIy schooIed in ILA docliine.
As ILA capaliIilies inpiove and ils lechnoIogy
advances, addilionaI nodihcalions lo foice sliucluie
and docliine aie expecled. Sone changes nay appeai
lo lieak vilh lhe lenels of IeopIes Wai and Aclive
Defense, lul as Iong as lhe ILA is a Iaily Ainy, lhe
Maixisl scienlihc voiId oulIook and ieveience lo
lhe Ieadeiship and visdon of Mao, Deng, }iang, and
Hu viII conlinue. Whal slailed as naking a viilue
oul of necessily in lhe 193Os viII enduie, as China aI-
vays viII have a Iaige popuIalion and Iaige Iandnass
lo piolecl.
Ioieign poIicynakeis shouId seek lo undeisland
Chinas concepls of IeopIes Wai and Aclive Defense
as lhey viII conlinue lo have ieIevance lo ILA opeia-
lions, lhough lheii pioninence nay decIine fion lhe
highs of pievious decades. When speaking of IeopIes
Wai and Aclive Defense, lhe Chinese nay le noie
lianspaienl lhan is lhe convenlionaI visdon.
119
%+*+@"%! R (?$>"%# ^
1. Ieng Cuangqian and Yao Youzhi, eds., 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)-
$&%1 Sl%&$'(1, eijing, China: MiIilaiy Science IulIishing House,
2OO1 (Chinese edilion), 2OO5 (LngIish edilion), pp. 454, 459. AII
quoles aie fion lhe LngIish edilion.
2. Accoiding lo M. TayIoi IiaveI, The LvoIulion of Chinas
MiIilaiy Slialegy: Conpaiing lhe 1987 and 1999 Ldilions of N6&/-
|cxuc, }anes MuIvenon and David IinkeIslein, eds., Cninas
Rctc|u|icn in Dcc|rina| Affairs. |ncrging Trcnds in |nc Opcra|icna|
Ar| cf |nc Cnincsc Pccp|cs |iocra|icn Arnq, AIexandiia, VA: CNA,
2OO5, pp. 83-84, accoiding lo lhe aulhois of lhe ILA NalionaI De-
fense Univeisilys 1999 veision of #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1, lvo
of Maos nosl inpoilanl slialegic ideas aie Aclive Defense and
IeopIes Wai. . . . Maos olhei slialegic ideas lhal aie Iess pioni-
nenl loday incIuding pioliacled vai (|,) and gueiiiIIa vai
(t,) anong olheis. In Weslein niIilaiy lhoughl, lhe anaIog
of slialegic ideas aie lhe viilings of slialegisls such as CIausevilz
oi LiddeII Hail, vhose concepls lo lhis day ienain a pail of nod-
ein slialegic lhinking even |lhoughj lheii inpIicalions foi niIi-
laiy opeialions nay have changed. In lhal sane voIune, David
IinkeIslein (p. 17) olseives:
The ofhciaI niIilaiy slialegy of lhe IRC and ILA ie-
nains enledded in vhal is knovn as lhe 'NalionaI
MiIilaiy Slialegic CuideIines foi lhe Nev Ieiiod
(')],[\), vhich is lhe cIosesl Chinese
anaIogue lo lhe U.S. 9&$)4/&2 ;)2)$&%1 #$%&$'(1. This highesl-
IeveI nalionaI niIilaiy guidance in China has lvo nain con-
ponenls. The hisl conponenl is opeialionaI, and il ienains
lhe 'Aclive Defense ('||#) as adjusled foi pioseculing
'LocaI Wais Undei Modein High-lech Condilions. The sec-
ond of lhe lvo conponenls conceins lhe nyiiad iefoin and
nodeinizalion piogians in lolh soflvaie and haidvaie lhe
ILA is undeigoing. Il is geneiicaIIy iefeiied lo ly lhe ILA
as 'ainy luiIding ('[|) oi 'nev peiiod ainy luiId-
ing (')[|).
3. The Chinese ained foices cuiienlIy incIude lhe aclive and
ieseive foices of lhe ILA, lhe IAI, and lhe niIilia.
12O
4. Mao Zedong, IiolIens of Slialegy in Chinas RevoIu-
lionaiy Wai, Decenlei 1936, avaiIalIe fion uuu.narxis|s.crg/
rcfcrcncc/arcnitc/nac/ucr|s/1936/12.n|n#s5-1.
5. .B),.
6. .B),.
7. U.S. Depailnenl of Defense, AnnuaI Repoil On The MiIi-
laiy Iovei Of The IeopIes RepulIic Of China, }une, 2OOO, avaiI-
alIe fion uuu.dcfcnsc.gct/ncus/]un2000/cnina06222000.n|n.
8. Mao Zedong, The Ieiiod Of The Wai Of Resislance
Againsl }apan (1), }uIy 23, 1937, avaiIalIe fion uuu.narxis|s.crg/
rcfcrcncc/arcnitc/nac/sc|cc|cd-ucr|s/tc|unc-2/nsut2_01.n|n.
9. Mao Zedong, IiolIens of Wai and Slialegy, Noven-
lei 6, 1938, avaiIalIe fion uuu.narxis|s.crg/rcfcrcncc/arcnitc/nac/
sc|cc|cd-ucr|s/tc|unc-2/nsut2_12.n|n.
1O. NalionaI Defense IoIicy, Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in
2006, Decenlei 2OO6, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&"4%("*/3'/(2)-63
fca|urcs/occ|/194485.n|n.
11. No nalionaIizalion of niIilaiy in China: senioi ILA of-
hcei, J)/6+&, }une 2O, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion ncus.xinnuanc|.ccn/
cng|isn2010/cnina/2011-06/20/c_13940229.n|n.
12. Mao Zedong, On CoaIilion Coveinnenl, ApiiI 24, 1945,
avaiIalIe fion uuu.narxis|s.crg/rcfcrcncc/arcnitc/nac/sc|cc|cd-
ucr|s/tc|unc-3/nsut3_25.n|n#p6.
13. }iefangjun ao (}I}) Connenlaloi on Sludying Hu }in-
laos Speech lo Leading IiovinciaI Cadies (9) CII2O12O9O7787OO4
eijing ]icfangjun 8ac onIine in Chinese, Seplenlei 7, 2O12, p. 1,
liansIaled ly lhe Open Souice Cenlei (OSC).
14. Mao, On CoaIilion Coveinnenl.
15. Links lo LngIish-Ianguage liansIalions of aII Chinese gov-
einnenl lni|c Papcrs aie found al cng|isn.gct.cn/cfjcia|/2005-08/17/
ccn|cn|_24165.n|n. Chinese Ianguage veisions aie found al !!!"
121
gct.cn/zug|/2005-06/02/ccn|cn|_3618.n|n. Il is IikeIy a nev edilion
of 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1 has leen piepaied lo updale lhe
2OO1 Chinese edilion and lhe 2OO5 LngIish-Ianguage liansIalion
used heie. The 2OO1 edilion vas viillen lefoie lhe ILA adopled
lhe concepls of RevoIulion in MiIilaiy Affaiis vilh Chinese Chai-
acleiislics, infoinalionizalion, Thiee Waifaies, and MOOTW.
A nev edilion vouId piolalIy incoipoiale lhese concepls and
olhei nev leininoIogy inlo lhe look vhiIe nainlaining nosl
fundanenlaI docliinaI piincipIes fion decades pasl, adapled as
necessaiy lo accounl foi lhe counliys econonic and lechnoIogicaI
nodeinizalion as veII as lhe deveIopnenl of nev niIilaiy capa-
liIilies. The 2OO5 LngIish-Ianguage liansIalion vas an inpoilanl
slep in lianspaiency. Lel us hope lhe Chinese goveinnenl sees
lhe lenehl of lhal effoil and piovides an ofhciaI liansIalion of lhe
nev edilion vhenevei il is pulIished. Il is usefuI lo conpaie lolh
lhe LngIish and Chinese lexls of lhis voIune, hovevei, as lheie
sonelines aie disciepancies lelveen lhe lvo lexls. Ioi exanpIe,
and peihaps of inleiesl lo lhe lopic of Hu }inlaos Ieadeiship, in
lhe LngIish veision seclion on The MiIilaiy Slialegy in lhe Nev
Age (pp. 117-118), Deng is diieclIy quoled lvice and nenlioned
a lhiid line. In lhe Chinese veision (pp. 125-127), }iang Zenin
is iefeienced suppoiling each of Dengs lhiee slalenenls. Hov-
evei, lhe LngIish lexl 5</6 7<, incIude }iangs nane as found in
lhe Chinese lexl. }iang, of couise, vas CMC Chaiinan vhen lhe
Chinese lexl vas viillen, lul had slepped dovn ly lhe line lhe
LngIish-Ianguage edilion vas issued.
16. Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2002, Decenlei 2OO2, avaiIalIe
fion cng|isn.gct.cn/cfjcia|/2005-07/28/ccn|cn|_17780.n|n.
17. .B),.
18. AII quoles fion lhe 2OO4 lni|c Papcr aie found al Chinas
NalionaI Defense in Decenlei 2OO4, avaiIalIe fion '/(2)-6"(4G"*/3
cfjcia|/2005-07/28/ccn|cn|_18078.n|n.
19. NalionaI Defense IoIicy, Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in
2006, Decenlei 2OO6, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&"4%("*/3'/(2)-63H'&-
|urcs/occ|/194485.n|n.
2O. NalionaI Defense IoIicy, Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2008,
}anuaiy 2OO9, avaiIalIe fion cng|isn.gct.cn/cfjcia|/2009-01/20/ccn-
|cn|_1210227_4.n|n.
122
21. Chai Yongzhong, [{.]||j[+)
(CiviI-niIilaiy Inlegialion: The OnIy Way foi lhe Suslain-
alIe DeveIopnenl of NalionaI Defense), P|A Dai|q, Novenlei
8, 2OO7, avaiIalIe fion uuu.cninani|.ccn.cn/si|c1/zox|/2007-11/08/
ccn|cn|_1010161.n|n.
22. Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2010, Maich 2O11, avaiIalIe
fion cng|isn.gct.cn/cfjcia|/2011-03/31/ccn|cn|_1835499.n|n.
23. Tnc Ditcrsijcd |np|cqncn| cf Cninas Arncd |crccs, ApiiI
2O13, avaiIalIe fion cng.cninani|.ccn.cn/ncus-cnannc|s/cnina-
ni|i|arq-ncus/2013-04/16/ccn|cn|_5301637.n|n.
24. Ieng and Yao, 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1, p. 1O2.
25. .B),. The slalenenl lechnoIogy deleinines laclics is aIso
found in lhe 2OOO and 2OO6 edilions of lhe NalionaI Defense Uni-
veisilys #*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/- (,). Ioi addilionaI infoinalion
on lhis suljecl, see Dennis }. Iasko, 'TechnoIogy Deleinines
Taclics: The ReIalionship lelveen TechnoIogy and Docliine in
Chinese MiIilaiy Thinking, ]curna| cf Sl%&$'()* Sl+,)'-, VoI. 34, Is-
sue 3, }une 2O11.
26. .B),. p. 1O4. y nov, il shouId le ieadiIy appaienl lhal lhe
Chinese aie nol consislenl in lheii use of lhe leininoIogy associ-
aled vilh lhe concepls of IeopIes Wai and Aclive Defense.
27. .B),., pp. 12-13.
28. .B),., p. 23.
29. .B),., p. 35.
3O. 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1 incIuded niIilaiy delei-
ience, niIilaiy dipIonacy, ains conlioI and disainanenl, niIi-
laiy conicl of Iov inlensily, and loidei and coaslaI sliuggIe
in peaceline as non-vaihghling uliIizalion. MOOTW aIso
enphasizes anli-piiacy, disaslei ieIief opeialions, inleinalionaI
peacekeeping, doneslic secuiily, and pulIic heaIlh eneigencies,
aIong vilh olhei nonconlal nissions. Sone of lhese lasks nighl
have leen consideied as Iov inlensily opeialions a decade ago.
123
31. .B),., p. 213.
32. .B),., p. 215.
33. The diiecl Iink lelveen deleiience and Aclive Defense is
found in Xu Cuangyu, ||#[]_|#j|] (The
Iiisl Iunclion of Aclive Defense is Defensive Deleiience), P|A
?&)21, Augusl 23, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/||/2012-
08/23/ccn|cn|_5000970.n|n.
34. .B),., p. 217.
35. .B),., p. 222.
36. AII quoles in lhis paiagiaph fion .B),., p. 224.
37. .B),., p. 228.
38. .B),., p. 229.
39. .B),., pp. 1O3-117.
4O. .B),., p. 117. The Chinese-Ianguage lexl (p. 126) noles }i-
angs enphasis, lhe LngIish-Ianguage lexl onils his nane heie
and lvo noie lines in lhe foIIoving paiagiaphs.
41. .B),., pp. 23O-231.
42. .B),., pp. 456-457.
43. Accoiding lo Lin iao, Long Live lhe Vicloiy of Ieo-
pIes Wai! avaiIalIe fion uuu.narxis|s.crg/rcfcrcncc/arcnitc/|in-
oiac/1965/09/pccp|cs_uar/cn05.n|n,
Spaiiov vaifaie is a popuIai nelhod of hghling ciealed
ly lhe Connunisl-Ied anli-}apanese gueiiiIIa unils and
niIilia lehind lhe eneny Iines. Il vas caIIed spaiiov
vaifaie lecause, hisl, il vas used diffuseIy, Iike lhe ighl
of spaiiovs in lhe sky, and lecause, second, il vas used
exilIy ly gueiiiIIas oi niIilianen, opeialing in lhiees
oi hves, appeaiing and disappeaiing unexpecledIy and
124
vounding, kiIIing, depIeling and veaiing oul lhe eneny
foices.
44. Ieng and Yao, 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1, p. 452.
45. .B),., p. 133.
46. .B),., pp. 135-136.
47. .B),., p. 426.
48. AII quoles aloul lhe aclive slialegic counleiallack on lhe
exleiioi Iines cone fion .B),., pp. 459-461. This fealuie fion 56'
#*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1 vas lioughl lo lhe pulIics eye ly An-
lon Lee Wishik II, An Anli-Access Appioxinalion: The ILAs
Aclive Slialegic Counleiallacks on Lxleiioi Lines, @6)/& #'*+-
%)$1, Issue 19, pp. 37-48, avaiIalIe fion uuu.cninasccuri|q.us/indcx.
pnp?cp|icn=ccn_ccn|cn|cticu=ar|ic|ccid=487c||cnid=8.
49. .B),., p. 461.
5O. Ieng and Yao, 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 Sl%&$'(1, p. 47O.
51. .B),., p. 466.
52. .B),., p. 468.
53. Ofhce of NavaI InleIIigence, Cninas Natq 2007, SuilIand,
MD: Ofhce of NavaI InleIIigence, 2OO7, p. 24.
54. Ofhce of NavaI InleIIigence, Tnc Pccp|cs |iocra|icn Arnq
9&G1= > ;4,'%/ 9&G1 !)$6 @6)/'-' @6&%&*$'%)slics, SuilIand, MD:
Ofhce of NavaI InleIIigence, 2OO9, pp. 5-7.
55. Ofhce of NavaI InleIIigence, Cninas Natq 2007, p. 26. As
nev capaliIilies aie added lo lhe ILA, such as nay le piovided
ly an aiiciafl caiiiei, lhis opeialionaI ieach viII expand.
56. Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2000, Seplenlei 2OOO, avaiIalIe
fion cng|isn.gct.cn/cfjcia|/2005-07/27/ccn|cn|_17524.n|n.
57. Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2004.
125
58. Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2006.
59. Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2008.
6O. Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2010.
61. The lein dislanl valeis opeialions (],) has
appeaied on seveiaI occasions in Chinese-Ianguage P|A Dai|q-
associaled pulIicalions since 2OO7.
62. Tnc Ditcrsijcd |np|cqncn| cf Cninas Arncd |crccs.
63. Ioi a concise ieviev of lhe ILANs nain focus on luiId-
ing a navy lo handIe a high-inlensily conicl cIose lo hone, see
Andiev Liickson and Cale CoIIins, Chinas ReaI Iue Walei
Navy, Augusl 3O, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion |ncdip|cna|.ccn/2012/08/30/
cninas-nc|-sc-scarq-natq/.
64. Ioi lhe hisl line evei, Tnc Ditcrsijcd |np|cqncn| cf Cninas
>%0', F4%*'- piovided lhe nanpovei slienglhs foi lhe Navy and
lhe Aii Ioice, lul nol foi aII of lhe Ainy and Second AiliIIeiy. Ioi
Ainy and Second AiliIIeiy eslinales, see }anes Hackell, ed., 56'
Mi|i|arq 8a|ancc 2012, London, UK: The InleinalionaI Inslilule foi
Slialegic Sludies, 2O12, pp. 233-237.
65. ased on lhe funding IeveIs foi lhe ieseives and niIilia
Iisled in lhe 2O1O lni|c Papcr, lhe acluaI conlal ieadiness of lhese
foices is suljecl lo queslion. Aloul 1 peicenl (aloul $7OO niIIion)
of lhe enliie announced defense ludgel is aIIolled lo lhe ieseives
(of 5OO,OOO+ peisonneI) vilh aloul 2.8 peicenl (aloul $2 liIIion)
aIIocaled lo lhe niIilia (vilh eighl niIIion peisonneI). AddilionaI
funds fion IocaI goveinnenls vouId le necessaiy foi any niIi-
laiiIy signihcanl liaining lo lake pIace. Lven vilh IocaI funding,
lhe noney avaiIalIe lo lhese foices is piolalIy exponenliaIIy Iess
lhan is avaiIalIe lo lhe aclive-duly ILA. Liniled liaining iesuIls
in Iiniled capaliIilies lo suppoil lhe aclive foices. This silualion
poinls lo a disciepancy lelveen lhe lheoiy of IeopIes Wai and
ils acluaI inpIenenlalion in foice sliucluie.
66. Tnc Mi|i|arq 8a|ancc 2012, pp. 231-232.
126
67. Tnc Mi|i|arq 8a|ancc 2012 assesses ovei 65 Type O22s in
lhe foice, anolhei eslinale incieases lhal nunlei lo 1OO, vilh an
opeialionaI iange eslinaled al 5OO naulicaI niIes. See Type O22
IAC Iage, avaiIalIe fion !!!"M'HH6'&,"*403%',-'&,%&(4/3/'!-
H&*"6$0. Andiev S. Liickson, Chinese Anli-Ship Ciuise MissiIe
Iiiing as Iail of Conlined Ains Anli-Caiiiei Lxeicises in Lasl
China Sea, 3O }une-5 }uIyX }uIy 6, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion !!!"&/-
drcucric|scn.ccn/2010/07/ccnoincd-arns-an|i-snip-cxcrcisc-in-cas|-
cnina-sca-30-junc-5-ju|q/, piovides lhe shoilei opeialionaI iange
eslinale.
68. Tnc Mi|i|arq 8a|ancc 2012 counls neaiIy 8OO }-7 and }-8 se-
iies oul of sone 9OO lolaI aii defense hghleis, vhiIe nosl nev
hghleis, ovei 6OO aiifianes (}-1O, }-11. }H-7, and Su-3O), faII inlo
lhe hghlei giound-allack calegoiy. The }-7/}-8 eel accounls foi
aloul 51 peicenl of aII hghleis/hghlei giound-allack aiiciafl. This
peicenlage is IikeIy lo go dovn as nev aiiciafl enlei lhe foice.
69. Ioi discussion of ILA cylei capaliIilies, see Maik A.
Slokes, }enny Lin, and L. C. RusseII Hsiao, The Chinese IeopIes
Lileialion Ainy SignaIs InleIIigence and Cylei Reconnaissance
Infiasliucluie, Iiojecl 2O49 Inslilule, Novenlei 11, 2O11, and
}anes MuIvenon, ILA Conpulei Nelvoik Opeialions: Scenai-
ios, Docliine, Oiganizalions, and CapaliIily, Roy Kanphausen,
David Lai, and Andiev ScoleII, eds., 8cqcnd |nc Slrai|. P|A Mis-
sicns O|ncr Tnan Taiuan, CaiIisIe IA, Slialegic Sludies Inslilule,
U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, 2OO9, pp. 253-286. The seiies of U.S. DoD
annuaI iepoils lo Congiess docunenl lhe giovlh of lhe Chinese
nissiIe foice. See aIso Ron Chiislnan, ConvenlionaI Missions
foi Chinas Second AiliIIeiy Coips: Docliine, Tiaining, LscaIa-
lion ConlioI Issues, Andiev S. Liickson and LyIe }. CoIdslein,
eds., @6)/'-' >'%4-A&*' E4!'%, NavaI Wai Inslilule Iiess, 2O11,
pp. 3O7-327.
7O. This facl is lesl iIIuslialed ly lhe chail in SeIecl ILA
Modeinizalion Aieas, 2OOO-2OO9, lhe Ofhce of lhe Secielaiy of
Defense AnnuaI Repoil lo Congiess, ;)2)$&%1 &/, #'*+%)$1 ?'G'2-
cpncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina 2010, p. 45, vhich
iepoils aloul 25 peicenl of navaI suiface foices, 5O peicenl of lhe
sulnaiine foice, 25 peicenl of aii foices, and 42 peicenl of aii
defense foices as nodein in 2OO9. This concIusion can le coiiolo-
ialed ly caIcuIaling peicenlages of oId and nev equipnenl Iisled
in Tnc Mi|i|arq 8a|ancc 2012.
127
71. Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2010.
72. Nunleis of MiIilaiy Disliicls and Suldisliicls can le laI-
Iied in lhe Dircc|crq cf PRC Mi|i|arq Pcrscna|i|ics Oc|cocr 2011. The
nunleis of lhe vaiious goveinnenl adninislialive divisions, as
of 2OO5, can le found al ViIIages, Tovns, Cilies, and Iiovinces,
avaiIalIe fion uuu.cfguidc.ccn/adndit2.asp.
73. Ioi a cogenl anaIysis of Chinas oljeclives in lhe Soulh and
Lasl China Seas isIand dispules, see M. TayIoi IiaveI, Chinas
IsIand Slialegy: Redehne lhe Slalus Quo, The DipIonal lIog,
Novenlei 1, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion |ncdip|cna|.ccn/cnina-pcucr/
cninas-is|and-s|ra|cgq-rcdcjnc-|nc-s|a|us-quc/.
74. 3 Chinese ships enlei }apans leiiiloiiaI valeis neai
Senkakus, Kyodo, Decenlei 31, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion '/(2)-6"
|qcdcncus.jp/ncus/2012/12/202170.n|n|?u|n_scurcc=d|tr.i|cu|n_
ncdiun=|ui||cr.
75. China sends naiine suiveiIIance pIane lo palioI Diaoyu
IsIands, J)/6+&, Decenlei 14, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion ncus.xinnua-
nc|.ccn/cng|isn/pnc|c/2012-12/14/c_132039802.n|n.
76. Chinese oliIIa palioIs valeis neai Diaoyu IsIands, J)-
/6+&, Decenlei 1O, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&,&)21"*40"*/3
cnina/2012-12/10/ccn|cn|_16003998.n|n.
77. Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2010.
78. The aulhoi lhanks M. TayIoi IiaveI foi conpiIing lhese
slalislics.
79. 17 nIn sludenls join niIilaiy liaining annuaIIy, J)/6+&,
Seplenlei 26, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion ncus.xinnuanc|.ccn/cng|isn/
cu||urc/2012-09/26/c_131875203.n|n. Hovevei, as lhe L24B&2 5)0'-
iepoiled lhe foIIoving day, a Iaige peicenlage of lhose sludenls
allenpl lo avoid lhal liaining. See Sludenls dodge niIilaiy
liaining, Seplenlei 27, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion !!!"(24B&2$)0'-"*/3
ccn|cn|/735806.sn|n|.
128
8O. The physicaI loughness of ILA soIdieis is oflen denon-
slialed ly lieaking lollIes oi liicks ovei lheii heads oi vilh lheii
hands, peifoining caIislhenics in lhe nud oi valei, and in hand-
lo-hand conlal lechniques. Such liaining 9.: le usefuI foi no-
iaIe, lul il nay aIso Iead lo a nislaken peiceplion of lheii invuI-
neialiIily oi nailiaI piovess.
81. Advanced passengei io-io ship connissioned in
Shenyang MAC, P|A Dai|q, }anuaiy 19, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion
cng.cninani|.ccn.cn/ncus-cnannc|s/pnc|c-rcpcr|s/2012-01/19/
ccn|cn|_4772483.n|n.
82. U.S. Depailnenl of Defense, }oinl Iiess Confeience vilh
Secielaiy Cales and CeneiaI Liang fion eijing, China, 1O }anu-
aiy 2OO1, avaiIalIe fion !!!",'H'/-'"(4G3$%&/-*%)A$-3$%&/-*%)A$"
aspx?|ranscrip|id=4750.
83. Connenlaloi, )j|,|j (Moie
IiinIy InpIenenl lhe Scienlihc DeveIopnenl Concepl), P|A
?&)21, Augusl 3, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&0)2"*40"*/3MHMB0&A3
ccn|cn|/2012-08/03/ccn|cn|_11228.n|n.
129
(?$>"%# N
;?$"B! '+ $ +$D%U
C)'A*'+& $+"'R$((%!!d$#%$ *%+'$A
($>$C'A'"'%! ;'"?@)"
$+"'R$((%!!d$#%$ *%+'$A *@("#'+%
(I-16,<HI/- >8 "Z<9/:
WhiIe China has depIoyed signihcanl anli-access
and aiea deniaI (A2/AD) capaliIilies, ils deveIop-
nenl of docliinaI concepls lo vieId lhose capaliIilies
ienains undeideveIoped, aIlhough docliinaI deveI-
opnenls in olhei diieclions have conlinued. These,
aIong vilh nany high piohIe Chinese veapons pio-
gians, suggesl Chinas viev of nodein naiiline
vaifaie conlinues lo evoIve and oflen aie diaving
on inpoiled ideas lhal viII piove chaIIenging foi lhe
IeopIes Lileialion Ainy (ILA) lo inleinaIize in lhe
neai lein.
CenliaI lo Chinas appioach lo facing Aneiican
niIilaiy capaliIilies in Lasl Asia has leen lhe deveI-
opnenl of vhal lhe Uniled Slales has chaiacleiized as
lhe Chinese A2/AD foices. WhiIe China does nol use
lhal lein, seveiaI olhei aIleinalive leins aie lhoughl
lo le ieIevanl oi ieIaled: Counleiinleivenlion, Assas-
sins Mace, and Tiunp veapons, Syslen of Syslens,
Aclive Slialegic Counleiallacks on Lxleiioi Lines, and
lhe lhiee nons~nonIineai, nonconlacl, nonsyn-
neliic (oi asynneliic). Upon cIosei exaninalion, sev-
eiaI of lhese concepls aie Iess inpoilanl lhan geneiaIIy
lhoughl vilhin ILA discouise. Olheis speak lo ialhei
diffeienl lypes of docliinaI deveIopnenls in diffeienl
diieclions fion A2/AD. NeveilheIess, Hu }inlaos
enphasis on scienlihc deveIopnenl has piovided
13O
iich iheloiicaI soiI on vhich sone of lhese appioaches
have giovn, pailicuIaiIy lhe lechnoIogicaIIy denand-
ing syslen of syslens concepls.
>@A'(E 'D>A'($"'@+!
- Chinas depIoynenl of A2/AD capaliIilies has
oulpaced lhe deveIopnenl of docliine lo nan-
age lhe appIicalion of lhose capaliIilies. This
shoilconing ieduces lhe oveiaII conlal povei
lhese capaliIilies nighl cieale, and suggesl a
Iack of consideialion on lhe pail of senioi ILA
Ieadeis as lo hov niIilaiy lechnoIogy is chang-
ing and hov lhese changes nighl inpacl navaI
vaifaie loday.
~ WhiIe lhis sel of ciicunslances shouId nol
le vieved as an invilalion foi conpIacency
on lhe pail of lhe Uniled Slales, il does sug-
gesl lhal conlinuing lo noniloi Chinese
docliinaI deIileialions viII piovide signih-
canl vaining lo foieign anaIysls and pIan-
neis lefoie any najoi inpiovenenls in lhis
iegaid nanifesl.
- On lhe olhei hand, lhe ILA is noie deepIy
consideiing lhe inpIicalions of lhe infoinalion
lechnoIogies and nelvoiks foi conicl. China is
alIe lo diav heaviIy on oulside lhinking aloul
lhese inpIicalions, nany of vhich aie liied and
lesled ly lhe Uniled Slales in vailine.
~ SliII, lhe inlegialion of nev A2-AD capaliIi-
lies vilh nev docliine viII ienain a chaI-
Ienging aiea foi lhe ILA, given liadilionaI
luieaucialic iigidilies.
131
- Chinas conlinued enphasis on noie liadilion-
aI navaI docliines (akin lo sea conlioI and sea
Iane palioIs) viII conpIicale U.S. dipIonacy in
lhe iegion.
'+"#@*)("'@+
Since lhe 1995-96 Taivan Sliails Ciisis, lhe ILA
has endeavoied lo deveIop lhe capaliIilies lhal avoid
inpolence in lhe face of Aneiican navaI~and pai-
licuIaiIy caiiiei~depIoynenls in Chinas neaily va-
leis. As incidenls such as lhe 2OO1 LI-3C coIIision, lhe
2OO9 USNS .0A'**&B2' haiassnenl, and conceins ovei
conlesled cIains ovei soveieignly in lhe Soulh and
Lasl China Seas have inlensihed ovei lhe pasl decade,
lhis aspiialion lovaid niIilaiy effecliveness seives
lioadei Chinese inleiesls lhan jusl lhe Taivan issue.
CenliaI lo Chinas appioach lo deleiiing such
Aneiican depIoynenls and piepaialions lo defeal
lhen in case of conicl has leen lhe deveIopnenl of
capaliIilies encapsuIaled undei lhe nonikei anli-
access and aiea deniaI.
1
Much ink has leen spiIIed
desciiling lhe dangeis posed ly Chinas A2/AD ca-
paliIilies. Aneiican iesponses lo A2/AD (Aii-Sea
allIe |ASj, lhe 2O12 }oinl OpeialionaI Access Con-
cepl |}OACj, and lhe ielaIancing lovaid Asia) aie
aIso veII undeivay.
2
The piolIen, veII knovn lo
China valcheis, of couise, is lhal China does nol use
lhe lein anli-access and aiea deniaI lo desciile ils
ovn niIilaiy docliine.
Indeed, conpIicaling lhe nallei even fuilhei, lhe
ILA does nol use lhe lein docliine in lhe sane sense
lhal Weslein niIilaiies do. Hovevei, lhe niIilaiy sci-
ence Iileialuie (such as #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)$&%1 #$%&$'(1 (,
[) and Scicncc cf Mi|i|arq Opcra|icns |,j) and
132
canpaign oulIines (,;) expiess ioughIy siniIai
concepls on a iange of lopics. So vhal is lhe anaIogue
lo lhe science of A2/AD in lhose and ieIaled viil-
ings foi ILA slialegisls`
This chaplei allenpls lo assess seveiaI cIoseIy ie-
Ialed docliinaI concepls lhal China does use: Counlei-
inleivenlion, Assassins Mace, and Tiunp veapons,
Syslen of Syslens, Aclive Slialegic Counleiallacks on
Lxleiioi Lines, and lhe lhiee nons~nonIineai, non-
conlacl, nonsynneliic (oi asynneliic). Mosl of lhe
effoil viII le ained lo cIaiify lhese concepls and lheii
inleiieIalion, lul signihcanl allenlion viII aIso le paid
lo evaIualing lhe ioIe lhal Iiesidenl Hu }inlao has had
on lheii deveIopnenl and incoipoialion inlo Chinas
slialegic lhoughl.
Civen lhe oveiaII goaIs of lhis ediled voIune, lhe
chaplei viII cenlei ils allenlion on lhe usage of lhese
leins since 2OO4 vhen Hu }inlao look lhe Ieadeiship
of lhe CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission (CMC) fion }i-
ang Zenin. Il shouId le noled lhal lhe cIoseIy ieIal-
ed concepl of infoinalionaIizalion vas aIieady in
pIace al lhal poinl, vilh IocaI vai undei condilions
of infoinalionaIizalion having iepIaced IocaI vai
undei high lech condilions pieviousIy.
3
Neveilhe-
Iess, as discussed leIov, lhe use of lhe lein acceIei-
aled undei Hu, vas faciIilaled ly ieIaled ideoIogicaI
enphases such as lhe Hus use of lhe lein scienlihc
deveIopnenl.
This anaIysis Ieads lo lhe foIIoving six key con-
cIusions. Iiisl, vhiIe il ceilainIy is lhe case lhal China
is deveIoping niIilaiy capaliIilies lhal seive lhe op-
eialionaI goaIs of denying access ly foieign navies lo
lhe aieas suiiounding China, lhe ILA does nol have a
veII-deveIoped joinl opeialionaI docliine lo inlegiale
and guide lhe use of lhose capaliIilies. Second, nany
133
of lhe ieIaled concepls lhal aie discussed heie aie, in
facl, inpoiled fion oulside of China, ialhei lhan ex-
enpIifying Chinese innovalion. AIlhough lheie is
sone IocaIizalion oi addilion of Chinese chaiaclei-
islics, lhe signihcance of lhe Chinese effoils shouId
nol le oveislaled. Thiid, aIlhough counleiinleiven-
lion ieceives nuch allenlion in lhe Wesl, il has onIy
Iiniled cuiiency vilhin niIilaiy ciicIes in China.
Iouilh, syslen of syslens is pIaying an incieasingIy
Iaige ioIe in Chinese lhinking. The use of lhis lein
suggesls a shifl avay fion an enphasis on liunp
veapons lhal nighl seive as siIvei luIIels lo a noie
inlegialed appioach. Iiflh, vhiIe lhe diiecl ioIe of Hu
in oicheslialing lhese changes is chaIIenging lo assess,
his enphasis on scienlihc deveIopnenl in nany
vays, lul especiaIIy in Chinas nalionaI defense nod-
einizalion, has piovided iich iheloiicaI soiI in vhich
lhe lechnoIogicaIIy denanding syslen of syslens
appioach has giovn. Sixlh, sone of lhe discussion of
lhe cenliaI syslen of syslens and lhiee nons ie-
nain consliained ly liadilionaI ILA oiganizalionaI
cuIluie. These suggesl a diffeienl enphasis fion A2/
AD, and one lhal lhe ILA viII sliuggIe lo inleinaIize.
"I/ ".701W=/ %=/9/7,6 <V $Kd$* 17
(I17/6/ (.H.W1=1,1/68
The iesl of lhis chaplei viII engage Chinese niIi-
laiy discussions~oi ieaIIy, lhe Iack lheieof~of A2/
AD capaliIilies. ul lefoie luining lo lhal assessnenl
lased on openIy avaiIalIe Chinese pulIicalions, il is
inpoilanl lo nole lhal China possesses lhe haidvaie
lypicaIIy associaled vilh such capaliIilies. One iecenl
U.S. pulIicalion desciiled A2/AD in geneiaI:
134
WhiIe A2/AD ideas aie nol nev~lhe desiie lo deny
an adveisaiy lolh access and lhe aliIily lo naneuvei
aie lineIess piecepls of vaifaie~lechnoIogicaI ad-
vances and pioIifeialion lhiealen slaliIily ly enpov-
eiing polenliaIIy aggiessive aclois vilh pieviousIy
unallainalIe niIilaiy capaliIilies. A nev geneialion
of ciuise, laIIislic, aii-lo-aii, and suiface-lo-aii nis-
siIes vilh inpioved iange, accuiacy, and IelhaIily is
leing pioduced and pioIifeialed. Modein sulnaiines
and hghlei aiiciafl aie enleiing lhe niIilaiies of nany
nalions, vhiIe sea nines aie leing equipped vilh no-
liIily, disciininalion and aulonony. . . . In ceilain sce-
naiios, even Iov-lechnoIogy capaliIilies, such as iudi-
nenlaiy sea nines, fasl-allack snaII ciafl, oi shoilei
iange ailiIIeiy and nissiIe syslens iendei liansil inlo
and lhiough lhe connons vuIneialIe lo inleidiclion
ly coeicive, aggiessive aclois, sIoving oi slopping
fiee novenenl.
4
Accoiding lo lhe Depailnenl of Defense (DoD)
annuaI iepoil assessing Chinas niIilaiy capaliIilies,
China is deveIoping pieciseIy such capaliIilies:
Chinas Ieadeis in 2O11 suslained inveslnenl in ad-
vanced ciuise nissiIes, shoil and nediun iange con-
venlionaI laIIislic nissiIes, anli-ship laIIislic nissiIes,
counleipace veapons, and niIilaiy cyleispace capa-
liIilies vhich appeai designed lo enalIe anli-access/
aiea-deniaI (A2/AD) nissions.
5
As seen in Map 4-1, lhese capaliIilies piovide Chi-
na vilh lhe aliIily lo conducl nissiIe sliikes~lolh
shoie-lased laIIislic nissiIes and aii- oi sulnaiine-
Iaunched ciuise nissiIes~againsl navaI foices lhal
nighl le depIoyed in aieas neai lo Chinese shoies.
135
Souice: Ofhce of lhe Secielaiy of Defense, MiIilaiy and Secuiily
DeveIopnenls InvoIving lhe IeopIes RepulIic of China: AnnuaI
Repoil lo Congiess, Washinglon, DC: Depailnenl of Defense,
May 22, 2O12, p. 42.
D.H NRM8 (I17.B6 D1661=/ (.H.W1=1,1/68
eyond lhis polenl Chinese nissiIe foice, veiy qui-
el dieseI sulnaiines (inpoiled V)24- and indigenous
Yuan-cIass SSKs), and nuneious snaII nissiIe loals
(:4+B')/Type 22) add addilionaI dinensions lo such
lhieals.
6
The ILA Navy (ILAN) nov heIds a nodesl
136
nunlei of heavy guided nissiIe deslioyeis (such as
lhe inpoiled #4G%'0'//1 deslioyeis and indigenous
|u Zncu/Type 52C/D guided nissiIe deslioyeis
|DDCsj). AII of lhese aie capalIe of Iaunching anli-
ship ciuise nissiIes, sone of vhich aie veiy capalIe,
peihaps even againsl Aneiican >'()--equipped ves-
seIs. Iuilheinoie, lheie is incieased enphasis on Chi-
nese navaI ships and aii assels liaining in lhe dislanl
oceans (]).
7
Chinese inleIIigence, suiveiIIance,
and ieconnaissance (ISR) capaliIilies incieasingIy
piovide ieIevanl capaliIilies in lhese iegions. Theie
is aIso evidence lhal lhe ILA is leginning lo exeicise
joinl aii and navaI allacks al Ieasl againsl shoie laigels
in joinl hiepovei allacks, a laclic lhal ieceives sone
allenlion in Chinese viilings.
8
Iulling aII lhis logelhei, il is easy lo infei a sel of
opeialionaI slialegies lhal ain lo hoId U.S. foices (oi
olheis) fai offshoie lhiough deleiienl lhieal and ex-
islenliaI capaliIily lo allack foices al sea and in lheii
slaging aieas. These vouId le laigeled fion nuIlipIe
lhieal axes using diffeienl syslens. SequenliaI allacks
nighl le used eaiIy on lo degiade an adveisaiys
defenses (i.e., nissiIe defense ships, anlisulnaiine
vaifaie |ASWj pIalfoins). Then, lhe adveisaiys key
dependencies such as physicaI lases and Iov den-
sily/high denand Iogislics capaliIilies can le lai-
geled. These possiliIilies aie IogicaI exliapoIalions
of Chinese inlenl lased on lhe capaliIilies China is
heIding, as veII as sone of lhe exeicises il is conducl-
ing. Hovevei, in oidei lo lellei undeisland Chinas
appioach, il vouId le ciilicaI lo idenlify a ieIaliveIy
unihed sel of niIilaiy science viilings lhal Iay oul
lhis ends-neans chain (connonIy knovn in lhe vesl
as docliinaI viilings). The exislence of such docliinaI
lIuepiinl vouId heIp ensuie lhal fuluie ILA piocuie-
137
nenl, liaining, exeicises, oiganizalionaI iefoins, las-
ing decisions, elc., vouId le nade lo seive lhe goaIs
Iaid oul in lhe docliine.
9
Docliine vouId heIp us lo
undeisland hov China vievs lhe naluie of vaifaie
in lhis eia of niIilaiy opeialions in vhich accuiale
Iong-iange veapons aie lhe nosl poveifuI and doni-
naling capaliIilies. In pailicuIai, ve vanl lo knov
hov Chinese niIilaiy ofhceis undeisland lhe vay
navaI conicls pIay oul vilhin lhe conlexl of such a
pioIifeialion of effeclive nissiIes and hov lhal affecls
liadilionaI navaI nissions such as sea conlioI, piojecl-
ing povei fion lhe sea, and defending sea Ianes of
connunicalions (SLOCs).
Hovevei, lhis chaplei hnds lhal lheie is veiy IillIe
coheienl anaIysis in open souice Chinese viilings ie-
gaiding lhese veiy ieaI capaliIilies lhal aie aIieady
leing heIded ly lhe ILA. The inpIicalions of lhis al-
sence aie laken up al lhe end of lhe chaplei.
*%O'+'+& "%#D!
This seclion viII discuss each of lhe foIIoving
Chinese concepls ieIaled lo A2/AD in luin: Counlei-
inleivenlion, Syslen of Syslens, Assassins Mace, and
Tiunp veapons, Aclive Slialegic Counleiallacks on
Lxleiioi Lines, and lhe lhiee nons (oi asynneliic).
The luIk of lhe allenlion viII le paid lo syslen of sys-
lens, as lehls vhal lhe aulhoi assesses lo le ils ieIa-
live inpoilance in leins of ils lieadlh of use vilhin
ILA viilings and vhal il signihes iegaiding diiec-
lions and souices of Chinese docliinaI innovalion.
138
(<47,/-17,/-J/7,1<78
In conliasl lo lhis aulhois expeclalion, counlei-
inleivenlion does nol seen lo pIay a najoi ioIe, al
Ieasl in discussions of niIilaiy opeialions. Il aIso does
nol seen lo pIay lhe ioIe of expIicilIy selling lhe slia-
legic conlexl foi such opeialionaI pIanning.
The lein has lvo iendeiings in Chinese: ],
and Iess connonIy, ;/ (lolh sland foi anli- oi
counleiinleivenlion). A iange of U.S. souices enpha-
size lhal lhese lvo Chinese leins enconpass eIenenls
of Chinese slialegy. The 2O12 DoD iepoil noles lhal
lhey aie lioadei lhan A2/AD, lul ieIaled: Ioi China,
counleiinleivenlion iefeis lo a sel of opeialionaIIy
dehned lasks designed lo pievenl foieign (e.g., U.S.)
niIilaiy foices fion inleivening in a conicl and pie-
venling China fion acconpIishing ils niIilaiy oljec-
lives.
1O
Olhei Aneiican anaIysls enphasize lhal lhe
lvo Chinese leins seive as A najoi lenel of Chinas
secuiily slialegy . . . lo luiId anli-access capaliIilies lo
piolecl lioadei inleiesls lhal il peiceives lhiealened
ly a lechnoIogicaIIy doninanl naiiline povei.
11
WhiIe lhe leins ceilainIy appeai in sone Chinese
souices, vhal is nosl sliiking is lhe iaiily of such ief-
eiences. They do nol appeai in Chinese Dcfcnsc lni|c
E&A'%-, aIlhough fianed as a ieaclion lo an adveisaiy,
il ienains pIausilIy consislenl vilh Chinese piopa-
ganda iegaiding lheii defensive oiienlalion. The lvo
leins iaieIy occui in lhe ofhciaI nevspapeis. WhiIe
lhe U.S. Coveinnenl Open Souice Cenlei (OSC) does
nol liansIale a conpiehensive sel of Chinese souices,
given lhe inpoilance pIaced on Chinas oveiaII niIi-
laiy nodeinizalion piogian ly U.S. Coveinnenl an-
aIysls, one vouId expecl lhe lopic of counleiinleiven-
lion lo le agged foi liansIalion and lhus lhal dalalase
139
vouId incIude noie iefeiences lo lhe lein. Yel, fion
2OO4 lo Oclolei 2O12, lheie aie onIy a handfuI of lians-
Ialions in OSC lhal capluie lhe lvo Chinese leins.
12

SiniIaiIy, in an adnilledIy nonexhauslive suivey of
a iange of iecenl looks pulIished ly niIilaiy piesses
such as lhe ILA NalionaI Defense Univeisily (NDU)
and Acadeny of MiIilaiy Science (AMS), lheie veie
fev nenlions of lhe concepl.
13
To le suie, lhe alove suivey is nol a conpiehensive
ieviev of aII such aulhoiilalive open viilings. ul il
does suggesl lhal vieving counleiinleivenlion as a
Chinese expiession of a lioadei slialegy lhal encon-
passes A2/AD is oveislaling ils inpoilance in lhe
Chinese discouise on niIilaiy slialegy. Moie lioadIy,
lhe ieIalive alsence of lhe use of lhe leins iaises ques-
lions aloul lhe degiee lo vhich China has engaged in
docliinaI lhinking lo nake use of ils polenl veapons
syslens.
$2,1J/ !,-.,/012 (<47,/-.,,.2[6 <7 %Y,/-1<- A17/68
Anolhei lein, vhich in Chinese conveys sone
aspecls of lhe A2/AD nolion, nighl le aclive slia-
legic counleiallacks on exleiioi Iines (|[,[
'_t,). A veII-deveIoped aigunenl nak-
ing lhis case is piesenled ly Anlon Lee Wishik II.
14

This ceilainIy is an appeaIing A2/AD vilh Chinese
chaiacleiislics phiasing, encapsuIaling as il does eIe-
nenls of aclive defense, Iong a nainslay of Chinese
slialegic viilings. Wishiks ailicIe highIighls ils use
in a fev key Chinese lexls such as 56' #*)'/*' 4H ;)2)-
$&%1 #$%&$'(1, vhich vas pulIished in 2OO1 ly lhe ILA
AMS piess, undei lhe Ieadeiship of Majoi CeneiaI
Ieng Cuangqian (,). These souices, aIong vilh
an inpoilanl iefeience fion lhe AMS jouinaI, ;)2)$&%1
14O
#*)'/*' (Z, peihaps lhe singIe nosl inpoilanl
openIy pulIished jouinaI on Chinese niIilaiy doclii-
naI lhinking), aie geneiaIIy vieved as aulhoiilalive.
Hovevei, lhis lein faIIs shoil as a usefuI vay lo
undeisland Chinese lhinking iegaiding ils A2/AD
capaliIilies foi lvo ieasons. Iiisl, use of lhe leininoI-
ogy has nol spiead videIy in lhe Chinese Iileialuie. Il
appeais an insignihcanl nunlei of lines in lolh P|A
?&)21 vel page and in lhe OSC aichives. The nale-
iiaI capaliIilies and associaled liaining lhal Iie al lhe
heail of vhal oulsideis iefei lo as A2/AD aie videIy
discussed in such souices. One vouId expecl lhal lhe
niIilaiy lheoiy (oi science) connecling lhose lo opeia-
lionaI goaIs vouId le discussed lheie as veII.
Second, lhe sulslance Iaid oul undei lhal lein is
nol pailicuIaiIy infoinalive: Al heail, il sinpIy ex-
pands lhe geogiaphic scope of aclive defense, Iong
a coie eIenenl of Chinese slialegic poIicy. Indeed, lhal
expansion goes leyond liadilionaI A2/AD capaliIi-
lies, as Wishik noles:
In facl, lhe scope of lhese opeialions exceeds lhose
foinuIaled ly an A2/AD slialegy and iepiesenls an
inpoilanl anpIihcalion of lhe iange of opeialions
conpaied lo lhose associaled vilh A2/AD.
15

When aclive slialegic counleiallacks on exleiioi
Iines caIIs foi sliikes againsl foieign niIilaiy lases
and polenliaIIy an adveisaiys honeIand, such an
appioach oulianges lhe A2/AD syslens lhal China
heIds loday. CeilainIy, lhinking aloul nev vays lo
pul al iisk foieign niIilaiies fuilhei fion Chinese
shoies is an inpoilanl change in lhe slialegic lhoughl
of lhe ILA, and lhus lhe ailicIe piesenls inpoilanl
hndings. ul lhose hndings aie nol cenliaIIy aloul lhe
sel of capaliIilies Iisled eaiIiei in lhis chaplei.
141
!:6,/9 <V !:6,/968
WhiIe lhe pievious leins nay have leen oveien-
phasized in lhe Weslein Iileialuie seeking lo undei-
sland hov China concepluaIizes ils A2/AD niIilaiy
capaliIilies, lvo olhei leins have leen discussed Iess
ly Weslein anaIysls, lul aie nonelheIess exlieneIy
inpoilanl as China lhinks aloul lhe evoIving naluie
of vaifaie. These lvo leins, each of vhich is Iinked
lo sone of lhe veapons lechnoIogies lhal couId un-
deipin an A2/AD docliine, aie sliII ialhei diffeienl in
enphasis.
Il is haid lo oveislale lhe inpoilance of syslens
of syslens in conlenpoiaiy Chinese discouise on
niIilaiy affaiis.
16
The lein _, nighl le cun-
leisoneIy iendeied as syslenalized vaifaie, as
has leen done vilh olhei leins such as lhe equaIIy
avkvaid infoinalionaIized vaifaie lein. Whal-
evei lhe LngIish lein, al lhe heail, lhis ieIies on lhe
inlegialion lhiough infoinalion nelvoiks of a vide
iange of niIilaiy assels. One delaiIed discussion in lhe
aulhoiilalive P|A Dai|q highIighls lhese eIenenls and
is voilh quoling al Ienglh.
Todays |syslen of syslensj opeialions, neanvhiIe,
ieIy on infoinalion syslens. They aie guided ly in-
foinalion and decision naking, and connecl lhe con-
nand syslens and veapons pIalfoins of nuneious
seivice ains and lianches inlo a singIe, conpIele
syslen of inlegialed capaliIilies lhiough infoinalion
nelvoiks, shaie a vaiiely of lallIeheId infoinalion,
joinlIy peiceive lhe lallIeheId silualion, accuialeIy
cooidinale lallIeheId opeialions, and synchionousIy
execule opeialionaI lasks, lheiely liansIaling an in-
foinalion advanlage inlo an opeialionaI advanlage.
|Theyj ieIease enoinous povei vilh lhe nosl allack
effecl on lhe highesl-vaIue laigel ly lhe nosl effec-
142
live opeialionaI foice, and ieaIize lhe naxinizalion of
opeialionaI efhciency. This is vhal lhe conpiehensive
conlal of lhe pasl couId nol ieach. Of couise, such
a decidedIy inpoilanl nev heId of knovIedge as in-
foinalion syslens shouId le eIevaled lo such heighls
~ vhelhei oi nol one possesses iolusl infoinalion
syslens deleinines vhelhei oi nol a niIilaiy is alIe
lo condense diffeienl lypes of connand syslens and
veapons pIalfoins in dispeised depIoynenl inlo a
singIe syslen, as veII as vhelhei lhis syslen can ie-
Iease lhe naxinun povei. In lhis sense, infoinalion
syslens aie lhe nev engine foi inpioving |syslen of
syslensj opeialion capaliIilies.
17
Such an appioach olviousIy iequiies deep inlegia-
lion of veapons, connand and conlioI (C2), and sen-
sois (oi noie fuIIy, ISR).
18
The sun, hovevei, of such
inlegialion is undeislood lo le giealei lhan lhe conli-
nalion of lhe pails. This is iefeiied lo in seveiaI vays.
One fiequenl phiasing is 1+1=2.
19
Anolhei, peihaps
noie sulslanlive, enphasizes lhe ioIe of syslens of
syslens in capluiing nelvoik effecls. Thus:
Syslen of syslens |SoSj and lheii aggiegale syslens
conliilulion lo conlal syslens: They oley MelcaIfes
Lav, vhich is lased on lhe conlal effecliveness of in-
foinalion conlal syslens and aie piopoilionaI lo lhe
squaie of lhe SoS and conlal capaliIily, lhal is lo say,
SoS and conlal capaliIily no Iongei foIIov a Iineai
ieIalionship, lul exhilil an exponenliaI ieIalionship.
2O
MelcaIfes Lav is one of lhe cIassic expiessions of
nelvoik effecls, noling lhal lhe vaIue of a nelvoik
giovs as lhe squaie of lhe nunlei of ils useis.
21

InleieslingIy, lhe Chinese discussion of lhe vaIue
of a syslen of syslens appioach does nol seen con-
necled lo ideas aloul ienoving lhe fog of vai.
22
In-
143
slead, il focuses noie on enhancing lhe conlal povei
oi effecliveness of a conlalanl, aIleil in a ialhei vague
sense. Ioi inslance, il is said lo faciIilale liansfoining
fion Iaige-scaIe opeialions, vhich focus on oveiaII
hiepovei and danage, lo infoinalion pIus hiepov-
ei syslen allack piecision sliike opeialions.
23
Many of lhe discussion of syslen of syslens de-
sciile il as lhe piaclice of Ieading nalions oi lhe Unil-
ed Slales, specihcaIIy. This is cIeaiIy an inpoiled idea
and nol casl as a Chinese innovalion. Chinese niIilaiy
pIanneis incieasingIy laIk aloul confionlalion of
enliie syslens, lhus fuilhei enphasizing lhal lheii
adveisaiy viII aIso conducl vaifaie in lhis nannei.
24
AII of lhis inlegialion is iecognized lo le chaIIeng-
ing: lhe vaiialIes invoIved vilh lhis syslen aie gieal
in nunlei and have exlieneIy conpIex ieIalionships.
Vaiious sulsyslens can onIy le inlegialed ly ieIying
on infoinalion syslens.
25
Indeed, il is onIy jusl nov
leginning lo le exeicised ly lhe ILA.
26
Discussions of
lhese exeicises suggesl lhal lhe ILA has sliuggIed lo
nake piogiess.
27
One anaIysl, ciling lhe P|A Dai|qs
liealnenl, concIudes: The Iack of inlegialion has, ac-
coiding lo lhe ILA, caused lhe seivices lo spin lheii
vheeIs foi nany yeais, lecause of lhe inaliIily lo
shaie a connon opeialing picluie and connunicale
IaleiaIIy.
28

Iuilheinoie, one nighl queslion lhe diieclion lak-
en in lhe incoipoialion of such appioaches vilhin lhe
ILA. AIlhough sone iecognilion of lhe inpoilance
of IaleiaI connunicalions exisls, lheie seens lo le
an enphasis on ensuiing connunicalion conlinuilies
dovn a Ienglhy chain of connand.
144
The Ainy is a huge opeialion syslen, fion lhe gen-
eiaI headquaileis on lhe lop lo conpanies, pIaloons,
and squads lo lhe lollon, lhe connand ieIalionships
aie oveiIapped and conpIex. The conlioI nodes aie
inleiIinked. VeilicaI conneclivily is of ciilicaI inpoi-
lance foi lhe shaping of a syslen of syslens in lhe
Ainy.
29
Il is inleiesling lhal lhis is lhe goaI (ensuiing lhal
lhe Iong chain is ieIialIe) ialhei lhan a allening chain
of connand, vhich such nelvoiked C2 lechnoIogy
vouId faciIilale. This is suggeslive lhal liadilionaI
ILA oiganizalion cuIluie (vilh ils Iinks lo Chinese
Connunisl Iaily |CCIj slyIe Leninisl sliucluies)
iuns sonevhal counlei lo lhe lechnoIogic avenues
opened ly iecenl deveIopnenls.
3O
"I/ "I-// +<7B6a+<72<7,.2,X +<7=17/.-X
.75 +<76:99/,-12.=8
Ioi ILA viileis, lhe lhiee nons (()~noncon-
lacl ((|), nonIineai ((_]), and nonsynneliic
((|)~desciile lhe naluie of vaifaie in lhe cui-
ienl eia. China vievs lhese concepls as having leen
dispIayed in iecenl conicls, as such, China is liying
lo incoipoiale aspecls aIieady piesenl in veslein, and
in pailicuIai U.S., vaifaie. Thus:
efoie lhe 198Os, nodes of vai hghling veie Iineai,
conlacl-lased, and synneliicaI, and lolh sides of a
conicl used veapons and equipnenl lhal veie fun-
danenlaIIy al lhe sane IeveI. IoIIoving lhe nev de-
veIopnenl of lhe ievoIulion in niIilaiy affaiis, lhe gap
lelveen IeveIs of niIilaiy equipnenl in each counliy
lecane quile Iaige, exhililing Iaige diffeiences, lhe
nannei of conlal exhililed gieal changes, leconing
145
denonslialIy noie nonIineai, non-conlacl, and asyn-
neliicaI. efoie lhe 198Os, nodes of vai hghling veie
Iineai, conlacl-lased, and synneliicaI, and lolh sides
of a conicl used veapons and equipnenl lhal veie
fundanenlaIIy al lhe sane IeveI.
31
The lhiee nons aie seen ly Chinese anaIysls lo
chaiacleiize Noilh AlIanlic Tiealy Oiganizalion
(NATO) opeialions againsl Seilia as veII as lolh CuIf
Wais.
32

SeveiaI souices nole lhe Iink lo lhe C2 nelvoiks
lhal foin lhe coie of syslen of syslens appioaches.
33
The vide use of infoinalion lechnoIogy in lhe niIi-
laiy viII conpIeleIy change lhe liadilionaI slyIes and
nodes of vaifaie. In lhe evoIulion of nechanized and
seni-nechanized vaifaie, lhe conpelilion foi infoi-
nalion supeiioiily viII le focus of vaifaie, nonIineai
and nonconlacl conlal viII le lhe nain slyIe of vai
hghling, and syslen confionlalion viII le lhe lasic
fealuie of vai.
34
Lach viII le discussed in luin, lul il is inpoilanl
lo nole lhal lhe lhiee aie quile inleilvined. To sone
exlenl, nonIineai and nonconlacl aie insignihcanlIy
diffeienlialed. They aie oflen iefeiied lo logelhei,
and lhe specihcs of each lIend logelhei al lines (e.g.,
aiipovei is discussed in lolh, aIlhough noie oflen in
lhe Iallei).
94/2)/'&%)$18
CenliaI lo nonIineaiily is an enphasis on lhe uid-
ily of lhe lallIeheId, and Chinese viilings seen lo ac-
knovIedge lhe sulslanliaI conpIexily lhis possesses
foi niIilaiies opeialing in such a ieaIn:
146
As joinl opeialions conlal is a lype of diveisihed
Iaige scaIe conlal, conlal slyIe conslilules a con-
pIex and iapidIy conveiling opeialionaI lenpo. AIso,
lecause of lhe nonIineaiily of lhe fuluie high lech
lallIeheId, lallIeheId noliIily and hiepovei allack
capaliIily slienglh, lallIeheId silualions change dia-
nalicaIIy. As lhe sliuggIe on lhe lallIeheId in aieas
such as ieconnaissance and counlei-ieconnaissance,
inleifeience and counlei inleifeience, desliuclion and
counlei-desliuclion, deceplion and counlei decep-
lion aII iaise iequiienenls foi and inciease lhe difh-
cuIly in pioviding effeclive conlal suppoil and slalIe
ieIialiIily.
35
To sone exlenl, nonIineaiily has a (laclicaIIy) de-
fensive goaI: McCauIey, a cIose anaIysl of lhese de-
lales, suggesls lhal nonIineai vaifaie seek|sj lo in-
leiningIe foices iapidIy on lhe lallIeheId in pail lo
niligale lhe effecls of lhe enenys piecision sliikes.
36

Olheis enphasize aiipovei: The puipose of non-
Iineai vaifaie Iies in a sliong aeiiaI assauIl diiecled
al lhe heail of lhe enenys aliIily lo allack, lheiely
quickIy disalIing lhen in a suipiising vay (puIIing
lhe caipel oul fion undei lhen).
37
94/*4/$&*$8
Nonconlacl vaifaie cenleis engaging an adveisaiy
fion Iong dislances.
Oving lo lhe nassive use of infoinalized and inleI-
IecluaIized veapons and equipnenl in lhe nev foin
of vai, lhe ovei-lhe-hoiizon and non-conlacl len-
dencies of fuluie hghling viII liing aloul piofound
changes in lhe vay of hghling, vhich viII iepIace
liadilionaI cIose-quaileis hghling and diieclIy aining
147
al and shooling each olheis vilh pushing-lhe-lullon
opeialion and Iong-iange sliikes.
38
CenliaI lo lhis is aiipovei. The puipose of non-
Iineai vaifaie Iies in a sliong aeiiaI assauIl diiecled
al lhe heail of lhe enenys aliIily lo allack, lheiely
quickIy disalIing lhen in a suipiising vay.
39

94/-100'$%)*&28
Much has leen viillen on lhe ioIe of asynneliic
veapons, aIso caIIed liunp veapons oi assassins
naces.
4O
Indeed, lheie is ceilainIy sliII allenlion on lhe
uliIily of assassins nace/liunp caid veapons lhal
can achieve vicloiy oi conpeI an adveisaiy: IiislIy, il
is lhe possession of poveifuI veapons. The 'assassins
nace lype veapon, vhich can cieale nassive danage
foi an eneny vhen used, can 'defeal an eneny in one
lIov, and lhus can achieve a deleiience effecl.
41
ul
even foi lhal anaIysl, lhe lein seens lo have shifled
fion lhe vay lhal Levis and Xue viole aloul 6 yeais
ago, lo conlain noie of a syslenic inuence. Thus,
convenlionaI navaI deleiience uses 'assassins nace
lype povei as ils focus, using foices on lhe valei, le-
Iov lhe valei, in lhe aii, and on lhe coasls lo piovide
a singIe conpiehensive deleiienl.
42

IncieasingIy, il appeais, al Ieasl vhen discussed in
lhe conlexl of lhe lhiee nons, lhal lhe lein can lake
a lioadei neaning lhan jusl siIvei luIIel veapons. In
sone viilings, il incIudes an oveiaII veak againsl
sliong concepl, nol jusl a veapon lo oveicone lhal
laIance of povei.
43
Olheis use lhe lein lo desciile
cioss seivice engagenenls, such as aii allacks on
giound foices in lhe Kosovo canpaign.
44

148
Sone discussions go so fai as lo enphasize lhe
inpoilance of avoiding ovei-ieIiance on a singIe
assassins nace veapon lhal liies lo inlegiale loo
nany capaliIilies, and inslead aigue foi lhe vaIue lhal
cones fion lhe inlegialion of nany diffeienl conpo-
nenls. Ioi inslance:
The inlegialion of key eIenenls does nol seek lo divei-
sify lhe funclions of a singIe key eIenenl lul lo oigani-
caIIy inlegiale diffeienl key eIenenls vilh diffeienl
funclions in a syslen, vilh infoinalion as lhe Iink. .
. . Woiking aiound lhe nain lhene and nain Iine lo
push foivaid lhe scienlihc deveIopnenl of nalionaI
defense and ained foices nodeinizalion is dehnileIy
nol a sinpIe nallei of deveIoping a fev lypes of as-
sassins nace vilh conpIele funclions and lienen-
dous nighl lul lhe inlegialion of key eIenenls lo foin
joinl foices and iaise lhe oveiaII opeialionaI capaliIily
of a syslen of syslens.
45
We oflen lhink aloul hov lhese and ieIaled asyn-
neliic veapons pose chaIIenges, given lheii specihc
capaliIilies. ul il is ciilicaI lo iecognize lhal lhese
need lo le deepIy inlegialed inlo lhe syslens of
syslens lhal vas discussed pieviousIy. Doing so
is a chaIIenge. When one consideis hov lhe DI-21D
(anli-ship laIIislic nissiIe) nighl le used in an op-
eialionaI conlexl, il lecones cIeai lhal enpIoying lhe
DI-21D viII iequiie deep inlegialion inlo Chinese ISR
nelvoiks in oidei lo le effeclive. Thus, vhal is oflen
vieved as lhe epilone of a liunp caid veapon syslen
loday is, in facl, a veapons syslen vhich depends
enliieIy on a lioad nelvoik of syslens lo ensuie ils
opeialionaI capaliIily.
46
InleieslingIy, one souice enphasizes lhe foieign
oiigin of lhe lein nonIineai lul suggesls a dislincl
Chinese inleipielalion:
149
The liggesl diffeience lelveen lhe Chinese niIilaiys
dehnilion and lhal of lhe Aneiican niIilaiy is lhal foi
lhe Chinese, lhe lallIe Iine sliII conlinues lo exisl, even
if lhis lallIe Iine is nol cIeaiIy denaicaled.
47

Again, one nighl nole lhal lhis suggesls a noie
Iiniled aliIily of Chinese niIilaiy foices lo envision
lhe noie uid lallIeheIds lhal chaiacleiize such con-
lenpoiaiy opeialions.
IinaIIy, il is voilh noling lhal nany aspecls of
lhese leins, lolh lhe lhiee nons in lhe aggiegale and
syslen of syslens, depend heaviIy on joinl, deepIy
inlegialed and infoinalionaIized appioaches lo vai-
faie. Theie is a syneigy lelveen aII lhose concepls:
exceIIenl ISR is a pieiequisile foi nonconlacl sliikes,
vhiIe a syslen of syslens appioach iequiies lhe in-
legialion of lallIe space avaieness acioss pIalfoins.
This inleiconneclion lelveen lhese concepls is appai-
enl in nany of lhe Chinese viilings.
48
$!!%!!'+& ?) F'+"$@B! '+OA)%+(%
As discussed ly olhei chapleis in lhe voIune, Hu
}inlaos inuence on ceilain aieas of lhe ILAs deveI-
opnenl since 2OO4 has leen sulslanliaI. Mosl pioni-
nenl anong lhese is suieIy lhe pionolion of lhe Nev
Hisloiic Missions foi lhe ILA. Moie lioadIy in lhe
IeopIes RepulIic of China (IRC), Hu has ained lo
pionole scienlihc deveIopnenl. Theie has leen a
nove lo eIevale lhal concepl lo lhe sane IeveI as Mao-
isl oi Dengisl inuence, ly incIuding il in lhe ioslei of
lhe Iailys Ieading ideoIogy as in vilh lhe inpoilanl
lheoiies of Deng Xiaoping Theoiy and lhe 'Thiee Rep-
iesenls as lhe guide, lhoioughIy appIying lhe Scien-
lihc OulIook on DeveIopnenl.
49
Il is inpoilanl lo en-
phasize, hovevei, lhal lhese lvo ideoIogicaI concepls
15O
aie fai noie inpoilanl lo lhe ILA lhan lhose leins
discussed eaiIiei in lhis chaplei. Ioi inslance, nea-
suiing inuence ly fiequency of nenlion in Chinas
Ieading niIilaiy daiIy nevspapei, scienlihc deveIop-
nenl appeaied in lhe lexl of P|A Dai|q nevspapei
ailicIes 1,148 lines in 2OO4, oi noie lhan lhiee lines
a day.
5O
SiniIaiIy, discussion of lhe nev hisloiic nis-
sions appeais fiequenlIy in a vide iange of ofhciaI
speeches and While Iapeis. In conliasl, lhe concepl of
lhe lhiee nons appeais nuch Iess fiequenlIy. Iiguie
4-1 conpaies lhe nunlei of lines each of lhe lhiee
nons appeais vilh lhe nunlei of lines lhe Nev His-
loiic Missions aie nenlioned in lhe fuII lexl of P|A
?&)21 foi vaiious yeais.
Souice: Dala coIIecled fion fuII lexl seaiches of lhe ]icfangjun
8ac coIIeclion in lhe China NalionaI KnovIedge Infiasliucluie
(CNKI) avaiIalIe fion lhe Liliaiy of Congiess.
O104-/ NRM8 +49W/- <V "19/6 %.2I <V ,I/ "I-//
+<7B6 $HH/.-6 Z1,I ,I/ +49W/- <V "19/6 ,I/ +/Z
?16,<-12 D1661<76 $-/ D/7,1<7/5 17 ,I/ O4== "/Y, <V
>A$ *.1=: V<- \.-1<46 E/.-68
151
The lasic picluie is one in vhich lhe lhiee nons ap-
peai in a dozen oi so ailicIes a yeai. ul Nev Hisloiic
Missions dvaifed lhal nunlei upon ils announce-
nenl in 2OO4, and scienlihc deveIopnenl vas sev-
eiaI oideis of nagnilude noie fiequenlIy nenlioned.
eyond fiequency anaIysis, hovevei, lheie is a
noie sulslanlive, if indiiecl, degiee of inuence of
Hus poIicies on lhe pieviousIy nenlioned deveIop-
nenls in Chinese niIilaiy lhoughl. Hus signaluie and
peivasive advocacy foi scienlihc deveIopnenl in aII
aspecls of Chinas poIicy diieclIy enalIes incieased
allenlion on lhe foundalionaI eIenenls of infoina-
lionaIizalion. This ieIalionship is cIeaiIy loine oul
in speeches ly lop niIilaiy Ieadeis and aulhoiilalive
connenlaiies in lhe P|A Dai|q.
51
As a diiecl pail of
lhe inpIenenlalion of Hus inilialive, lheie has leen
incieased enphasis on naking ILAN liaining noie
scienlihc in naluie, and in pailicuIai, an acknovIedge-
nenl lhal doing so faciIilales joinlness and deepening
of infoinalionaIizalion.
52
The Iinks lelveen scienlihc deveIopnenl and
syslen of syslens aie quile sliong as veII. Ioi in-
slance, one ailicIe discusses Hus advocacy as head of
lhe CMC, noling lhal he:
expIicilIy poinled oul lhal lhe scienlihc deveIopnenl
concepl is an inpoilanl guiding piincipIe foi slienglh-
ening nalionaI defense and ained foices luiIding,
and lhal scienlihc deveIopnenl shouId le laken as lhe
lhene, quickening lhe liansfoinalion of lhe conlal
povei geneialion nodeI le laken as lhe nain lhiead.
... Ioi lhe deveIopnenl slialegy, he fuilhei nade
cIeai lhe slialegic oljeclive of luiIding infoinalized
foices, vinning infoinalized vaifaie, enphasized
lhe enhancenenl of lhe syslen of syslens opeialion
capaliIily lased on infoinalion syslens.
53
152
Thus, in lhal piece, lhe Iink fion scienlihc deveI-
opnenl lhiough infoinalionaIizalion and hnaIIy
lo syslen of syslens is cIeai and diiecl. One quile
aulhoiilalive ailicIe goes even fuilhei, noling Hus
diiecl advocacy foi inpioving syslen of syslens
appioaches:
Chaiinan Hu cIeaiIy poinled oul lhal il vas necessaiy
lo pionole a liansfoinalion of oui niIilaiy fion an
ained foices lhal vas haIf-nechanized lo an ained
foices lased on infoinalizalion lhal had conposile
deveIopnenl of nechanizalion and infoinalizalion
and enphasized lhe need lo inpiove capaliIilies in
syslen of syslens opeialions lased on infoinalion
syslens as lhe lasic focaI poinl.
54
SiniIaiIy, Coniade Hu }inlao sliessed, lhe lasic
foin of conlal effecliveness undei infoinalionaIized
condilions is infoinalion syslen-lased 'syslens of
syslens opeialionaI capaliIily.
55
Olhei ailicIes aIso
nake siniIai, if Iess diiecl, nole of such Iinkage.
56

Thal said, lhe evidence piesenled heie does nol
suggesl a deep engagenenl ly Hu }inlao vilh lhe
concepl of a syslen of syslens appioach in niIilaiy
opeialions. The discussion of lhese leins in Chinese
viilings is oflen quile supeihciaI and consisls neieIy
of acknovIedgenenl of Hu }inlaos adnonilions lo
deveIop such concepls. Indeed, oflen lhe concepls aie
alsenl: one ailicIe vhich lioadIy suiveys Hus conlii-
lulions in niIilaiy affaiis aiea does nol iefei lo a sys-
len of syslens appioach al aII, and neilhei does an
ailicIe focused on Hus conliilulions lo lhe ILA Aii
Ioice (ILAAI).
57
Noi does lheie seen lo le a diiecl
Iink lelveen lhe concepl of lhe lhiee nons and Hu.
ul lhis nay nol le suipiising, as lhose concepls aie
153
so fai dovn inlo lhe delaiIs of vaifaie lhal lhey vouId
le leIov lhe allenlion IeveI of lop-IeveI Ieadeis.
NeveilheIess, Hus advocacy foi syslen of sys-
lens, infoinalionaIizalion, and scienlihc deveIop-
nenl noie geneiaIIy shouId loIslei lhe inpoilance
of lhose concepls vilhin lhe ILA.
$!!%!!D%+" $+* $+$AE!'!
This pieIininaiy assessnenl has sunnaiized se-
Ieclive ieseaich inlo a iange of slialegic concepls lhal
lhe ILA discusses. Lach nighl pIausilIy le lhoughl
lo encapsuIale sone eIenenl of lhe vay lhe ILA laIks
aloul A2/AD. Hovevei, upon fuilhei such anaIysis,
lhe conneclion seens Iess sliong.
Iiisl, despile lhis aulhois ovn expeclalion, coun-
leiinleivenlion is iaieIy used in Chinese niIilaiy
viilings. SiniIaiIy, aclive counleiallacks on exle-
iioi Iines is aIso of Iiniled, if aulhoiilalive, cuiiency.
}oinl hiepovei allacks is used in a naiiov and lacli-
caI peispeclive, and Iacks lhe lioadei slialegic conlexl
lhal A2/AD vouId inpule. These hndings~if lhey
hoId up undei fuilhei ieseaich~viII pose chaIIenges
foi Aneiicans vho aie used lo discussing Chinese A2/
AD capaliIilies, and aie Iooking lo hnd an equivaIenl
in Chinese discouise. The leins vouId have seened
lo le cIose anaIogues, if a lil lioadei in poIilicaI and
dipIonalic lone foi lhe hisl lvo, lul in lhe alsence of
lheii videspiead use in Chinese, suggesl lhey aie nol
usefuI Chinese Ianguage pioxies foi lhe A2/AD lein.
The foiegoing has sulslanliaI inpIicalions foi lhe
vay oulside olseiveis shouId lhink aloul Chinas
polenl and langilIe A2/AD syslens and niIilaiy ca-
paliIilies. In pail, il seives lo enphasize a poinl lhal
Dennis Iasko has iecenlIy ieninded us of: nosl
154
evidence fion Chinese niIilaiy souices indicales lhal
foi lhe ILA 'lechnoIogy diives docliine oi, as lhe
Chinese say, 'lechnoIogy deleinines laclics (|Z
,Z).
58
Indeed, one can go fuilhei and nole
lhal lechnoIogy in lhis case appeais lo have oul-
paced lhe deveIopnenl of niIilaiy lheoiy lo shape ils
enpIoynenl.
Il is ceilainIy possilIe lhal al sone high IeveI of
cIassihcalion vilhin lhe ILA lheie exisl such eslal-
Iished docliinaI viilings. Ieihaps such cIassihcalion
has leen effeclive al pievenling lhe pulIic discussions
of lhese concepls. Hovevei, lhis aulhoi hnds lhal ai-
gunenl lo le unpeisuasive foi lhiee ieasons. Iiisl,
as shovn alove, sensilive niIilaiy concepluaI fiane-
voiks suiiounding lhe lhiee nons and syslen of sys-
lens have leen discussed in delaiI in lhe open souice
Iileialuie. Second, if such a docliine exisls and is shap-
ing, liaining, and piocuiing, il vouId le discussed as
conlexl in ILA piess iepoiling of such sleps, if onIy
lo pulIicIy denonsliale lhe lasis foi conducling lhe
exeicises oi lhe ialionaIe foi acquiiing lhe syslens
undei consideialion. IinaIIy, China is nol engaging in
deleiience lased signaIing vilh lhese capaliIilies, as
vouId have leen expecled if lheie veie a cIeai doclii-
naI pIan foi enpIoying lhe capaliIilies. Ioi inslance,
key capaliIilies such as sulnaiines, coie eIenenls of
A2/AD, aie nol leing videIy used lo signaI Chinese
advancenenls:
The ILAN, aIlhough nov noie ieaIislic and sone-
vhal loIdei in ils liaining and exeicises, as expIained
alove, has nol~vilh lhe possilIe exceplion of lhe
2OO6 suifacing of a Song neai lhe V)$$1 :&!I caiiiei
sliike gioup~louled oi olheivise given evidence of
ieheaisaIs of encounleis vilh sinuIaled caiiiei sliike
gioups hundieds of niIes easl of China, as il nighl do
as pail of a deleiience schene.
59
155
IulIicIy adveilising such opeialionaI docliine
vouId seive lo enhance Chinese deleiience, a concepl
lhal vouId seive Chinas giand slialegy of avoiding
U.S. inleifeience in Chinese niIilaiy opeialions lo (in
eijings viev) defend hei soveieignly.
Second, lhe leins lhal aie in noie videspiead
use~syslen of syslens and lhe lhiee nons~aie in-
poiled fion oulside China. They aie desciiplions of
lhe vay lhe Uniled Slales and olheis have foughl vai
in lhe pasl 2 decades. They aie lolh sonevhal vague,
al Ieasl on lhe lasis of cuiienlIy conducled ieseaich,
lul do in pail accuialeIy desciile lhe changing na-
luie of vaifaie, vhelhei one caIIs lhal ievoIulion in
niIilaiy affaiis oi digilizalion oi sone olhei Aneiican
lein. The iaiily vilh vhich Chinese chaiacleiislics
aie added lo lhese is aIso nolalIe. Il is ceilain lhal
chaIIenges foi lhe ILA in allaining an aliIily lo nake
use of lhese concepls aie ieguIaiIy discussed, lul lhe
discussion of adapling lhen lo Chinese condilions is
Iiniled.
Thal said, lhe evaIualion of hov fai China vas
aIong lhe palh lo ollain lhese capaliIilies seens ieaI-
islic. Theie is a cIeai iecognilion in lhe ILA lhal China
has a Iong vay lo go, and lhal il cannol skip oi Ieap-
fiog ovei deveIopnenlaI palhs. Il nusl hisl conlinue
lo nechanize ils foice lefoie leing alIe lo infoina-
lionaIize and lheieaflei enpIoy lhe vaiious eIenenls
discussed pieviousIy. As one Chinese najoi geneiaI
viiles:
al piesenl, oui ainys nechanized consliuclion has
nol leen fuIIy acconpIished, and infoinalizalion is
sliII al lhe leginning phase. The oljeclive Iav of niIi-
laiy luiIding and lhe piaclicaI silualion of oui ainy
iequiie us nol lo go aII-oul lo enphasize infoinaliza-
lion and lolaIIy oveiIook nechanizalion.
6O

156
Olhei souices enphasize lhe inpoilance of inle-
gialed avialion assels lo a joinl, syslenalized foice,
and dione in pailicuIai, and lenoan lhe slale of Chi-
nese capaliIilies in lolh aieas ieIalive lo lhe Uniled
Slales and Russia.
61
IinaIIy, as noled pieviousIy, sone
eIenenls of lhe discussion of syslen of syslens sug-
gesl lhal liadilionaI liases lovaid hieiaichicaI con-
nand and conlioI conlinue lo affecl lhe vay China
lhinks aloul syslen of syslens. This viII Iinil lhe
ILAs aliIily lo incoipoiale lhe concepl and Iead lo
a noie liansfoinalive effecl on Chinese capaliIilies.
Theie aIso, as noled, seens lo le sonelhing of
an evoIulion in lhe ioIe lhal asynneliic veapons
nighl pIay. Mosl of lhe discussion of lhal lhiid non
vas consideialIy lioadei lhan focusing on individuaI
veapons, and indeed lIed lack in syslen of sys-
lens soils of ideas enphasizing lhe inpoilance of a
nelvoik of veapons oi lhe suppoil sliucluie foi any
individuaI veapon.
62
Thiid, lheie is a degiee of lension lelveen syslen
of syslens (and lo a Iessei exlenl lhe lhiee nons) and
liadilionaI vievs iegaiding lhe efhcacy of A2/AD. A
coie of A2/AD lhinking is lhal a sel of niIilaiy capa-
liIilies nakes denying access lo lhe adveisaiy niIilai-
iIy feasilIe. olh foi lhe Soviels duiing lhe CoId Wai,
and foi Wesleineis inleipieling China loday, pail of
lhe alliacliveness of an anli-access/aiea deniaI ap-
pioach is ils ieIalive cosl advanlage: cheap nissiIes
can lhiealen capilaI ships. Hovevei, lhe liadilionaI
naiiline goaI of sea conlioI is nol easiIy achieved
lhiough lhe sane neans lhal can liing aloul aiea
deniaI (nissiIes and nines cannol hoId space). WhiIe
A2/AD expIicilIy has lhe goaI lo deny sea conlioI lo
lhe adveisaiy, choosing lhal slialegy conlains a lacil
adnission lhal achieving sea conlioI foi oneseIf
157
is unallainalIe. (This is akin lo Keegans concepl of
enply oceans.
63
)
Iuilhei, China has laken a nunlei of coslIy sleps
lhal iun counlei lo lhe nolion lhal il is excIusiveIy pui-
suing an anli-access/aiea deniaI slialegy. Indeed, il is
aIso puisuing sone sea conlioI capaliIilies. The high
piohIe equipping of lhe foinei Soviel caiiiei, nov
chiislened lhe |iacning, exenpIihes lhis liend. The
caiiiei, vhen hnaIIy equipped vilh a conlal ieady
aii ving, viII nol le a polenl A2/AD assel. Hovevei,
il nay seive sone uliIily in conlioIIing seas againsl
Iovei-liei lhieals. Discussions of a second caiiiei ly
lhe ILAN enphasize lhe conlinuing piioiily pul on
lhis capaliIily, as does ils pioninenl nenlion in lhe
Chinese Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr ieIeased in 2O13.
64

SiniIaiIy, nany viilings ovei lhe pasl 5 yeais
have enphasized lhe ioIe of ILAN in secuiing lioad-
ei Chinese navaI inleiesls, such as SLOCs and anli-
piiacy palioIs.
any of lhe viilings on dislanl seas capaliIilies ly Chi-
nese niIilaiy and civiIian anaIysls lend lo focus on
vhal Chinese viileis iefei lo as niIilaiy opeialions
olhei lhan vai (MOOTW). . . . Il is uncIeai vhelhei,
oi hov, lhe concepl of dislanl seas viII nodify lhe
concepl of lhe offshoie defense, vhich is sliII lhe of-
hciaI guiding concepl foi ILAN foice deveIopnenl.
65
AddilionaIIy, sone of lhe discussions of lhe naluie
of vaifaie in a lhiee-nons and syslen of syslens eia
suggesl lhal China expecls lo le alIe lo asseil a degiee
of conlioI ovei lhe lallIeheId space.
Theiefoie, undei lhis pienise of seizing fieedon of
lallIeheId noliIily, ve focus on inpioving lhe ef-
fecliveness of quickIy noving lhiough aII lallIeheId
158
dinensions in lhe piopei diieclions, lhe inpoilanl
pIaces and deceive nonenls of conlal aclions, so lhal
ve can nake deep sliikes on eneny laigels and de-
slioy oi paiaIyze lhe enenys conlal syslens.
66
Anolhei exanpIe enphasizes lhe inpoilance of Chi-
nese navaI assels opeialing deepIy againsl polenliaI
allackeis, lul aIso, incieasing aii defense:
To iespond lo aii sliikes fion lhe aiiciafl gioups lased
on caiiieis, lhe Navy nusl slienglhen lhe consliuclion
of an aii defense syslen lhal inlegiales lhose lased on
lhe aii, coasl, and sea, and enhance lhe capaliIily of
navaI foinalions in Iong dislance inleiceplion, so as lo
achieve aii supienacy on lhe sea vilh lhe aIleinalive
coveis fion lhe coasl and vaiships. The Navy shouId
giaduaIIy slienglhen lhe capaliIily of joinl navaI foi-
nalions in chaiging lo lhe ieai of lhe eneny and sliik-
ing lhe enenys capaliIilies in laking off and Ianding
aiiciafls, as veII as vaiships Ieaving poils.
67
Again, lhal is akin lo sea conlioI. Olhei souices,
as discussed pieviousIy, can le iead vilh lhis degiee
of oplinisn as veII. This suggesls Chinese slialegic
lhinkeis have nol deepIy accepled lhal conlenpoiaiy
niIilaiy lechnoIogy advanlages deniaI ovei conlioI.
68

Il suggesls lhal China, inslead of honing an A2/AD
docliine (vhalevei lhe lein nighl le), is inslead de-
veIoping aIleinale ideas lhal viII shape lioadei naii-
line and ieIaled slialegy.
These concIusions have inpoilanl inpIicalions foi
lhe Uniled Slales. WhiIe il is ceilainIy liue lhal China
has deveIoped and in nany cases depIoyed niIilaiy
veapons lhal seive lo conpIicale U.S. aliIilies lo
pIace ils ovn foices vilhin nany hundieds of niIes of
Chinas coaslIine, lhe Iack of a videIy discussed A2/
AD docliine lo inpIenenl lhose capaliIilies IikeIy ie-
159
duces lhe oveiaII lhieal lhey pose. Since docliines do
nol change oveinighl (lhey shape liaining and cooidi-
nalion nechanisns, aII of vhich iequiie line lo na-
luie), lhis neans Chinese capaliIilies aie Iess polenl
lhan vhal lheii veapons suggesl. Il aIso suggesls lhal
a cIeai indicaloi in incieasing lhose capaliIilies vouId
le lhe eneigence of exaclIy lhe soil of docliine lhal is
alsenl in lhe suivey alove. Civen lhal souices such
as lhose ciled in lhis chaplei do discuss olhei foins of
docliine, ve can ieasonalIy expecl lo see such deveI-
opnenls lheie as veII, 1V ,I/: /J/- <224-"
Second, lhe nain docliinaI discussions alove cen-
lei in inpoiled concepls (fion lhe Russians and lhe
Uniled Slales) on syslen of syslens and lhe lhiee
nons. This ieIiance on exleinaI nodeIs caIIs inlo ques-
lion lhe capaliIilies foi indigenous innovalion in lhal
iegaid vilhin China. Theie aie ceilainIy inpoilanl
inpIicalions foi lhe ieIalive effecliveness of piecision
and Iong-iange nissiIes on liadilionaI navaI vaifaie,
and foi piojecling povei fion a Iiniled nunlei of
lases. Hovevei, China has nol deveIoped a deep
ianging slialegic IeveI discussion of lhose, eilhei in
leins of hov il nighl use such capaliIilies oi ils ovn
eneiging lIue valei foices nighl le suljecl lo allack
fion such.
Hovevei, lhe niiioi inage of lhal poinl shouId
aIso le noled: China is diaving upon, and in sone
cases faiiIy deepIy engaging in concepls iegaiding
nel cenliic vaifaie and lhe inpIicalions of infoina-
lion lechnoIogies foi giealIy enhancing lhe conlal
effecliveness of niIilaiy foices. China is lhus laking
gieal advanlage of lhe discussions in lhe Uniled Slales
and eIsevheie, and conlinues lo diav Iessons fion
olhei peopIes vais.
69
AIlhough il viII need lo adapl
lhose Iessons lo lhe pailicuIai geoslialegic conlexl of
16O
ils Lasl Asian iegion, il viII have a sulslanliaI founda-
lion aIieady Iaid oul.
IinaIIy, lhe enduiing discussions in Chinese secu-
iily anaIysl ciicIes iegaiding noie liadilionaI sea con-
lioI, such as piojecling povei lhiough navaI suiface
ships (lolh caiiieis and suiface aclion gioups) sug-
gesls lhe ILAN, Iike nany navies in lhe iegion (and
lhe gIole) viII conlinue lo conpele in lhal spheie.
This is IikeIy lo inlensify Chinese opeialions leyond
ils IilloiaI. CeilainIy, sone of lhal aclivily viII seive
U.S. and gIolaI inleiesls (such as anli-piiacy and
disaslei ieIief). ul in sone cases, lhe aclivilies viII
piove lhiealening, pailicuIaiIy lo snaIIei slales in
lhe iegion. These deveIopnenls viII iaise pailicuIai
chaIIenges lo lhe dipIonacy of lhe Uniled Slales in lhe
iegion, suggesling a deepening of niIilaiy slaleciafl
lhioughoul lhe iegion, pei ielaIancing is necessaiy.
Lcononic and poIilicaI engagenenl viII le insufh-
cienl foi lhal lask.
(@+(A)!'@+
Thus, vhiIe lhe ieIevanl leins lhal veie consid-
eied in lhis chaplei do nol give us nuch insighl inlo
Chinese equivaIenls of A2/AD, lhey do, hovevei,
seive as vaIualIe vindovs inlo hov China is con-
ing lo leins vilh lhe iadicaI changes laking pIace
in nodein vaifaie, as epilonized ly lhe opeialions
conducled ly lhe Uniled Slales, and lhis, nay have a
noie enduiing effecl on lhe ILA, lhe iegion, and lhe
Uniled Slales.
161
%+*+@"%! R (?$>"%# N
1. Rogei CIiff '$ &2., Lnleiing lhe Diagons Laii: Chinese Anli-
access Slialegies and Theii InpIicalions foi lhe Uniled Slales,
MC-524, Sanla Monica, CA: RAND Coipoialion, 2OO7, Andiev
I. Kiepinevich '$ &2., Mcc|ing |nc An|i-Acccss and Arca Dcnia| Cna|-
|cngc, Washinglon, DC: Cenlei foi Slialegic and udgelaiy AnaIy-
ses, 2OO3, Ofhce of lhe Secielaiy of Defense, MiIilaiy and Secuiily
DeveIopnenls InvoIving lhe IeopIes RepulIic of China: AnnuaI
Repoil lo Congiess, Washinglon, DC: Depailnenl of Defense,
May 22, 2O12, p. iv.
2. The ofhciaI U.S. posilion is lhal neilhei is ained al China.
MiIilaiy lechnoIogy in lhe nissiIe age (and lo a Iessei and ieIaled
exlenl, lhe deveIopnenl and pioIifeialion of quiel dieseI sulna-
iines) is a gIolaI phenonenon. SliII, as seen in lhe CeneiaI Noi-
lon Schvailz and AdniiaI }onalhan Cieeneil discussion of AS
and in lhe lilIiogiaphy lo lhe }OAC, China possesses lhe niIilaiy
lhal nosl sliesses lhese. CeneiaI Noilon A. Schvailz and Adni-
iaI }onalhan W. Cieeneil, Aii-Sea allIe: Iionoling SlaliIily in
An Lia of Unceilainly, 56' >0'%)*&/ ./$'%'-$, 2O12. The }OAC
papei is avaiIalIe fion uuu.dcfcnsc.gct/puos/pdfs/]OAC_]an20
2012_Signcd.pdf.
3. Dennis }. Iasko, 56' @6)/'-' >%01 54,&1= 5%&,)$)4/ &/,
Transfcrna|icn fcr |nc 21s| Ccn|urq, Nev Yoik: RoulIedge,
2OO6, p. 16.
4. Aii-Sea allIe Ofhce, Air-Sca 8a|||c. Scrticc Cc||aocra|icn |c
Addrcss An|i-Acccss and Arca Dcnia| Cna||cngcs, Washinglon, DC:
Depailnenl of Defense, May 2O13, p. 2. See exlensive discussion
on A2/AD on pp. 2-4 of lhal iepoil.
5. MiIilaiy and Secuiily DeveIopnenls InvoIving lhe Ieo-
pIes RepulIic of China, p. iv.
6. Ioi noie discussion on lhis, see Chiislophei I. Tvoney,
The MiIilaiy-Secuiily ReIalionship, David L. Shanlaugh, ed.,
Tang|cd Ti|ans. Tnc Uni|cd S|a|cs and Cnina, Lanhan, MD: Rov-
nan & LillIeheId, 2O13.
162
7. Zhao Ieipeng Tvenly Thousand Li |Chinese niIesj on
lhe Seas, ],+| (Cnina Ycu|n Ncus), Ieliuaiy 22, 2O13
(CII2O13O222787O12). China has engaged in Iov IeveI liaining
(as Iov as 1OO neleis) vilh ils -6 lonleis (oId, lul quile ca-
palIe of Iaunching nodein anli-ship ciuise nissiIes). See CCTV-
Nevs channeI coveiage on Novenlei 3, 2O12. Ioi a lioadei
discussion of lhese capaliIilies, see Nan Li, The LvoIulion of
Chinas NavaI Slialegy and CapaliIilies: Iion 'Neai Coasl and
'Neai Seas lo 'Iai Seas, IhiIip Saundeis, Chiislophei Yung, Mi-
chaeI Svain and Andiev Yang, eds., Tnc Cnincsc Natq. |xpand-
ing Capaoi|i|ics, |tc|ting Rc|cs, Washinglon, DC: NalionaI Defense
Univeisily, 2O11.
8. Liu Hui, Li Xiao, Zhang Cang, and Wang Zhilao ([|
||): ]]])
|, (A Shaip Svoid al Sea Dances acioss lhe Ciesls
of Waves~The Sloiy of lhe AcceIeialing Conpiehensive Con-
sliuclion of lhe Navys 'Shijiazhuang Ship), ;[] (Pccp|cs
9&G1), }une 21, 2O12. On lhe lopic noie geneiaIIy, see Liu Yong-
ning and }in Zhenxing ([||}): ,j|
|]j,|([j{
)( (A Sludy of Hu }inlaos Inpoilanl Insliuc-
lions on Lnhancing CapaliIilies in AcconpIishing Diveisihed
MiIilaiy Tasks vilh Winning LocaI Wais undei lhe Infoinalion-
ized Condilions as lhe Coie), ]| (@6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)-
'/*'), VoI. 6, No. 12O, 2O11, pp. 5-6.
9. Ioi noie on lhe uliIily of such ideoIogicaI honogene-
ily iegaiding appioaches lo niIilaiy opeialions, see Chiislophei
I. Tvoney, Tnc Mi|i|arq |cns. Dcc|rina| Diffcrcnccs and Dc|crrcncc
|ai|urc in Sinc-Ancrican Rc|a|icns, Ilhaca, NY: CoineII Univeisily
Iiess, 2O1O, Chaplei 2.
1O. MiIilaiy and Secuiily DeveIopnenls InvoIving lhe Ieo-
pIes RepulIic of China, p. 21.
11. Coilez Coopei, }oinl Anli-Access Opeialions: Chinas
'Syslen of Syslen Appioach, Sanla Monica, CA: RAND,
}anuaiy 2O11 (CT356).
12. This is lhe case iegaidIess of a vaiiely of seaich synlax
(fuilheinoie, one of spaie fev iesuIls is a iecycIing of a piece au-
163
lhoied ly Ale Dennaik of NR!). Theie aie no iefeiences lo fan
ganshe oi fan jieiu, aIlhough such phiases aie occasionaIIy in-
cIuded in pinyin.
13. ooks suiveyed incIude Wang }un, Yang Liuqing, eds.
||,: ],|, (C+2'- 4H ./H4%0&$)4/&2)P', @40-
B&$T, j;.]|[ (eijing, China: NalionaI Defense
Univeisily IulIishing), 2OO6, }iang Daohe and Liu Huinin, eds.
(j;[[), ,]]] (Opcra|icna| Cccrdina|icn Ccn-
*'A$-Tj;.]|[ (eijing, China: NDU IulIish-
ing), 2OO4, Liu Xianyao '$ &2. ([ ):], (|nfcrna|icn
lar), j;.j[ (eijing, China: IeopIes Lileialion
Ainy IulIishing), 1998, Wang Shiqiang, Cao Xinsheng, '$ &2 (
| )']|j]( (@40A&%&$)G' #$+,1 4H
@6)/'-' &/, F4%')(/ 9&G&2 ?'H'/-')j;: |[ (eijing,
China: MiIilaiy Science IulIishing Conpany)2O11, }i Xueien,
Zhu }ianxin, '$" &2. (, 9 ,)||#,[{(
(Rcscarcn Qucs|icns in Nuc|car, Cncnica| and 8ic|cgica| Dcfcnsc
#$%&$'(1), j;.]|[ (eijing, China: NDU IulIish-
ing), 2OO6, Dong Zifeng (), ,j|] (56' @6&/(-
ing Mcans cf Prcducing lar |ign|ing S|rcng|n), j;.|
[ (eijing, China: Acadeny of MiIilaiy Science Iiess)2O1O,
Liu Zhaozheng, ediloi ([]_), {,{]|( (#+00&%1
cf |n|cgra|cd Suppcr| cf ]cin| Opcra|icn), j;.j[ (ei-
jing, China: IeopIes Lileialion Ainy IulIishing), 2O11.
14. Anlon L. Wishik II, An Anli-Access Appioxinalion: The
ILAs Aclive Slialegic Counleiallacks on Lxleiioi Lines, @6)/&
#'*+%)$1, No. 19, 2O11, pp. 37-48.
15. .B),., p. 19.
16. In addilion lo lhe foIIoving cilalions, il sinpIy peivades
Chinese discussions aloul facing lhe Uniled Slales, and in pai-
licuIai, facing AS and ieIaled concepls. Ioi a Ienglhy discussion,
see ig Slick eing WieIded Al China~Inleipieling lhe Nev
'Aii-Sea allIe OpeialionaI Concepl of lhe US MiIilaiy, )||
, (Mcdcrn lcapcnrq, a jouinaI pulIished ly an indusliiaI niIilaiy
ieseaich inslilule), Augusl 2, 2O11 (OSC: CII2O12O418O9OOO4).
AIso see lhe discussions in Tinolhy L. Thonas, Tnc Dragcns
Quan|un |cap. Transfcrning |rcn a Mccnanizcd |c An |nfcrna|izcd
F4%*', Ioieign MiIilaiy Sludies Ofhce, 2OO9).
164
17. Cuan Lifeng, Inpioving lhe IoveifuI Lngine of Syslen
Opeialions CapaliIilies, ThoioughIy Revieving lhe Infoinalion
Syslens in OpeialionaI Syslens, P|A Dai|q, Ieliuaiy 4, 2O1O, p.
1O (OSC: CII2O1OO2O571OOO3).
18. Kevin McCauIey, The ILAs Thiee-Iionged Appioach lo
Achieving }oinlness in Connand and ConlioI, Cnina 8ricf, VoI.
12, No. 6, Maich 15, 2O12.
19. Zhang Nenghua, }ie Lijun, and Wang Weining, Repoil-
eis Visil lhe IieId Tiaining Sile of a Connunicalions Reginenl of
lhe CeneiaI Slaff Depailnenl (CSD) and Take a CIosei Look al lhe
Nev Landscape of 'Syslen of Syslens Opeialions~}oinl Tiain-
ing: Today We Sil on lhe Mounlain Top and Uige Tigeis lo Iighl,
P|A Dai|q, Augusl 2, 2O12, p. 2 (OSC: CII2O12O8O2787O22).
2O. Dong Zifeng, ,j|] (56' @6&/()/( ;'&/- 4H
Prcducing lar |ign|ing S|rcng|n), p. 91.
21. Scoll Kiisnei, The Legend of ol MelcaIfe, lircd Maga-
P)/', VoI. 6, No. 11, Novenlei 1998. MelcaIf had headed 3Con
and heIped pioneei lhe Inleinel.
22. WiIIian A. Ovens, AdniiaI, USN, Rel., |if|ing |nc |cg cf
lar, aIlinoie, MD: }ohns Hopkins Univeisily Iiess, 2OO1.
23. Zhang Zhivei, Qiao Zhongvei, and Shen }ianhua,
,]_,]': ,|.|)|[|
( (Consliuclion of Nev Conlal Ioice: Leading lhe Ainy
lo AcceIeiale lhe Tiansfoinalion of Coie LIenenls), j|
(P|A Dai|q), Maich 3, 2O12.
24. Li XuanIiang, Xin Shihong, and Yang Yunfang, Mag-
nihcenl ScioII foi Scienlihc DeveIopnenl ~ Recoid of AcluaI
Achievenenls Made in NalionaI Defense and Ainy uiIding
duiing '11lh Iive-Yeai Iiogian, P|A Dai|q, Decenlei 16, 2O1O
(OSC: CII2O11O323O9OOO5). See aIso Kevin McCauIey, Sys-
len of Syslens OpeialionaI CapaliIily: Key Suppoiling Con-
cepls foi Iuluie }oinl Opeialions, Cnina 8ricf, VoI. 12, No. 19,
Oclolei 5, 2O12.
165
25. Cuan Lifeng, Inpioving lhe IoveifuI Lngine of Syslen
Opeialions CapaliIilies.
26. Kevin McCauIey, The ILAs Thiee-Iionged Appioach.
27. David Chen, Lxanining lhe Nev Aiiciafl Caiiiei
Thiough lhe ILAs RevoIulion in OiganizalionaI Affaiis, @6)-
na 8ricf, VoI. 12, No. 19, Oclolei 5, 2O12.
28. McCauIey, The ILAs Thiee-Iionged Appioach.
29. }iang Daohong: DeepIy Sludy CeneiaI Secielaiy Hus
Inpoilanl Speech on 1 }uIy, InpIenenl lhe Inpoilanl Sliale-
gic Thinking of lhe Main Thene and lhe Main Line, Ain al
lhe 'Iive CoaIs of Tiansfoinalion, Advance lhe Tiansfoina-
lion of Ciound Ioice uiIding, P|A Dai|q, }uIy 14, 2O11 (OSC:
CII2O11O714787O12).
3O. Making a siniIai poinl, see Andiev S. Liickson and Mi-
chaeI S. Chase, InfoinalionaIizalion and lhe Chinese IeopIes
Lileialion Ainy Navy, in IhiIIip Saundeis, Chiislophei Yung,
MichaeI Svaine, and Andiev Yang, eds., Tnc Cnincsc Natq. |x-
panding Capaoi|i|ics, |tc|ting Rc|cs, Washinglon, DC: NalionaI De-
fense Univeisily, 2O11, pp. 267-272.
31. Wang }un and Yang Liuqing, eds., ],|, (RuIes
of InfoinalionaIized Conlal), p. 145.
32. Sun Li Na (): (|,,| (Re-exan-
inalion of Asynneliic Waifaie Lxpeiience), ]'| (F4%')(/
5&/I), No. 12, 2OO8, and Wang Dao Cheng (jj): ),(
, (Connenlaiy on lhe Non-conlacl, Non-Iineai, and Non
Synneliic/Asynneliic Waifaie), ]||| (9&$)4/&2 ?'H'/-'
#*)'/*' S 5'*6/424(1), No. 5, 2OO3, pp. 69-71.
33. Kevin McCauIey, DeveIoping a Iianevoik foi ILA Iie-
cision Opeialions, Cnina 8ricf, VoI. 12, No. 13, }uIy 6, 2O12.
34. Liu Zhaozheng, ed., {,{]|( (Sunnaiy of
Inlegialed Suppoil of }oinl Opeialion), p. 165-166.
35. .B),.
166
36. .B),.
37. Miao Xin Xu, Wang Zhi Hua, and Chen Xin }ian (),
,', |): (_],)]|( (Non-Iineai
Waifaie and IinanciaI Iioleclion foi Aii Ioice Iiepaiedness),
]( (Mi|i|arq and |ccncnic Rcscarcn), No. 2, 2O1O, pp. 73-74.
38. Yang Hongjiang, Ling Shengyin, and Cao ing: Inpiove
lhe AliIily and QuaIily of eing iave and SkiIIfuI in allIe),
P|A Dai|q, Ieliuaiy 2O, 2OO7 (OSC: CII2OO7O22O7O5O12).
39. Miao Xin Xu, Wang Zhi Hua, and Chen Xin }ian (),
,', |): (_],)]|( (Non-Iineai
Waifaie and IinanciaI Iioleclion foi Aii Ioice Iiepaiedness),
]( (Mi|i|arq and |ccncnic Rcscarcn), No. 2, 2O1O, pp. 73-74.
4O. Ioi lhe lesl discussion, see }ohn }. W. Levis and Xue Lilai,
Cninas S|ra|cgic Scapcucr. Tnc Pc|i|ics cf |crcc Mcdcrniza|icn in |nc
9+*2'&% >(', IaIo AIlo, CA: Slanfoid Univeisily Iiess, 1994.
41. Zuo Liping (`), ]]|] (56' 56'4%1 4H 9&-
$)4/&2 ;&%)$)0' ?'$'%%'/*'), j;.[ (eijing, China:
Tines IulIishing), 2O12, p. 63. AIlhough lhe piess is nol pailicu-
IaiIy aulhoiilalive, lhe aulhoi is a navaI ofhcei and giaduale of
lhe ILAs Acadeny of MiIilaiy Science.
42. .B),, p. 78.
43. Dou Chao (]), {[||j j{[|]j~(
,]| (Nonconlacl, Nonsynneliic, NonIineai Op-
eialions and Oui Ainy Counleineasuie), ]y, (Snipocrnc
lcapcns), Novenlei 2OO9, pp. 74-75.
44. Wang Xiaohua ('): )((|,
(A Sludy of Aneiican Asynneliic Waifaie fion lhe Ieispec-
live of Aii Raids), )| (Mcdcrn Mi|i|arq Affairs), }anuaiy
2OOO, pp. 15-16.
45. }I} Looks al Iunclions Inlegialion Iion Dovning of
US Chinook Coplei, P|A Dai|q, Seplenlei 8, 2O11, p. 12 (OSC:
CII2O11O913O88OO1).
167
46. On lhe chaIIenging iequiienenls lo nanage lhis kiII chain,
see Oven R. Cole, }i., Assessing lhe Undeisea aIance elveen
lhe Uniled Slales and China, Thonas C Mahnken, ed., @40A'$)-
|itc S|ra|cgics fcr |nc 21s| Ccn|urq. Tnccrq, His|crq, and Prac|icc, 2O12.
47. Dou Chao (]), {[||j j{[|]j~(
,]| (Nonconlacl, Nonsynneliic, NonIineai Op-
eialions and Oui Ainy Counleineasuie), ]y, (Shiploine
Weapons), Novenlei 2OO9, pp. 74-75. This is a nonniIilaiy afhIi-
aled pulIicalion, aIlhough lhe voik unil is a slale ovned, niIi-
laiy ship luiIding hin.
48. In addilion lo lhe alove cilalion, see Zhan Yu (,)
{,| (LxpIoialions on lhe Theoiy of Inlegialed
}oinl Opeialions), ]| (@6)/'-' ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'), No. 6,
2OO7, pp. 11-2O.
49. See Hu }inlao speech lo ILA, }uIy 2O11.
5O. SeIecled olhei yeais aie Iisled leIov, leyond lhal line
peiiod fuilhei ieseaich is iequiied, lul in lhe inconpIele Open
Souice Cenlei dalalase, seveiaI hundied ailicIes a yeai conlin-
ue lo nenlion lhe lein lo dale. Dala leIov laken fion fuII lexl
seaiches of lhe ]icfangjun 8ac coIIeclion in lhe China NalionaI
KnovIedge Infiasliucluie (CNKI).
Year 2OO1 2OO2 2OO8 2OO4 2OO5
Mentions 245 4OO 78G 1,148 8G8
51. Zhang Yanzhong and Wu Xu, Chen ingde al Confei-
ence on CeneiaI Slaff Depailnenl Ciassiools Consliuclion Woik
Sliesses: ConscienliousIy Sludy, InpIenenl lhe Spiiil of Cenei-
aI Secielaiy Hus Inpoilanl Speech, Woik Haid To Raise CSD
Ciassiools Consliuclion lo a Nev LeveI, P|A Dai|q, Augusl 1,
2O12 (OSC: CII2O12O8O1787OO7), slaff connenlaloi, Allain a
Nev ReaIn in Keeping lhe Iiin IdeaI and Conviclion~DeepIy
Sludy and InpIenenl CeneiaI Secielaiy Hus '7.23 Inpoilanl
Speech, P|A Dai|q, Oclolei 5, 2O12 (OSC: CII2O121OO57O4OO1),
and slaff connenlaloi, Making Nev Cains in Deepening Con-
piehension~Deepening Sludy and InpIenenlalion of lhe Inpoi-
lanl '23 }uIy Speech ly Secielaiy CeneiaI Hu, P|A Dai|q, Sep-
lenlei 3O, 2O12 (OSC: CII2O121OO3718OO1).
168
52. )]],~,|,|
]),]j (Make Changes lo lhe Tiaining Mecha-
nisns, Conlenls, and Melhods~Second on Iionoling lhe Inno-
valion and DeveIopnenl of MiIilaiy Tiaining in lhe Navy in lhe
Nev Slage of lhe Nev Cenluiy), ;[] (Pccp|cs Natq), }uIy
28, 2OO6, p. 1.
53. Cenlei foi lhe Sludy of lhe Theoiy Syslen of SociaI-
isn vilh Chinese Chaiacleiislics al lhe NalionaI Defense Uni-
veisily: Iionole lhe Scienlihc DeveIopnenl of ILA uiId-
ing Iion a Nev Slailing Ioinl, P|A Dai|q, }uIy 3O, 2O12 (OSC:
CII2O12O73O787OO8).
54. LdiloiiaI Depailnenl: AcceIeialing lhe Iionolion of In-
foinalizalion~Discussing lhe Necessaiy Roule foi AcceIeialing
lhe Tiansfoinalion of lhe Conlal CapaliIily Iioduclion ModeI,
P|A Dai|q, May 1O, 2O11 (CII2O11O51O787OO9).
55. Liu Yongning and }in Zhenxing, ([||}) ,
j||]j,|([j
{)( (A Sludy of Hu }inlaos In-
poilanl Insliuclions on Lnhancing CapaliIilies in AcconpIishing
Diveisihed MiIilaiy Tasks vilh Winning LocaI Wais undei lhe
Infoinalionized Condilions as lhe Coie), p. 5.
56. Shi Qingien and Li Wenlo (): ,
[)||)( (A Sludy of Hu }inlaos Inpoi-
lanl Insliuclions on lhe Modeinizalion of lhe Ained Ioices),
]| (Cnina Mi|i|arq Scicncc), VoI. 6, No. 12O, 2O11, pp. 26-
31. }iang Daohong: DeepIy Sludy CeneiaI Secielaiy Hus Inpoi-
lanl Speech on 1 }uIy, InpIenenl lhe Inpoilanl Slialegic Think-
ing of lhe Main Thene and lhe Main Line, Ain al lhe 'Iive CoaIs
of Tiansfoinalion, Advance lhe Tiansfoinalion of Ciound Ioice
uiIding, P|A Dai|q, }uIy 14, 2O11 (OSC: CII2O11O714787O12).
57. Zhang Shude, Dong Qiangqiang, and Zhao Weilo (|
j((]]): ,[])(
(A Sludy of Hu }inlaos Thinking on MiIilaiy Refoin and In-
novalion),]| (@6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'), VoI. 6, No. 12O,
2O11, pp. 18-25. The Iead aulhoi is a Vice IoIilicaI Connissai al
lhe DaIian NavaI Acadeny hoIding lhe iank of Senioi Caplain in
lhe ILAN. Shang }insuo, Li Zhen, Li Liguang, and Wang Iing-
169
ping (])|\``): ',|;[
|j[||]`=,|[)
('A Scienlihc TheoielicaI Cuide foi lhe DeveIopnenl of lhe
IeopIes Aii Ioice in lhe Nev Slage in lhe Nev Cenluiy~Sludy-
ing Hu }inlaos Inpoilanl Insliuclions on Aii Ioice uiIding),
]| (@6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'), VoI. 6, No. 114, 2O1O, pp. 9-16.
58. Dennis }. Iasko, 'TechnoIogy Deleinines Taclics: The
ReIalionship elveen TechnoIogy and Docliine in Chinese MiIi-
laiy Thinking, Tnc ]curna| cf S|ra|cgic S|udics, VoI. 34, No. 3, }une
6, 2O11, pp. 355-381.
59. Liic A. McVadon, Chinas Navy Today: Looking Tovaid
Iue Walei, Andiev Liickson, LyIe }. CoIdslein, and Caines
Loid, eds., @6)/& L4'- $4 #'&= ;&%)$)0' 5%&/-H4%0&$)4/ )/ @40A&%&-
|itc His|crica| Pcrspcc|itc, Washinglon, DC: NavaI Inslilule Iiess,
2O12 p. 387.
6O. Majoi CeneiaI Tian ingien, poIilicaI connissai, Nanjing
Ainy Connand CoIIege: The Scienlihc DeveIopnenl of lhe
HisloiicaI Mission of Oui Ainy in lhe Nev Ihase of lhe Nev
Cenluiy, ]|(@6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'), Oclolei 1, 2OO7
(OSC: CII2OO8O123325OO1).
61. }iang Daohong: DeepIy Sludy CeneiaI Secielaiy Hus
Inpoilanl Speech on 1 }uIy, InpIenenl lhe Inpoilanl Sliale-
gic Thinking of lhe Main Thene and lhe Main Line, Ain al lhe
'Iive CoaIs of Tiansfoinalion, Advance lhe Tiansfoinalion of
Ciound Ioice uiIding, P|A Dai|q, }uIy 14, 2O11, p. 1O (OSC:
CII2O11O714787O12).
62. Il viII le inleiesling lo see hov discussions of lhe caiiiei
deveIop in lhis iegaid.
63. }ohn Keegan, 56' E%)*' 4H >,0)%&2$1= 56' DG42+$)4/ 4H 9&G&2
larfarc, Nev Yoik: Viking, 1989.
64. On lhe Iallei, see The Diveisihed LnpIoynenl of Chi-
nas Ained Ioices, Chinas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2012, lni|c Pa-
A'%, eijing, China: The Infoinalion Ofhce of lhe Slale CounciI,
ApiiI, 2O13.
17O
65. Thonas }. ickfoid vilh Heidi A. HoIz and Iiedeiic VeI-
Iucci, }i., Unceilain Waleis: Thinking Aloul Chinas Lneigence
as a Maiiline Iovei, CRM DOO25813.A1/IinaI, Washinglon,
DC: Cenlei foi NavaI AnaIyses, Seplenlei, 2O11, pp. 29-3O. See
aIso Iiflh SlioII Aiound lhe WoiId Lxpo~A Iue Walei Navy:
Inaginings in lhe WoiId Lxpo Caiden, Dangdai Haijun (Mcdcrn
9&G1), Augusl 1, 2O1O, p. 28 (CII2O1OO928O9OO14).
66. Yan Xin and Sun Qiangyin [,,): (}|]
|))|,,| (Iocus on Iieedon of MoliIily,
Iocus on lhe Design of CIolaI Allack and Defense Conlal Melh-
ods), j| (P|A Dai|q), ApiiI 9, 2O13.
67. See aIso Managenenl of lhe Sea in lhe 21sl Cenluiy:
Whilhei lhe Chinese Navy` `|] (;4,'%/ 9&G1) }une 1,
2OO7, pp. 6-9 (CII2OO7O628436O12).
68. Ioi an Aneiican navaI slialegisl naking lhis poinl, see
}effiey KIine and Wayne Hughes, elveen Ieace and lhe Aii-Sea
allIe: A Wai al Sea Slialegy, Nata| lar Cc||cgc Rcticu, VoI. 65,
No. 4, Aulunn 2O12.
69. Andiev ScoleII, David Lai, and Roy Kanphausen, eds.,
Cnincsc |csscns |rcn O|ncr Pccp|cs lars, CaiIisIe, IA: Slialegic
Sludies Inslilule, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, 2O11.
171
(?$>"%# e
$!>'#'+& "@ F@'+"+%!!U
>A$ "#$'+'+&X %Q%#('!%!X $+* *@("#'+%X
KLLfRKLMK
;.75. $:46<
A<771/ ?/7=/:
The vievs expiessed ly lhese aulhois aie lheii ovn
and do nol necessaiiIy ieecl lhe ofhciaI poIicy oi po-
silion of lhe Defense InleIIigence Agency, lhe Depail-
nenl of Defense oi lhe Uniled Slales Coveinnenl.
The IeopIes Lileialion Ainy (ILA) conlinues ils
Iong liansilion lovaid liuIy inlegialed joinl opeia-
lions ({,), lul has nade Iess piogiess
lo dale lhan Chinese niIilaiy Ieadeis vouId vish. In
lhe eaiIy-2OOOs, ILA Ieadeiship eslalIished a goaI of
achieving najoi piogiess lovaid infoinalized
ained foices ly 2O2O and fuIIy nodeinizing lhe foice
ly lhe nid-21sl cenluiy.
1
In 2OO6, Hu }inlao issued
guidance on liansfoining ILA liaining ly liaining
connandeis and slaff on joinl opeialions concepls.
ILA effoils lovaid joinl opeialions since 2OO8 have
cenleied on: deveIoping facuIly expeilise in niIilaiy
educalionaI inslilulions, gelling ILA connandeis lo
lhink in leins of joinl liaining, and deveIoping infoi-
nalion syslens lo faciIilale joinl connand. These ef-
foils aie nol pioducing iapid iesuIls, and Chinese niI-
ilaiy Ieadeis aie avaie lhal lhe ILA has nol ieached
lhe IeveI of joinl opeialions deveIopnenl lhey seek.
NeveilheIess, lhe ILA has gained knovIedge in joinl
opeialions fion ils inleiaclion vilh olhei counliies in
liIaleiaI and nuIliIaleiaI exeicises.
172
>@A'(E 'D>A'($"'@+!
- ILA cadels have ieceived lheoielicaI liaining
on joinl opeialions lul Iack opeialionaI expeii-
ence. Despile effoils lo incuIcale lasic concepls
of joinl opeialions in an acadenic selling, con-
nandeis conlinue lo faII shoil in lheii aliIily
lo Iead joinl opeialions invoIving acluaI foices.
Oulside lhe acadenic selling, onIy a handfuI of
niIilaiy exeicises addiess issues of joinl con-
nand.
- }oinl opeialions concepls have leen sIov lo
deveIop since lhe niIilaiy and ils Ieadeiship
have had lo adapl lo a iadicaIIy diffeienl vay
of lhinking aloul niIilaiy conicl. CenliaIized
liaining guidance, slandaidized equipnenl,
and inpiovenenls lo acadenics nay piovide
lhe iighl looIs lo fuilhei lhe liansfoinalion lo
vhich niIilaiy Ieadeis aspiie.
Achieving a nodein slandaid of niIilaiy effeclive-
ness viII iequiie lhe ILA lo inleinaIize joinl opeia-
lions concepls and appIy lhen in noie ieaIislic, nuI-
liseivice liaining exeicises.
IeopIe aie lhe nosl eneigelic and dynanic eIenenl of
conlal povei. When aII is said and done, a confionla-
lion in nodein vaifaie is in essence a confionlalion
of laIenled individuaIs. uiIding a coips of laIenled
individuaIs suiled lo lhe chaiacleiislics of inlegialed
joinl opeialions is a iequiienenl foi niIilaiy nodein-
izalion and is essenliaI lo lhe aliIily lo hghl and vin
fuluie IocaI vais undei infoinalized condilions.
2

Lieulenanl CeneiaI Hu Yongzhu
Diiecloi, IoIilicaI Depailnenl
Chengdu MiIilaiy Region
173
'+"#@*)("'@+
In 2OO4, Iiesidenl Hu }inlao lasked lhe ained
foices lo undeilake a liansfoinalion lhal vouId en-
alIe lhen nol onIy lo fuIhII lheii piinaiy nission lo
safeguaid nalionaI soveieignly and neel lhe chang-
ing needs of nalionaI secuiily, lul aIso lo lake on lhe
nev hisloiic nissions of oui foices in lhe nev cenluiy
and nev eia.
3
Theii aspiialion is lo deveIop a joinl
opeialionaI foice lhal snoolhIy inlegiales aII foui niI-
ilaiy seivices,
4
enpIoys a unihed, nelvoiked infoina-
lion syslen, and acls undei lhe unihed connand of
a joinl connand oigan (|||), oi headquaileis
in Weslein niIilaiy paiIance.
5
The 2OO4 pionounce-
nenl acceIeialed a lhiusl Iaunched a decade eaiIiei
vhen lhen-piesidenl }iang Zenin added lhe iequiie-
nenl lo hghl nodein IocaI vais undei infoina-
lized condilions lo lhe niIilaiy slialegic guideIines
foi lhe nev peiiod in 1993.
6
The expansion of ILA
lasks inevilalIy iequiies a coiiesponding iefoin in
niIilaiy liaining, shifling fion niIilaiy liaining
undei nechanized condilions lo niIilaiy liaining
undei infoinalized condilions.
7
}oinl opeialions
liaining is a cIeai denand and iequiienenl foi lhis
liansfoinalion.
Chinese niIilaiy Ieadeis aie veII avaie lhal lhe
ILA has nol ieached lhe IeveI of joinl opeialions de-
veIopnenl and liaining lhey seek, and lhal achieving
lhal goaI depends on changing lhe educalion, liain-
ing, cuIluie, and nindsel of lhe ofhcei coips. In lheii
ovn voids, lhe deveIopnenl of joinl opeialions in
lhe ILA is al an iniliaI slage and iequiies slienglhen-
ing lhe inlegialion of veapons, equipnenl and con-
lal syslen of aII seivices and ains and slienglhening
174
lhe inlegialion of opeialions concepls and vaIues of
aII seivices.
8
They needed lo voik haidei, conlinue
expIoialion, and cone up vilh iesuIls lhal sel lhe
foice on lhe iighl palh.
AIlhough lhe leins joinl opeialions and inle-
gialed joinl opeialions have leen pail of lhe ILA
niIilaiy leininoIogy since al Ieasl lhe nid-199Os, lhe
ILA did nol issue lhe lop-IeveI docliinaI oulIine
((&/(1&4) on joinl opeialions unliI 1999. In lhe de-
cade foIIoving 1999, niIilaiy acadenics conducled
lheoielicaI sludies of hov lo adapl lhe foice foi joinl
opeialions. Ceilain niIilaiy unils veie idenlihed as
vhelslones lo lesl joinl opeialions concepls in lhe
heId. Acadenic viiling dehned lhe concepl and iden-
lihed ils chaiacleiislics and iequiienenls. AilicIes Iike
Theoiy of Inlegialed }oinl Opeialions Sludied and
Innovalion in }oinl Opeialions Theoiy, ly lhe con-
nandanl of Shijiazhuang Ainy Connand Acadeny
and lhe vice piesidenl of Acadeny of MiIilaiy Sci-
ence, iespecliveIy, aie anong lhe nosl delaiIed and
aulhoiilalive ailicIes on lhe lopic of lhal peiiod.
9
ConsideialIe expIoialion on joinl opeialions oc-
cuiied lelveen 2OO6 and 2OO8. The iesuIls veie incoi-
poialed inlo lhe ievised OulIine on MiIilaiy Tiaining
and LvaIualion (),_|;, OMTL) issued
ly lhe CeneiaI Slaff Depailnenl (CSD) in 2OO8, and
ils acconpanying codihed joinl opeialions liaining
iequiienenl.
1O
Thal sane yeai, Iiesidenl Hu and lhe
CeneiaI Headquaileis issued lvo key docunenls,
Slialegic Tiaining ReguIalions foi lhe Chinese Ieo-
pIes Lileialion Ainy (];[j,[),|
) and Slialegic Tiaining OulIine foi lhe Chinese
IeopIes Lileialion Ainy (];[j,[)
,;), vhich eslalIished a slialegic liaining sys-
len lhal syslenalicaIIy slandaidized lhe joinl opeia-
175
lions lheoielicaI fianevoik.
11
Headquailei eIenenls,
acadenies, and seivices noved leyond ieseaiching
lheoiy and dehnilions lo legin expIoiing lhe inpacl
of niIilaiy liansfoinalion and nev OMTL iequiie-
nenls on lhe foice. The ILA ieviev of 2OO9 niIilaiy
liaining noled lhal lhe najoiily of heId exeicises veie
lesl-oiienled and ieseaich-oiienled.
12
One of lhe
nosl signihcanl expIoialoiy exeicises slailed aiound
lhal line vas lhe LIANHL seiies exeicises. This ex-
eicise expIoied lhealei-lased infoinalized liaining
vilh ieaI foices and nade consideialIe piogiess in
upgiading joinl connand concepls, connandei pio-
hciency and foin.
13
The iesuIls of lhose expeiinenls
and viilings aie sIovIy leing incoipoialed inlo nev
conlal nelhods foi lhe foice.
The ILA has aIso gained sone knovIedge in joinl
opeialions fion ils inleiaclion vilh olhei counliies
in liIaleiaI and nuIliIaleiaI exeicises. These have af-
foided lhe ILA Iessons Ieained fion olheis in lhe ai-
eas of connand and conlioI, niIilaiy pIanning, and
execulion. The nain focus of lhe exeicises has leen on
counleileiioiisn, seaich and iescue, counleipiiacy,
and sone aii opeialions. We aie Iess cIeai on hov lhe
Iessons fion lhose liaining evenls aie foinaIized inlo
ILA ieguIai liaining oi even incoipoialed inlo aca-
denic delales on concepl deveIopnenl.
14
One of lhe liggesl chaIIenges lo oveicone al lhal
line, in lhe voids of Chen Zhaohai, diiecloi of lhe
MiIilaiy Ains and Tiaining Depailnenl of lhe Cen-
eiaI Slaff Depailnenl, vas lhe ciealion of lhe iighl
opeialionaI enviionnenl lo liain joinl opeialions,
specihcaIIy one lhal incIuded liaining undei a ieaI-
islic conpIex eIeclionagnelic enviionnenl (CLML)
and infoinalized enviionnenl. The ILA needed lo
liansfoin fion conducling liadilionaI cooidinaled
176
liaining lo inlegialed infoinalized joinl liaining lhal
iesenlIed cIose-lo-acluaI-conlal condilions.
15
The
ILA has nodeinized sone of ils conlined ains and
laclicaI liaining lases and nalionaI IeveI liaining lases
ly fosleiing lhis lype of conpIex enviionnenl as veII
as expanding lhe infiasliucluie lo incIude sinuIalion
and onIine liaining.
16
ILA effoil lovaid joinl opeialions since 2OO8 has
cenleied on lhiee aieas: deveIoping lhe expeilise of
acadenic facuIly in lhe niIilaiy educalionaI inslilu-
lions, gelling ILA connandeis and slaff lo lhink in
leins of joinl liaining ialhei lhan conlined ains
liaining, and deveIoping infoinalion syslens and
naleiiaI soIulions lo faciIilale joinl connand. We viII
piesenl specihc exanpIes vheie lhese deveIopnenls
aie happening acioss China and piovide, vheie avaiI-
alIe, specihc liaining evenls iIIuslialing hov lhe ILA
has pul lhese deveIopnenls inlo effecl. Aflei oui as-
sessnenl of joinl opeialions deveIopnenls acioss Chi-
na, ve viII discuss vheie lhe Chinese see lhenseIves
in lhis Iong-lein niIilaiy liansfoinalion. We viII
concIude vilh sone of lhe chaIIenges lhey sliII face in
slandaidizing lhe infoinalion syslens and eslalIish-
ing and slandaidizing lhe foinaI liaining oiganiza-
lions and sliucluies lo push leyond seivice-specihc
liaining inlo liue joinl opeialions liaining.
'+!"'")"'@+$A (?$+&%! $+* $($*%D'(
#%O@#D!
In 2OO6, Hu }inlao issued guidance on liansfoining
ILA liaining.
17
One aspecl of lhis guidance vas in-
pioving and expanding lhe capaliIilies of connand
acadenies lo liain connandeis and slaff on joinl op-
eialions concepls. Ioi lhe nosl pail, lhe cuiiicuIa of
177
ILA nid- and senioi-IeveI acadenic inslilulions sliII
focused on liaining connandeis foi conlined ains
opeialions, and lheie veie fev expeils on joinl opeia-
lions anong lhe facuIly.
In iesponse, lolh seivice-IeveI and nalionaI-IeveI
acadenies undeilook nodeinizalion and upgiades.
These incIuded ievising lhe cuiiicuIun lo ieecl joinl
opeialions enphasis, hiiing insliuclois vilh lhe iighl
expeiience, adding facuIly vho aie alIe lo liansIale
joinl opeialions inlo opeialionaI expeiience foi a pai-
licuIai seivice, sending acadenics lo pailicipale in Iive
liaining evenls, lolh lo conducl hands-on liaining and
lo olseive lhe chaIIenges lhe foice face in inpIenenl-
ing joinl opeialionaI concepls, and sending acadenics
oveiseas lo gain expeiience fion olhei counliies. Ac-
lions lo inpIenenl lhis change incIude:
- The ILA Aii Ioice Connand Acadeny adopl-
ed nev lexllooks in 2OO8 and added couises on
joinl opeialions, aii and space opeialions, and
aii foice infoinalion opeialions. The acadeny
aIso deveIoped onIine couises foi seIf-sludy on
joinl opeialions undei infoinalized condilions
and canpaign confionlalion undei conpIex
eIeclionagnelic enviionnenls.
18
- The Shijiazhuang Ainy Connand CoIIege
eslalIished a laseIine cuiiicuIun on joinl op-
eialionaI concepls, incIuding couises on sislei
seivices equipnenl knovIedge, opeialionaI
lheoiy, and joinl opeialions connand skiIIs.
19
Olhei polenliaI iefoins nay le sluck in lhe
pioposaI slage.
- The Diiecloi of lhe Teaching and Reseaich Of-
hce foi lhe Nanjing Ainy Connand Acadeny
offeied suggeslions in 2OO8 on hov lo consoIi-
178
dale iesouices, inpiove faciIilies, and iesoIve
suppoil piolIens foi liaining of nid- and se-
nioi-IeveI joinl opeialions connand peisonneI.
He caIIed foi a leaching cadie lhal has nasleied
lhe joinl opeialions concepls, assigning fionl-
Iine soIdieis inlo leaching posilions, ialhei lhan
caieei acadenics, and deveIoping lIue leans
lo poiliay opponenl in sinuIalion exeicises.
2O
- Majoi CeneiaI Cha }inIu, fion lhe Depailnenl
of Opeialions Theoiy and ReguIalions Reseaich
al lhe Chinese Acadeny of MiIilaiy Science,
pioposed sending facuIly lo unils conducling
vaihghling expeiinenls, vhich he feIl vouId
lenehl lolh sides.
21
- Wang Xilin, piesidenl of lhe NalionaI Defense
Univeisily (NDU), viole in 2OO9 aloul a nun-
lei of inilialives lo luin NDU inlo a nuIlidisci-
pIine joinl connand univeisily. These incIuded
inviling ienovned expeils and fanous piofes-
sois lo Iead acadenic Iecluies, sending expeils
and piofessois lo unils foi an exlended peiiod
of line lo hnd oul lhe ieaIily and needs of lhe
unils and pionole inlei-univeisily coopeia-
lion, and exlending lhe cIassioon lo olhei in-
slilulions of Ieaining oulside of lhe Ainy.
22
- Majoi CeneiaI He Lei, diiecloi of lhe Depail-
nenl of Opeialion Theoiies and Docliines
Reseaich of lhe Acadeny of MiIilaiy Science
(AMS) in 2O1O, aIso pioposed inviling veII-
knovn expeils lo shaie lheii knovIedge of
joinl opeialions.
23
CIeaiIy lhe effoils aie nol pioducing iapid iesuIls,
judging fion conlinued caIIs foi noie inpiovenenl.
In 2O1O, Hu }inlao exhoiled NDU lo slep up lhe cuIli-
179
valion of ofhceis foi connanding joinl opeialions, in
lhe spiiil of lhe guideIines of lhe Iiflh IIenaiy Session
of lhe 17lh Connunisl Iaily of China (CIC) CenliaI
Connillee.
24
In lhe pasl 2 yeais, lheie has leen Iess ie-
poiling on specihc acadeny iefoin effoils and noie
on oveiaII CSD guidance lo iefoin niIilaiy educalion
inslilulions, oplinize lheii sliucluies, iaise lhe quaI-
ily of insliuclion, and inlensify exisling iefoins.
25
In
2O12, lhe CMC issued lhe 2O2O MiIilaiy SchooI and
Lducalion Refoin and DeveIopnenl Iiogian Oul-
Iine (2O2O +[|||[1j|;),
Iaying oul lhe deveIopnenl of lhese inslilulions foi
lhe nexl 1O yeais.
26

"#$'+'+& F@'+" (@DD$+*%#!
$+* ?%$*g)$#"%#! !"$OO
Connandeis and slaff aie seen as lhe vilaI Iink
in lhe ILAs aliIily lo hghl undei infoinalized con-
dilions.
27
The chaIIenge is nol in dehning lhe quaIi-
lies lhose connandeis needed lo possess, lul ialhei
liansfoining lheii nodes of lhoughl fion concepls
suilalIe foi hghling vais undei nechanized condi-
lions lo lhose suiled lo infoinalized condilions. De-
spile lhe effoils lovaid lellei acadenic insliuclion
discussed alove, Chinese Ieadeis sliII do nol feeI con-
hdenl lhal connandeis and slaff have lhe iequiied
IeveI of expeilise, and il ienains a cenliaI poinl of en-
phasis al aII IeveIs of ofhcei deveIopnenl.
CSD pulIished a nunlei of poIicy docunenls
in 2OO8 lo sel lhe slandaids foi ofhcei deveIopnenl,
undei iuliics such as Measuies foi DeepIy Iush-
ing Ioivaid lhe CuIlivalion of TaIenled Connand-
ing IeisonneI foi }oinl Opeialions (,/|{
,||;/){[]g.{,||;/|(
18O
){|) and ModeIs foi CuIlivaling Coie
QuaIily and CapaliIilies of TaIenled Connanding
IeisonneI foi }oinl Opeialions ({,||;/
|(){|). The 2O1O Nolice aloul Cai-
iying LxpeiinenlaI }oinl Teaching and }oinl Tiaining
()j),)[) iequiied acadenies
lo conlinue expeiinenling and iefoining lhe educa-
lionaI infiasliucluie lo pioduce lhe appiopiiale soil
of connand peisonneI.
28
The niIilaiy acadenic voiId aIso deveIoped as-
sessnenls of lhe quaIilies iequiied in joinl opeialions
connandeis. In 2OO9, ailicIes fion lhe Iiesidenl of
lhe Nanjing Ainy Connand Acadeny and fion
Sun Naixiang, a ieseaichei al AMS, discussed lhe
chaiacleiislics desiied of joinl opeialions connand-
ing peisonneI, lolh ieaching lhe unsuipiising con-
cIusion lhal connandeis cannol nake piopei use of
opeialionaI foices and advanced veaponiy vilhoul
exlensive knovIedge of joinl opeialions.
29
SiniIai as-
sessnenls appeai in lhe poIilicaI voik syslen, vhich
has iesponsiliIily foi ofhcei peisonneI issues in lhe
opeialionaI foices. Cai Yongning, a piofessoi al lhe
MiIilaiy IeisonneI Managenenl Sludies Depailnenl
of lhe Xian IoIilicaI Acadeny, viole in 2O11 aloul
cuIlivaling connanding ofhceis foi joinl opeialions.
3O

An ailicIe on lhe desiied chaiacleiislics of joinl con-
nandeis viillen ly lhe vice piesidenl of AMS in 2OO9
suggesls lhal having expeiiences in vaiied posls, le-
ing piohcienl in lheii seivice and ieIaliveIy faniIiai
vilh lhe speciaIlies of olhei seivices, leing exposed
lo lhe civiIian secloi and pailicipaling in inleinalionaI
exchanges nighl assisl connandeis in enliacing
joinl opeialions concepls.
31
Looking al lhe ILA Iead-
eiship in lhe Iasl 1O yeais, pailicuIaiIy lhose lhal iose
lo lhe lop IeveIs in 2O12, ve see lhal nosl, if nol aII,
181
have spenl sone line vilhin lheii seivice, al a niIi-
laiy iegion headquaileis, and in one of lhe geneiaI
depailnenls, essenliaIIy neeling nosl of lhe chaiac-
leiislics speIIed oul in 2OO9. Sone of lhese individuaIs
have iecenl piaclicaI opeialionaI expeiience in deaI-
ing vilh inleinaI ciises. Ian ChangIong Ied lhe ies-
cue opeialions in lhe Yanglze Rivei ooding in 1998,
and Xu QiIiang Ied lhe iescue opeialions duiing lhe
2OO8 Chinese lIizzaid in cenliaI and soulhein China.
Li Shining connanded lhe ieIief effoils duiing lhe
2OO9 Wenchuan eailhquake. AddilionaIIy, aloul haIf
of lhe cuiienl Ieadeis aie giaduales of lhe NalionaI
Defense Univeisily.
32
Il does nol appeai lhal lhe ILA
has lhis assignnenl pallein a foinaI iequiienenl foi
pionolion lo lhe lop echeIons, lul il does nol seen
faifelched lhal il couId do so in lhe fuluie.
Mid- and uppei-IeveI acadenies have inpIenenl-
ed a vaiiely of sleps lo insliII a joinl nindsel in lheii
sludenls.
- In 2OO9, ILA NDU asseiled lhal ovei 95 peicenl
of lhe connandeis al and alove gioup ainy
IeveI have leen liained ly NDU and aie lheie-
foie capalIe of connanding joinl opeialions.
33

The univeisily iequiies sludenls lo pailicipale
in exeicises vilh acluaI niIilaiy unils duiing
vhich sludenls fion aII niIilaiy lianches foi-
nuIale joinl opeialionaI pIans.
34
- In 2O1O, Majoi CeneiaI He Lei, diiecloi of lhe
AMS Depailnenl of OpeialionaI Theoiy and
DocliinaI Reseaich lioughl AMS expeils lo
acadenic Iessons lo inpail joinl opeialions
knovIedge lo ofhceis and nen lo heIp lhen
fuilhei undeisland and giasp lhe fealuies and
palleins of joinl opeialions.
35
182
- The Nanjing MiIilaiy Region (MR) has oiga-
nized concenlialed liaining of joinl hiepovei
cooidinalois as a foin of liaining foi joinl op-
eialion connanding peisonneI. Nanjing MR
cIains lhal ly 2O12, neaiIy 2,OOO connandeis
had laken pail in siniIai exeicise oiganized ly
lhe iegion and lhal eveiy conlal unil al lhe di-
vision oi liigade IeveI in lhe Nanjing lhealei
has lvo oi noie joinl slaff ofhceis vilh such
expeiience.
36
One iecenl veII pulIicized connand and slaff
liaining evenl vas lhe }une 2O12 exeicise }oinl Ldu-
calion 2O12-QULSHAN (2O12-]P). The goaI
of lhis expIoialoiy exeicise vas lo enhance lhe joinl
opeialionaI capaliIily of lhe niIilaiy connanding
peisonneI. Il invoIved sludenls fion 19 acadenies
and incIuded lhe use of an inlegialed connand
infoinalion syslen and a Iive foice diiII lo pio-
nole joinl piaclice.
37
Oulside lhe acadenic selling,
ve have olseived a handfuI of niIilaiy exeicises lhal
addiess issues of joinl connand. Lxeicise Mission Ac-
lion 2O1O (||2O1O) enphasized joinl canpaign
connand, ainy and aii foice Iong-iange naneuveis,
joinl hiepovei allack, conpiehensive defense, and
piecision suppoil.
38

Lven vilh lhe incieased liaining enphasis on joinl
opeialions, lhe foice sliII faces ciilicisns of lhe aliIily
of connandeis al Iovei IeveIs lo peifoin even lasic
lasks of joinl connand, accoiding lo Iessons Ieained
in lhe QULSHAN exeicise.
39
Anolhei iecenl ciilicisn
cones fion lhe Iiesidenl of lhe Shijiazhuang Ainy
Acadeny, vho Ianenls lhal cadels have lheoielio-
caI liaining lul Iack lhe opeialionaI expeiience gained
lhiough joinl exeicises.
4O
We iead lhis as saying lhal,
183
despile effoils lo incuIcale lhe lasic concepls of joinl
opeialions in an acadenic selling, connandeis and
slaff conlinue lo faII shoil in lheii aliIily lo Iead joinl
opeialions invoIving acluaI foices.
'+O@#D$"'@+ >A$"O@#D! "@ O$('A'"$"%
F@'+" @>%#$"'@+!
The ILA deens il necessaiy lul nol sufhcienl foi
connanding ofhceis and slaff lo undeisland joinl
concepls and le alIe lo appIy lhen in acluaI opeia-
lions. As inpoilanl as lhe hunan dinension is, lhe
ILA Ieained fion olseiving U.S. opeialions lhal ap-
piopiiale lechnoIogy lo suppoil connand funclions
is indispensalIe lo lhe conducl of joinl opeialions. In
lhe 11lh Iive Yeai IIan (IYI), lhe ILA seivices and
CSD expIoied naleiiaI soIulions lo enalIe joinl op-
eialions connand. Sone veie inlended lo faciIilale
joinl opeialions slaff liaining in acadenies oi heId ex-
eicises, vhiIe olheis veie inlended lo le opeialionaI
connand infoinalion syslens foi lhe foice. Such
syslens, vhich lhe ILA caIIs inlegialed connand
pIalfoins (||`, ICI), aIIov foi ieaI line
nasleiy of lhe lallIeheId silualion vhiIe sinuIlane-
ousIy enalIing connandeis lo connand lheii foices.
In addilion lo connunicalions nodes, connand len-
pIales, and connand decision aids, lhese syslens in-
legiale inleIIigence and ieconnaissance dala, vealhei
and geospaliaI infoinalion, and olhei looIs usefuI lo
lhe connandei and his slaff.
41
The ILA conducled
concepl and equipnenl lesling foi nevIy heIded ICIs
in a nunlei of exeicises in 2OO9, aIlhough iniliaI pio-
duclion and depIoynenl lo lhe opeialionaI foice does
nol yel appeai conpIele.
42
Many unils lhal have ie-
ceived lhe nev syslens aie nol yel piohcienl in lheii
184
use, and sone have conpIained lhal lhe syslens faiI
lo neel expeclalion and lhal fuilhei inpiovenenls
aie needed.
43
- Soneline lefoie 2OO8, Majoi CeneiaI Cha }in-
Iu of AMS noled lhal lhe foundalion foi joinl
liaining is lhal infoinalion nelvoiks nusl le
inleiconnecled, and discussed inpiovenenls
needed lo suppoil such liaining.
44
- A 2OO8 ailicIe on liaining vilh ICIs vained
lhal:
joinl liaining nusl le caiiied oul on lhe lasis of
a ieIialIe infoinalion nelvoik, vhich shouId le
nade idenlicaI lo lhe connand infoinalion sys-
len lo le used in vailine if possilIe.
45
- An ailicIe on lhe 2OO9 niIilaiy-vide joinl liain-
ing cooidinalion confeience hosled ly CSD
undeipins lhe use of lhe inlegialed connand
pIalfoin. This pIalfoin:
liings aloul evoIulionaI changes foi connand
nelhods, il is inpeialive lhal ve give fuII pIay lo
lhe inlegialed connand pIalfoin and advance
lhe dynanic inlegialion of aII niIilaiy lianch-
es, aII opeialionaI unils and aII opeialionaI
eIenenls.
46
- The diiecloi of lhe Tiaining Depailnenl
al lhe Nanjing Ainy Connand Acadeny,
vhen discussing key concepls of joinl opeia-
lions undei infoinalized condilions in 2O1O,
louled lhe aliIily of nelvoik syslens lo sup-
poil lhe infoinalion shaiing, connand deci-
sionnaking, oveiaII joinl aclions, cooidinalion
and foice gioupings lhal aie essenliaI lo joinl
opeialions.
47
185
- Chen Rongdi, ieseaich feIIov in lhe Opeialion-
aI Theoiy and Docliine Reseaich Depailnenl
al AMS, discussed in 2O1O lhe connandeis
iequiienenl foi high lechnoIogy syslens lhal
enalIe snoolh, efhcienl and uninleiiupled
connand.
48
- In Oclolei 2O1O, lhe CMC issued lhe Conpie-
hensive IIan foi Refoin of MiIilaiy Tiaining
in lhe Ieiiod of lhe 12lh Iive Yeai IIan (
)),[), vhich ai-
ianges cuiienl and neai fuluie niIilaiy liain-
ing iefoin deveIopnenls. In lhis docunenl lhe
CMC ie-enphasizes lhe need foi infoinalion
syslen-lased connand and slaff connand
liaining.
49
The nosl conciele indicalions of lhe use of lhe
connand infoinalion syslens aie olseived duiing
exeicise and liaining evenls slailing in 2O1O. The ad-
vanced slales of lhese pIalfoins suggesl lhal expIo-
ialion and deveIopnenl of lhese syslens have leen
ongoing and lhe ILA vas nov al lhe lechnoIogy den-
onslialion slages.
5O
We have seen vhal ve leIieve aie
denonslialion evenls foi senioi Ieadeis, shoving off
nol onIy lhe capaliIilies of lhe syslens lhenseIves,
lul aIso useis aliIily lo enpIoy lhese syslens lo con-
ducl opeialions.
- In exeicise Vanguaid 2O1O, lhe }inan MiIilaiy
Region conducled a 5-day lhealei IeveI exeicise
of aii defense foices duiing vhich:
via lhe lhealei-IeveI inlegialed joinl opeialionaI
connand pIalfoin lhey liansnilled connand,
aii inleIIigence, and eneny infoinalion lo vaii-
ous Iocalions and in ieaI line, ieceived infoina-
lion upIoaded lo aII connanding eIenenls.
51
186
- The execulive diiecloi of Lxeicise Mission Ac-
lion 2O1O and Depuly Chief of Slaff of lhe ei-
jing MR said lhal lhe appIicalion of lhe inle-
gialed connand pIalfoin has ienoved a Iol of
inleinediaiy Iinks in issuing connand docu-
nenls, oideis and insliuclions duiing Chinese
niIilaiy exeicises in 2O1O.
52
- Sun Dayong, chief of lhe opeialions and liain-
ing seclion of a gioup ainy in }inan MR, pailic-
ipaled in a nuIli-seivice exeicise duiing vhich
pioposaIs foinuIaled ly lhe slaff peisonneI
of aII lhe seivices, vas senl lo lhe connand-
eis al lhe vaiious IeveI lhiough lhe inlegialed
pIalfoin.
53
- }oinl-Lducalion 2O12-QULSHAN iepoiledIy
used a nev 'inlegialed connand infoinalion
syslen foi lhe hisl line.
54
- A Lanzhou MR gioup ainy appIied lhe inle-
gialed connand pIalfoin lo oiganize a diiII
in }une 2O12. The connandei opened lhe
infoinalion connand syslen in fionl of hin
and enleied confionlalionaI insliuclions. He
vas aIso alIe lo dispIay IeveI and slalus of aII
lallaIion suloidinale lo lhe aii defense gioup
peifoinance veapons and deleclion of aii silu-
alion. The goaI of lhe exeicise vas lo foice
connandeis al aII IeveIs lo nake decisions
lased on infoinalion syslens accoiding lo lhe
gioup ainys chief of slaff.
55
- Chengdu MR foices conducled a nuIliseivice
exeicise in Augusl 2O12 duiing vhich a liigade
connandei senl oul infoinalion lhiough lhe
inlegialed connand pIalfoin.
56
187
These lechnicaI advances aII focus on pioviding lhe
slialegic and opeialionaI IeveI Ieadeiship vilh noie
infoinalion foi decisionnaking lul do nol aIIov oi
faciIilale lhe deIegalion of lhal decisionnaking lo lhe
Iovei IeveIs. In lhe Iong iun, lhese deveIopnenls jusl
cieale a foice lhal is lechnoIogicaIIy advanced and
noie cenliaIized lul nol agiIe enough lo iespond in
ciises.
57
Theie is sliII sone ciilicisn, pailicuIaiIy al lhe
senioi-IeveI schooIs, of connandeis inaliIily lo use
lechnoIogy effecliveIy in joinl exeicises. In 2O12, lhe
piesidenl of lhe Shijiazhuang Connand Acadeny
said lhe ongoing iequiienenl foi cadels lo le veII
veised in infoinalion lechnoIogy and use lhe con-
nand infoinalion syslen lo inpiove infoinalion
syslen lased connand hghling skiIIs suggesled
lhal lhis is an aiea foi fuilhei deveIopnenl vilhin
lhe foice.
58
"?% O)")#% @O F@'+" @>%#$"'@+!
'+ "?% >A$
Al lhe end of 2O1O, China CenliaI TeIevision
(CCTV) inleivieved Chinas Minislei of NalionaI De-
fense, Liang CuangIie, aloul Chinas niIilaiy deveI-
opnenl. In lhis inleiviev, Liang discussed lhe fuluie
of Chinas ainy and Iays oul vhal he caIIs a lhiee
slep lIuepiinl. In lhis lIuepiinl, Chinas niIilaiy viII
achieve najoi piogiess in infoinalizalion luiIding ly
2O2O.
59
Accoiding lo lhis slandaid lineIine, hisl ailic-
uIaled pulIicIy in lhe 2OO6 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
The hisl slep is lo Iay a soIid foundalion ly 2O1O, lhe
second is lo nake najoi piogiess aiound 2O2O, and
lhe lhiid is lo lasicaIIy ieach lhe slialegic goaI of
luiIding infoinalionized ained foices and leing ca-
palIe of vinning infoinalionized vais ly lhe nid-
21sl cenluiy.
6O
188
The ILA has nade onIy nodesl piogiess lovaid
achieving lhe 2O2O goaI, and has a nunlei of huidIes
yel lo oveicone lo pioduce a foice lhal can hghl high
lechnoIogy vais. One najoi olslacIe is lhe Iack of
slandaidized equipnenl lhal Iinks aII lhe seivice-spe-
cihc infoinalion connand pIalfoins lhal have leen
deveIoped lo dale. Second is lhe Iack of a ILA-vide
liaining sliucluie, oiganizalion, and nechanisns lo
sel lhe slandaids foi joinl opeialions skiIIs. This sec-
lion liiey expIoies lhese lvo chaIIenges and foie-
casls lhe effecl lhal oveiconing lhen couId have on
lhe foice.
The pasl 4 yeais have seen effoils ly aII seivices,
lianches, niIilaiy iegions, and acadenic inslilulions
lo deveIop, pioduce, and lesl equipnenl lhal neels
lhe key iequiienenl of inleiconneclivily in joinl op-
eialions.
61
As noled pieviousIy, lheie is sliII ciilicisn
anong liaineis and useis aloul lhe equipnenl faIIing
shoil of expeclalions. A ]icfangjun 8ac ailicIe discuss-
ing lhealei joinl liaining exhoiled unils lo nake good
use of a lhealei infoinalion syslen lo join logelhei
aII individuaI conlal foices, unils, and eIenenls and
lieak lhe infoinalion lechnoIogy laiiieis lhal sepa-
iale lhe ained foices in lhealei so lhal infoinalion
syslens aie Iinked and inleiopeialIe.
62
Accoiding lo
a 2O12 iepoil in lhe Cuangzhou 9&/H&/( N64+04 nevs-
papei, Chinese ained foices have piolIens oiganiz-
ing and conducling liaining due lo iesliiclions of lhe
oiganizalion sliucluie and lhe connand syslen,
and acadenies conlinue expIoialoiy effoils lo ovei-
cone lhal piolIen.
63
Duiing a 2O12 Lanzhou MR ex-
eicise, connandeis conpIained aloul inconvenience
and inslaliIily in lhe nev infoinalion syslens.
64
The
chief of lhe CSD Tiaining Depailnenl said in }anuaiy
189
2O12, lhal fuilhei deveIopnenl and ieseaich is needed
lo foinaIize and slandaidize lhe equipnenl lhal has
leen heIded and lo soIve piolIens encounleied using
il in liaining.
65

UnliI Iale-2O11, nosl deveIopnenls in joinl opeia-
lions lheoiy, liaining and exeicises veie Ied ly giound
foices ofhceis. Ciound-cenleied deveIopnenl of joinl
opeialions lheoiy has consliained lhe deveIopnenl
of navy, aii foice, and Second AiliIIeiy joinl docliine.
MuIliseivice pailicipalion in joinl exeicises has leen
Iiniled and consisls noie of cooidinaled aclion lhan
liue inlegialed opeialions. Accoiding lo Sun Dayong,
chief of lhe opeialions and liaining seclion of a gioup
ainy in }inan MR, in pievious joinl opeialions, lhe
Ainy used lo pIay lhe nain ioIe, and lhe Navy, Aii
Ioice, lhe Second AiliIIeiy jusl dispalched Iiaison of-
hceis as iepiesenlalives lo lhe Ainy connand posl
lo ieceive lasks assigned lo lhen.
66
MuIliseivice joinl
liaining has nol leen lhe Ieading foin of liaining foi
lhe foice.
67
ILA acadenics conlend lhal lo liuIy liansfoin lhe
foice lo neel lhe chaIIenges of infoinalized vaifaie,
joinl opeialions deveIopnenl needs lo lecone a nuI-
liseivice effoil. In eaiIy-2O12, IRC Ieadeiship ieoiga-
nized and ienaned lhe CSD MiIilaiy Tiaining and
Ains Depailnenl~foineiIy focused soIeIy on giound
foices liaining~lo lhe MiIilaiy Tiaining Depailnenl,
oveiseeing aII seivices in oidei lo slienglhen lhe cen-
liaIized and unihed nanagenenl of liaining.
68
The
ieoiganizalion is inlended lo addiess lhe piolIen of
joinl opeialions concepl deveIopnenl and liaining le-
ing loo ainy cenliic and loo focused on conlined-
ains ialhei lhan liue joinl liaining.
69
The pionolion
of foui nongiound ofhceis lo lhe CMC in 2O12~Ad-
niiaI Wu ShengIi, CeneiaI Ma Xiaolian, CeneiaI Wei
19O
Ienghe, and CeneiaI Wu QiIiang~is anolhei ieec-
lion of eijings effoil lo enliace lhe diveisily and
lenehls of a liuIy joinl foice.
7O
As of eaiIy-2O13, lheie
is IillIe iepoiling of vhal effecl lhis ieoiganizalion has
had on liaining iefoin and liaining execulion in 2O12.
This nay le addiessed in lhe annuaI CSD liaining
viap-ups noinaIIy pulIished eaiIy in lhe yeai.
AIong vilh eslalIishing a cenliaI gioup lo Iead
joinl opeialions deveIopnenl and liaining, oslensilIy
opeialing alove lhe inleiesls of any singIe seivice, lhe
ILA aIso needs lo noinaIize liaining nechanisns lo
ensuie lhe enliie foice liains lo lhe sane slandaids.
Iiioi lo ciealion of lhe MiIilaiy Tiaining Depailnenl,
joinl liaining vas execuled independenlIy vilhin lhe
seivices, vilh fev aII-seivice, aII-eIenenl joinl exei-
cises. RegionaI seivice-specihc liaining faciIilies and
laclicaI liaining lases adopled lheii ovn expeiinenls
lo liain lheii unils in joinl opeialions.
71
Theie have
leen nany caIIs foi nechanisns lo noinaIize liain-
ing acioss lhe seivices.
72
Ovei lhe Iasl 2 yeais, aII eIe-
nenls vilhin lhe ILA inlensihed ieseaich and expIo-
ialion of joinl liaining undei infoinalized condilions
lo cone up vilh a nuIli-seivice, aII-eIenenl liaining
iequiienenl.
73

Chen Zhaohai, lhen diiecloi of lhe MiIilaiy Tiain-
ing and Ains Depailnenl, said in 2O1O lhal vilhin
5 yeais lhe ILA vouId lasicaIIy eslalIish a liain-
ing syslens undei infoinalized condilions and have
ieguIaiized liaining undei cIose lo acluaI vai con-
dilions.
74
CSD MiIilaiy Tiaining Cuidance foi 2O12
specihed lhal joinl liaining sliucluies, oiganizalionaI
nanagenenl, and opeialing nechanisns veie lo le
luiIl and peifecled lhis yeai.
75
The inpacl of lhis cen-
liaIizalion and slandaidizalion viII IikeIy le ieecled
in lhe execulion of noie CSD- oi MR-Ied nuIliseivice
liaining evenls in lhe nexl fev yeais.
191
(.7 "I/: &/, "I/-/P
}oinl opeialions concepls have leen sIov lo de-
veIop in China as lhe niIilaiy and ils Ieadeiship had
lo adapl lo a iadicaIIy diffeienl vay of lhinking aloul
niIilaiy conicl. CenliaIized liaining guidance and
slandaidized equipnenl, aIong vilh lhe inpiove-
nenls lo acadenic liaining foi connand and slaff
peisonneI, nay piovide lhe iighl looIs and enviion-
nenl lo fuilhei lhe liansfoinalion lo vhich niIilaiy
Ieadeis aspiie. Lven lhen, calching up lo voiId slan-
daids of niIilaiy effecliveness viII iequiie lhe ILA lo
inleinaIize joinl opeialions concepls and appIy lhen
in noie ieaIislic, nuIliseivice liaining exeicises, even
on a snaII scaIe. UnliI lhey do, lheii aspiialion of
noie joinlness and inlegialion, najoi piogiess in in-
foinalizalion ly 2O2O, and fuII nodeinizalion foi na-
lionaI defense and lhe niIilaiy ly 2O5O, viII ienain a
dislanl goaI.
%+*+@"%! R (?$>"%# e
1. Infoinalion Ofhce of lhe Slale CounciI, Cninas Na|icna| Dc-
fcnsc in 2006, ejing, China: IeopIes RepulIic of China, Decenlei
2OO6, avaiIalIe fion uuu.cnina.crg.cn/cng|isn/fca|urcs/occ|/194421.
6$0.
2. Hu Yongzhu |, |{,[;/
[L[))_ (A Iev Thoughls on uiIding a Coips of TaI-
enled IndividuaIs foi Inlegialed }oinl Opeialions), ,|
]|1[| (Na|icna| Dcfcnsc and Arncd |crccs 8ui|ding in |nc
9'! @'/$+%1 &/, 9'! >('), ;)2)$&%1 >HH&)%-, VoI. 1, eijing, China:
MiIilaiy Yiven Iiess, 2OO8, pp. 1OO-1O3. AilicIe seIecled fion ;)2-
i|arq Ar| ]curna| Z, dale unknovn.
192
3. Zhou Sen j), j,|]j|
(Hu }inlao Iul Ioivaid lhe Nev Hisloiic Missions of Oui
Ioices in lhe Nev Cenluiy and Nev Lia), P|A Dai|q onIine,
Oclolei 8, 2OO8, avaiIalIe fion uuu.cninani|.ccn.cn/si|c1/xup-
dxu/2008-10/08/ccn|cn|_1502152.n|n.
4. TechnicaIIy, lhiee seivices () and one lianch (|)
lhal enjoys lhe slalus of a seivice.
5. Zhan Yu ,, A Sludy of Inlegialed }oinl Opeialions,
]| (;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'), }une 2OO7, pp. 11-21.
6. Chen ingde |)j, Inlensify Sludy of MiIilaiy Theoiy
To Lnsuie QuaIily Ainy uiIding: Leaining Iion Thoughl and
Iiaclice of lhe Coie of lhe Thiee Ceneialions of Iaily Leadeiship
in Sludying MiIilaiy Theoiy, ]| (Mi|i|arq Scicncc),
3-1997, Augusl 2O, 1997, pp. 49-56.
7. Liu Xiaohua [', Wu DiIun j, Liu Iengan y[,
and Wu Tiannin y[, )|,[[,~]
),)|]]]| (Iiofound Refoin lhal
Iossesses Slialegic Signihcance~Sunnaiy of lhe ILAs MiIilaiy
Tiaining Tiansfoining fion Mechanizalion lo eing Undei In-
foinalized Condilions), P|A Dai|q, Seplenlei 2, 2OO9, avaiIalIe
fion cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/xupdxu/2009-09/02/ccn|cn|_4032116.
6$0, Mei Wanshan ]P, ,]{),+
|,y (In Oidei lo Inlensify }oinl Tiaining Undei
Infoinalionized Condilions We Musl Sliive foi ieaklhioughs
in Ioui Key Aieas), in ,|]|1[| (9&$)4/&2 ?'-
fcnsc and Arncd |crccs 8ui|ding in |nc Ncu Ccn|urq and Ncu Agc),
;)2)$&%1 >HH&)%-, VoI. 1, eijing, China: MiIilaiy Yiven Iiess, 2OO8,
pp. 533-536.
8. Wang Xiaohua |' and Sun Yefei |, On IiolIens
of CuIluiaI DeveIopnenl foi }oinl Opeialions vilh ILA Chaiac-
leiislics, ]| (;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'), ApiiI 2O11, pp. 92-1OO.
9. Zhou Xiaoyu j| and Ieng uven ,|, eds., {
, (A Ncu Tnccrq cf ]cin| Opcra|icns), eijing, China: Na-
lionaI Defense Univeisily Iiess, 2OO3, pp. 212-236, Zhan Yu ,,
A Sludy of Inlegialed }oinl Opeialions, Wang }iannin, [
Ioolpiinls of lhe Ioieiunnei, Znanqi 8ac ,,| (Chengdu MiIi-
193
laiy Region), Ieliuaiy 16, 2OO6, Liu }ixian [,], Innovalion
and DeveIopnenl in lhe Reseaich of asic Issues of }oinl Opeia-
lions, ]| (;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'), Maich 2OO9, pp. 1-17.
1O. Liu Iengan [ and Wu Tiannin y[, |
),_|;`( (Nev-Ceneialion 'OulIine of
MiIilaiy Tiaining and LvaIualion IionuIgaled), P|A Dai|q on-
Iine, }uIy 25, 2OO8, p. 1, avaiIalIe fion uuu.cninani|.ccn.cn/si|c1/
xupdxu/2008-07/25/ccn|cn|_1378839.n|n, Liu Iengan [ and
Hu }unhua [, j|]_,_,~]]
),|], ,),[,), |)j
(Lnhance lhe Infoinalion-Syslen-ased Syslen of Syslens
Opeialion CapaliIily, Cieale Nev Tiaining ModeIs Undei Infoi-
nalized Condilions~ILA HoIds Confeience on Deepening MiIi-
laiy Tiaining Refoin, Chen ingde Allends lhe Meeling), P|A
?&)21 onIine, Maich 29, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&0)2"*40"*/3
jfjonap/ccn|cn|/2011-03/29/ccn|cn|_53681.n|n.
11. Cao Xiaoping | '$ &2. `[[ [ |
2O1O+{,], (Slais Shine Dovn on lhe Vasl IIal
Lands and lhe Moon IIoods lhe Cieal Riveis: Looking ack on
lhe 2O1O MiIilaiy-Wide }oinl Conlined Opeialions Lxeicise),
j| (]icfangjun Huaoac), }anuaiy 6, 2O11, p. 6, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.p|apic.ccn.cn/|x|/201101o/201101048.n|n.
12. Li Yun \z and Liu Iengan [, +]
||,)2OO9+]]j),[ (Sludying
vaifaie in lhe nidsl of exeicises, undeislanding lhe couise of
niIilaiy liaining iefoin fion lhe peispeclive of Chinese niIi-
laiy exeicises since 2OO9), J)/6+& 9'!- #'%G)*' onIine, Decen-
lei 1O, 2OO9, avaiIalIe fion ncus.xinnuanc|.ccn/ni|/2009-12/10/
ccn|cn|_12625541.n|n.
13. China CenliaI TeIevision Nevs ChanneI lioadcasl, }uIy 4,
2O12, San Li ] and Iu Kaiqiang ]), j,[{),
/;j|| (IeopIes Lileialion Ainy Thealei-ased
}oinl Tiaining Lnleis lhe Ihase of NoinaI Opeialion), @6)/&
C'G)'! 9'!- onIine, Ieliuaiy 27, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)-
narcticuncus.ccn/crn-ucoapp/dcc/dccDc|ai|Crca|c.jsp?cc|uid=4c|in
did=18cdccid=101242668. AIso see Tian Zhong !, ,[).
,,[(, (Thealei }oinl Tiaining: Celling Ready
foi lhe Iuluie '}oinl-Cenliic Opeialions), P|A Dai|q onIine,
194
Decenlei 8, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&0)2"*40"*/3MHMB0&A3
ccn|cn|/2011-12/08/ccn|cn|_73556.n|n.
14. ,],t-2O12(]|,[{),|)| (Sino
-Thai Maiine Ioices }oinl Tiaining 'Iue AssauIl-2O12 egins),
J)/6+& 9'!- #'%G)*' 4/2)/', May 11, 2O12, avaiIaalIe fion ncus.xi-
nnuanc|.ccn/ucr|d/2012-05/11/c_111936372.n|n, China, ThaiIand
Conducl Anli-leiioiisn Maiiline Lxeicise, @6)/& ?&)21 onIine
in LngIish, May 25, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&,&)21"*40"*/3
cnina/2012-05/25/ccn|cn|_15391488.n|n, Qian Xiaohu || and
Li Tang j, ',],t~2O1O(]|,[))( 'Iue
AssauIl-2O1O China-ThaiIand Maiines }oinl Tiaining Slails),
P|A Dai|q, Oclolei 29, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion 0)2)$&%1"A'4A2'"*40"
cn/G8/1076/52982/13077153.n|n|, Zhou Ieng and Zou Weiiong,
Wilnessing China-Indonesia Ainy SpeciaI Ioice }oinl DiiII,
P|A Dai|q onIine in LngIish, }une 2O, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion '/("
cninani|.ccn.cn/ncus-cnannc|s/cnina-ni|i|arq-ncus/2011-06/20/ccn-
|cn|_4454224.n|n, L Desheng ;j| '$ &2. 1`|~2O12]
)) (A Look al lhe HighIighls of lhe 'Ieace Mission-2O12
MiIilaiy Lxeicise), P|A Dai|q onIine, }une 18, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion
|p.cninani|.ccn.cn/2012/2012-06/18/ccn|cn|_4898161.n|n, Lu Desh-
eng ;j| and Li Xiang ). |j~'j-2O11]
{),{], (}oining Hands lo Iighl Teiioiisn
and Inciease Iiiendship~A Quick Skelch of lhe 'Iiiendship-2O11
China-Iakislan }oinl Conpiehensive Anli-Teiioi Tiaining DiiII),
P|A Dai|q onIine, Novenlei 25, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion !4%2,"A'4A2'"
ccn.cn/G8/14549/16382359.n|n|, Ieng Chunnei, Wang CuangIi,
and Li Qinvei, 226(|,) 'j~2O1O [),.|
]{), (226 LIile Anlileiioiisn Tioops Iailicipale
in Iiiendship-2O1O~Hol Nevs of Sino-Iakislani Anlileiioiisn
}oinl Tiaining), Pccp|cs Dai|q onIine, }uIy 5, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion
cpc.pccp|c.ccn.cn/G8/64093/82429/83083/12050567.n|n|.
15. Liu Iengan and Zhao Zhongfan, .2O1O]),
|,)] (The CeneiaI Slaff Depailnenl: The
MiIilaiy Tiaining in 2O1O WiII Iocus on One IiIol Sile and Thiee
DiiIIs), J)/6+& 9'!- #'%G)*' onIine, }anuaiy 29, 2O1O, avaiI-
alIe fion ncus.xinnuanc|.ccn/ni|/2010-01/29/ccn|cn|_12897548.
6$0, }ia }ianyi '$ &2., ,,|.,|,];|~j
;[91{],Z),j]]|, (Ancienl
allIeheId in Deseil: ieakoul Conlal QuielIy egins~Recoid
of AcluaI Lvenls Conceining Tiansfoinalion of Zhuiihe Con-
195
lined Ains TaclicaI Tiaining ase vilhin eijing MiIilaiy Region
Tovaids Infoinalizalion), P|A Dai|q onIine, Maich 1O, 2O1O,
avaiIalIe fion uuu.cninani|.ccn.cn/jfjonap/ccn|cn|/2010-03/01/
ccn|cn|_21714.n|n.
16. }ia }ianyi, Dai Ieng, and Ieng Cuoxiong, ILA LxpIoies
Nev ModeI of Connand Tiaining, P|A Dai|q onIine in LngIish,
Maich 9, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion cng.cninani|.ccn.cn/ncus-cnannc|s/
cnina-ni|i|arq-ncus/2012-03/09/ccn|cn|_4826276.n|n, Sun Yefei |
, ]|,[|]|+ (Whal Does lhe US Inlend
ly lhe Inlioduclion of a Nev NalionaI Defense Slialegy Repoil`)
Zncngguc Qingnian 8ac onIine, }anuaiy 13, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion
zqo.cqc|.ccn/n|n|/2012-01/13/nu.D110000zgqno_20120113_2-09.
6$0, Liu Iengan and Cai Iengcheng, +,[)]|,
j|]~)1|||[]+[),
|{{ (AcceIeiale a Change in Conlal Slienglh Ceneialion
ModeI Duiing Deepening of Refoin~Diiecloi Chen Zhaohai
Iion MiIilaiy Tiaining and ianches Depailnenl Undei CeneiaI
Slaff Depailnenl Ansveis Queslions Iion This Repoilei Aloul
MiIilaiy Tiaining in Nev Yeai), P|A Dai|q onIine, }anuaiy 14,
2O11, avaiIalIe fion cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/xupdxu/2011-01/14/ccn-
|cn|_4368929.n|n.
17. Li Xucheng j '$ &2. )],|~]
|){,||;/){, (High-Ranking MiIilaiy
Ofhceis WaIk Iion Heie lo Iuluie allIeheIds~AcluaI Accounl
of Hov NalionaI Defense Univeisily |NDUj Slienglhens CuIliva-
lion of TaIenled IeisonneI foi Connanding }oinl Opeialions),
P|A Dai|q onIine, Oclolei 27, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion *6/"*6)/&0)2"
ccn.cn/xupdxu/2010-10/27/ccn|cn|_4321966.n|n, Tiansfoinalion
of ILA MiIilaiy Tiaining in Iasl Iive Yeais, P|A Dai|q onIine
in LngIish, Novenlei 3, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion '/("*6)/&0)2"*40"*/3
ncus-cnannc|s/cnina-ni|i|arq-ncus/2010-11/03/ccn|cn|_4327349.n|n.
18. Tan }ie , and Yang Chunyuan |], (}],
|)||, |||){||) (Io-
cus on lhe Infoinalionized allIeheId, AcceIeiale lhe Tiansfoi-
nalion of Teaching, lhe Aii Ioice Connand CoIIege CuIlivales
Thousands of Nev Type Connandeis), P|A Dai|q onIine, Sep-
lenlei 9, 2OO8, avaiIalIe fion uuu.cninani|.ccn.cn/si|c1/xup-
dxu/2008-09/09/ccn|cn|_1467847.n|n.
196
19. Zhang Iuqiang , +y|[,
||||j|j|[|;, (Iiess Ioi-
vaid vilh Teaching Refoin vhiIe ResoIving IiolIens, A Re-
coid of Lvenls as lhe Shijiazhuang Ainy Connand CoIIege Uses
lhe Scienlihc DeveIopnenl Concepl lo Cuide Managenenl and
Teaching), P|A Dai|q onIine, Novenlei 13, 2OO8, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.cninani|.ccn.cn/si|c1/zox|/2008-11/13/ccn|cn|_1544508.n|n.
2O. Wang Deyi j and Cheng Hongvei |-, A Sludy
of Tiaining foi Mid- and Senioi-LeveI }oinl Opeialions Connand
IeisonneI, ]| (;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'), Ieliuaiy 2OO8.
21. Cha }inIu [, {),{[|_ (A Recon-
sideialion of Issues in }oinl Tiaining) in ,|]|1[
| (NalionaI Defense and Ained Ioices uiIding in lhe Nev
Cenluiy and Nev Age), ;)2)$&%1 >HH&)%-, VoI. 1, eijing, China:
MiIilaiy Yiven Iiess, 2OO8, pp. 474-48O. AilicIe oiiginaIIy pul-
Iished in Z (Mi|i|arq Ar| ]curna|), dale unknovn.
22. Wang Xilin =), _j]|||;/){,[
| (IeisonaI Lxpeiience of lhe Slialegic Tiansfoinalion of
High-Ranking Connanding Ofhcei Tiaining of Oui Ainy),
P|A Dai|q onIine, }anuaiy 31, 2OO9, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&0)2"
ccn.cn/si|c1/zox|/2009-01/31/ccn|cn|_1634816.n|n, Ieng Chunnei
]], Li Xucheng j, and Liu Denao [j, )1]|
|, ]|){,||;/){,
(The RepulIic Raises Up a Nev Ceneialion Inliepid IhaIanx~A
Recoid of lhe Woik of lhe NalionaI Defense Univeisily in CuIli-
valing Connand TaIenl lo Slienglhen }oinl Opeialions), Pccp|cs
?&)21, Ieliuaiy 4, 2OO9, avaiIalIe fion ncus.xinnuanc|.ccn/pc|i-
|ics/2009-02/04/ccn|cn|_10761381.n|n, Iu Xi ,, Li }iaquan )
|, and Wu Tiannin y[, ] ',[|j [j, 1y;
[{,||;/){|([ (Long }ouiney of WaIk-
ing Tovaids 'Slialegic High Ciound~LxpIoialion and Iiaclice
of Lnliie Ained Ioices and Ained IoIice Unils foi CuIlivaling
TaIenled Connand IeisonneI foi }oinl Opeialions), P|A Dai|q
onIine, Maich 29, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&0)2"*40"*/3MHMB-
nap/ccn|cn|/2010-03/29/ccn|cn|_24022.n|n.
23. Hu }unhua (' and ao Cuojun ]], ]j.
],|:` ,||,1(
|.]"|, (Tianscending Seivices: Who WiII
197
Doninale Iuluie Infoinalized allIheIds`~Inleiviev Wilh Maj.
Cen. He Lei, diiecloi of lhe Depailnenl of Opeialions Theoiies
and Docliines Reseaich of lhe Acadeny of MiIilaiy Sciences
and Docloiale Sludenls Tuloi), P|A Dai|q onIine, Seplenlei 9,
2O1O, avaiIalIe fion cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/xupdxu/2010-09/09/ccn-
|cn|_4294544.n|n.
24. Chinas Top MiIilaiy Acadeny ToId lo Ioslei '}oinl Op-
eialions Connanding Ofhceis, J)/6+& 9'!- #'%G)*' in LngIish,
Oclolei 27, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion ncus.xinnuanc|.ccn/cng|isn2010/
cnina/2010-10/27/c_13578521.n|n.
25. Wu DiIun j and Liu Iengan [, +
[),, )]|,j|]_(}j
|]_,[_,,[),1|||
[ (The CeneiaI Slaff Depailnenl Maps Oul YeaiIy WhoIe-
MiIilaiy Tiaining Lxeicise Woik foi lhe Nev Yeai~Wilh AcceIei-
aling Tiansfoinalion of lhe Conlal Capacily Iioduclion ModeI
as lhe Iiinaiy Oljeclive, Iocus on Incieasing 'Syslen of Syslens
Opeialions CapaliIily on lhe asis of Infoinalion Syslens and
ConpiehensiveIy Inlensify Refoin of lhe Tiaining of Tioops and
of LducalionaI Inslilulions), P|A Dai|q onIine, }anuaiy 14, 2O11,
avaiIalIe fion cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/zc/2011-01/14/ccn|cn|_4507087.
6$0, Liu Iengan [, 2O12+),|
+[), (CeneiaI Slaff Depailnenl Issues
2O12 MiIilaiy Tiaining Diieclive, IIans MiIilaiy Tiaining foi aII
Ained Seivices in Nev Yeai), Xinnua 8cijing Scrticc, }anuaiy
11, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/jujj/2012-01/11/ccn-
|cn|_4766266.n|n, Liu Iengan [, ,]|),|
, ,)||[] (Iionoling lhe Tiansfoinalion of
MiIilaiy Tiaining ly uiIding On Oui Slienglhs~An Inleiviev
vilh Chen Zhaohai, Diiecloi of lhe CeneiaI Slaff MiIilaiy Tiain-
ing Depailnenl), P|A Dai|q onIine, }anuaiy 13, 2O12, avaiIalIe
fion cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/zc/2012-01/13/ccn|cn|_4767709.n|n, Liu
Iengan [, 1|(, [),1||
|[)|, |(|,]),,, (),
|||[[]g (Wilh lhe AppiovaI of Chaiinan
Hu and lhe CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission, lhe AII-ILA Concen-
lialed Tiaining Session on Refoining Tiaining in Conlal Unils
and Lducalion in MiIilaiy Acadenies Is HeId al lhe NalionaI De-
fense Univeisily), P|A Dai|q onIine, May 23, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.cninani|.ccn.cn/jfjonap/ccn|cn|/2012-05/23/ccn|cn|_5921.n|n.
198
26. Yang Xuguang | and Liu Iengan [,
+[|||j,],!,)||[] (Diav-
ing up a Iuepiinl foi lhe Nexl 1O Yeais of MiIilaiy SchooI Con-
sliuclion and DeveIopnenl~SpeciaI Inleiviev vilh Chen Zhao-
hai, diiecloi of lhe CeneiaI Slaff Depailnenl MiIilaiy Tiaining
Ofhce), P|A Dai|q onIine, }uIy 6, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion *6/"*6)/-
ani|.ccn.cn/jx/2012-07/06/ccn|cn|_4939829.n|n.
27. Iu Xi '$ &2., Long }ouiney of WaIking Tovaids 'Slialegic
High Ciound, Chinas Top MiIilaiy Acadeny ToId To Ioslei
'}oinl Opeialions Connanding Ofhceis, J)/6+& in LngIish,
Oclolei 27, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion ncus.xinnuanc|.ccn/cng|isn2010/
cnina/2010-10/27/c_13578521.n|n.
28. Iu Xi c| a|., Long }ouiney of WaIking Tovaids 'Slialegic
High Ciound.
29. Chen Yong |, On Tiansfoinalion of lhe Ceneialive
Modes of Conlal Iovei and Tiaining }oinl Opeialions Con-
nandeis, ]| (;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'), Ieliuaiy 2OO9, pp. 71-
73, Hu }unhua (' and ao Cuojun ]], {,||)
;|],|` ,||,1(](
().]" (Hov WiII }oinl Opeialions
Connandeis IIay an Aclive Iail in Iuluie allIeheIds`, Inlei-
viev vilh Sun Naixiang, Reseaichei and DocloiaI Candidale Ad-
visoi al lhe Acadeny of MiIilaiy Sciences OpeialionaI Theoiy and
Docliine Reseaich Depailnenls Second Reseaich Laloialoiy),
P|A Dai|q onIine, Oclolei 28, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion *6/"*6)/&0)2"
ccn.cn/js|j/2010-10/28/ccn|cn|_4567385.n|n.
3O. Cai Yongning , Consideialions on CuIlivalion of
Connanding Ofhceis foi }oinl Opeialions, ]| (;)2)-
$&%1 #*)'/*'), Ieliuaiy 2O11, pp. 93-1OO.
31. Liu }ixian [,], pp. 1-17, Hu Yongzhu, pp. 1OO-1O3,
Chen Yong, pp. 71-73.
32. Chinas niIilaiy announces najoi Ieadeiship ieshufe,
lan| Cnina Tincs (Taipei) onIine in LngIish, Oclolei 25, 2O1O,
avaiIalIe fion uuu.uan|cnina|incs.ccn/ncus-suoc|ass-cn|.aspx?i
d=20121025000037ccid=1101, Moie Changes Made To MiIilaiy
Connission, Caixin (eijing) onIine in LngIish, Novenlei 5,
199
2O12, avaiIalIe fion cng|isn.caixin.ccn/2012-11-05/100456419.n|n|,
China Makes Tvo Nev Senioi MiIilaiy Appoinlnenls, J)/6+&
Nevs Seivice in LngIish, Novenlei 4, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion /'!-"
xinnuanc|.ccn/cng|isn/cnina/2012-11/04/c_131950268.n|n, []
,]]](| (Majoi Reshufe of ILA High-Ranking Of-
hceis, 'SchoIai CeneiaIs Lneiging), 5& V+/( E&4 (Hong Kong)
onIine, }anuaiy 13, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion 3g.|a|ungpac.ccn/ccn|cn|.
n|n|?c=2cur|=/ncus/12/01/13/junsni01-1441833.n|n, OIivei Chou,
A IiinceIing Rises Thiough lhe Ranks, #4+$6 @6)/& ;4%/)/(
E4-$ (Hong Kong) onIine, Ieliuaiy 2O, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion !!!"
scnp.ccn/ar|ic|c/738655/princc|ing-riscs-|nrcugn-ran|s, Liu Yueshan
jP. [: 11 ]), (Inpoilanl Nevs: 11
NevIy Iionoled CeneiaIs Appoinled ly Hu }inlao), lcn lci Pc
(Hong Kong) onIine, }uIy 2O, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion A&A'%"!'/!')A4"
ccn/2010/07/20/CH1007200007.n|n, |j|],
] (A Majoi Round of Tiansfeis of ILA CeneiaI Ofhceis Taking
IIace efoie lhe Lve of lhe Sessions of lhe Tvo Meelings), 5&
V+/( E&4 (Hong Kong) onIine, Ieliuaiy 23, 2OO9, avaiIalIe fion
cq.|a|ungpac.ccn/ccn|cn|.asp?id=15934.
33. Wang Xilin.
34. Tao SheIan |, :{),jj,
j[|) (}oinl Tiaining econes Nev Ciovlh
Ioinl foi ILA Conlal Lffecliveness Iioduclion), N64/((+4 J)/-
!'/ #6', Maich 18, 2OO9, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&/'!-"*403(/3
ncus/2009/03-19/1607978.sn|n|.
35. Hu }unhua and ao Cuojun, Tianscending Seivices.
36. Wang Yunsheng j, Ding Cuangyang[, ];
,[]|]|{,||;/){;|j, |
{]||) (ILA Nanjing Thealei Innovale Mechanisns
foi uiIding lhe NoinaIized Iallein of Tiaining foi }oinl Ope-
ialion Connanding IeisonneI Wilh MuIli-Seivice }oinl Lffoils
eing Made foi CuIlivaling Nev-lype Connandeis), P|A Dai|q
onIine, May 7, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&0)2"*40"*/3MHMB0&A3
ccn|cn|/2012-05/07/ccn|cn|_4574.n|n.
37. Liu Iengan [and Li Kunyang [, '|)|,
, _j '2O12 ]P {] ('Sludy Hov lo Iighl Mo-
dein Waifaie~an Accounl of IeisonaI Lxpeiience in lhe '}oinl
2OO
Lducalion-2O12 Queshan }oinl Lxeicise), 9&/H&/( N64+04
(Cuangzhou) onIine, }une 15, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion !!!")/HP0"
ccn/ccn|cn|/76990, Wang Zhiqiang , Li Weihua ', and
Song Lingzhi , '2O12] {],_|j (Re-
poils on lhe '}oinl Lducalion 2O12~Queshan }oinl Lxeicise Se-
iies), ][ (@6)/& ;)2)$&%1 9'$) onIine, }une 6, 2O12, avaiIalIe
fion cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/jujj/2012-06/09/ccn|cn|_4890612.n|n.
38. Cao Xiaoven | el aI., `[[, [: |
2O1O +{,], (Slais Shine Dovn on lhe Vasl IIal
Lands and lhe Moon IIoods lhe Cieal Riveis, Looking ack on
lhe 2O1O MiIilaiy-Wide }oinl Conlined Opeialions DiiII), ei-
jing, }iefangjun Hualao, }anuaiy 6, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion !!!"A2&-
pic.ccn.cn/|x|/201101o/201101048.n|n.
39. Liu Iengan and Li Kunyang, 'Sludy Hov lo Iighl Mo-
dein Waifaie.
4O. Shi Zhongvu _y, + ', {,|7 ()
(Tenpeiing lhe SkiIIs To Win in 'AcluaI Conlal |Olseivalion
IIalfoinj), Pccp|cs Dai|q onIine, }uIy 6, 2O12, p. 2O, avaiIalIe
fion ni|i|arq.pccp|c.ccn.cn/n/2012/0706/c1011-18458208.n|n|.
41. Chen Shounin |[ and Wu Tiannin y[, j)
{),'|, |([]]{),
(Selling Nev Iace foi }oinl Tiaining~CeneiaI Slaff Depailnenl
LxpIoies, InpIenenls ILA }oinl Tiaining Undei Infoinalized
Condilions), P|A Dai|q onIine, }anuaiy 19, 2OO9, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.cninani|.ccn.cn/si|c1/zox|/2009-01/19/ccn|cn|_1623570.n|n.
42. Cha }inIu, A Reconsideialion of Issues in }oinl Tiaining,
pp. 474-48O, Liu Iengan and Li Kunyang, Wang CuangIi ]
and Cou }ianhong j. { ,||| [
[)|[)||jj]_,||, (Say
Coodlye lo 'Thiee OId Things, WeII Iiaclice 'alon~A Ceilain
Cioup Ainy Wilhin Lanzhou MiIilaiy Region Iays Cieal Allen-
lion lo CapaliIilies of Connand-and-Slaff Oigans al Reginenl
LeveI and Alove foi AppIying Infoinalion Syslens To Con-
nand Opeialions), P|A Dai|q onIine, }une 8, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.cninani|.ccn.cn/jfjonap/ccn|cn|/2012-06/08/ccn|cn|_7291.n|n.
43. Cha }inIu, A Reconsideialion of Issues in }oinl Tiaining,
pp. 474-48O.
2O1
44. Hu }unhua and ao Cuojun, Hov WiII }oinl Opeia-
lions Connandeis IIay an Aclive Iail in Iuluie allIeheIds`
pp. 474-48O.
45. Cha }inIu [, A Sludy of }oinl Tiaining Wilh lhe ILA
Chaiacleiislics, ]| (;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'), ApiiI 2OO8, pp.
15-2O.
46. Chen Shounin and Wu Tiannin, Selling Nev Iace foi
}oinl Tiaining.
47. Ceng Weidong ], Inleipielalion Of Key Concepls
On }oinl Opeialions Undei Infoinalized Condilions, ]
| (;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'), Ieliuaiy 2O1O, pp. 32-4O.
48. Hu }unhua (' and ao Cuojun ]], {,
;| 'j|j'` ,||,1(](
|() (Hov }oinl Opeialion Ioices Can 'Ioin a
Iisl Wilh Iingeis~Inleiviev Wilh Chen Rongdi, Reseaich IeI-
Iov and Diiecloi of Second Reseaich Secloi of OpeialionaI Theo-
iy and Docliine Reseaich Depailnenl of Acadeny of MiIilaiy
Sciences), P|A Dai|q onIine, Oclolei 11, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion *6/"
cninani|.ccn.cn/js|j/2010-10/11/ccn|cn|_4567895.n|n, Hu }unhua
and ao Cuojun, Hov WiII }oinl Opeialions Connandeis IIay
an Aclive Iail in Iuluie allIeheIds.
49. Liu Iengan [ and Hu }unhua (', |
)),|j,]~)1|||[]
,()),[`|{{
(IIolling lhe Iuepiinl foi lhe Scienlihc DeveIopnenl of MiIilaiy
Tiaining in lhe '12lh Iive-Yeai Iiogian Ieiiod~CeneiaI Slaff
Depailnenl MiIilaiy Tiaining and Seivice ianch Chief Chen
Zhaohai Ansveis Repoileis Queslions on lhe CeneiaI Slaff De-
pailnenl Issuing lhe OveiaII IIan foi MiIilaiy Tiaining Refoin
duiing lhe 12lh Iive-Yeai Iiogian), P|A Dai|q onIine, Seplen-
lei 23, 2O11, p. 2, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&0)2"*40"*/3MHMB0&A3*4/-
|cn|/2011-09/23/ccn|cn|_67705.n|n.
5O. Zhao Xianfeng ] '$ &2., ,[{: {),j[
| (Deep Inlegialion: Nev Taigels Iuisued in }oinl Tiai-
ning), P|A Dai|q onIine, Seplenlei 26, 2O11, p. 2, avaiIalIe fion
cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/jujj/2011-09/26/ccn|cn|_4685253.n|n.
2O2
51. Cnina Ccn|ra| Tc|ctisicn CCTV-7, |j (MiIilaiy Re-
poil), Augusl 3, 2O1O.
52. Liu Iengan [, 2O1O ]]||| (Aulhoiila-
live Repoil on Chinas MiIilaiy Lxeicises in 2O1O), |iacuang Dcng-
H&/( N64+I&/ (Shanghai), No. 5O, Decenlei 16, 2O1O, pp. 26-29, avai-
IalIe fion uuu.360dcc.ccn/ccn|cn|/10/1221/13/1858331_80053823.
-6$02.
53. Mei Changvei ]; and Li Dongxing , |
)|[,j| (The allIeheId Diaiy of an Opeialion
and Tiaining Seclion Chief), P|A Dai|q onIine, Augusl 7, 2O12,
p. 5, avaiIalIe fion cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/jr/2012-08/07/ccn|cn|_
4984135.n|n.
54. Liu Iengan and Li Kunyang, 'Sludy Hov lo Iighl Mo-
dein Waifaie.
55. Wang CuangIi and Cou }ianhong, p. 7.
56. Su Yincheng ,,j, Yin }un ,, Yan Liang |, ]
|Pj[j|]],~
(/) (Iiaclice Conlined Opeialions of MuIlipIe Ains
in CoId, High-aIlilude Mounlainous Aieas al Nighl Undei Infoi-
nalized Condilions~Iighling al CoId Nighl, allIe Iiie iigh-
lens lhe Nighl Sky (A Song of Augusl 1)), E'4A2'W- ?&)21 onIine,
Augusl 31, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion |nccrq.pccp|c.ccn.cn/n/2012/0831/
c144769-18882621.n|n|.
57. .B),", Mei Changvei and Li Dongxing, The allIe-
heId Diaiy of an Opeialion and Tiaining Seclion Chief, Wang
Changhua |' and Li }unlo (], CIaiifying lhe Vague
Undeislanding of Inlegialed }oinl Opeialions, Znansni 8ac
(Cuangzhou MiIilaiy Region), }uIy 5, 2OO7.
58. Shi Zhongvu _y, +', {,|7()
(Tenpeiing lhe SkiIIs To Win in 'AcluaI Conlal (Olseivalion
IIalfoin)), Pccp|cs Dai|q onIine, }uIy 6, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion 0)2)-
|arq.pccp|c.ccn.cn/n/2012/0706/c1011-18458208.n|n|.
59. China CenliaI TeIevision, CCTV-Xinucn, Inleiviev vilh
Liang CuangIie, Menlei of CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission and
Minislei of NalionaI Defense, Decenlei 28, 2O1O.
2O3
6O. Infoinalion Ofhce of lhe Slale CounciI, Cninas Na|icna|
Dcfcnsc in 2006. The passage quoled is fion Seclion II, NalionaI
Defense IoIicy.
61. Zhan Yu ,, A Sludy of Inlegialed }oinl Opeialions,
pp. 11-21.
62. Tian Zhong !, ,[).,,[ '( ,
(Thealei }oinl Tiaining: Celling Ready foi lhe Iuluie '}oinl
Coie Opeialions), P|A Dai|q onIine, Decenlei 8, 2O11, p. 1O,
avaiIalIe fion uuu.cninani|.ccn.cn/jfjonap/ccn|cn|/2011-12/08/
ccn|cn|_73556.n|n.
63. Liu Iengan and Li Kunyang, 'Sludy Hov lo Iighl Mod-
ein Waifaie.
64. Wang CuangIi and Cou }ianhong, Say Coodlye lo 'Thiee
OId Things, WeII Iiaclice 'alon.
65. Liu Iengan, Iionoling lhe Tiansfoinalion of MiIilaiy
Tiaining ly uiIding On Oui Slienglhs.
66. Mei Changvei and Li Dongxing, The allIeheId Diaiy of
an Opeialion and Tiaining Seclion Chief, p. 5.
67. Liu Xiaohua '$ &2, Wu DiIun and Liu Iengan.
68. Liu Iengan [ and Wu Xu , ,1
|(: )1|[,) (MiIilaiy
Tiaining and Ains Depailnenl Undei lhe CeneiaI Slaff Depail-
nenl Is Reoiganized Inlo lhe MiIilaiy Tiaining Depailnenl Un-
dei lhe CeneiaI Slaff Depailnenl~Appioved ly Chaiinan Hu
}inlao and CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission), P|A Dai|q onIine, De-
cenlei 22, 2O11, p. 1, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&0)2"*40"*/3MHMB0&A3
ccn|cn|/1/2011-12/22/01/2011122201_pdf.pdf.
69. Cuo Yuandan ,), j1 []ji4 {
(ILA Sels up Ioui Nev Depailnenls in One Monlh), F&P6)
lanoac (eijing) onIine, Decenlei 22, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion !!!"
fauan.ccn/Ar|ic|c/gn/jd/2011/12/22/145826140667.n|n|, Zhuang
Lijun ] and Liu Iengan [, )]|
1!(),,[~+|[],|
), (MiIilaiy Tiaining is IIanned and Cuided al a Highei
2O4
LeveI~MiIilaiy Tiaining Depailnenl Undei CeneiaI Slaff De-
pailnenl Inviles ReIaled Leadeis and Lxpeils To Sludy Slialegic
Managenenl of MiIilaiy Tiaining in a CenliaIized Mannei), P|A
?&)21 onIine, Maich 27, 2O12, p. 1, avaiIalIe fion *6/"*6)/&0)2"*40"
cn/ncad/2012-03/27/ccn|cn|_4819994.n|n.
7O. Chen aocheng, Moie Changes Made To MiIilaiy Con-
nission, Caixin (eijing) onIine in LngIish, Novenlei 5, 2O12,
avaiIalIe fion cng|isn.caixin.ccn/2012-11-05/100456419.n|n|, Chi-
nas niIilaiy announces najoi Ieadeiship ieshufe, lan| Cnina
5)0'- (Taipei) onIine in LngIish, Oclolei 25, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.uan|cnina|incs.ccn/ncus-suoc|ass-cn|.aspx?id=2012102500003
7ccid=1101, Choi Chi-Yuk, AII Lyes on lhe Nev Cuaid, #4+$6
@6)/& ;4%/)/( E4-$ onIine in LngIish, Augusl 5, 2O11, avaiIalIe
fion uuu.scnp.ccn/ar|ic|c/975400/a||-cqcs-ncu-guard.
71. }ia }ianyi '$ &2., p. 2.
72. Xu }ingnian ,+, 7,[{),{(
(Sludying lhe IiolIen of asic Canpaign Ainy Coips }oinl
Tiaining), P|A Dai|q onIine, }anuaiy 21, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion
cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/jx/2010-01/21/ccn|cn|_4131125.n|n, Wu Tian-
nin y[, ,),|].,1[ |(
),~2O1O.),];,| (2O1O: MiIilaiy Tiain-
ing of lhe Thiee Seivices To e Iuilhei Iionoled~Deepen lhe
Refoins in Tiaining ModeIs, Melhods and Managenenl, and
Lnhance Tiaining foi Coie MiIilaiy CapaliIilies), P|A Dai|q on-
Iine, }anuaiy 8, 2O1O, p. 1, avaiIalIe fion cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/xup-
dxu/2010-01/08/ccn|cn|_4112556.n|n, Mei Wanshan, In oidei lo
inlensify joinl liaining undei infoinalionized condilions ve nusl
sliive foi lieaklhioughs in foui key aieas, pp. 533-536.
73. Zhu Sixiong 9/, ), ,/
(Lveiylhing in MiIilaiy Tiaining is Done in Inleiesl of
AcluaI Conlals (Voice of 1 Augusl), Pccp|cs Dai|q onIine, Iel-
iuaiy 18, 2O11, p. 2O, avaiIalIe fion ni|i|arq.pccp|c.ccn.cn/G8/
13947061.n|n|.
74. Iiospecl of ILA MiIilaiy Tiaining Tiansfoinalion in 12lh
Iive-Yeai IIan Ieiiod, P|A Dai|q onIine, in LngIish, Novenlei
23, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion uuu.cnnarnq.ccn/n|n|/2010-11/7987.n|n|.
2O5
75. Liu Iengan [, 2O12+),|
+[), (CeneiaI Slaff Depailnenl Issues
2O12 MiIilaiy Tiaining Diieclive, IIans MiIilaiy Tiaining foi aII
Ained Seivices in Nev Yeai), J)/6+&, }anuaiy 11, 2O12, avaiI-
alIe fion cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/jujj/2012-01/11/ccn|cn|_4766266.
6$0, Liu Iengan [, ,+[),
(CeneiaI Slaff Depailnenl Makes Aiiangenenls foi MiIi-
laiy Tiaining Woik of Lnliie Ained Ioices in Nev Yeai), P|A
?&)21 onIine, }anuaiy 11, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion *6/"*6)/&0)2"*40"*/3
zc/2012-01/11/ccn|cn|_4765497.n|n.
2O7
(?$>"%# h
"?% #@A% @O '+O@#D$"'i$"'@+
'+ "?% >%@>A%B! A'C%#$"'@+ $#DE
)+*%# ?) F'+"$@
F</ D2#/:7<=56
F.9/6 D4=J/7<7
D$'+ $#&)D%+"
This chaplei exanines Chinese niIilaiy infoinali-
zalion undei Hu }inlao, vilh an enphasis on lhe inle-
gialion of niIilaiy and civiIian infoinalizalion effoils
as veII as lhe evoIulion of Hus infoinalizalion slial-
egy fion lhal of his piedecessoi, }iang Zenin. Duiing
Hus lein, lhe IeopIes Lileialion Ainy (ILA) fuIIy
enliaced infoinalizalion as a cenliaI guiding piinci-
pIe of niIilaiy lheoiy and docliine, an undeiIying hi-
nanenl uniling ILA concepls such as lhe ievoIulion
in niIilaiy affaiis (RMA) vilh Chinese chaiacleiislics,
inlegialed joinl opeialions, civiI-niIilaiy inlegialion,
and syslen-of-syslens vaifaie, and lying lhen lo
Chinas lioadei civiIian infoinalizalion effoil. Hov-
evei, lhis lheoielicaI sophislicalion nasks signihcanl
opeialionaI dehcils, and lhe ILAs iecenl lechnoIogi-
caI advances viII nol geneiale voiId-cIass conlal
aliIilies if lhey aie nol nalched ly nodeinized pei-
sonneI and oiganizalionaI sliucluies. This viII le lhe
nexl najoi huidIe foi lhe ILAs infoinalizalion effoil,
and Hus piinaiy infoinalizalion Iegacy is his Iaying
lhe poIicy gioundvoik lhal, in line, nay enalIe lhe
ILA lo oveicone lhese sliucluiaI chaIIenges.
2O8
>@A'(E 'D>A'($"'@+!
- U.S. niIilaiy slialegisls focusing on scenaiios
invoIving China nusl undeisland lhe inpacl of
infoinalizalion liends nol onIy in leins of spe-
cihc veapons and suppoil pIalfoins, lul aIso
in leins of inlegialion lelveen niIilaiy and
civiIian infoinalizalion and nelvoiks, lolh in
peaceline and in defense noliIizalion oi con-
icl scenaiios. AccuialeIy undeislanding lhese
Iinkages viII enalIe lellei piediclion of lolh
lhe oulpuls of Chinas ieseaich, deveIopnenl,
and acquisilion (RD&A) piocesses and lhe ac-
lions of Chinese poIilicaI and niIilaiy aclois in
vai oi ciisis scenaiios.
- Hovevei, infoinalizalion shouId le undei-
slood as a souice nol onIy of incieased niIilaiy
slienglh and povei piojeclion capaliIilies, lul
aIso of nev syslenic vuIneialiIilies. As lhe
ILA deveIops advanced connand, conlioI,
connunicalions, conpuleis, and inleIIigence
suiveiIIance and ieconnaissance (C4ISR) lech-
noIogies and inlegialion vilh civiIian nel-
voiks, lhey aie IikeIy lo lecone incieasingIy
ieIianl on lhose syslens lhiough liaining and
docliine, uIlinaleIy iepIicaling lhe supposedIy
asynneliic vuIneialiIilies in lhese aieas lhal
ILA lheoielicians have liadilionaIIy noled in
lheii anaIyses of lhe U.S. niIilaiy. Shaied vuI-
neialiIilies couId polenliaIIy give iise lo shaied
inleiesls vilh lhe Uniled Slales, opening an
addilionaI palh ly vhich China nay nove
lovaid leconing a slalus quo povei in lhe
space and cylei donains.
2O9
'+"#@*)("'@+
This chaplei desciiles lhe cuiienl slale and con-
linuing evoIulion of lhe ioIe lhal lhe concepl of in-
foinalizalion has pIayed in lhe ILA undei foinei
Iiesidenl Hu }inlao, in lhe conlexl of lolh lhe ILAs
ongoing RMA and lhe IeopIes RepulIic of Chinas
(IRC) lioadei infoinalizalion effoils. The aulhois
have allenpled lo desciile lhe exlenl lo vhich ILA
infoinalizalion duiing lhe Hu eia diffeis fion lhal
vhich occuiied undei foinei Iiesidenl }iang Ze-
nin, lolh in leins of high-IeveI slialegic diieclives
and in leins of noie conciele docliinaI and syslens
deveIopnenl.
In ils vaiious facels, infoinalizalion pIays a ioIe in
neaiIy eveiy nodeinizalion effoil undeilaken ly lhe
ILA, fion nelvoiked veapons pIalfoins and nod-
einized C4ISR syslens lo peisonneI and sliucluiaI
iefoins. This chaplei does nol seek lo calaIogue lhe
deveIopnenl of specihc lechnoIogies, pIalfoins, and
opeialionaI capaliIilies Iinked lo infoinalizalion, lop-
ics vhich have leen coveied alIy and exlensiveIy in
Weslein assessnenls of lhe ILA ly vaiious expeils
on each of lhe seivices and lianches.
1
Inslead, ve ex-
anine lhe lioadei concepluaI, docliinaI, and oigani-
zalionaI fianevoik lhal oveiIays and guides niIilaiy
infoinalizalion effoils. AIlhough lhe Iack of lians-
paiency in Chinas poIicy foinalion piocess necessi-
lales caulion vhen diaving causaI conneclions fion
decIaied poIicies and guiding concepls lo conciele
changes occuiiing vilhin lhe ILA, ofhciaI, and sec-
ondaiy Chinese souices piovide a sufhcienl lasis foi
a focused anaIysis of lhe ioIe lhal infoinalizalion has
pIayed in niIilaiy nodeinizalion duiing lhe Hu eia,
pailicuIaiIy as il conliasls vilh lhe appioach of }iang.
21O
The chaplei hisl exanines hov ILA lheoielicians
undeisland lhe sliucluie and scope of infoinaliza-
lion and ils suloidinale concepls, incIuding lhe con-
cepluaIizalion of niIilaiy lasks slenning fion in-
foinalizalion, lefoie deIving inlo an exaninalion of
lhe inslilulionaI and docliinaI undeipinnings of ILA
infoinalizalion aclivilies. The hisloiy of lhe ILAs
infoinalizalion concepl is liaced fion ils iools un-
dei }iang lo ils use ly Hu, disceining vhen possilIe
lhe sulslanlive diffeiences lelveen lhe lvo Ieadeis
appioaches.
2
Aflei exanining seveiaI aieas in vhich
lhe ILAs infoinalizalion effoils acquiied dislinc-
live chaiacleiislics undei Hu~infoinalizalion in ie-
sponse lo lhe Nev Hisloiic Missions (NHM), giealei
infoinalizalion of ILA liaining, and lhe push foi
inlegialed connand pIalfoins~lhe chaplei offeis
concIuding lhoughls on lhe successes and faiIuies of
infoinalizalion duiing Hus lenuie, and piospecls foi
conlinued infoinalizalion undei Iiesidenl Xi }inping.
?@; *@%! "?% >A$ *%O'+%
'+O@#D$"'i$"'@+P
Infoinalizalion (]) has, al lines, leen giv-
en a ieduclive oi inconpIele liealnenl in Weslein
anaIysis of lhe ILA. When faced vilh lhe queslion of
Whal does lhe ILA nean ly infoinalizalion` lhe
iesponse offeied ly Weslein anaIysls is oflen lhal
niIilaiy infoinalizalion is a concepl vilh vagueIy de-
Iinealed loundaiies, vhich in piaclice is funclionaIIy
equivaIenl lo lhe ILAs RMA vilh Chinese chaiac-
leiislics, oi lo lhe nodeinizalion of lhe ILAs C4ISR
capaliIilies, oi lo lhe Aneiican niIilaiys concepl
of Nelvoik-Cenliic Waifaie (NCW). WhiIe diav-
ing such equivaIences can piovide a ieasonalIe and
211
usefuI appioxinalion of niIilaiy infoinalizalion in
ceilain conlexls, il does nol capluie lhe fuII scope of
vhal Chinese poIicynakeis and lheoielicians nean
ly infoinalizalion. The cenliaI av in lhis appioach
is lhe liealnenl of infoinalizalion as a specihc nono-
Iilhic concepl, vhen, in facl, il seives as a concepl of
concepls.
The lein infoinalizalion, al ils nosl univeisaI
and eIenenlaI, desciiles lhe piocess of noving lo-
vaid giealei coIIeclion, syslenalizalion, disliilulion,
and uliIizalion of infoinalion.
3
Wilhin lhal uIlinale
piocess, hovevei, lheie aie nuneious suloidinale
piocesses, exlending dovn lhiough nuIlipIe Iayeis,
fion lhe gIolaI liend of infoinalizalion lo lhe infoi-
nalizalion of pailicuIai indusliies, socielies, veapons
syslens, and lhe Iike.
4
Al any given IeveI, lhe lein
infoinalizalion can iefei lo an oiganic, decenliaI-
ized piocess (such as lhe infoinalized condilions
undei vhich lhe ILA aie insliucled lo piepaie lo vin
IocaI vais), lo an inlenlionaI, diiecled piocess (lhe in-
foinalizalion of veapons and equipnenl), oi in sone
cases lo aclions laken ly an acloi lo adapl oi piepaie
foi infoinalizalion liends leyond ils conlioI.
A fuII accounl of lhe ILAs concepluaIizalion of
infoinalizalion nusl slail al lhe nalionaI IeveI lefoie
noving lo lhe ained foices.
5
In addilion lo sliiclIy
niIilaiy-oiienled guidance and inslilulion foina-
lion, lhe cenliaI goveinnenl has enacled infoinaliza-
lion poIicies lhal expIicilIy conlain lolh civiIian and
niIilaiy oljeclives, civiIian-oiienled infoinalizalion
poIicies lhal diieclIy and indiieclIy inpinge upon lhe
ILAs aliIily lo caiiy oul ils infoinalizalion oljec-
lives, and infoinalizalion poIicies foi Chinas olhei
ained foices (lhe IeopIes Ained IoIice and MiIilia)
lhal inleiface vilh coiiesponding ILA poIicies. WhiIe
212
lhis chaplei is cenleied on lhe ILAs infoinalizalion
effoils, one nusl keep in nind lolh lhal lhese effoils
occui vilhin lhe lioadei conlexl of Chinese infoina-
lizalion poIicy, and lhal nalionaI goaIs and inilialives
iegaiding niIilaiy infoinalizalion nay le inuenced
oi piopeIIed ly goveinnenl aclions and poIicies nol
soIeIy ained al oi inpIenenled ly lhe niIilaiy.
These conlexluaI conpIexilies, aIong vilh lhe
nany vays in vhich lhe ILAs nissions and sliucluie
diffei fion lhose of Weslein ainies, lend lo iendei
anaIogies lelveen niIilaiy infoinalizalion and Wesl-
ein concepls such as NCW inconpIele oi inaccuiale
in piaclice. AIlhough ILA schoIais do iefeience NCW
and docunenls such as ]cin| Visicn 2020 as consli-
luling Aneiican niIilaiy infoinalizalion effoils
anaIogous lo lheii ovn, lhose effoils lake pIace in fun-
danenlaIIy diffeienl ciicunslances. Ioi exanpIe, lhe
Uniled Slales does nol oveisee ils civiIian econony
vilh oveiaiching nelvoik-cenliic poIicies, vilh
lolh lhe civiIian and niIilaiy ieaIns anchoied vilh-
in a connon concepluaI fianevoik, as lhe Chinese
do vilh infoinalizalion. Noi does lhe Uniled Slales
have an oiganizalion oulside lhe niIilaiy aIong lhe
Iines of Chinas niIilia syslen lhal nusl le inlegialed
inlo niIilaiy infoinalizalion effoils foi il lo fuIhII
ils dulies in sone of lhe niIilaiys nosl inpoilanl
canpaign scenaiios. }usl as lhese diffeiences cannol
le anaIogized avay, lhey cannol sinpIy le alliil-
uled lo lhe diffeience in lechnoIogicaI advancenenl
lelveen lhe lvo niIilaiies. Ioi lhe ieasons oulIined
alove, even if lhe ILA veie lo gain lechnoIogicaI pai-
ily vilh lhe U.S. niIilaiy oveinighl, lhe guiding con-
cepls of ils ongoing niIilaiy infoinalizalion vouId
sliII diveige fion lhe Aneiican concepl of NCW in
nuneious iespecls.
213
?@; *@%! "?% >A$ *%\%A@>
'+O@#D$"'i$"'@+ "?%@#EP
}usl as Chinas niIilaiy infoinalizalion is silualed
vilhin lhe lioadei conlexl of lolh Chinas nalionaI
infoinalizalion effoils and lhe gIolaI liend lovaid
infoinalizalion, lhe ILA concepluaIizes nuIlipIe as-
pecls of niIilaiy infoinalizalion vilhin a nuIliIay-
eied fianevoik of lheoielicaI consliucls. Infoinaliza-
lion is ieIevanl lo ongoing ILA ciafling of lolh lheoiy
and opeialionaI piaclice on nuIlipIe IeveIs, and acioss
nuneious oveiIapping aieas of niIilaiy lhoughl. As
infoinalizalion is a concepl of concepls, undeisland-
ing lhe calegoiicaI and hieiaichicaI vays in vhich
ILA lheoielicians gioup lhe nany suloidinale niIi-
laiy and nalionaI defense conceins aiising fion infoi-
nalizalion can le a vaIualIe vay of conlexluaIizing
lhe nany diffeienl sliains of lheoiy and discussion
aiising fion il.
Since ILA docliine is deveIoped in ieseaich and
acadenic oiganizalions, lheoielicaI discussions ly
lhese lodies aie oflen an inpoilanl guideposl foi fu-
luie changes in ILA slialegy and docliine.
6
The nosl
iepulalIe and consislenlIy inuenliaI of lhese oigani-
zalions aie lhe Acadeny of MiIilaiy Sciences (AMS)
and lhe NalionaI Defense Univeisily (NDU), vilh lhe
foinei having a noie lheoielicaI focus and lhe Iallei
engaging noie diieclIy vilh docliinaI deveIopnenl.
This seclion allenpls lo ieecl lhe consensus of lhis
lop-echeIon connunily vilhin lhe ILA vhen con-
veying Chinese vievs lhal foi lhe nosl pail have nol
yel leen expIicilIy codihed in pulIicIy avaiIalIe doc-
liine. The ILA has oflen dispIayed yeais-Iong line
Iags lelveen acadenic consensus in lhe foinuIalion
214
of concepls, lhe pionuIgalion of lhose concepls as
lhe slialegic lhoughl of Chinese Connunisl Iaily
(CCI) and niIilaiy Ieadeis, lhe inlegialion of lhal
lop-IeveI guidance inlo inpoilanl docunenls such as
(&/(1&4 (;), and lhe deveIopnenl of conciele pio-
cesses and capaliIilies. This Iag is pailicuIaiIy nolice-
alIe in lhe ieaIn of infoinalizalion.
AIlhough lhe concepl of niIilaiy infoinalizalion
hisl found ofhciaI expiession lhiough }iangs piono-
lion of Ieapfiog deveIopnenl (j]j) in 1997, il
look haIf a decade foi lhe concepl lo allain sonelhing
iesenlIing ils cuiienl uliquily. The edilion of lhe
ILAs aulhoiilalive ;)2)$&%1 5'%0- () pul oul ly
lhe Acadeny of MiIilaiy Sciences lhal sane yeai did
nol even conlain a dehnilion foi infoinalizalion,
nuch Iess lhe nany speciaIized leins of ail slenning
fion il, noi did sulsequenl ILA-issued diclionaiies foi
a nunlei of yeais afleivaid. y lhe cIose of lhe yeai
2OOO, infoinalizalion had leen iefeienced in (&/(1&4
on lopics such as connand aulonalion (||
|;), noled as an inpoilanl liend in lhe lienniaI
Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, and designaled ly }iang as leing,
aIong vilh nechanizalion, one of lhe duaI hisloiicaI
lasks of lhe ILA. Yel, niIilaiy infoinalizalion vas
nolalIy alsenl fion lhe 1Olh Iive Yeai IIan, even as
civiIian infoinalizalion vas given pioninenl focus.
The ILAs lop-IeveI ;)2)$&%1 #$%&$'()* L+),'2)/'- (
,[\) did nol foinaIIy incoipoiale infoinaliza-
lion unliI 2OO2, and nuneious olhei inpoilanl docu-
nenls did nol yel hoId niIilaiy infoinalizalion as
pail of lheii cenliaI focus.
ILA acadenic and ieseaich inslilulions veie
neveilheIess devoling signihcanl allenlion lo infoi-
nalizalion duiing lhis peiiod, and nuch of lhe coie
deveIopnenl of niIilaiy infoinalizalion lheoiy look
215
pIace duiing lhe hnaI yeais of }iangs lein as CenliaI
MiIilaiy Connission (CMC) Chaiinan. The essenliaI
undeiIying lheoielicaI fianevoik of lhe ILAs cui-
ienl conceplion of infoinalizalion can le seen in lhe
2OOO edilion of lhe aulhoiilalive #*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/-,
aIleil vilhoul lhe iehnenenl and slandaidizalion of
leininoIogy found in lhe sulsequenl 2OO6-O7 edilion.
}iangs 2OO2 speech lefoie lhe 16lh Iaily Congiess,
caIIing infoinalizalion lolh necessaiy foi niIilaiy
nodeinizalion and a key enalIei of vhal vouId nov
le leined inlegialed joinl opeialions (I}O), louched
off a uiiy of lheoielicaI consliuclion, vilh nuneious
suldivisions of infoinalizalion lheoiy leing noie
fuIIy expIoied.
Wilhin lhe lioad scope of Infoinalized MiIilaiy
Affaiis Theoiy (]), ILA lheoielicians
divide lheoielicaI concepls of infoinalizalion inlo
lhiee dislincl ieaIns: Theoiies of Wai and MiIilaiy
Slialegy undei Infoinalized Condilions (],
,[), Theoiies of Infoinalized Opeialions,
Connand, and Suppoil (],, ||]|
), and Theoiies of Infoinalized NalionaI Defense
and Tioop uiIding (]]|[|).
7

Wilhin lhe ieaIn of vai and niIilaiy slialegy
undei infoinalized condilions, ILA viileis see in-
poilanl and dislincl lheoielicaI queslions of hov lo
addiess nalionaI secuiily in lhe infoinalion age (]
|]|), slialegy foi vais undei infoi-
nalized condilions (],,[), achieving
niIilaiy deleiience in lhe infoinalion age (]|
|]), and lhe cuiienl ioIe of lhe IeopIes
Wai concepl (]|;[,), vhich is heId
ly nosl ILA lheoiisls lo le of conlinuing ieIevance
(lhough diffeiing sulslance) in an age of infoinaliza-
lion.
8
These lheoielicaI consliuclions lie diieclIy inlo
216
lioadei lheoiies in Chinese sociaI science highIighl-
ing novenenl lo an infoinalion age anaIogous lo
eaiIiei agiicuIluiaI oi indusliiaI ages, vhich, in luin,
legels an infoinalion sociely anaIogous lo eaiIiei
indusliiaI oi agiicuIluiaI nodes of sociely. }usl as lhe
indusliiaI ievoIulion liansfoined lolh lhe conlexl of
vaifaie and lhe neans ly vhich niIilaiy capaliIilies
veie geneialed, Chinese lheoiisls peiceive lhe infoi-
nalion sociely as iepiesenling a nev sea-change vilh
inpIicalions foi eveiy aspecl of vaihghling and niIi-
laiy consliuclion. ILA lheoielicians viev lhis liend as
nol onIy aIleiing hov vais aie foughl, lul vhelhei oi
nol vais connence al aII, vilh infoinalizalion sone-
lines Ioveiing lhe laiiieis lo enliy inlo a conicl.
9
ILA viileis see lhe ieaIn of infoinalized opeia-
lions, connand, and suppoil lheoiy as enconpassing
lheoiies of infoinalion vaifaie (],), joinl op-
eialions ({,), infoinalized opeialions and
connand (],||), and infoinalized
suppoil (]]|). The vaiious concepluaIiza-
lions of infoinalion vaifaie eIucidaled ly inpoilanl
hguies such as Wang aocun and Dai Qingnin piioi lo
lhe ILAs syslenic focus on infoinalizalion aie lhus
inlegialed inlo lhe lioadei conlexl of infoinalizalion
lheoiy. Infoinalion vaifaie lheoiisls have conlinued
lo pIay a signihcanl ioIe in lhe ongoing deveIopnenl
of infoinalizalion effoils lhiough advisoiy lodies es-
lalIished duiing lhe Hu eia, as discussed Ialei. ILA
Ieadeis and lheoielicians diav expIicil Iinks lelveen
niIilaiy infoinalizalion lheoiy and opeialionaI con-
cepls such as joinl opeialions and syslen-of-syslens
vaifaie, vilh Hu }inlao expIicilIy slaling in a 2OO6
speech lhal IocaI vais undei infoinalized condi-
lions aie confionlalions lelveen syslens of syslens,
and lheii fundanenlaI opeialionaI node is inlegialed
joinl opeialions.
1O
217
IinaIIy, lhe ILAs concepl of infoinalized nalionaI
defense and lioop luiIding incIudes lhe concepls of
infoinalized lioop luiIding (][|),
nalionaI defense noliIizalion in lhe infoinalion age
(]|]|)), and niIilaiy innovalion in
lhe infoinalion age (]|]). These h-
naI sul-concepls in pailicuIai aie Iaige-scaIe, conlain-
ing nuIliludes vilhin lhen. ILA schoIais iecognize
infoinalized noliIizalion as iequiiing syslenic con-
nunicalion, cooidinalion, and synchionizalion le-
lveen lhe ILA, Chinas olhei ained foices (lhe niIi-
lia and IeopIes Ained IoIice), and civiIian nelvoiks,
lolh foi lhe nalionaI defense and foi Hus focus on lhe
ILA caiiying oul expanded niIilaiy opeialions olhei
lhan vaifaie (MOOTW). ILA schoIais enphalicaIIy
viev civiI-niIilaiy inlegialion in lhe defense econony
as a key conponenl of lolh ILA infoinalizalion and
niIilaiy innovalion, lhus inleilvining niIilaiy and ci-
viIian infoinalizalion effoils.
The key poinl lo iecognize aloul lhis lheoielicaI
fianevoik is lhe sheei lieadlh of ils scope. MiIilaiy
infoinalizalion is conceived nol as leing conhned lo
a singIe ieaIn of vaifaie (lhough ILA viiling does
oflen speak of vaifaie lhal lakes pIace in an infoina-
lion ieaIn, oi ], anaIogous lo Iand, sea, and
aii), lul ialhei as a najoi lhiead of lechnoIogicaI, and
lhus, hisloiicaI deveIopnenl lhal, in luin, necessilales
nev lheoielicaI consliucls, and evenluaIIy nev doclii-
naI and opeialionaI nodes, in viiluaIIy eveiy facel of
lhe ILAs opeialions.
The scope of niIilaiy infoinalizalion enconpasses
nuch of vhal is liadilionaIIy consideied lo conslilule
lhe ILAs RMA, vhiIe aIso slielching leyond il. The
queslion of hov lhe lvo concepls inleiacl is nol con-
cIusiveIy ansveied ly ILA viilings (aside fion gen-
218
eiaIilies such as infoinalizalion leing al lhe coie of
RMA), lul lhe ieIalionship lelveen lhe concepls can
le deiived fion lhe vay lhe Iallei is discussed in lhe
conlexl of lhe foinei. The IRC and ILA Ieadeiship
conceive of infoinalizalion as a lioad liend of hisloiy,
on pai vilh lhe indusliiaIizalion of lhe 2Olh cenluiy,
diiven ly lechnoIogicaI and lheoielicaI innovalion. In
keeping vilh lhis conceplion, ILA viilings viiluaIIy
nevei speak of infoinalizalion vilh Chinese chaiac-
leiislics, lhe slandaid foi a docliine, lheoiy, liaining
syslen, oi veapons pIalfoin lo le consideied suc-
cessfuIIy infoinalized is a judgnenl of againsl lhis
univeisaI hisloiicaI liend, and lhe oveiaII piogiess of
infoinalizalion in lhe niIilaiy conlexl is lhe pio-
cess of noving, ly vhalevei neans, lovaid achieving
lhal slandaid. Al lhe sane line, aclions laken lovaid
achieving lhis slandaid viII necessaiiIy ieecl lhe
ILAs slialegic piioiilizalion of specihc nissions and
canpaigns, and lhe specihc opeialionaI capaliIilies
and sliucluies deveIoped lo achieve lhis slandaid viII
ieecl lhe unique chaiacleiislics of lolh lhe Chinese
ained foices and China as a vhoIe.
The ongoing RMA vilh Chinese Chaiacleiis-
lics can lhus le desciiled as one of lhe piinaiy ve-
hicIes ly vhich lhe ILA noves lhiough lhe piocess
of niIilaiy infoinalizalion. The poIicies conpiising
lhe RMA aie IaigeIy ained al neeling a specihc lesl,
enlodied in Hus guidance lo luiId an infoinalized
niIilaiy capalIe of vinning IocaI vais undei infoina-
lized condilions, vhose paianeleis aie shaped ly
lhe gIolaI piogiess of infoinalizalion ialhei lhan ly
a hxed iefeience poinl. }iang Zenin siniIaiIy slaled
an expIicil undeislanding lhal lhe piogiess of RMA
vouId necessaiiIy hinge on lhe aliIily lo achieve lhe
iequiienenls of infoinalizalion, and lhe ILAs con-
219
cepluaI fianevoik did nol change on lhis poinl dui-
ing Hus lenuie.
11
uiIding an infoinalized niIilaiy
is nol lhe onIy ain of RMA oi lhe soIe neasuie of
vhelhei Chinas RMA has leen successfuI, lul il is
a najoi cenliaI facel. China nusl lhus, in lhe voids
of foinei Iieniei Wen }ialao discussing lhe RMA,
vaIk a ioad lo infoinalizalion lhal has Chinese chai-
acleiislics ly caiiying oul an RMA shaped accoiding
lo Chinas pailicuIai slialegic oljeclives and exisling
niIilaiy conposilion.
12
O#@D "?%@#E *%\%A@>D%+" "@
(@+(#%"% '+O@#D$"'i$"'@+ %OO@#"!
The piocess of luiIding an infoinalized niIilaiy
lakes lhe niIilaiy use of infoinalion lechnoIogy, pai-
licuIaiIy C4ISR lechnoIogy, as ils foundalionaI lase,
piedicaled on lhe ILAs lechnicaI and oiganizalionaI
aliIily lo expIoil niIilaiy infoinalion, aII vilh lhe goaI
of iaising oveiaII niIilaiy povei lhiough nuIlipIe si-
nuIlaneous avenues. In lhe piaclicaI sense, lhe ILAs
infoinalizalion effoils can le divided inlo lhiee dis-
lincl yel conpIenenlaiy (and sonelines oveiIapping)
spheies. Lach of lhe lhiee spheies ieIies on piogiess in
lhe olheis in oidei lo deiive naxinun lenehl fion
infoinalizalion.
13
The hisl spheie is lhe deveIopnenl of hunan capi-
laI lo lesl expIoil oppoilunilies piesenled ly infoina-
lizalion. Slailing fion lhe ILAs lop Ieadeiship, lhis
spheie invoIves incoipoialing piohciency vilh infoi-
nalized pIalfoins inlo lhe ILAs liaining, ieciuil-
nenl, and pionolion piocesses, as veII as aIleiing
lhe RD&A piocess lo pioduce niIilaiy syslens lhal
aie lellei suiled lo inlegialion inlo syslen-of-syslens
nelvoiks, incIuding oveisighl lo ensuie lhe iesuIling
syslens aie hl foi puipose.
22O
The second spheie is lhe inlioduclion and piovi-
sion of infoinalized lechnoIogy. This incIudes lhe
ieliohlling of oId equipnenl vilh infoinalized con-
ponenls, lhe inlioduclion of nev pIalfoins and capa-
liIilies such as C4ISR and veapons syslens, and hnaI-
Iy lhe inlegialion of pIalfoins and syslens of vaiying
sophislicalions and vinlages lo one anolhei in oidei lo
shaie infoinalion fion lhe lop dovn (connand and
conlioI), fion lhe lollon up (sensing, neasuienenl,
and ieconnaissance), and IaleiaIIy (acioss lhe seivices
and lianches in infoinalized Inlegialed }oinl Wai-
faie). This spheie exlends acioss line lhiough lhe fuII
syslen Iife-cycIe, fion ieseaich, deveIopnenl, and ac-
quisilion lo inpIenenlalion, piohciency liaining, and
nainlenance.
The hnaI spheie lakes pIace al lhe oiganizalionaI
IeveI. Il incIudes lhe nodeinizalion of opeialionaI
concepls and oiganizalionaI sliucluies in vays lhal
lellei enalIe lhe uliIizalion of infoinalized syslens
and peisonneI, geneiaIIy noving lovaid lhe foina-
lion of unils vhich aie noie noduIai, diveisihed,
and exilIe in lheii iange of capaliIilies and nissions
undeilaken. Sone niIilaiy infoinalizalion expeils,
conceiving of lhese lhiee spheies as leing successive-
Iy phased in lo infoinalizalion effoils al a ceilain
poinl in a niIilaiys oveiaII deveIopnenl, cIassify lhis
sliucluiaI spheie as aiiiving duiing a lhiid and hnaI
phase of infoinalizalion. They lase lhis cIassihcalion
on lolh lhe geneiaI piesunplion lhal inslilulionaI lai-
iieis and ineilia in oiganizalionaI cuIluie aie in sone
sense a giealei chaIIenge lo lhe success of infoinali-
zalion lhan puieIy lechnicaI laiiieis, and aIso on lhe
specihc iecognilion lhal lhe Chinese niIilaiy has nol
liadilionaIIy vaIued dala, infoinalion, and IaleiaI co-
oidinalion on lhe IeveI of ils Weslein counleipails, an
221
eia gap in oiganizalionaI cuIluie akin lo lhe lellei-
undeislood eia gap lelveen Chinese and Weslein
niIilaiy lechnoIogy.
14
Wilhin lhe lioadei scope of ILA infoinaliza-
lion lheoiy and lhe spheies of aclion oulIined alove,
ILA acadenics have adopled a nunlei of concepluaI
fianevoiks lhal diav a ieIalionship lelveen lioad
lheoiies of infoinalizalion, lhe alove conceplion of
vhal niIilaiy infoinalizalion effoils enlaiI, and noie
specihc lasks oi ioIes lhey leIieve lhe niIilaiy shouId
undeilake as a iesuIl of infoinalizalion ([]
[). AIlhough lheie is an ongoing delale as lo lhe
hnei poinls of specihc laxononies, lhe nainsliean of
ILA lhoughl soils lhe voik necessaiy lo luiId an in-
foinalized niIilaiy inlo hve najoi lask calegoiies.
15
The hisl calegoiy is conlal and conlal ieadiness
infoinalizalion. In lhe lhinking of ILA lheoielicians,
since lhe infoinalized node of vaifaie is chaiaclei-
ized ly a iapid opeialions lenpo, lhe expansion of
lhe lallIespace lo evei lioadei donains, and a high
quanlily of infoinalion ov, successfuI conlal ieadi-
ness is highIy dependenl on lhe eslalIishnenl of key
infoinalized capaliIilies such as an inlegialed con-
nand aichilecluie. LslalIishing lhe capaliIily foi
ieaI-line conlal ieadiness and iesponsiveness is
aIso ciuciaI, and is acconpIished lhiough infoina-
lion nelvoik consliuclion and lhe Iinkage of niIilaiy
connunicalion nelvoiks, iadai nelvoiks, conpulei
nelvoiks, eaiIy vaining capaliIilies, and olhei C4ISR
aichilecluies vilh infoinalion piocessing and con-
nand aulonalion aichilecluies sufhcienl foi an inle-
gialed, iesiIienl connand and conlioI capaliIily lhal
is iesponsive lo ieaI-line infoinalion inpuls. IinaIIy,
effoils lo piepaie foi vaiied foins of infoinalion vai-
faie, ianging fion eIeclionic vaifaie, lo conpulei nel-
222
voik opeialions lo psychoIogicaI vaifaie, faII vilhin
lhis donain as veII.
The second calegoiy is lhe infoinalizalion of
veapons and equipnenl. To neel lhe iequiienenls
of infoinalized vaifaie, lolh conlal pIalfoins and
equipnenl iequiie inlegialion inlo lolh disciele con-
necled syslens and aIso syslens of syslens. This in-
cIudes lhe liansilion lo infoinalized veapon laigel-
ing and piecision-guided veapons and nunilions,
lolh ly giafling infoinalion lechnoIogy onlo exisling
veapons and ly enshiining lhe aliIily lo inlegiale
hainoniousIy vilh exisling infoinalion pIalfoins
and syslens as a key iequiienenl duiing lhe RD&A
piocess. The infoinalizalion of exisling veapons
syslens is pailicuIaiIy ciuciaI foi lhe ILAs capac-
ily luiIding al lhis juncluie. Despile sleadiIy iising
ludgels, lhe ILA viII conlinue lo have lechnoIogy of
videIy vaiying vinlages in ils foice sliucluie foi nany
yeais lo cone, aII of vhich nusl evenluaIIy le nade
capalIe of inleifacing vilh ils incieasingIy sophisli-
caled C4ISR nelvoiks. This spheie aIso enconpasses
lhe inlioduclion of nev calegoiies of veaponiy, in-
cIuding diiecled eneigy veapons, kinelic eneigy
veapons, nonIelhaI veapons, pailicIe lean veapons,
niciovave veapons, and Iasei veapons, vhich lhe
ILA sees as having lhe polenliaI lo pIay an inpoilanl
ioIe in achieving and expIoiling infoinalion supeiioi-
ily ovei fuluie adveisaiies.
The lhiid is lhe infoinalizalion of Iogislics suppoil
syslens. ILA ieseaicheis see a geneiaI gIolaI liend
in vhich lhe incieasing conpIexily of infoinalized
veapons and equipnenl Ieads lo giealei enphasis
on Iogislics suppoil as a poinl of faiIuie, vilh lhe
infoinalizalion of lhose syslens leing a necessily if
lhe ILA is going lo ieIialIy conducl opeialions un-
223
dei infoinalized condilions. This incIudes connand
aulonalion, lhe deveIopnenl of speciaIized infoina-
lized Iogislics lechnoIogy and nanagenenl syslens,
lhe inpIenenlalion of highIy nelvoiked suppIy chain
nanagenenl, and vhen possilIe inlegialing civiIian
lechnoIogy and civiIian iesouices inlo niIilaiy sup-
pIy nelvoiks in oidei lo inpiove Iogislics suppoil
capaliIilies.
The fouilh is lhe infoinalizalion of niIilaiy liain-
ing and educalion. Tiaining and educalion infoinali-
zalion invoIves lolh inpiovenenls in lhe enphasis
and conlenl of liaining and lhe inlioduclion of nev
lechnoIogies (pailicuIaiIy vaiious kinds of sinuIalion
lechnoIogies) and pIalfoins inlo lhe liaining piocess,
each vilh lhe ain of noie effecliveIy and efhcienlIy
piepaiing nenleis of lhe niIilaiy foi conlal undei
infoinalized condilions.
16
This aIso incIudes lhe de-
veIopnenl of nev guideIines and ieguIalions foi in-
foinalized opeialions, and lhe foinalion and suppoil
of inslilulions engaged in deveIoping and leaching
aloul infoinalized vaifaie al lhe slialegic, docliinaI,
and laclicaI IeveIs. Infoinalizalion pIays a pailicu-
IaiIy inpoilanl ioIe in lhe ILAs effoils lo inpiove ils
liaining piocesses, vilh ILA aulhois vilhin lhe Cen-
eiaI Slaff Depailnenl (CSD) and eIsevheie desciiling
il as a key enalIei of joinl liaining exeicises and lhus
lhe ILAs aliIily lo successfuIIy conducl joinl niIilaiy
opeialions.
The hflh and hnaI calegoiy is infoinalizalion of
lhe ILAs nanageiiaI voik and ils suloidinale sys-
lens. To lhe exlenl lhal lhe efhciency and effeclive-
ness of ILA nanagenenl lasks diieclIy inpinges on
lhe success of viiluaIIy eveiy olhei nission discussed
pieviousIy, infoinalizalion of nanagenenl lasks is
consideied an indiiecl enalIei of lhe ILAs aliIily lo
224
conducl and succeed al opeialions undei infoina-
lized condilions. The eslalIishnenl of infoinalion
syslens and lhe inlegialion of infoinalion iesouices
inlo exisling syslens faII vilhin lhis lask, as does lhe
nanagenenl of infoinalion ilseIf in donains such as
infoinalion secuiily.
These lasks aie piioiilized vilhin lhe conlexl of
ILA peiceplions lhal neai-fuluie vaifaie scenaiios
aie IikeIy lo consisl of shoil, high inlensily canpaigns.
In lhis conceplion of conlal, vicloiy viII acciue lo
niIilaiies lhal effecliveIy enpIoy infoinalized sys-
lens-of-syslens lhiough inlegialed joinl opeialions
lo deny lhe use of infoinalion lo lheii adveisaiies,
eslalIish infoinalion doninance, and nainlain infoi-
nalion conlioI. Iiioiily is given lo specihc infoinali-
zalion lasks vilh lhe polenliaI lo have a dispiopoilion-
ale inpacl on a Iiniled, asynneliicaI conicl veisus
a noie poveifuI (and nosl IikeIy noie infoinalized)
adveisaiy.
'+O@#D$"'i$"'@+ '+ "?% (@+"%Q"
@O "?% "#$+!'"'@+ O#@D F'$+& "@
?)B! A%$*%#!?'>
When exanining lheoielicaI discussions of niIi-
laiy infoinalizalion ly ILA schoIais viiling neai lhe
end of lolh }iang and Hus leins as Chaiinan of lhe
CMC, peihaps lhe nosl sliiking lhing one nolices is
acluaIIy lhe Iack of fundanenlaI diffeiences lelveen
lhen. In nosl iespecls, lhe ILAs infoinalizalion
undei Hu }inlao iepiesenled a conlinualion of lhe
Iong-lein slialegy pul in pIace ly }iang Zenin, lolh
in leins of lioad conlenl~lhe Ieapfiog infoinali-
zalion of an ainy lhal has, in ils ovn eslinalion, nol
yel fuIIy conpIeled lhe pievious piocess of nechani-
zalion~and in leins of niIeslone lining.
225
The ILA can le said lo have lioadIy foIIoved lhe
lhiee-slep scaIe Iaid oul ly }iangs CMC in 1997 and
pieseived undei Hu, vhich eslalIished lhiee niIe-
slones in lhe consliuclion of infoinalized ained foic-
es lhal veie ideaIIy lo le passed ly 2O1O, 2O2O, and
nid-cenluiy. The hisl slep, lhe 2O1O goaI of luiIding
a soIid foundalion foi luiIding an infoinalized
ainy and vinning infoinalized vais, has essen-
liaIIy leen nel. In sone cases, Ianguage and desciip-
lions of pailicuIai concepls lhal veie foineiIy sone-
vhal anliguous have had lheii paianeleis noie
shaipIy dehned (as vilh lhe inlegialed connand
pIalfoin, discussed Ialei), and in olheis, lheie has
leen an incieased enphasis on pailicuIai concepls
lhal highIighl pailicuIai conlouis of hov vai undei
infoinalized condilions nay pIay oul.
17
ul on lhe
vhoIe, lhe lheoielicaI undeipinnings of lhe ILAs un-
deislanding of vhal niIilaiy infoinalizalion enlaiIs
have nol leen signihcanlIy aIleied since }iangs CMC
lenuie. The ain ienains lo use lhe lvo liansfoina-
lions, nechanizalion and infoinalizalion, lo liansi-
lion lhe ILA fion a foice lhal is peisonneI-inlensive
lo a foice lhal is science and lechnoIogy-inlensive.
18
If lhe ILAs fundanenlaI conceplion of infoinali-
zalion ienained ieIaliveIy unchanged, hovevei, lhe
aclions laken ly Chinese Ieadeiship in ils nane have
diffeied signihcanlIy. One key facloi undeiIying lhe
ILAs iapid infoinalizalion undei Hus lein as CMC
Chaiinan is lhal nany of lhe najoi inslilulionaI laiii-
eis lhal once slood in ils vay veie aIieady disnanlIed
oi veakened as lhe iesuIl of lhe }iangs povei conlesls
vilh eIenenls of lhe ILA Ieadeiship.
Undei }iang, enphasis on lhe Chinese RMA (and
lhus infoinalizalion) look on nol onIy piogiannalic
lul poIilicaI dinensions, vilh najoi inpIicalions foi
226
lhe disliilulion of povei, hnanciaI iesouices, and pei-
sonneI vilhin lhe ILA, incIuding foi foice ieduclions
lhal veie iesisled ly eIenenls of lhe ILA Ieadeiship.
This gave jockeying ovei lhe scope, pace, and enpha-
sis of infoinalizalion effoils nuch lhe sane degiee
of poIilicaI conlenl as vas seen in }iangs effoils lo
disnanlIe lhe ILAs lusiness enpiie.
19
Al lhe sane
line, lhe end of lhe ILAs lusiness aclivilies ciealed
an inpoilanl incenlive foi lhe ILA Ieadeiship lo sup-
poil incieased ludgels foi infoinalizalion and RMA
effoils as a neans of iepIacing lhe Iosl ievenue fion
lheii foinei lusinesses.
2O
y lhe line Hu vas inslaIIed as CMC Chaiinan,
nany of lhese najoi lallIes had aIieady leen foughl
and von. Wilh lhe CMC endoising Ieapfiog deveI-
opnenl lhiough lhe duaI consliuclion concepl (
|) of sinuIlaneous nechanizalion and infoina-
lizalion, }iang cul ovei 7OO,OOO soIdieis fion lhe ILA
duiing his lenuie. AIlhough lhe duaI liends of caIIs
foi foice ieduclions (piinaiiIy fion lhe Ainy) and a
giealei shaie of iesouices going lo lhe ieIaliveIy infoi-
nalizalion-diiven ILA Aii Ioice (ILAAI) and ILA
Navy (ILAN) conlinued duiing Hus lein, lhe lasic
conlouis of lhe ILAs iefoin and infoinalizalion ef-
foils duiing lhe Hu eia veie aIieady casl vilhoul ie-
quiiing Hu lo expend poIilicaI capilaI.
The ILAs nisfoilune nay have aIso voiked lo
Hus advanlage. As Hu vas piepaiing lo lake ovei
lhe Chaiinanship of lhe CMC, lhe Ming-361 incidenl,
a nechanicaI naIfunclion lhal cIained lhe Iives of aII
hands on loaid a ;)/(-cIass sulnaiine, lhiev ILA
liaining dehciencies inlo shaip ieIief.
21
Aflei lhe inci-
denl ilseIf, lhe sulnaiines lase ienained unavaie of
ils Ioss unliI ovei a veek Ialei, vhen il vas discoveied
ly hshing loals, causing foui senioi ILAN ofhceis
227
lo le sacked foi inpiopei connand and conlioI.
22

This disaslious peaceline Ioss nay have heIped so-
Iidify suppoil foi an enphasis on inpioved C2 and
infoinalized liaining.
Wilh his poIilicaI luidens Iessened lolh ly liagic
ciicunslance and ly lhe poIilicaI acconpIishnenls of
his piedecessoi, Hu vas alIe lo focus piinaiiIy on lhe
noie lechnocialic chaIIenges of poIicy inpIenenla-
lion. The success of Hus infoinalizalion poIicies is
lesl assessed nol on lhe lasis of achieving a ceilain
Iasling poIilicaI and inslilulionaI consensus, as vas
lhe case vilh }iang, lul ialhei on lhe exlenl lo vhich
he lioughl aloul lhe successfuI inpIenenlalion of
infoinalizalion effoils in iecognized aieas of veak-
ness foi lhe ILA. AIlhough Hu and }iang nay have
diffeied in lheii vaiious peisonaI quaIilies, lheie vas
a fundanenlaI conlinuily in lheii appioaches lo infoi-
nalizalion lhal nakes chailing lhe unique piopeilies
of infoinalizalion in lhe Hu eia a nallei of diaving
sullIe dislinclions ialhei lhan lioad sliokes.
$#%$! @O *'OO%#%+(% C%";%%+
F'$+& $+* ?)B! D$+$&%D%+" @O
D'A'"$#E '+O@#D$"'i$"'@+
The hisl seveiaI yeais of Hus lenuie as CMC chaii-
nan sav lhe concepl of infoinalizalion achieve nev
cenliaIily in ILA slialegic lhinking, conlinuing lhe
liend of }iangs hnaI yeais in ofhce. The ;)2)$&%1 #$%&-
$'()* L+),'2)/'- (,[\) veie foinaIIy anend-
ed in 2OO2, updaling }iangs goaI of lhe ILA leing
alIe lo vin IocaI vais undei high-lech condilions
lo piepaiing foi IocaI vais undei infoinalized con-
dilions.
23
This change had leen seveiaI yeais in lhe
naking. ILA docliine undei }iang had consislenlIy
228
spoken of lhe liansfoinalive inpacl of infoinalion
lechnoIogy, infoinalion vaifaie, and lhe infoinalion
spheie of lhe lallIeheId as fundanenlaI eIenenls of
lhe foin of asynneliicaI vaifaie lhal lhe ILA sees
ilseIf as piepaiing lo hghl, aII of vhich hl vilhin lhe
lheoielicaI fianevoik of niIilaiy infoinalizalion lhal
vas leing consliucled.
Undei Hu, lhis iecognilion of infoinalizalion as
lhe nucIeus of lhe high-lech condilions shaping lhe
fuluie of vaifaie legan lo le ieecled in an incieas-
ing iange of docliinaI docunenls, vhich, in luin, inle-
gialed vilh Chinas lioadei infoinalizalion slialegy
enconpassing lolh lhe niIilaiy and civiIian spheies.
As a iesuIl, lhe enphasis of piepaialion foi infoina-
lized conicl lioadened fion lhe possession and use
of advanced lechnoIogy lo enconpass hov changes in
slialegy, docliine, and opeialions can enalIe a fuIIei
Ieveiaging of lhose lechnoIogicaI advances. In 2OO5, a
niIilaiy (&/(1&4 specihcaIIy devoled lo infoinaliza-
lion ([]||;) vas issued foi lhe hisl
line, coveiing lhe 15-yeai span fion 2OO6 lhiough
2O2O. The (&/(1&4 enphasized lhe need foi najoi
fundanenlaI iefoins in lhe niIilaiys disseninalion
and uliIizalion of infoinalion, lased on a high-IeveI
peiceplion lhal lhe cuiienl slale of niIilaiy infoina-
lizalion vas inadequale foi successfuIIy conducling
syslen-of-syslens opeialions.
24
In 2OO6, foIIoving lhe infoinalizalion (&/(1&4,
lhe ILAs Headquaileis ReguIalions veie updaled
foi lhe hisl line in a decade, sliessing infoinaliza-
lion lo a fai giealei degiee lhan lheii piedecessois.
25

CIause 7 of lhe CeneiaI Slaff Depailnenls (CSD) sec-
lion of lhose ieguIalions inlued CSD vilh piinaiy
iesponsiliIily foi oveiseeing lhe day-lo-day voik of
lhe AII-ILA Infoinalizalion Leading SnaII Cioup.
229
CSD infoinalizalion Ialoialoiies have since leen
lasked vilh key infoinalizalion-ieIaled piojecls, such
as lhe consliuclion of inlegialed connand pIalfoins.
In 2OO8, a nev updale lo lhe OulIines on MiIilaiy
Tiaining and LvaIualion (OMTL, aIso iefeiied lo as
?&L&/() vas issued vilh a giealei enphasis on infoi-
nalizalion, a deveIopnenl discussed in giealei delaiI
leIov. IinaIIy, in 2O11 lhe CSDs Connunicalions
Depailnenl vas ieoiganized inlo lhe Infoinaliza-
lion Depailnenl, ieecling lhe cenliaI ioIe given lo
CSD ly Hu-eia docliine and ieguIalions lo nanage
lhe niIilaiys infoinalizalion effoils.
26
The Iallei haIf of }iangs lein as Chaiinan of lhe
CMC sav a push lo niiioi lhe civiIian decisionnak-
ing and oiganizalionaI appaialus foi oveisighl of
civiIian infoinalizalion effoils in lhe niIilaiy ieaIn,
a liend lhal conlinued undei Hu. Ioi nosl of lhis
line peiiod, nalionaI infoinalizalion effoils in China
veie oveiseen ly lhe high-IeveI Slale Infoinalizalion
Leading SnaII Cioup (]]), vhich, in
luin, oveisav lhe Slale CounciI Infoinalizalion Ofhce
(]|][,, SCITO) and vas seived ly
lhe expeil Advisoiy Connillee foi Slale Infoinaliza-
lion (]]!|)), ACSI). These lod-
ies veie sulsuned inlo lhe Minisliy of Indusliy and
Infoinalion TechnoIogy (MIIT) upon ils ciealion in
2OO8.
27
ACSI and lhe Slale Infoinalizalion Leading
SnaII Cioup aie lolh knovn lo sliII exisl as disciele
enlilies undei lhis nev aiiangenenl, aIlhough lhe
cuiienl conhguialion of vhal vas pieviousIy knovn
as SCITO is sonevhal uncIeai.
23O
The ILA, foi ils pail, appeais lo have had an AII-
ILA Infoinalizalion Leading SnaII Cioup (]
) since al Ieasl 2OO2, vilh an AII-ILA Infoi-
nalizalion Woik Ofhce (][,) lhal
appeais lo nalch lhe funclions of SCITO Iocaled un-
dei lhe CSD Infoinalizalion Depailnenl since al Ieasl
2OO4. Il vas nol unliI 2OO5, hovevei, lhal an AII-ILA
Infoinalizalion Lxpeil Advisoiy Connillee (]
!|))) vas eslalIished. Wilh iespecled
infoinalion vaifaie lheoielician (and foinei head of
CSDs eIeclionic vaifaie (LW)-oiienled 4lh Depail-
nenl) Dai Qingnin, seiving as lhe Connillees head
fion ils founding unliI his foinaI ieliienenl in De-
cenlei 2O1O, lhe Connillee has piovided a ieIaliveIy
independenl lody of anaIysis on infoinalizalion chaI-
Ienges facing lhe ILA. OiganizalionaIIy, lhe Connil-
lee is onIy a pailiaI niiioi of ils civiIian counleipail,
il iepoils lo lolh lhe CMC and lhe foui CeneiaI De-
pailnenls, and specihc Infoinalizalion Lxpeil Advi-
soiy Connillees foi lhe Navy (]]!|)
)) and lhe Aii Ioice (]!|)))
have aIso leen eslalIished.
28
Sleps have leen laken in iecenl yeais lo Iink lhese
paiaIIeI syslens. Undei Hus Ieadeiship, in 2OO6 lhe
Slale CounciI issued ils hisl-evei Slale Infoinalizalion
DeveIopnenl Slialegy (]]j,[) covei-
ing lhe yeais 2OO6 lo 2O2O, issued ly lhe Slale CounciI.
The paiaIIeIs lelveen lhis Slialegy and lhe niIilaiy
infoinalizalion (&/(1&4 coveiing lhe sane span of
line aie nol a coincidence. The Slialegy expIicilIy es-
lalIishes lhe niIilaiys nodeinizalion as leing one of
foui goaIs of lhe nalions oveiaII infoinalizalion ef-
foils, and oiganizalions opeialing vilhin lhe ieaIns
of lolh niIilaiy and civiIian infoinalizalion, such as
defense lechnicaI univeisilies and niIilaiy hospilaIs,
231
lake lolh docunenls as coIIecliveIy expiessing a con-
piehensive oveiviev of Chinas oveiaII infoinaliza-
lion effoils lo 2O2O. In addilion lo lhis hainonizalion
of poIicy, iecenl yeais have seen conlinued deepening
of Iinkages lelveen lhe afoienenlioned civiIian and
niIilaiy infoinalizalion oiganizalions, vilh nenleis
of lhe NalionaI and aII-ILA Infoinalizalion Lxpeil
Advisoiy Cioups neeling and coIIaloialing on joinl
assessnenls vilh incieasing fiequency. Theie has aIso
leen a lioadei liend lovaid giealei expIicil enphasis
leing given ly expeils on lolh sides lo lhe ioIe lhal
infoinalizalion in lhe civiIian econony pIays in niIi-
laiy infoinalizalion effoils.
AIongside lhese docliinaI and oiganizalionaI
changes, lhe piocess of eslalIishing and ievising un-
deiIying niIilaiy concepls and lheoiy has conlinued
in lhe lackgiound, and heie a degiee of conlinuily can
le olseived. One usefuI Iens foi olseiving lhe evo-
Iulion of lhe ILAs infoinalizalion lheoiy lelveen
}iang and Hus leins as CMC Chaiinan is ly exanin-
ing lhe concepls piesenlalions in lhe 2OOO and 2OO6-
O7 edilions of lhe #*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/-.
29
Iioduced
ly lhe Acadeny of MiIilaiy Sciences and NalionaI
Defense Univeisily, #*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/- is lhe cIos-
esl lhing lhal exisls lo a codihed sunnalion of ILA
acadenic lhinking on lhe docliine, nelhodoIogy, and
lheoielicaI consliucls undeigiiding lhe nissions lhe
niIilaiy nay le lasked vilh undeilaking. Changes in
lhe #*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/- aie IikeIy lo al Ieasl sonevhal
coiieIale vilh changes in ILA docliine and slialegic
lhoughl, lhough as noled alove, lheie nay le a sig-
nihcanl line Iag lelveen a concepl coheiing in lhis
venue and ils fuII piogiannalic inpIenenlalion inlo
niIilaiy opeialions.
232
In lhe 2OO6 edilion of lhe #*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/-, in-
foinalizalion is nol onIy discussed in lhe conlexl of
ils inpoilance foi caiiying oul a given nission, lul
aIso noled as a lasic essenliaI eIenenl of canpaign
slienglh. The aulhois desciile niIilaiy opeialions
laking pIace vilhin a funclionaI donain of niIilaiy
infoinalion, dislincl fion lhe sepaialeIy inlioduced
concepl of lhe eIeclionagnelic donain, in vhich foic-
es can exeicise infoinalion povei.
3O
Looking foi-
vaid, lhe aulhois see infoinalion as peivading eveiy
aspecl of fuluie conlal, leginning vilh lhe lallIeheId
infoinalized lallIeheId enviionnenl and exlend-
ing lo a geneiaI ieIiance on infoinalion povei lo
fuIIy liing aII lhe iesouices of vai, lolh capaliIilies
and naleiieI, inlo pIay. AIlhough lhe inlegialion of
C4ISR syslens is expIicilIy nenlioned as an inpoilanl
lask, lhe aulhois iepealedIy enphasize lhe need foi
funclionaI inlegialion of aII infoinalized pIalfoins in
oidei lo giasp lhe inlegialed vhoIe.
This liain of lhoughl dovelaiIs IogicaIIy vilh al-
lenpls ly lhe ILA in sulsequenl yeais lo deveIop
inlegialed connand pIalfoin aichilecluies, and, al
vaiious poinls, lhe aulhois enphasize lhe inpoilance
of each of lhe capaliIilies lhal vouId evenluaIIy con-
piise lhal aichilecluie. Reconnaissance is desciiled
as a cenliaI lask, vilh an accuiale, ieaI-line, ieIialIe
infoinalion coIIeclion capaliIily leing essenliaI foi
piopei exeicise of connand and conlioI. Connand
and conlioI (C2), LW capaliIilies, opeialionaI suppoil
capaliIilies, and Iogislics and equipnenl suppoil ca-
paliIilies aie aII desciiled as essenliaI and inleiIock-
ing eIenenls of a successfuI canpaign.
Yel, vhiIe lhis node of lhinking aloul infoinali-
zalion lo a Iaige exlenl niiiois lhe cenliaIily of infoi-
nalizalion undei Hu }inlao, lhese concepls aie aIso
233
IaigeIy piesenl in lhe edilion of #*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/-
pioduced in 2OOO duiing }iangs lenuie, aIleil sone-
lines phiased in diffeienl leins. One nusl le hesi-
lanl, lhen, lo concIude lhal any olseived inciease in
conciele infoinalizalion aclivilies oi giealei lheoieli-
caI enphasis on infoinalizalion undei Hu }inlao vas
sinpIy lhe iesuIl of Hus Ieadeiship and decisionnak-
ing, lhe inleIIecluaI gioundvoik had leen Iaid in ad-
vance duiing lhe lein of his piedecessoi, iaising lhe
possiliIily lhal olseived diffeiences nay have leen
pailIy oi vhoIIy lhe iesuIl of lhe ILA piogiessing
lhiough slages of incieasing infoinalizalion vilhoul
a sulslanliaI aIleiing of couise.
Despile a Iaige degiee of oveiIap lelveen infoi-
nalizalion undei Hu and }iang, lheie aie aIso sev-
eiaI sulslanlive dislinclions of enphasis lelveen lhe
guiding slialegic concepls of lhe lvo eias. Thiee of
lhe nosl inpoilanl aie Hus conceplion of lhe ILAs
NHM (lhe Thiee ResponsiliIilies and One RoIe),
Hus enphasis on infoinalized liaining, and nosl ie-
cenlIy lhe ILAs najoi push lo achieve an inlegialed
joinl connand capaliIily lhiough lhe deveIopnenl
and depIoynenl of infoinalized connand pIalfoin
aichilecluies, poIicy oljeclives vhich have occuiied
aIongside a poIicy enphasis on infoinalizalion in
civiIian indusliies and deepening civiI-niIilaiy
inlegialion.
'+O@#D$"'i$"'@+ $+* "?%
+%; ?'!"@#'( D'!!'@+!
Hus Nev Hisloiic Missions (NHM) consideialIy
lioadened lhe iange of opeialions lhal lhe ILA is ex-
pecled lo peifoin, lolh in leins of MOOTW and in a
lioadei conceplion of lhe niIilaiys ioIe in safeguaid-
234
ing Chinas nalionaI inleiesls.
31
Aflei seveiaI yeais of
pIanning and docliinaI deveIopnenl lo acconnodale
Hus enphasis on MOOTW, lhe aliIily lo caiiy oul
non-conlal opeialions has lecone a ieguIai considei-
alion in aII aspecls of ILA foice deveIopnenl, ianging
fion liaining and exeicises lo equipnenl RD&A. The
ILAN in pailicuIai has gained a lioadei lasking, nol
onIy engaging in exeicises lul conducling opeialions
in fai seas foi lhe hisl line in Chinas nodein hislo-
iy.
32
Addiessing lhe dislincl foice nodeinizalion chaI-
Ienges posed ly lhe NHM necessilales an enphasis on
diffeienl aspecls of infoinalizalion lhan lhose nosl
ieIevanl lo lhe ILAs usuaI focus on iegionaI conlal
opeialions againsl an asynneliic adveisaiy, vilh lhe
enphasis shifling lo Iogislics and suppoil infoinali-
zalion, as veII as connunicalion and inleiopeialiIily
vilh civiIian and niIilia connunicalions nelvoiks,
and C2 pIalfoins foi lolh defense noliIizalion and
lhe conducl of opeialions.
33
Anolhei neans ly vhich lhe NHM has inuenced
lhe diieclion of infoinalizalion is in ils expanding
conceplion of Chinas nalionaI inleiesls and lhe ILAs
defense of lhose inleiesls. The NHM has conlinued
an inpoilanl liend of ILA lhoughl daling fion lhe
199Os ly expanding lhe nunlei of ieaIns in vhich
il consideis ilseIf lo have ciilicaI assels and inleiesls
lo le safeguaided, going leyond lhe liadilionaI Iand,
sea, and aii donains inlo lhe eIeclionagnelic spec-
liun (incIuding infoinalion nelvoiks) and space.
Chinese anxiely aloul lhe ILAs capacily lo fuIhII lhis
nission is ieecled in ils leing naned as lhe second
of lhe lvo inconpaliliIilies, Hus 2OO8 foinuIalion
of ciuciaI ILA nissions vheie lhe niIilaiys cuiienl
capaliIilies aie inadequale.
34
235
AIlhough lheie ienains delale vilhin lolh lhe
ILA and lhe connunily of Weslein Chinese niIi-
laiy anaIysls as lo vhelhei lhe NHM iisk dispIacing
oi jeopaidizing lhe ILAs piepaialion foi liadilionaI
conlal ioIes ly diIuling lhe focus of liaining and foice
nodeinizalion effoils, lheie aie consideialIe aieas of
oveiIap lelveen infoinalizalion diiecled al fuIhIIing
lhe NHM, infoinalizalion diiecled al lhe ILAs lia-
dilionaI ains, and civiIian infoinalizalion oljeclives.
The Iallei syneigy is li-diieclionaI, enconpassing
lolh niIilaiy lechnoIogy and pIalfoins lhal aie spun
off lo lenehl civiIian infoinalizalion, and civiIian
lechnoIogies, and infoinalion lechnoIogies vhich aie
spun on and inlegialed inlo niIilaiy equipnenl
and nelvoiks. This infoinalizalion oveiIap has given
addilionaI annunilion lo ILA schoIais aiguing lhal
lhe concepl of niIilaiy-civiI fusion ([{, sone-
lines liansIaled as civiI-niIilaiy inlegialion) is
nol onIy an inpoilanl conponenl of Chinas defense
RD&A syslen, lul aIso a ciuciaI aspecl of niIilaiy
infoinalizalion.
35
'+O@#D$"'i%* "#$'+'+& $+*
>%#!@++%A >@A'('%! )+*%# ?)
As noled in pievious viiling on lhe nodeinizalion
of ILA liaining, lhe ILA, Iike aII niIilaiies seeking
lo inlegiale incieasingIy advanced lechnoIogy, con-
fionls a difhcuIl sel of peisonneI piolIens, vilh a
peisislenl gap lelveen lhe degiee of lechnicaI pioh-
ciency iequiied lo successfuIIy opeiale ILA syslens
and equipnenl and lhe caIilei of ofhceis and enIisled
peisonneI lhe ILA is alIe lo ieciuil.
36
The infoinaliza-
lion of ILA liaining, in lolh lhe sense of giealei liain-
ing foi lhe use of infoinalized syslens and inpioved
236
use of sinuIalion and olhei infoinalized pIalfoins in
lhe conducl of liaining, is one inpoilanl neans of hII-
ing lhal gap, and ILA aulhois iecognize lhal infoina-
lized liaining has iesuIled in a fundanenlaI change
in lhe node of geneialing vaihghling capaliIily.
37
The ioIe of infoinalized liaining has giovn con-
sideialIy on Hus valch. Infoinalized liaining vas
nenlioned foi lhe hisl line in lhe 2OO5 diieclives on
liaining, and vas given incieased pioninence in 2OO6
and 2OO7 diieclives, incIuding 2OO7s Decision on
lhe Slienglhening of lhe MiIilaiy Tiaining in lhe Nev
Cenluiy and lhe Nev Slage.
38
ILA viileis discuss-
ing effoils lo iefoin lhe niIilaiys liaining inilialives
diieclIy Iink lhe deveIopnenl of infoinalized liain-
ing lo lhe aliIily lo conducl nuIliseivice joinl liaining
exeicises, a foin of vaifaie vilh vhich lhe ILA has
piecious IillIe expeiience.
Alove lhe IeveI of noie geneiaI diieclives on
liaining aie lhe OulIines on MiIilaiy Tiaining and
LvaIualion (OMTL), aIso iefeiied lo as lhe ?&L&/( ([
|),_|;). These liaining guideIines aie
inciedilIy inpoilanl lo lhe ILAs opeialionaI evoIu-
lion, as lhey iepiesenl lhe neans lhiough vhich doc-
liinaI innovalions aie incoipoialed inlo lhe niIilaiys
ongoing liaining exeicises. Theie is nol one singIe uni-
hed ?&L&/(, ialhei, lhey aie a coIIeclion of ovei 1OO
docunenls coveiing vaiying nissions and ioIes, vilh
lhe coiiesponding docunenls leing issued lo niIilaiy
oiganizalions in aII seivices and lianches al aII IeveIs.
These insliuclions aie lhe coie of lhe ILAs liaining
nelhodoIogies, and vhen updaled have iesuIled in a
nunlei of nev liaining inilialives.
39
The ?&L&/( undeivenl najoi ievisions in 2OO7
and 2OO8, vilh changes such as lhe addilion of specihc
docunenls foi niIilia unils and shifls in docliinaI en-
237
phasis. Ieihaps lhe liggesl shifl in enphasis has leen
desciiled as noving fion liaining foi vaifaie un-
dei condilions of nechanizalion lo liaining foi vai-
faie undei condilions of infoinalizalion, in essence
a shifl lovaid infoinalized nodes of liaining.
4O
The
shifl anounls lo a diffeience in enphasis ialhei lhan
a linaiy dicholony.
One iesuIl of lhis enphasis is addilionaI allenlion
paid lo adapling lo lhe infoinalized lallIeheId en-
viionnenl as veII as offensive and defensive infoi-
nalion vaifaie, incIuding liaining foi achieving lhe
ains of vaifaie in conpIex eIeclionagnelic enviion-
nenls (vhich, in lhe ILAs expansive use of lhe lein
eIeclionagnelic, incIudes a vide vaiiely of infoi-
nalion nelvoiks) and incieased use of infoinalized
connand, conlioI, connunicalions, conpuleis, and
inleIIigence suiveiIIance and ieconnaissance (C4ISR)
and veapons syslens.
41
This dovelaiIs vilh lhe push
undei Hu (discussed Ialei) lo deveIop inlegialed con-
nand pIalfoins, lhe ILA ains lo deveIop lhese pIal-
foins such lhal lhe exacl sane pIalfoin is suilalIe foi
use in lolh sinuIalion-lased liaining and lallIeheId
scenaiios, lhus inpioving lhal liainings ieaI-voiId
ieIevance and oveiaII quaIily.
42
Many of lhese lasks
had leen oulIined yeais piioi as desiied fuluie pioh-
ciencies foi ILA peisonneI, exenpIifying lhe giaduaI
liansnission of concepls deveIoped ly ILA lheoieli-
cians inlo docliine.
43
The nev ?&L&/( aIso pIaces giealei enphasis on
MOOTW and peaceline eneigency opeialions,
pailicuIaiIy lhose lhal iequiie aclive-duly foices lo
cooidinale vilh and Iead niIilia and civiIian assels.
Infoinalizalion pIays a ciuciaI ioIe in lhe niIilaiys
aliIily lo acconpIish lhese lasks, vhich deiive in pail
fion lhe NHM lhal had leen iecenlIy oulIined ly
Hu }inlao.
44

238
In lhis deveIopnenl, seveiaI liends of infoinaliza-
lion legin lo oveiIap, undei Hus Ieadeiship, signih-
canl enphasis vas pIaced on inlegialion of lhe ILA
and lhe niIilia, and on lhe niIilias infoinalizalion.
Aflei enphasizing giealei inlegialion of niIilia and
civiIian nelvoiks vilh lhe ILA in 2OO4 lhiough lhe
NHM, 2OO6 sav lhe hisl evei infoinalizalion-ieIaled
(&/(1&4 issued foi lhe niIilia syslen, invoIving lhe
infoinalizalion and inlegialion of ils aii defense nel-
voik. IoIIoving on lhe heeIs of lhis change, lhe 2OO7
incIusion of niIilias, lhe ?&L&/( syslen, and lhe inle-
gialion of niIilia nelvoiks inlo lhe ILAs inlegialed
connand pIalfoin aichilecluies suggesls a consis-
lenl liend lovaid inlegialing lhe niIilia and Chinas
lioadei ained foices inlo lop-IeveI ILA infoinali-
zalion pIanning, vhich viII le ieecled in liaining
effoils going foivaid.
These changes aie nol soIeIy lechnicaI and oiga-
nizalionaI in naluie. To lhe exlenl lhal one can con-
cIusiveIy discein shifls in lhe focus of lhe ILAs in-
foinalizalion piocess duiing Hus lein, an incieased
enphasis on lhe hunan eIenenl of infoinalizalion
is paIpalIe. In 2O11, Hu ialihed lhe 2O2O MiIilaiy
IeisonneI Hunan CapilaI DeveIopnenl IIan (&/(-
1&4 (2O2O +[;/j|;), eslalIishing
lhe deveIopnenl of peisonneI capalIe of nanaging
an infoinalized foice as a high-IeveI iequiienenl foi
achieving lhe ILAs deveIopnenl goaIs ovei lhe nexl
decade, and pIacing lhal deveIopnenl al lhe coie of
lhe ILAs aliIily lo effecliveIy seize lhe polenliaI of
syslen-of-syslens opeialions.
45
The liansilion fion
lhe 11lh lo lhe 12lh Iive Yeai IIan aIso ieecls lop-
IeveI guidance lo deepen lhe infoinalizalion of liain-
ing and niIilaiy educalion.
46
239
Noling lhe inpoilance of peisonneI, Hu once de-
cIaied lhal lhe gIolaI ievoIulion in niIilaiy affaiis is
nol onIy a ievoIulion of niIilaiy lechnoIogy and oi-
ganizalionaI sliucluies, lul a ievoIulion in niIilaiy
nanagenenl, a posilion ieecled nol onIy in infoi-
nalizalion poIicy lul aIso in nany peisonneI-cenliic
inilialives lied lo his guiding lhinking of scienlihc
deveIopnenl.
47
Theie is acknovIedgnenl vilhin lhe
ILA lhal high-IeveI slialegic lhinking and docliine on
liaining has yel lo fuIIy peineale lhe liaining piocess,
and lhal liaining as il cuiienlIy slands ienains inad-
equale foi lhe successfuI conducl of vaifaie undei
infoinalized condilions.
48
Il appeais IikeIy lhal Hus
push foi infoinalized liaining viII conlinue lo guide
lhe ILAs infoinalizalion piocess veII inlo Xis len-
uie as CMC Chaiinan.
'+"%&#$"%* (@DD$+* >A$"O@#D! $+*
'+"%&#$"%* F@'+" @>%#$"'@+!
In oidei lo piopeiIy conlexluaIize lhe signihcance
of lhe ILAs iecenl focus on inlegialed connand
pIalfoin aichilecluies, a liief ieluin lo discussion of
Chinese niIilaiy lheoiy is necessaiy. ILA aulhois ie-
pealedIy Iink lhe nove lovaid infoinalizalion vilh
lhe deveIopnenl of a capaliIily foi inlegialed joinl
opeialions ({,), vhich is specihcaIIy
dislinguished fion neieIy joinl opeialions ({
,). This nev foin of conlal has ils lheoielicaI lasis in
lhe ILAs concepl of syslen of syslens opeialions
(_,), lhe idea lhal lhe fuluie of vaifaie invoIves
lhe inleiaclion of nuneious infoinalized syslens
vhich, in luin, foin a syslen-of-syslens giealei lhan
lhe sun of lheii pails. In lhe ILAs lhinking, inlegial-
ed joinl opeialions is lhe piaclicaI ieaI-voiId expies-
24O
sion of speciaI opeialions squadion (SoS) opeialions,
and senioi ILA lheoielicians oflen use lhe leins inlei-
changealIy oi expIicilIy equale lhen lo one anolhei.
Inlegialed joinl opeialions aie a pioninenl fealuie
of fuluie infoinalized vaifaie, and nusl necessai-
iIy le a najoi focus of oveiaII infoinalizalion pIan-
ning and guidance, in lhal effecliveIy inlegialing aII
kinds of infoinalion syslens inlo syslens of syslens
foi lhe puipose of enalIing inlegialed joinl opeialions
viII liansIale inlo incieased niIilaiy capaliIilies on
lhe infoinalized lallIeheIds of lhe fuluie.
49
The nain diffeience lelveen sinpIe joinl op-
eialions and inlegialed joinl opeialions is lhal lhe
foinei has liadilionaIIy leen joinl in nane onIy,
vilhoul iising lo lhe IeveI of vhal Weslein niIilai-
ies vouId oidinaiiIy lein joinlness, inpIying lhe
sinuIlaneous use of foices fion nuIlipIe seivices and
lianches conducling cooidinaled opeialions lased on
oideis ieceived lhiough a joinl connand posl. UnliI
iecenlIy, faclois such as veighling of connand posl
peisonneI lovaid lhe ainy, Iack of inleiopeialIe con-
nunicalions aichilecluies, and Iack of inslilulionaI
enphasis on inleiseivice cooidinalion have iendeied
ILA joinl exeicises a hoIIov sheII of lheii nolionaI po-
lenliaI, vilh lhe pailicipaling seivices geneiaIIy eilhei
assigned lo oppose one anolhei oi conducling nonin-
legialed opeialions in pioxinily lo one anolhei.
5O
Inlegialed joinl opeialions, ly conliasl, possesses
aII lhe haIInaiks of joinlness lhal lhe U.S. niIilaiy has
laken foi gianled foi decades, such as inlegialed con-
nand and conlioI, a neai-ieaI-line Connon Opeia-
lionaI Iicluie (COI), and ieIialIe, ieguIaiIy uliIized
avenues of inleiseivice connunicalion. Such opeia-
lions aie neaiIy inpossilIe lo conducl vilhoul lhe nec-
essaiy C4ISR lechnoIogy. In Coilez Coopeis voids,
241
lhe aliIily of lhe ILA lo successfuIIy conducl inlegial-
ed joinl vaifaie depends heaviIy on deveIop|ingj
and enpIoy|ingj an inlegialed pIalfoin oi nelvoik
foi iapid joinl vai zone infoinalion coIIeclion, fu-
sion, disseninalion, and connand decision.
51
The
soil of aichilecluie necessaiy foi enalIing lhese lasks,
a syslen of infoinalized syslens, has leen desciiled
concepluaIIy ly ILA lheoielicians using a vaiiely of
lioad leininoIogy foi ovei a decade. In iecenl yeais,
hovevei, lhe aichilecluie has lecone noie conciele,
vilh deveIopnenl undeivay in CSD infoinalizalion
Ialoialoiies (pailicuIaiIy lhe 61sl Reseaich Inslilule),
lhe pionuIgalion of slandaids foi inleifacing and in-
leiopeialiIily, and depIoynenl and lesling in pulIic
niIilaiy exeicises.
This aichilecluie is nov expIicilIy desciiled as
consliluling an Inlegialed Connand IIalfoin (
||`, ICI), lhe gIue connecling logelhei unIike
syslens of vaiying oiigins and IeveIs of lechnoIogicaI
sophislicalion and infoinalizalion. The ICI concepl
giev oul of piioi nolions of connand aulonalion
syslens (||_,), vilh lhe evoIulion ie-
ecled in 2OO6s infoinalizalion-focused Headquai-
leis ReguIalions.
52
The ongoing deveIopnenl of ICIs
is a coie focus of cuiienl ILA infoinalizalion effoils.
ICIs aie nol neieIy connand and conlioI syslens,
lhey enconpass connunicalions, inleIIigence, sui-
veiIIance, and ieconnaissance (ISR), and even eIec-
lionic vaifaie capaliIilies vilhin a unihed, inlegialed
fianevoik. Vaiious ICIs vilh sepaiale deveIopnenl
leans, capaliIilies, and usei-lases (and oflen incon-
pIele oi insufhcienl inleiopeialiIily vilh one anolhei)
aie sinuIlaneousIy undei deveIopnenl.
One nolevoilhy fealuie of ICIs is lheii inlegialion
nol onIy of vaiied niIilaiy syslens, lul aIso of Ieo-
242
pIes Ained IoIice (IAI), niIilia, and civiIian dala
and connunicalions nelvoiks.
53
This lioadening of
syslens inlegialion leyond puieIy niIilaiy-conlioIIed
syslens is nol onIy a polenliaI loon foi lhe ILAs aliI-
ily lo cooidinale iesouices and pioduce an accuiale
COI vhen conducling vaihghling opeialions in lheii
ovn lackyaid, lul aIso iecognized ly ILA acaden-
ics as a necessaiy condilion foi conducling lhe vaii-
ous nonvaifaie noliIizalions and opeialions lhal
lhe niIilaiy has leen lasked vilh undeilaking as pail
of Hu }inlaos NHM concepl. ICI deveIopnenl lhus
iepiesenls anolhei najoi polenliaI conveigence poinl
foi nuIlipIe veclois of ongoing ILA and non-ILA
infoinalizalion effoils.
54
As vaiious ICIs aie leing deveIoped vilhin a nun-
lei of niIilaiy oiganizalions, lop-dovn cooidinalion
is necessaiy lo ensuie conpaliliIily and inleiopeialiI-
ily. The issuing of guidance on slandaidizalion and
inlegialion in soflvaie design ly lhe CSD Infoinali-
zalion Depailnenl appeais lo have had an inpacl in
lhis iegaid, Ieading lo lhe foinuIalion of a seiies of
211 slandaids foi niIilaiy soflvaie and haidvaie
vhich appIy lo inleiconneclion and inleiopeialiI-
ily vilh ICIs.
55
These slandaids iange fion 211A
vhich covei engineeiing iequiienenls, lo 211K
vhich covei dalalase sliucluie, vilh guideIines foi
infoinalion exchange piolocoIs, packel liansfei pio-
locoI specihcalions, and vaiious olhei aspecls of in-
leiopeialiIily, aII issued vilh lhe goaI of ciealing an
enviionnenl vheie appIicalions and infoinalion can
le shaied on denand acioss a vaiied iange of syslens.
LaiIy ICI lesl depIoynenls have al lines leen fauIled
foi Iacking sufhcienl inleiopeialiIily and funclionaI-
ily, a piolIen lhal can onIy le iesoIved lhiough in-
pioved adheience lo unifoin slandaids.
243
The push lovaid depIoynenl of inlegialed con-
nand pIalfoins foi lesling and liaining has gained
nonenlun in iecenl yeais, aIongside an inciease in
liaining exeicises inlended lo sinuIale inlegialed joinl
opeialions. In }uIy 2O13, foi exanpIe, lhe Chengdu
MiIilaiy Region slaged lhe Ialesl in a seiies of con-
nand and confionlalion exeicises cooidinaling nuI-
lipIe seivices lhal veie connecled lhiough lhe use of
inlegialed connand pIalfoins. RecenlIy, hovevei,
lheie appeais lo have leen sone evoIulion avay fion
lhis nindsel. AIlhough il is difhcuIl lo pinpoinl lhe ex-
lenl lo vhich ICI is soIeIy oi piinaiiIy iesponsilIe foi
lhe olseived evoIulion of ILA exeicises vilh a joinl
vaifaie conponenl, lheie does appeai lo le a nolice-
alIe uplick in lhe pasl 2 yeais in nuIliseivice exeicises
lhal fealuie liuIy joinl cooidinalion and coopeialion
lo al Ieasl sone exlenl. Olhei ILA aulhois, hovevei,
have highIighled lhe inconpIele depIoynenl of ICIs
as an olslacIe, vilh diffeienl lypes of unils acioss
lhe ained foices having access lo diffeienl ICIs and
infoinalion shaiing nechanisns.
56
Il is loo eaiIy lo leII vhelhei lhese effoils viII leai
fiuil. Inlegialion of lhese pIalfoins inlo niIilaiy ie-
gion liaining exeicises has onIy leen happening vilh
any fiequency since 2O11, haidIy enough line lo
judge lhe oulcone of such an inheienlIy disiuplive,
liansfoinalive piocess. In sone niIilaiy iegions, lhe
inlioduclion of ICIs has leen conlined vilh a najoi
push in enphasis lovaid inlegialed joinl opeialions,
fuilhei incieasing lhe pace of change.
57

Thiough iecenl ILA liaining exeicises invoIving
opeialions againsl a ied lean undei conpIex sinu-
Ialions of ieaI-voiId condilions, evidence is eneiging
lhal ICIs aie a necessaiy, lul nol sufhcienl, condilion
foi successfuIIy conducling inlegialed joinl opeia-
244
lions, as even a fuIIy funclioning inlegialed connand
pIalfoin can le uliIized pooiIy ly undeiliained lioops
foIIoving ouldaled nelhodoIogies and docliines.
58

ICIs have sone vay lo go, and lheie appeais lo le
sone iecognilion vilhin lhe niIilaiy Ieadeiship lhal
lhis viII le a faiiIy Iong-lein undeilaking, vilh onIy
giaduaI dispIays of piogiess.
59
As a iesuIl, inpoilanl queslions ienain as lo vhal
foin ICI connunicalions and cooidinalion capa-
liIilies viII lake vhen lhey evenluaIIy giaduale fion
sinuIalions, lesling, and liaining, and aie nade di-
ieclIy avaiIalIe lo Iovei-IeveI unils on lhe lallIeheId.
AIlhough lhey oflen exloI lhe viilues of infoinalion
shaiing, ILA pulIicalions discussing pIanned de-
veIopnenl of ICIs have aIso nenlioned lhe need foi
highei-giade unils lo acliveIy hIlei infoinalion lefoie
passing il dovnvaid, oul of concein foi lolh nain-
laining lhe ILAs liadilionaIIy pioaclive C2 capaliI-
ily and foi pievenling infoinalion oveiIoad fion
slynieing Iov-IeveI laclicaI decisionnaking.
6O
ILA
lheoielicians aIso see inlegialed connand pIalfoins
as offeiing incieased polenliaI foi skip echeIon (
) C2, in vhich an oiganizalion noie lhan one giade
alove anolhei is alIe lo ieach dovn lo diieclIy issue
connands.
61

Hovevei, lheie is aIso sone evidence lhal lhe ILA
expIicilIy vievs infoinalizalion as a neans lo lellei
enalIe lolh ISR shaiing and connunicalions lelveen
unils in lhe heId and Iovei-IeveI connandeis ieach-
ing up seveiaI IeveIs alove lhen vhen necessaiy.
UnIike pievious ISR shaiing aiiangenenls, vhich had
infoinalion leing passed fion lhe lollon up IeveI ly
individuaI IeveI, lhe ILAs ICIs have leen specihcaIIy
designed lo nol onIy enalIe ISR shaiing fion con-
nand unils lo Iovei IeveIs, lul aIso fion individuaI
245
soIdieis al lhe conpany IeveI up lo lhe IeveI of gioup
ainy connand headquaileis, vilh connunicalion
lypassing inleinediale IeveIs. One iecenl niIilaiy ex-
eicise even pioninenlIy fealuied individuaI ILA soI-
dieis skipping echeIons lo diieclIy caII in aiisliikes
fion ILAAI lonleis on eneny posilions.
62
This is, lo pul il niIdIy, nol lhe vay lhal lhe ILA
has hisloiicaIIy done lusiness. Whelhei lhe ILAs
lallIeheId inpIenenlalion of ICIs acluaIIy achieves
lhis degiee of opeialionaI exiliIily viII inevilalIy
aIso depend on olhei faclois such as iefoins in liain-
ing, docliine, and oiganizalionaI cuIluie. Delales aie
ongoing vilhin lhe ILA as lo vhelhei giealei enpha-
sis shouId le pIaced on connandeis of Iovei-giade
unils laking independenl inilialive. Heie, again, lhe
depIoynenl of ICIs dovelaiIs vilh olhei infoinaliza-
lion deveIopnenls, aIlhough lhe ILA iecognizes fion
lhe expeiience of lhe U.S. niIilaiy lhal gianling opeia-
lionaI exiliIily lo Iov-IeveI connandeis oflen Ieads
lo supeiioi iesuIls, lul lhose gains aie inpossilIe lo
ieaIize vilhoul inpioved liaining and olhei shifls in
oiganizalionaI cuIluie. ICIs can faciIilale docliinaI
evoIulion in eilhei diieclion, lhe sane aichilecluies
lhal couId enpovei Iovei-IeveI ofhceis lo nake
iapid, aulononous decisions can aIso le used lo in-
ciease lhe degiee of ieaI-line oveisighl and connand
capaliIilies of highei-giade oiganizalions. AIlhough
ils specihc conlouis have yel lo le deleinined, lhe es-
senliaI lechnoIogicaI undeipinnings aie nov in pIace
foi a sulslanliaI novenenl lovaid sone foin of lhe
inlegialed joinl opeialions concepl allaining piinacy
lolh in lheoiy and in piaclice.
246
(@+(A)!'@+
Lven vilh lhe lenehl of hindsighl, il is oflen difh-
cuIl lo diav cIeai-cul dislinclions as lo vhich changes
in infoinalizalion poIicy and docliine duiing Hus
line as Chaiinan of lhe CMC aie lesl ciediled lo
his Ieadeiship and inilialive, and vhich veie sin-
pIy naluiaI oulgiovlhs of decisions nade undei lhe
Ieadeiship of his piedecessoi. To sone exlenl, hov-
evei, lhis dislinclion is an ailihciaI one, exanining
lhe Chinese niIilaiy as a syslen of syslens, one
of ils nosl saIienl fealuies is lhe exislence of nunei-
ous nechanisns foi a Ieadei lo conlinue lo exeil his
inuence even aflei he has exiled lhe slage. }usl as
nany of }iangs inilialives lo expand lhe scope, deplh,
and pace of niIilaiy infoinalizalion loie fiuil undei
lhe Hu eia, il is IikeIy lhal nany of Hus inilialives
lhal veie in lheii infancy oi onIy pailiaIIy deveIoped
al lhe cIose of his Ieadeiship lein viII conlinue lo
naluie undei Xi }inping.
Duiing Hus lein, lhe ILA fuIIy enliaced infoi-
nalizalion as a cenliaI guiding piincipIe of niIilaiy
lheoiy and docliine, an undeiIying hinanenl uniling
concepls such as lhe RMA vilh Chinese chaiacleiis-
lics, infoinalion vaifaie, inlegialed joinl vaifaie,
and lhe syslen-of-syslens appioach lo niIilaiy op-
eialions. Undei Xi, lhen, il is IikeIy lhal lhis lheoieli-
caI cenliaIily viII le liansIaled inlo conciele oiganiza-
lionaI and syslenic liansfoinalions in an incieasingIy
lioad iange of spheies.
Hovevei, lhe ILAs lheoielicaI sophislicalion is
sliII nol nalched ly opeialionaI ieaIilies. Ils Ieadeis
and lheoielicians aie nol lIind lo lhe gap, and iecog-
nize lhal infoinalized lechnoIogy aIone viII nol gen-
eiale effeclive conlal aliIilies if lhey aie nol paiied
247
vilh nodeinized peisonneI and oiganizalionaI sliuc-
luies. In addilion lo his ioIe oveiseeing lhe 12lh Iive
Yeai IIan, Hu has Iefl Xi vilh nuneious pIans and
docliines in pIace, guiding deveIopnenl oul lo 2O2O,
vhen lhe ILA viII oslensilIy conpIele ils second
phase of Ieapfiog deveIopnenl. A gieal nunlei of
lhese pIans ieIale lo lhe hunan side of infoinaliza-
lion, a nodeinizalion chaIIenge lhal peihaps suipass-
es even lhe lechnoIogicaI Ieaps and lounds lhe ILA
has oveicone duiing lhe pasl decade. }iangs infoi-
nalizalion Iegacy cenleis on his liinging lhe ILA lo
enliace fuIIy science and lechnoIogy nodeinizalion,
even lhough nany of his inilialives viII nol fuIIy pei-
neale lhe niIilaiy unliI aflei his depailuie. Despile
lhe acceIeialed scope of lechnoIogicaI piogiess undei
his Ieadeiship, Hus infoinalizalion Iegacy uIlinale-
Iy nay le his Iaying lhe gioundvoik foi lhe ILA lo
one day pioduce peisonneI and oiganizalionaI sliuc-
luies lhal aie up lo lhe hisloiic lask of uliIizing effec-
liveIy lhe infoinalized syslens and pIalfoins lhey
aie acquiiing.
'9H=12.,1<76 V<- ,I/ )71,/5 !,.,/68
These liends, laken logelhei, have lhe polenliaI lo
inpacl signihcanlIy lhe caIcuIus of U.S. poIicynak-
eis and niIilaiy slialegisls, as veII as lhe lioadei
Sino-Aneiican niIilaiy-lo-niIilaiy ieIalionship. The
vhoIe of infoinalizalion is giealei lhan lhe sun of
ils pails, and lheie aie poIicy inpIicalions slenning
fion Chinas infoinalizalion lhal slielch leyond lhe
inpoilance of each individuaI infoinalizalion effoil.
Iiisl and foienosl, U.S. niIilaiy slialegisls focus-
ing on scenaiios invoIving China nusl undeisland
lhe inpacl of infoinalizalion liends nol onIy in leins
248
of specihc veapons and suppoil pIalfoins, lul aIso
in leins of inlegialion lelveen niIilaiy and civiIian
infoinalizalion and nelvoiks, lolh in peaceline and
in defense noliIizalion oi conicl scenaiios. Accu-
ialeIy undeislanding lhese Iinkages viII enalIe lellei
piediclion of lolh lhe oulpuls of Chinas RD&A pio-
cesses and lhe aclions of Chinese poIilicaI and niIilaiy
aclois in vai oi ciisis scenaiios.
Hovevei, infoinalizalion shouId le undeislood
as a souice nol onIy of incieased niIilaiy slienglh
and povei piojeclion capaliIilies, lul aIso of nev sys-
lenic vuIneialiIilies. As lhe ILA deveIops advanced
C4ISR lechnoIogies and inlegialion vilh civiIian nel-
voiks, lhey aie IikeIy lo lecone incieasingIy ieIianl
on lhose syslens lhiough liaining and docliine, uI-
linaleIy iepIicaling lhe supposedIy asynneliic
vuIneialiIilies in lhese aieas lhal ILA lheoielicians
liadilionaIIy have noled in lheii anaIyses of lhe U.S.
niIilaiy. Shaied vuIneialiIilies couId polenliaIIy give
iise lo shaied inleiesls vilh lhe Uniled Slales, opening
an addilionaI palh ly vhich China nay nove lovaid
leconing a slalus quo povei in lhe space and cylei
donains.
%+*+@"%! R (?$>"%# h

1. See, foi exanpIe, Kevin IoIIpelei, Tovaids an Inlegia-
live C4ISR Syslen: Infoinalizalion and }oinl Opeialions in lhe
IeopIes Lileialion Ainy, Roy Kanphausen, David Lai, and
Andiev ScoleII, eds., Tnc P|A A| Hcnc and Aorcad. Asscssing |nc
Opcra|icna| Capaoi|i|ics cf Cninas Mi|i|arq, CaiIisIe, IA: Sliale-
gic Sludies Inslilule, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, 2O1O, pp. 219-226,
and Andiev Liickson and MichaeI Chase, Infoinalizalion
and lhe Chinese IeopIes Lileialion Ainy Navy, IhiIIip Saun-
deis, Chiislophei Yung, MichaeI Svaine, and Andiev Nien-
Dzu Yang, eds., Tnc Cnincsc Natq. |xpanding Capaoi|i|ics, |tc|t-
)/( C42'-, Washinglon, DC: NalionaI Defense Univeisily Iiess,
2O11, pp. 247-286.
249
2. The oveiaII concepl of infoinalizalion oiiginales vilh }apa-
nese inleIIecluaIs in lhe 197Os, and Chinese souices Iove lo den-
onsliale conlinuily of lhoughl ly noling lhal il vas once liiey
nenlioned ly Deng Xiaoping as leing of inpoilance. ul il vas
undei }iang lhal lhe niIilaiy inpIicalions and inpIenenlalions of
infoinalizalion liuIy legan lo coaIesce.
3. Due lo lhe conpIexilies of lhe Chinese Ianguage, lhe void
xinxinua in Chinese can iefei lo lolh lhe slale of leing infoina-
lized and lhe piocess of infoinalizalion, Ieading sone Chinese
schoIais lo nake ienaiks such as infoinalizalion is lolh a slale
and a piocess lhal can sonelines cause ieIaled concepls lo ap-
peai lo lIeed logelhei lo non-Chinese-speaking anaIysls.
4. See, foi exanpIe, lhe iefeience lo lhe infoinalizalion of
sociely as a facloi shaping lhe evoIving defense enviionnenl in
Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2010, eijing, China: Slale CounciI In-
foinalion Ofhce, 2O11.
5. The lein ained foices is a concepluaI giouping dislincl
fion lhe Chinese niIilaiy, and enconpasses nol onIy lhe IeopIes
Lileialion Ainy lul aIso lhe IeopIes Ained IoIice and niIilia
unils.
6. Kevin IoIIpelei, The Chinese Vision of Space MiIilaiy Op-
eialions, }anes MuIvenon and David IinkeIslein, eds., 56' C'G4-
|u|icn in Dcc|rina| Affairs. |ncrging Trcnds in |nc Opcra|icna| Ar| cf
|nc Cnincsc Pccp|cs |iocra|icn Arnq, AIexandiia, VA: Cenlei foi
NavaI AnaIyses, 2OO5, pp. 329-369.
7. One of lhe lesl conpiehensive sunnaiies of lhis fiane-
voik can le found in Lu Dengning (;|), ],]
[ (|nfcrna|izcd larfarc and |nfcrna|izcd Trccps), j;:j
[, 2OO4 (eijing, China: ILA Iiess, 2OO4), pp. 495-5OO.
8. Ioi exanpIe, see Cheng Xiang ({): \)|,
];[,( (In Accoidance Wilh Modein Ainy-luiId-
ing Requiienenls, Iiepaialion foi IiaclicaI IeopIes Wai), ]|
1[|,[{( (C'-'&%*6 4/ E%4B2'0- 4H 9&$)4/&2 ?'H'/-'
and Trccp 8ui|ding S|ra|cgq), Novenlei 2O11. Ioi Weslein anaIysis
of lhe conlinuing ieIevance of IeopIes Wai, see Dennis Iasko,
25O
Chinese Slialegic Thinking: IeopIes Wai in lhe 21sl Cenluiy,
Cnina 8ricf, Maich 18, 2O1O.
9. Yan Xiaofeng (|), ],)|j,j
(The Lxpanding VaIue in Waifaie of Waifaie Undei Infoina-
lized Condilions), ]|| (@6)/& #4*)&2 #*)'/*' 9'!-),
}uIy 27, 2O1O.
1O. ,|),]]|] (Iiesi-
denl Hu Requiies MiIilaiy Tiaining lo Move Tovaid Infoinali-
zalion Tiansfoinalion), J)/6+& 9'!-, }une 28, 2OO6.
11. See }iang Zenins speech in 2OO3, ciled in Lu, p. 595.
12. Zhang Xinhong (-), ]|][]j
(Discussion on China WaIking a Road of Infoinalizalion Wilh
SpeciaI Chaiacleiislics), ]]+ (@6)/& ./H4%0&$)P&$)4/ >2-
0&/&*), 2OO4.
13. Ioi exceIIenl discussions of lhis concepluaI fianevoik,
see Wang Tiezhi ()): )[](]][|
| (Looking al oui Infoinalizalion-luiIding Taigels fion
Aneiicas Infoinalizalion), ) (Managcncn| Ooscrtcr),
No. 6, 2OO9, and aIso Yuan Wenxian (_), ]]|][
[]][_ (Ciealing MiIilaiy Infoinalizalion Inslilu-
lions Wilh Chinese Chaiacleiislics), ]|| (@6)/& #4-
*)&2 #*)'/*' 9'!-), No. 7, 2O1O.
14. Mei }un (]) iepoiling connenls ly nenleis of lhe
AII-ILA Infoinalizalion Lxpeil Advisoiy Connillee, !
).[[] (Lxpeil Vievpoinl: MiIilaiy Refoin and
Infoinalizalion), j| (P|A Dai|q), Augusl 19, 2OO9. Iiuslia-
lion vilh lhe exlenl lo vhich luieauciacy and inslilulionaI inei-
lia deIays infoinalizalion effoils is paIpalIe lhioughoul lhe con-
nenlaiy, vilh one expeil on lhe Connillee joking, When lhey
change sonelhing, lheyII caII il 'iefoin, and vhen lhey change
il lack lo lhe vay il vas, lheyII caII il 'deepening iefoin. See
aIso Nan Zhansheng (]|), ]]||
(The iggesl OlslacIe To Oui MiIilaiy Infoinalizalion is OId
Ideas), j| (P|A Dai|q), Augusl 15, 2O1O.
15. Song Luyi (): [][,,||_
(MiIilaiy Infoinalizalion Task and LvaIualion Taigel Syslen),
251
]||:,[{( (]curna| cf Na|icna| Dcfcncc Unitcrsi-
$1), No. 6, 2OO3, pp. 37-38. See aIso Yuan, 2O1O.
16. Ioi a delaiIed Iook al ILA effoils in lhis aiea, see }anes
MuIvenon, Tiue Is IaIse, IaIse Is Tiue, ViiluaI Is ReaIily, ReaI-
ily Is ViiluaI: TechnoIogy and SinuIalion in lhe Chinese MiIilaiy
Tiaining RevoIulion, Roy Kanphausen, Andiev ScoleII, and
Tiavis Tannei, eds., Tnc Pccp|c in |nc P|A. Rccrui|ncn|, Training,
and |duca|icn in Cninas Mi|i|arq, CaiIisIe, IA: Slialegic Sludies
Inslilule, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, 2OO8, pp. 49-97.
17. Ioi exanpIe, lhe -&/H') P+4P6&/ ((,) concepl, vhich
posils lhal fuluie conlal opeialions viII le incieasingIy asyn-
neliicaI (nonsynneliicaI in lhe IileiaI Chinese, hence lhe -&/H')
concepl liansIaling as lhe lhiee nons), nonconlacl, and nonIin-
eai, lhus incieasing lhe ioIe of infoinalizalion in deleinining lhe
oulcone of niIilaiy conicls, vas inlegialed inlo a ievised edi-
lion of lhe aulhoiilalive #*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/- voIune pulIished
duiing lhe Hu eia.
18. Ken AIIen, Ofjcc cf Nata| |n|c||igcncc Cnina Natq Handocc|,
Washinglon, DC: Ofhce of NavaI InleIIigence, 2OO7, p. 24.
19. Ioi a lediousIy delaiIed accounl of lhe ILAs lusiness en-
piie, see }anes MuIvenon, #42,)'%- 4H F4%$+/'= 56' C)-' &/, F&22 4H
|nc Cnincsc Mi|i|arq-8usincss Ccnp|cx, 1978-98, Ainonk, NY: M. L.
Shaipe, 2OO1.
2O. Nan Li, Chinese CiviI-MiIilaiy ReIalions in lhe Iosl-
Deng Lia: InpIicalions foi Ciisis Managenenl and NavaI Mod-
einizalion, Nevpoil, RI: Cenlei foi NavaI Waifaie Sludies,
}anuaiy 2O1O.
21. See }anes MuIvenon, The CiucilIe of Tiagedy: SARS, lhe
Ming 361 Accidenl, and Chinese Iaily-Ainy ReIalions, @6)/&
|cadcrsnip Mcni|cr, No. 8, 2OO3.
22. Type O35 Incidenls, #)/4?'H'/*', avaiIalIe fion !!!"
sincdcfcncc.ccn/natq/suo/|qpc035ning-incidcn|s.asp.
23. David IinkeIslein, Chinas NalionaI MiIilaiy Slialegy:
An Oveiviev of lhe 'MiIilaiy Slialegic CuideIines, Andiev Sco-
252
leII and Roy Kanphausen, eds., Rign| Sizing |nc Pccp|cs |iocra|icn
Arnq. |xp|cring |nc Ccn|curs cf Cninas Mi|i|arq, CaiIisIe, IA: Slia-
legic Sludies Inslilule, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, 2OO7, pp. 69-14O.
24. See, foi exanpIe, Han }ianxin (|): ]
[,;]=+j,,||_,
|j|)))][, (Renaiks ly AII-ILA Infoi-
nalizalion Woik Ofhce Depuly Diiecloi Hou Xigui al acklone
Tiaining CIass on MiIilaiy-Use AuxiIiaiy Indexing Syslen), ]
(./H4%0&$)4/ ;&/&('0'/$), No. 4, Augusl 27, 2OO6.
25. ,];[j)] (Hu }in-
lao Signed and ReIeased ILA Headquaileis ReguIalions), J)/-
6+& 9'!-, Maich 19, 2OO6.
26. See Tnc Ditcrsijcd |np|cqncn| cf Cninas Arncd |crccs, ei-
jing, China: Slale CounciI Infoinalion Ofhce, 2O13.
27. Il is voilh noling lhal MIITs Chinese nane uses lhe
lein infoinalizalion oi xinxinua, aIlhough lhis is liansIal-
ed as Infoinalion TechnoIogy in lhe oiganizalions ofhciaI
LngIish nane.
28. Il ienains uncIeai vhelhei lhese inslilulions aie, in facl,
suloidinale lo lhe AII-MiIilaiy Infoinalizalion Lxpeil Advisoiy
Cioup, oi opeialing in paiaIIeI vilh il. The Navy Infoinaliza-
lion Lxpeil Advisoiy Cioup appeais lo have legun al ioughIy
lhe sane line as lhe aII-ILA gioup, lul lhe Aii Ioice connillee
appeais lo le noie iecenl and has sone afhIialion vilh NalionaI
Defense Univeisily. See 2OO8 ]|]j)j_)j
]|Z (2OO8 Defense Infoinalion DeveIopnenl Ioiun
SuccessfuIIy HeId lo Shovcase Advanced Infoinalion TechnoI-
ogy), (#)/& ;)2)$&%1), Oclolei 29, 2OO8.
29. Ioi ieasons vhich aie sliII uncIeai, lhe 2OO6 edilion of lhe
#*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/-, iniliaIIy issued in 2OO6 ly NalionaI Defense
Univeisily Iiess, vas ieissued in 2OO7 ly lhe Acadeny of MiIi-
laiy Sciences vilh a nunlei of ieIaliveIy snaII addilions, lul vilh
nosl of ils conlenl Iefl unlouched. Since lolh NalionaI Defense
Univeisily and lhe Acadeny of MiIilaiy Sciences aie aulhoiila-
live souices and lhe addilionaI conlenl does nol fundanenlaIIy
conliadicl lhe 2OO6 edilions conlenl, lhis chaplei lieals lhe con-
lenl of lolh lhe 2OO6 and 2OO7 edilions as aulhoiilalive.
253
3O. #*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/-, 2OO6.
31. See }anes MuIvenon, Chaiinan Hu and lhe ILAs Nev
Hisloiic Missions, Cnina |cadcrsnip Mcni|cr, No. 27, 2OO9.
32. Nan Li, Scanning lhe Hoiizon foi 'Nev HisloiicaI Mis-
sions, E%4*'',)/(- 4H $6' K"#" 9&G&2 ./-$)$+$', ApiiI 2O1O.
33. Niu }unfeng, }iang Xinghua, and Sun Qiyuan (],
}', )), +_[]|)||],:]_,j')
(Qujing MiIilaiy Sul-Region NalionaI Defense MoliIizalion
Connand DiiIIs: Infoinalion Syslens Take a Leading RoIe),
j| (P|A Dai|q), }anuaiy 1, 2OO7.
34. See Hu }inlaos Nev Yeais nessage on DeveIoping a
Nev Silualion in NalionaI Defense and Ainy Modeinizalion,
Cuided ly lhe 17 Iaily Congiess Spiiil, j| (P|A Dai|q),
}anuaiy 1, 2OO8, ciled in MuIvenon, 2OO9.
35. See, foi exanpIe, Lin Xuejun ([]), ]|||)
[{j|[ (The Defense Science and TechnoI-
ogy Indusliy Achieving MiIilaiy-CiviI Iusion is lhe Requiienenl
of lhe Age), ]|[ (?'H'/*' ./,+-$%1 @4/G'%-)4/ )/ @6)/&),
No. 4, 2O1O.
36. MuIvenon, 2OO8, pp. 44-97.
37. Zhang Wenchao and Ou Kai (], |): ]|]
j_) (Suivey of DeveIopnenl in Thoughl Re-
gaiding lhe RevoIulion in MiIilaiy Affaiis Wilh Chinese Chaiac-
leiislics), (|i|crarq Circ|cs cf CPC His|crq), No. 1O, 2O11,
pp. 27-29, and Depailnenl of Defense, ;)2)$&%1 E4!'% 4H $6' E'4-
p|cs Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina, Washinglon, DC: U.S. Coveinnenl Iiinling
Ofhce, 2OO9.
38. Luo }ianvei ([), _|[/:]]|
,,, (The 18 Iaily Congiess: Infoinalion Leads lhe Thiee
MiIilaiy Seivices lo DiiIIs, Suiging Wilh Wind and Thundei),
j| (P|A Dai|q), Augusl 7, 2O12.
254
39. Huang YuIiang, Chen Yi, and Hu Haiyan (,_|, |,
]), ];[))|(]||, (Lye-
vilness Accounl of Nanjing MiIilaiy Region }oinl Logislics De-
pailnenl Slienglhening Coie MiIilaiy Suppoil CapaliIilies Con-
sliuclion), J)/6+& 9'!-, Augusl 6, 2O1O.
4O. Luo, 2O12.
41. Liu Zhiqing ([,), |j|[]|]
(The RMA Wilh Chinese Chaiacleiislics Undei lhe Con-
cepl of Scienlihc DeveIopnenl), `|]( (@4/$'0A4%&%1
@6)/& :)-$4%1 #$+,)'-), }uIy 24, 2O12.
42. Zhao Xinye, Cai Ying, Yang Mei, and Huang Kedi (]
, j, |/, ,]|) : |||,_,]]j|(
(MiIilaiy SinuIalion AnaIysis and LvaIualion Syslens Inleipo-
ialiIily Slandaidizalion), _,||| (]curna| cf Sqs|cn Sinu|a-
$)4/), No. 12, 2O12, pp. 2455-2462.
43. Liu, 2O12.
44. ei Xiao (), |[|),_|;(
(Nev MiIilia Tiaining and AppiaisaI OulIine Issued), j|
(P|A Dai|q), }uIy 5, 2OO7.
45. ,|(2O2O+[;/j|;`(g
| (Hu }inlao Ralihed lhe 2O2O MiIilaiy TaIenl DeveIopnenl
IIan OulIine, Which Has een Issued and InpIenenled), J)/6+&
9'!-, ApiiI 18, 2O11.
46. Liu Iengan and Hu }unhua ([, ('), j
)),;|[` (Hov lo Refoin MiIilaiy Tiain-
ing Duiing lhe 12lh Iive Yeai IIan`), j| (P|A Dai|q), Sep-
lenlei 23, 2O11.
47. Hu quoled in Wang An (), (RevoIu-
lion in MiIilaiy Managenenl), j;:|j[, eijing, China:
Long Maich Iiess, 2OO5, p. 3.
48. Yu Lei (,), |j]), |]
_,_, (Lxpand MiIilaiy Tiaining Undei Con-
dilions of Infoinalizalion, uiId Waifaie CapaliIilies ased on
255
Infoinalion Syslen-of-Syslens), j| (P|A Dai|q), }anuaiy
1O, 2O11.
49. Wang Yongjun, Zhao Shi, Liang Zuolang (;|, ],
j): ),)[]|[_ (Sludy on Infoi-
nalion Consliuclion of Ainy in Nev Silualion), ||] (#*)-
'/*' S 5'*6/424(1 ./H4%0&$)4/), No. 33, 2OO9.
5O. Hu }unhua (('), )]|,j|]'j
]~[]|1[|j, (AcceIeialing
lhe Tiansfoinalion of lhe Mode of Ceneialing Conlal CapaliIi-
lies Wilh Resounding Sleps - Reviev of Achievenenls in Nalion-
aI Defense and Ainy-luiIding Since lhe 16 Iaily Congiess),
j| (P|A Dai|q), Augusl 7, 2O12. Ioi an exanpIe of lhe oId
vay, see Chen Hanzhong and Wu Tie, Avialion division fosleis
hghling capaliIily undei infoinalizalion condilion, j|
(P|A Dai|q), Seplenlei 17, 2OO7. LngIish liansIalion is avaiIalIe
fion cng|isn.cninani|.ccn.cn/si|c2/spccia|-rcpcr|s/2007-09/17/ccn-
|cn|_967688.n|n.
51. Coilez Coopei, }oinl Anli-Access Opeialions: Chinas
Syslen-of-Syslens Appioach, Teslinony lefoie lhe U.S.-China
Lcononic and Secuiily Reviev Connission, Washinglon, DC:
RAND Coipoialion, }anuaiy 27, 2O11.
52. Xu Cenchu (,||), )|[]j (In-
novalion and DeveIopnenl of Headquaileis Consliuclion
Theoiy), j| (P|A Dai|q), May 16, 2OO6.
53. Li Lifen and Mai YaIi (,, |): ||
`[|||_,_;| (Soflvaie Aichilecluie foi
an Aii Defense Connand and ConlioI Syslen ased on lhe Inle-
gialed Connand IIalfoin), [)j (Ccnpu|cr Dctc|cp-
ncn| c App|ica|icns), No. 11, 2O11.
54. Luo Cuoxu and Zhang Zhao (]:, [): ]|)
]|[{]j[))_ (SeveiaI Thoughls Re-
gaiding lhe SuilalIe DeveIopnenl of MiIilaiy-CiviI Iusion in Na-
lionaI Defense MoliIizalion Infoinalizalion Consliuclion), ]|
(9&$)4/&2 ?'H'/-'), No. 2, 2O12.
55. Li and Mai, 2O11.
256
56. Sun }ianIi ( ]): ||[]_,|+
[{ (IiolIens and SoIulions foi Infoinalion Syslen
Consliuclion foi Reseive AiliIIeiy Unils), ]| (9&$)4/&2 ?'-
H'/-'), No. 12, 2O11.
57. This is sonelines iefeiied lo as a nelaphoiicaI exchang-
ing of guns (|j), as lhe oiganizalionaI chaIIenge is in nany
vays conpaialIe lo lhe incoipoialion of nev veapons syslens.
See Hu, 2O12.
58. See, foi exanpIe, Cuo Iengkuan, Lei Cuangning, and
Yan Liang (,=, ,|, |), )[||`
y||, (Tioops in Tilel Lquipped Wilh Inlegialed Con-
nand IIalfoin, ieaking TiadilionaI Ways of Thinking), j
| (P|A Dai|q), Decenlei 21, 2O11.
59. Qin Yinhe (,]), ]||)|))]|{
[j (OveiaII Advancenenl Tovaid lhe ConpIe-
lion of uiIding Modein Logislics Suppoil foi Diveisihed MiIi-
laiy Tasks), ;[| (Pccp|cs Dai|q), }uIy 27, 2O1O. As pail of his
goaIs Iaid oul al lhe 17lh Iaily Congiess, Hu expecled lhe ILA lo
have essenliaIIy conpIeled lhe lask of deveIoping a nodein-
ized, infoinalized Iogislics syslen onIy ly 2O2O, suggesling an
undeislanding lhal piogiess viII le giaduaI.
6O. Kevin McCauIey, DeveIoping a Iianevoik foi ILA Iie-
cision Opeialions, Cnina 8ricf, }uIy 6, 2O12.
61. Ken AIIen and Aaion Shialeig, Assessing lhe Ciade
Sliucluie foi Chinas Aiiciafl Caiiieis: Iail 2, Cnina 8ricf, }uIy
29, 2O11.
62. Luo, 2O12. The aulhoi coIoifuIIy desciiles lhe evenl as le-
ing Iike sonelhing oul of a lIockluslei novie.
257
(?$>"%# c
(?'+$B! %\@A\'+& +$\$A !"#$"%&E
$+* ($>$C'A'"'%! '+ "?% ?) F'+"$@ %#$
+.7 A1
'+"#@*)("'@+
This chaplei exanines Chinas navaI slialegy and
capaliIilies in lhe Hu }inlao Lia. Il addiesses issues
such as Hus conliilulions lo navaI slialegy, lhe Ieo-
pIes Lileialion Ainy Navys (ILAN) nissions, pii-
oiily, and opeialionaI concepls, and ILANs changing
capaliIilies and faclois lhal can accounl foi changes.
Ioi navaI slialegy, Hu has nade lvo conliilu-
lions. He iequiies lhe IeopIes Lileialion Ainy (ILA)
lo safeguaid Chinas nevIy eneiging oveiseas inlei-
esls, vhich dehnes ILANs fai-seas nissions, and he
endoised lhe concepl of infoinalion syslens-lased
syslen of syslens opeialions, vhich inpacls hov
ILAN conducls opeialions. elveen fai-seas and
neai-seas nissions, hovevei, ILAN slialegisls le-
Iieve lhal neai-seas nissions aie lhe piioiily lecause
lhey aie noie ciilicaI lo Chinas physicaI secuiily. Ioi
syslen-of-syslens opeialions, sone ILA slialegisls
aigue lhal ils pienise lhal ILA can achieve supeiioi-
ily lhiough infoinalion syslens inlegialion is aved,
and lhal ILA opeialions shouId sliII le guided ly ils
liadilionaI aclive defense slialegy, vhich is pienised
on infeiioi hghling supeiioi.
Ioi capaliIilies, ILANs acquisilion of an aiiciafl
caiiiei, deslioyeis, fiigales, Iighl fiigales, and fasl al-
lack ciafl (IACs) can le accounled foi ly lhe need
lo consliucl naiiline syslen of syslens as veII as
258
ILAs liadilionaI aclive defense slialegy. Olhei con-
liiluling faclois incIude avaiIaliIily of nev shipluiId-
ing lechnoIogies and funding, and lhe need lo iepIace
olsoIele ships.
>@A'(E 'D>A'($"'@+!
- ecause ILANs fai-seas opeialions aie diiven
nainIy ly econonic conceins and IeveI of U.S.-
China econonic inleidependence is high, such
opeialions offei oppoilunilies foi coopeialion
lelveen lhe U.S. Navy and lhe ILAN, pailicu-
IaiIy in nonliadilionaI secuiily opeialions lo
enhance sea Ianes secuiily.
- Chinas dependence on sea Ianes is IikeIy lo in-
ciease, lul lhe ILANs fai-seas eel iesponsilIe
foi secuiing lhese sea Ianes is IikeIy lo slay vuI-
neialIe. olh iendei lhe Chinese econony ex-
posed. This susceplaliIily piovides inilialives
foi lhe Uniled Slales in nanaging U.S.-China
naiiline ieIalions ly adopling lolh coeicive
and coopeialive neasuies.
- As noie Chinese navaI ships aie depIoyed oul
lo sea noie fiequenlIy, lhey opeiale noie in
excIusive econonic zones (LLZs) of olhei coun-
liies. Theii expeiience of leing inleiiupled
in olheis LLZs nay giaduaIIy change lhe pei-
speclive lhal undeiIies Chinese disagieenenl
vilh lhe Uniled Slales ovei niIilaiy aclivilies
in LLZs. This nay offei an oppoilunily foi lhe
Uniled Slales lo voik oul iuIes vilh China lo
niligale navaI ships inleiaclions lo pievenl
incidenls al sea.
259
In an eaiIiei >-)&/ #'*+%)$1 ailicIe, lhis aulhoi pie-
senled lhe foIIoving. Iiisl, Chinas navaI slialegy has
undeigone lvo najoi changes: fion lhe neai-coasl
defense (j|#) slialegy piioi lo lhe nid-198Os lo
neai-seas defense (]|#) aflei lhe nid-198Os, and
inlegialion of lhe nev concepl of fai-seas opeialions
(],) inlo Chinas navaI slialegy in lhe 2OOOs.
Second, ieIaled lo lhe evoIulion of lhe navaI slial-
egy is lhe change in navaI capaliIilies fion Iiniled
capaliIilies foi coaslaI defense lo noie expansive ca-
paliIilies lo opeiale noie effecliveIy in lhe neai seas,
1

leginning in lhe 2OOOs. The inlegialion of fai-seas op-
eialions concepl nay have najoi inpIicalions foi lhe
fuluie deveIopnenl of ILAN capaliIilies, incIuding
deveIoping aiiciafl caiiieis.
Thiid, lhe changes in Chinese navaI slialegy and
capaliIilies can le accounled foi ly a conlinalion of
faclois, incIuding lhe ioIe of navaI Ieadeiship and pei-
sonaI expeiience, endoisenenl of civiIian Ieadeiship,
changing peiceplion of exleinaI secuiily enviionnenl,
inslilulionaIizalion of navaI ieseaich, and avaiIaliIily
of funding and lechnoIogies.
IinaIIy, a change in navaI capaliIilies nay nol aI-
vays le accounled foi ly a change in navaI slialegy,
lul ly olhei conlingenl oi idiosyncialic ieasons.
2
An allenpl is nade heie lo updale Chinas navaI
slialegy and capaliIilies ly addiessing lvo sels of
queslions lhal have nol leen ansveied in lhe pievi-
ousIy nenlioned ailicIe. The hisl sel is aloul Chinas
evoIving navaI slialegy: Whal concepluaI conliilu-
lions has Hu }inlao nade lo Chinas navaI slialegy
aflei he lecane lhe chaii of Chinas CenliaI MiIilaiy
Connission (CMC) in Seplenlei 2OO4` Whal aie lhe
specihc nissions foi lhe ILAN lo fuIhII foi lolh ils
neai-seas and fai-seas opeialions` Whal is lhe piioi-
26O
ily lelveen neai-seas and fai-seas nissions and vhy`
And hov nay lhe ILAN conducl opeialions`
The second sel of queslions conceins changing na-
vaI capaliIilies: Whal nev capaliIilies have leen de-
veIoped in iecenl yeais lhal have nol leen discussed
in lhe eaiIiei >-)&/ #'*+%)$1 ailicIe, and vhal can ac-
counl foi lhe nev deveIopnenl`
This chaplei has lhiee seclions. WhiIe lhe hisl sec-
lion allenpls lo ansvei queslions ieIaled lo navaI
slialegy, lhe second seclion addiesses lhe issue of
capaliIilies. The concIuding seclion sunnaiizes lhe
hndings and discusses lhe poIicy inpIicalions.
%\@A\'+& +$\$A !"#$"%&E
Whal concepluaI conliilulions has Hu }inlao
nade lo Chinas navaI slialegy aflei he lecane lhe
CMC chaii in Seplenlei 2OO4` Whal aie lhe specihc
nissions foi lhe ILAN lo fuIhII foi lolh ils neai-seas
and fai-seas opeialions` Whal is lhe piioiily lelveen
neai-seas and fai-seas nissions and vhy` And hov
nay lhe ILAN conducl opeialions` These aie lhe key
queslions al lhe ILA confeience. This seclion ansveis
lhese queslions.
?4B6 (<7,-1W4,1<76 ,< +.J.= !,-.,/0:8
Hu has nade lvo najoi concepluaI conliilulions
lo Chinas navaI slialegy, one al lhe slialegic IeveI, and
lhe olhei al lhe opeialionaI IeveI. These conliilulions
lecone appaienl if one conpaies Hus piioiilies and
lhose of }iang Zenin, Hus piedecessoi, vho seived
as lhe CMC chaii fion 1989 lo 2OO4.
Al lhe slialegic IeveI, lolh Hu and }iang have pio-
noled navaI nodeinizalion, lul vilh veiy diffeienl
261
piioiilies. Ioi }iang, lhe lop slialegic piioiily, pailicu-
IaiIy aflei lhe 1996 Taivan Sliail ciisis, vas lo delei
Taivan fion decIaiing foinaI independence. As a
iesuIl, he pionoled lhe ILAN ly acquiiing #4G%'0'/-
/1-cIass deslioyeis and V)24 sulnaiines fion Rus-
sia, and ly connissioning a handfuI of indigenousIy
deveIoped najoi suiface and sulsuiface conlalanls.
ecause aii supeiioiily in any niIilaiy conicl ovei
Taivan can le gained ly Iand-lased conlal aiiciafl,
}iang did nol endoise lhe aiiciafl caiiiei piogian foi
vhich AdniiaI Liu Huaqing had acliveIy Iollied, lo
piovide aii covei foi navaI opeialions ovei lhe noie
dislanl SpialIy IsIands in lhe Soulh China Sea.
3
In-
slead, }iang puisued dipIonacy vilh Soulheasl Asian
counliies undei his nev secuiily concepl, Ieading lo
Chinas signing of lhe Tiealy of Anily and Coopeia-
lion vilh lhe Associalion of Soulheasl Asian Nalions
(ASLAN) and of lhe DecIaialion of Code of Conducl
vilh ASLAN vilh iegaid lo lhe Soulh China Sea.
4

ecause }iangs piioiily vas lhe Taivan issue, he
pailicuIaiIy enphasized lhal lhe ILAN shouId:
al piesenl conlinue lo inpIenenl lhe slialegic lhoughl
of neai-seas defense (`,|]|#[,[
), . . . lo ieaIislicaIIy appiopiiale lhe conpiehen-
sive opeialionaI capaliIilies of conducling naiiline
canpaigns in lhe neai seas (|)+]|]
,[{,).
Lven lhough }iang is lhe hisl lop Ieadei lo en-
doise lhe concepl of fai-seas opeialions, he iegaids
deveIoping such capaliIilies IaigeIy as a secondaiy,
Iong-lein oljeclive ()|)j|]|
,).
5
y lhe line Hu succeeded }iang as lhe lop Ieadei,
lhe navaI capaliIilies lhoughl necessaiy lo delei Tai-
262
van independence veie IaigeIy in pIace. The eIeclion
of anli-independence candidale Ma Ying-jeou as Tai-
vans nev piesidenl aIso iendeied lhe Taivan issue
Iess uigenl. WhiIe Hu aIso vanls lhe ILA lo delei ash
poinls such as lhe Taivan issue fion escaIaling inlo a
niIilaiy conicl so lhal China can Ieveiage lhe 2O-yeai
vindov of slialegic oppoilunily (2OO1-2O) lo deveIop
ils econony, he has olhei slialegic piioiilies on his
agenda. Anong lhe nev hisloiicaI nissions lhal Hu
assigned lo lhe ILA, foi inslance, Hu highIighled lhe
need foi lhe ILA lo safeguaid Chinas nevIy eneig-
ing inleiesls in naiiline, oulei, and eIeclionagnelic
space.
6

On Chinas nevIy eneiging naiiline inleiesls, Hu
vas pailicuIaiIy conceined aloul lhe issue of eneigy
secuiily slenning fion Chinas incieasing depen-
dence on oiI inpoils. As eaiIy as al lhe CenliaI Lco-
nonic Woik Confeience heId in Novenlei 2OO3, Hu,
as lhe nev Chinese Connunisl Iaily (CCI) geneiaI
secielaiy, sliessed lhe need lo deveIop a nev eneigy
deveIopnenl slialegy fion a slialegic oveiaII heighl
(,[j|[) lo achieve nalionaI eneigy secuiily.
7

Wilh lhe iapid expansion of Chinese econony and ils
inlegialion vilh lhe gIolaI econony, Hu Ialei slaled
lhal issues of nalionaI deveIopnenl secuiily (]
j{) such as eneigy secuiily, slialegic (sea)
Ianes (,[j) secuiily, oveiseas naikel secuiily,
oveiseas inveslnenl and peisonneI secuiily have le-
cone noie oulslanding day ly day ([,).
8

Ioi Hu, lo piojecl povei lo safeguaid lhese nevIy
eneiging Chinese inleiesls in lhe fai seas oi oveiseas,
navaI nodeinizalion has lecone indispensalIe. WhiIe
conlinuing lo enhance ils innei and neai-seas con-
piehensive opeialions capaliIilies, Hu pailicuIaiIy
sliessed lhal lhe ILAN shouId nake lhe liansfoina-
263
lion lo fai-seas pioleclion (opeialions) slep ly slep,
and enhance fai-seas noliIe opeialions capaliIilies
(+j|]]{,[], ']]|
|, j|]|,).
9
Ioi }iang, deveIoping
fai-seas capaliIilies is a Iong-lein oljeclive. Ioi Hu,
hovevei, deveIoping lhese capaliIilies has lecone a
neai-lein one.
Al lhe opeialionaI IeveI, Hu endoised lhe nev
concepl of infoinalion syslens-lased syslen-of-
syslens opeialions (]_,[_,) al an
inpoilanl ainy confeience in Decenlei 2OO5.
1O

This concepl offeis a nev concepluaI fianevoik foi
lhinking aloul hov lhe ILAN shouId conducl op-
eialions, vhich aIso inpacls hov lhe ILAN shouId
deveIop ils opeialionaI capaliIilies. Discussed leIov,
lhis concepl ains lo niligale lhe uninlended lul nega-
live consequences of inpIenenling a seivice-cenleied
infoinalizalion poIicy, one lhal vas eaiIiei en-
doised ly }iang Zenin. These consequences incIude
deveIoping oveiIy iedundanl capaliIilies, and Iacking
coIIaleiaI, infoinalion syslens-lased inlegialion of
vaiious seivices and syslens. In Iine vilh Hus scien-
lihc deveIopnenl lheoiy, lhis concepl cIeaiIy inlends
lo enhance lhe oveiaII cosl-effecliveness foi conducl-
ing opeialions and foi deveIoping capaliIilies.
>A$+ D1661<76 17 +/.- .75 O.- !/.68
WhiIe lop Ieadeis such as }iang and Hu offei najoi
concepluaI fianevoik oi slialegic guidance foi navaI
deveIopnenl, il is up lo lhe ILA and ILAN anaIysls
lo esh oul lhe specihcs of such fianevoik and guid-
ance. The specihc nissions of lhe ILAN in lhe neai
and fai seas, foi inslance, can le gIeaned fion viil-
ings of lhese anaIysls.
264
Chinas 2O13 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, a docunenl viil-
len ly anaIysls of Chinas Acadeny of MiIilaiy Sci-
ence, foi inslance, slales lhal:
lhe ILAN . . . shouIdeis lhe lasks of defending na-
lionaI secuiily in lhe naiiline diieclion (]];
]) and soveieignly of leiiiloiiaI valeis (]
|), and safeguaiding naiiline iighls and inleiesls
(|];|).
Il goes on lo slale lhal:
accoiding lo lhe iequiienenls of neai-seas defense
slialegy, lhe navy allaches inpoilance lo iaising lhe
nodeinizalion IeveI of neai-seas conpiehensive op-
eialions capaliIilies (])j|]{,
)|`). . . . And il enhances capaliIilies foi fai-
seas noliIe opeialions and foi fai-seas coopeialion
and coping vilh non-liadilionaI secuiily lhieals (j|
]|,]{(|,|]),
and slienglhens slialegic deleiience and counleial-
lack capaliIilies.
11

Iuilheinoie, il has foi lhe hisl line added specihc
seclions on safeguaiding naiiline iighls and inlei-
esls, on safeguaiding oveiseas inleiesls (|]'
]), and on safeguaiding inleinalionaI sea Ianes
secuiily (|][]j).
12
Anolhei nission
lhal iequiies lhe pailicipalion of lhe ILAN, vhich
lhe Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr devoles a seclion lo, is inlei-
nalionaI disaslei ieIief and hunanilaiian assislance
(][,]|1;j|).
13
AIong siniIai Iines,
ILAN connandei Wu ShengIi iecenlIy sliessed lhal
lhe scienlihc deveIopnenl of navy consliuclion is lhe
unihed (laIanced) deveIopnenl lo enhance lolh neai-
seas capaliIilies (]) and fai-seas pioleclion ca-
paliIilies (]|).
14

265
The pievious accounl suggesls lhal lhe ILAN nis-
sions faII IaigeIy inlo lvo najoi calegoiies: neai-seas
nissions and fai-seas ones. Ioi neai-seas nissions,
lesides deleiiing Taivan independence and secuiing
liadilionaI leiiiloiiaI valeis, a ieIaliveIy nev nission
is safeguaiding naiiline iighls and inleiesls. This
nission is cIeaiIy associaled vilh Chinas dispules
vilh olhei counliies aloul juiisdiclions ovei conli-
nenlaI sheIves and LLZs, and aloul soveieignly ovei
isIands and ieefs in lhe neai seas and lhe leiiiloiiaI
and juiisdiclionaI valeis lhey nay geneiale.
ul ialhei lhan on lhe fionlIine in lhese dispules,
lhe ILAN is piinaiiIy iequiied lo piolecl and cooidi-
nale vilh lhe foivaid-depIoyed civiIian Iav enfoice-
nenl eel, and lo suppoil olhei civiIian naiiline
aclivilies. Accoiding lo lhe Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, foi
inslance, lo safeguaid naiiline iighls and inleiesls:
lhe navy conlines daiIy vai-piepaialion vilh offei-
ing secuiily suppoil (j]]|) foi slale naiiline
Iav enfoicenenl, hsheiy pioduclion, and oiI expIoia-
lion aclivilies, eslalIishes cooidinaling and conceiling
nechanisns (i],{|]) iespecliveIy vilh
Iav enfoicenenl depailnenls such as China Maiiline
SuiveiIIance and China Iisheiy Lav Lnfoicenenl
Connand, and eslalIishes and peifecls lhe niIilaiy-
poIice-civiIian joinl defense nechanisns (i
;[||]).
Iuilheinoie, lhe ILAN:
cooidinales vilh ieIaled civiIian depailnenls lo con-
ducl naiiline suivey and napping and scienlihc
ieseaich, consliucls naiiline vealhei noniloiing,
saleIIile navigalion, iadio navigalion and navigalion-
assisling signs syslens, pulIishes lineIy infoinalion
on vealhei and shipping, and eslalIishes and peifecls
266
navigalion safely suppoil syslens vilhin lhe juiisdic-
lionaI seas.
15
Iai-seas nissions, on lhe olhei hand, iefei lo lhose
lhal safeguaid lhe secuiily of expanding Chinese
oveiseas inleiesls, incIuding secuiily of oveiseas en-
eigy and iesouices, slialegic sea Ianes, and oveiseas
(Chinese) cilizens and IegaI enlilies (]']]
],[j,]',[,;[), as veII
as lhose lhal piovide hunanilaiian assislance. The
ILAN, foi inslance, depIoyed a navaI fiigale lo lhe
Medileiianean liiey in Ieliuaiy 2O11, lo suppoil
evacualion of 35,86O Chinese nalionaIs duiing lhe
Lilyan ciisis. ul noie inpoilanlIy, since Decenlei
2OO8, ILAN has depIoyed navaI escoil gioups lo CuIf
of Aden foi conlinuous palioI lo keep lhe sea Ianes
open againsl piiacy. IinaIIy, ILANs dedicaled hospi-
laI ship E'&*' >%I liaveIed lo hve counliies in Weslein
Asia and Laslein Afiica, and foui counliies in Lalin
Aneiica duiing 2O1O-11, lo piovide nedicaI assis-
lance lo ovei 5O,OOO peopIe Iiving in lhese counliies.
16
+/.-R6/.6 D1661<76 .6 >-1<-1,:8
Inlegialing lhe nolion of fai-seas opeialions inlo
Chinas navaI slialegy iequiies lhe ILAN lo deveIop
capaliIilies lo opeiale in lhe seas leyond lhe neai seas.
This is aIso consislenl vilh Hu }inlaos caII foi lhe
ILA lo fuIhII nev hisloiicaI nissions, vhich, anong
nany olhei lhings, highIighls secuiily of Chinas
nevIy eneiging oveiseas inleiesls. Hovevei, Chinas
navaI slialegisls aigue lhal noie inninenl secuiily
chaIIenges lo China fion lhe naiiline diieclion aie
IaigeIy concenlialed in lhe neai seas.
267
These chaIIenges incIude lhe ieunihcalion vilh
Taivan, foieign niIilaiy lhieals and piessuies, and
dispules vilh neighloiing counliies aloul juiisdic-
lions ovei conlinenlaI sheIves and excIusive econonic
zones and aloul soveieignly ovei isIands and ieefs
in lhe neai seas. NonliadilionaI secuiily issues in
lhe neai seas incIude snuggIing, hunan liafhcking,
liansnalionaI ciines, and naiiline enviionnenlaI
poIIulion. As a iesuIl, al piesenl and in a Iong line lo
cone, safeguaiding neai-seas secuiily shouId le lhe
piinaiy goaI of Chinas naiiline secuiily slialegy
(|]`]],[[|).
AIso:
lellei neai-seas secuiily cieales favoialIe condilions
foi naiching lo lhe fai seas (]]]|])
lo neel nol onIy lhe need foi deepening and viden-
ing lhe defense space againsl foieign lhieals, lul aIso
lhe needs lo enhance secuiily of sea Ianes and Chinas
nevIy eneiging oveiseas econonic inleiesls, lo pio-
nole inleinalionaI coopeialion, and lo iaise Chinas
inleinalionaI slalus.
Moieovei, naiching lo lhe fai seas vilh cIeai and
seIeclive oljeclives (|\jj, ||j]])
offeis foicefuI suppoil and cooidinalion foi iesoIving
neai-seas secuiily issues.
17

Iuilheinoie, lhe goaI of Chinas navaI nodeiniza-
lion is iegionaIIy focused, ialhei lhan gIolaIIy oiienl-
ed. Chinas navaI slialegisls, foi inslance, divide lhe
voiIds navies inlo lhiee calegoiies: lhe fai-oceans of-
fensive lype (;), oi gIolaI lIue-valei lype),
iegionaI defensive and offensive lype ([|#)
, oi iegionaI lIue-valei lype), and coaslaI defensive
lype (,j|#). The U.S. Navy leIongs lo lhe hisl
calegoiy, vhiIe lhe iilish, Iiench, Ceinan, IlaIian,
268
}apanese, Russian, and aigualIy Indian navies leIong
lo lhe second calegoiy. AII olhei navies, on lhe olhei
hand, leIong lo lhe lhiid calegoiy. The neai-lein
goaI of Chinas navaI nodeinizalion is foi ILAN lo
deveIop inlo a iegionaI-lype navy ([]), oi lo
lecone lhe second lype. This lype of navy can opeiale
effecliveIy vilhin ils ovn iegion, oi foi lhe ILAN in
lhe neai seas. In lhe neanline, il aIso possesses lhe
capaliIilies lo piojecl povei occasionaIIy leyond ils
ovn iegion and opeiale effecliveIy in lhe seas of olhei
oceans, as did lhe iilish navy duiing lhe IaIkIands
Wai.
18
Recenl depIoynenl of ILAN conlal ships lo
CuIf of Aden foi counleipiiacy nissions nay le ie-
gaided as anolhei exanpIe. Such oul-of-iegion povei
piojeclion, hovevei, shouId le an exceplion ialhei
lhan lhe noin. This iegionaI navy concepl is aIso
consislenl vilh lhe 1985 slialegic liansilion, vhich ie-
quiies lhe ILA lo shifl ils focus on piepaiing foi eai-
Iy, lolaI, and nucIeai vai againsl a possilIe Soviel
invasion, lo piepaiing foi IocaI, Iiniled vai lo deaI
vilh leiiiloiiaI and inleiesls dispules on lhe naigins
of China.
IinaIIy, lheie aie najoi vuIneialiIilies and Iin-
ils lhal nay inpede lhe ILANs fai-seas opeialions.
China, foi inslance, has neilhei oveiseas navaI lases
noi ieguIaiized access poinls in lhe fai seas of lhe In-
dian Ocean. A Iiniled nunlei of al-sea iepIenishnenl
ships and occasionaI poil visils foi iesuppIy and ciev
iesl nay heIp in Iogislics suppoil ())]|), lul nol
in conlal suppoil (,]|), such as ieIoading nis-
siIes lo suslain high-inlensily convenlionaI navaI lal-
lIes. The ILAN is aIso quile veak in ils anli-sulna-
iine vaifaie (ASW) capaliIilies, vhich Ieaves Chinese
vaiships exposed lo sulnaiine allacks in lhe fai seas.
These nay expIain, in pail, vhy Chinas navaI escoil
269
gioups in CuIf of Aden ienain as snaII as lvo conlal
ships suppoiled ly one Iaige iepIenishnenl ship, and
lheii nissions aie conhned lo deaIing vilh Iov inlen-
sily, nonliadilionaI secuiily issues such as piiacy.
Sone Chinese navaI slialegisls aigue lhal China
shouId deveIop oveiseas navaI lases in lhe Indian
Ocean.
19
ul lhis aigunenl has nol liansIaled inlo
any change in Chinese poIicy.
2O
A najoi ieason is lhal
Chinas nonaIignnenl foieign poIicy foilids China lo
deveIop niIilaiy aIIiance ieIalionship vilh any olhei
counliy. This nakes il difhcuIl lo eslalIish oveiseas
niIilaiy lases lecause lhey usuaIIy aie Iocaled in lei-
iiloiies of cIose aIIies. AIso, lecause oveiseas lases aie
associaled vilh lhe Iegacy of coIoniaIisn and a Iack
of sensilivily lovaid nalionaI soveieignly, China nay
pay an inage cosl if il acquiies any. Acquiiing ovei-
seas lases nay aIso nol seive Chinas nalionaI inlei-
esls veII lecause il nay enlangIe China in iegionaI
and doneslic dispules and conicls.
21
AII lhese shov
lhal neai-seas nissions aie lhe piioiily of lhe ILAN in
lhe neai fuluie.
?<Z D.: ,I/ >A$+ (<7542, @H/-.,1<76P
Theie aie lvo diffeienl concepluaI nodeIs lhal
nay heIp lo undeisland hov lhe ILA in geneiaI and
ILAN in pailicuIai nay conducl opeialions. The hisl
is lhe concepl of infoinalion syslens-lased syslen
of syslens opeialions (ISSSO), and lhe olhei is lhe
liadilionaI aclive defense slialegy (TADS).
27O
|nfcrna|icn Sqs|cns-8ascd Sqs|cn cf Sqs|cns
Opcra|icns8
As nenlioned eaiIiei, lhe concepl of ISSSO vas
hisl endoised ly Hu }inlao in 2OO5. ul il vas nol
fuIIy ailicuIaled and opeialionaIized ly ILA sliale-
gisls unliI aflei eaiIy-2O1O, vhen a fev uninlended
lul seiious consequences slenning fion lhe poIicy
of infoinalizalion, one lhal vas endoised eaiIiei ly
}iang Zenin, had lecone appaienl.
One such consequence, accoiding lo ILA slial-
egisls, has lo do vilh inleiseivice inlegialion. e-
cause infoinalizalion is seivice-cenleied lul
nol syslen-cenleied, vhal has happened is lhal as
each seivice () lecones noie infoinalized, noie
poveifuI slovepipes oi isoIaled infoinalion isIands
(])_) eneige foi Iack of coIIaleiaI infoinalion
nelvoiking acioss lhe seivices. AIso, each seivice
lends lo le seIf-seiving (]) undei lhe pielexl
of enhancing joinl opeialions, concenlialing on con-
sliucling aII-iound seivice () (iefeiiing lo
giound foice expanding aii, shoie-defense, and ship
capaliIilies, navy expanding aii and Iand capaliIilies,
and aii foice expanding Iand capaliIilies). This causes
nol onIy unnecessaiy iedundancy and vasle of ie-
souices, lul noie inpoilanlIy lhe eiosion of seivices
conpaialive advanlages. Moieovei, seivice-cenleied
infoinalizalion Ieads lo Iack of connon infoina-
lion slandaids and iesuIls in infoinalion nonopoIy
ly each seivice, vhich nay nol onIy conliilule lo
inlei-seivice lension, lul Iead lo Ioss of inilialives in
lines of vai.
22
ILA slialegisls leIieve lhal lhe concepl of ISSSO
nay heIp lo iesoIve lhis inleiseivice issue lecause
ISSSO iequiies fosleiing lhe consciousness lhal vai
271
can le foughl and von ly ILA syslen of syslens, lul
nol ly individuaI seivices. As a iesuIl, lhe enphasis
of niIilaiy nodeinizalion shouId shifl fion foiging
aII-iound seivices lo consliucling aII-iound syslen
of syslens ()||]|_).
This neans lhal seivices shouId liansfei ovneiship
iighl (}||) and connand and conlioI of lheii op-
eialionaI eIenenls and iesouices lo lhe ILA syslen,
vhiIe ielaining lhe usage iighl of lhese iesouices.
Seivices shouId aIso lecone open and lianspaienl lo
one anolhei and shaie lhe usage iighl ()|j
|) of each olheis and lhe ILA syslens iesouices, le-
cause seivices conslilule and aie lhe luiIdeis of ILA
syslen of syslens. Tiansfeiiing connunicalions
landvidlh and saleIIiles lo lhe syslen, foi inslance,
can give fuII pIay lo lhe uliIily of lhese eIenenls. In
ieluin, seivices lenehl fion lhe syslen ly ielain-
ing lhe usage iighl of aII lhe iesouices offeied ly lhe
syslen.
23

CeneiaIIy speaking, fuluie inlegialed opeialions
(j,) vouId ieinfoice seivices funclions foi
consliucling and nanaging foices, lul veaken lheii
ioIe lo connand opeialions. Seivices viII suppIy
funclionaI unils and essenliaI eIenenls lo inlegialed
opeialions connand accoiding lo opeialionaI needs.
To oplinize lhe use of lhese unils and eIenenls, lhe
inlegialed opeialions connand vouId ieIy on infoi-
nalion syslens such as lhe aII-ainy, unihed
,connand and conlioI nelvoik, eaiIy vaining
and ieconnaissance nelvoik, connunicalions giid
nelvoik, veapons conlioI nelvoik and conpiehen-
sive suppoil{]|nelvoik.
24

esides lhe ieIalionship lelveen syslen and sei-
vices oi syslens, accoiding lo ILA slialegisls, ISSSO
aIso iequiies consliuclion of coIIaleiaI, inlegialed
272
syslen of syslens opeialions capaliIilies cenleied on
inlegialed nelvoiks (j[(|]]
[_,) acioss aII seivices. This nelvoik-
cenleied appioach Ieveiages infoinalion lechnoIo-
gies and nelvoiks lo peineale (), fuse ({), and
connecl () aII foices (), unils () and es-
senliaI eIenenls () depIoyed in diffeienl dislances
and spaliaI specliuns, lo achieve inlei-connecledness
(]), inleiconnunicalions (]), inleiopeialiIily
(]]) and nuluaI conpIenenls (][), pailicuIaiIy
in leins of eaiIy vaining and ieconnaissance, con-
nand and conlioI, connunicalions, veapons conlioI,
and conlal suppoil. This inleiconneclivily enalIes
synchionized joinl aclion (]'), lhus enhancing
piecision, cooidinalion, efhciency and oideiIiness of
aclion and sliikes.
25

Hov, lhen, nay lhe concepl of ISSSO enhance niI-
ilaiy opeialions` Iiisl, such syslen of syslens-lased
syneigy is nol onIy vhal an individuaI seivice, unil,
oi veapons pIalfoin is incapalIe lo achieve, il aIso
heIps lo ieduce ils vuIneialiIilies as an individuaI sei-
vice, unil, oi pIalfoin. Ioi inslance:
enpIoying infoinalion syslens lo peineale, fuse and
connecl veapons syslens can acconpIish opeialionaI
effecliveness lhal fai exceeds vhal a singIe veapons
syslen such as an aiiciafl caiiiei can acconpIish. Al
lhe sane line, lhis inlegialion can ieduce lhe iisks of
an aiiciafl caiiiei.
26
Moieovei, accoiding lo ILA slialegisls, infoina-
lion syslens-lased inlegialion Ieads lo ieaI-line and
connon lallIeheId lianspaiency, ieduces ieaclion
line, and enalIes noie piecise sliikes, lhus ciealing
condilions foi dispeised () and poinled ()|)
foice depIoynenl, lul concenlialed hiepovei. This
273
depIoynenl aIso expands fion liadilionaI spaliaI
specliuns such as Iand, sea and aii lo nev specliuns
such as oulei, eIeclionagnelic and cyleispace exhilil-
ing a liend lovaid conpiehensive spaliaI specliuns
(j). These depIoynenl palleins of diffeienl dis-
lances, aIliludes and visiliIilies nay enhance nol onIy
foice suivivaliIily, lul aIso lallIeheId veisaliIily.
27
TiadilionaIIy, quanlily supeiioiily in nanpovei,
veapons, and naleiieI nay liansIale inlo lallIeheId
effecl supeiioiily. ul infoinalion syslens-lased
inlegialion nakes il possilIe lo achieve infoinalion
supeiioiily, vhich nay liansIale inlo decision supe-
iioiily and aclion supeiioiily, and, as a iesuIl, quaI-
ily supeiioiily on lhe lallIeheId. Whal lhis neans,
accoiding lo ILA slialegisls, is lhal lhe side lhal can
lesl expIoil nelvoiked infoinalion syslens lo cooi-
dinale lhe dispeised depIoynenl of opeialionaI unils,
lul concenlialion of infoinalion and hiepovei on lhe
decisive laigels al lhe decisive Iocalion and decisive
line vouId gain lallIeheId inilialive.
28
ILA slialegisls idenlify lvo lypes of decisive
laigels on lhe lallIeheId. The hisl is lhe opponenls
infoinalion syslens, pailicuIaiIy ils capaliIilies foi
infoinalion acquisilion and liansnission, infoina-
lion piocessing, and infoinalion use. WhiIe eIeclionic
vaifaie laigels eIeclionagnelic heIds lo disalIe infoi-
nalion acquisilion and liansnission, cylei vaifaie
laigels conpulei nelvoiks lo salolage infoinalion
piocessing. ecause sofl allacks can onIy lenpoiaiiIy
neuliaIize lhe opponenls infoinalion syslens, and
desliuclion of 5 lo 1O peicenl of key nods nay cause a
syslenic faiIuie, haid, piecision sliikes on key nods
aie necessaiy lo peinanenlIy disalIe lhe opponenls
infoinalion syslens.
274
The second lype of decisive laigels, accoiding lo
ILA slialegisls, iefeis lo lhose lhal can cause dis-
equiIiliiun of lhe opponenls syslen of syslens
opeialions (|y_,[`(). To lhe exlenl oi-
deiIy ov of infoinalion, eneigy, and naleiieI ieIies
heaviIy on lhe syslens equiIiliiun-lased slaliIily,
disiupling lhe ov and deslioying lhe Iinks ([
j) shouId cause dysfunclion of lhe syslen. Hovevei,
lhe nosl diiecl and effeclive nelhod lo salolage a
syslens equiIiliiun is lo sliike diieclIy lhe cenlei of
giavily of lhe enenys opeialionaI syslen of syslens
(||t[;,_[)(). ul il is aIso iecog-
nized lhal lhis cenlei of giavily is aIso lhe enphasis
foi pioleclion and slienglh (]|))1)) of lhe
opponenls syslen of syslens.
29
IinaIIy, ILA slialegisls leIieve lhal infoinalion
syslens inlegialion can oplinize ILA syslen of sys-
lens, and enalIe ieaI-line, synchionized laigel acqui-
silion, decision, noliIily, sliikes, and conlioI. This in
luin shoilens decision cycIes and incieases opeialion-
aI lenpo, naking il possilIe lo conducl paiaIIeI opeia-
lions and achieve aII-specliuns supeiioiily (|,)
on lhe lallIeheId. Il is noled, hovevei, lhal lhe ILA
nay deveIop siniIai vuIneialiIilies lhal lhe noie ad-
vanced niIilaiies have deveIoped as il lecones noie
inlegialed ly infoinalion syslens. Theiefoie, lhe
ILA shouId piepaie foi silualions vheie ils ovn in-
foinalion syslens aie seni-paiaIyzed oi conpIeleIy
paiaIyzed, and liadilionaI hghling nelhods shouId
nol le alandoned (|,,,|).
3O

Whal lhe nolion of ISSSO piesciiles appeais lo
appioxinale vhal Weslein anaIysls lein lhe ILAs
so-caIIed anli-access and aiea-deniaI slialegy, pailicu-
IaiIy in lhe evenl of a U.S. inleivenlion in a Taivan
conicl scenaiio. ased on lhe pienise lhal infoina-
275
lion syslens-lased inlegialion nay heIp lo achieve
sone soil of lallIeheId paiily oi even supeiioiily ovei
lhe opponenl, lhe ILA nay vage a diiecl, fionlaI as-
sauIl on lhe speaiheads oi conpaialive slienglh of lhe
U.S. offensive such as ils aiiciafl caiiiei sliike gioups
and veII-piolecled infoinalion syslens. A conlinu-
ous assauIl lased on Iayeied, nuIlispecliun depIoy-
nenl of ILA foices nakes il incieasingIy difhcuIl
foi lhe inleivening foices lo advance lhe cIosei lhey
appioach Chinas shoies.
Sone anaIysls suggesl lhal lhis kind of ILA slial-
egy is asynneliicaI, lecause lhe ILAs assauIl is
IaigeIy lased on ils conpaialive advanlage: lhe anli-
ship nissiIes. ul lhe lein asynneliy nay le a
nisnonei. This is lecause shoie, ship, and aii-lased
anli-ship nissiIes aie nainIy exlensions of liadilionaI
anli-ship guns and lonls, and lhe ILAs opponenl is
veII ained vilh siniIai nissiIes and olhei veapons
syslens lo counlei. Whal nay nake a diffeience ap-
peais lo le lhe deleclion iange, shooling iange, and
piecision of lhese nissiIes and veapons syslens. In
aII lhese aspecls, hovevei, lhe ILA does nol seen lo
have an olvious conpaialive advanlage ovei lhe op-
ponenl. IinaIIy, lhe possilIe line and pIace of such a
fionlaI, foice-on-foice engagenenl aie quile piedicl-
alIe. Il is lhe possilIe Iack of lhe ILA conpaialive ad-
vanlages oi supeiioiily in such a fionlaI engagenenl
lhal conceins sone olhei ILA slialegisls. They aigue
lhal ISSSO nay heIp lhe ILA lo deveIop conpaialive
lallIeheId advanlages in lhe Iong iun. ul in lhe shoil
iun, lhe ILA, leing lhe infeiioi side, shouId enpIoy
lhe liadilionaI aclive defense slialegy lo engage a
nuch noie supeiioi opponenl.
276
5%&,)$)4/&2 >*$)G' ?'H'/-' #$%&$'(18
The cenliaI pienise of lhe liadilionaI aclive de-
fense slialegy (TADS) is lhal lhe ILA is lhe infeiioi
side ieIalive lo ils opponenl. This neans lhal lhe
ILA vouId adopl a posluie of inleiioi-Iine slialegic
defense (]_,[|#). This defensive posluie, hov-
evei, is nol slalic lul aclive, lecause il invoIves nany
laclicaI-IeveI, exleiioi-Iine, quick and offensive lallIes
('_[),).
A cenliaI fealuie of TADS is conslanl foice nove-
nenl (j,). Conslanl foice novenenl is necessaiy
lecause in nany ciicunslances, lhis slialegy iequiies
naneuveis lo give up fionlaI posilions in oidei lo
avoid lhe speaihead (, oi conpaialive slienglh)
of lhe opponenls offensive, and il iequiies conslanl
oulanking (j) lo shifl, divide, dispeise, and iso-
Iale eneny foices, lo cause lhe eneny lo nake nis-
lakes (|[;|,), oi lo Iuie lhe eneny in deep.
Ioice novenenl is necessaiy aIso lecause lhis slial-
egy iequiies naneuveis lo idenlify lhe vuIneialiIi-
lies of lhe opponenls offensive, and lo anass foices
foi deveIoping IocaI and lenpoiaiy supeiioiily ovei
lhe opponenls IocaI and lenpoiaiy vuIneialiIily, in
oidei lo annihiIale eneny foices piece ly piece (+
j|,[;). Lven in a fionlaI engagenenl
vhich is lo le naxinaIIy avoided, lhe piinaiy laclics
enpIoyed incIude foice novenenl-lased deep-lhiusl
(|), cul-up (), oulanking, and enciicIenenl
(|).
31
A najoi ieason foi avoiding a diiecl, fionlaI, foice-
on-foice engagenenl againsl lhe opponenls conpai-
alive slienglh is lhal such an engagenenl nay end up
in a vai of nalching alliilion. Such a vai cIeaiIy fa-
vois lhe supeiioi side lecause siniIai casuaIlies nay
nean onIy naiginaI Ioss foi lhis side, lul possilIy lo-
277
laI annihiIalion of lhe infeiioi side. On lhe olhei hand,
shifling vilaI foices (|) avay fion lhe liunl of
lhe opponenls najoi offensive, lo concenliale lhen
on laclicaI-IeveI engagenenl againsl lhe opponenls
vuIneialiIilies, ensuies IocaI and lenpoiaiy supe-
iioiily ovei lhe opponenl. This supeiioiily nakes il
possilIe lo vin lhis laclicaI engagenenl vilh nininaI
casuaIlies. ul noie inpoilanlIy, lhe effecls of vin-
ning lhese laclicaI-IeveI lallIes aie accunuIalive, le-
cause lhey nay cause lhe giaduaI shifl of laIance of
foices on lhe lallIeheId lhal nay evenluaIIy aIIov foi
slialegic-IeveI offensives.
Theie is anpIe evidence lhal TADS has had a sul-
slanliaI inuence on Chinas navaI slialegy. In expIain-
ing lhe neai-seas defense slialegy in Chinas NalionaI
Defense Univeisily in 1986, foi inslance, lhen ILAN
connandei Liu Huaqing sliessed lhal lhe ILAN is
IikeIy lo le lhe infeiioi side ieIalive lo ils polenliaI op-
ponenl in any fuluie navaI opeialions. As a iesuIl, in
lhe geneiaI conlexl of slialegic inleiioi-Iine defense,
il is necessaiy foi ILAN lo concenliale vilaI foices in
lhe piinaiy slialegic oi canpaign diieclions (,
[,]) lhiough noliIe opeialions (|,), lo
deveIop lenpoiaiy and IocaI foice supeiioiily (
[])jj||,). This nakes il possilIe lo
iesoIuleIy allack lhe eneny lo achieve a vicloiy al one
slioke, foIIoved ly dispeision and diveision (|
) and seaich foi nev hghling oppoilunilies, vhiIe
nainlaining lhe fieedon foi foice novenenl (]||
|)). As he fuilhei expIained:
This is lhe effeclive hghling nelhod foi lhe snaII lo
vin ovei lhe Iaige al lhe slialegic IeveI (,[|
) and foi lhe nuneiicaIIy supeiioi lo vin ovei infe-
iioi al lhe laclicaI IeveI (,Z|). In geneiaI,
lhe eneny is lhe supeiioi side vaging lhe slialegic
278
exleiioi-Iine offensive (,['_[),), and ve aie
in a slialegic inleiioi-Iine defensive posilion. ul le-
cause lhe enenys naiiline offensive Iine is Iong and
ils foices aie dispeised, il necessaiiIy has vuIneialiIi-
lies lhal give us lhe oppoilunilies lo expIoil (,]
|) on lhe vasl naiiline lallIeheId. AIlhough
ve aie lhe infeiioi side, ve concenliale supeiioi foices
in each canpaign and lallIe, lo conducl exleiioi-Iine
quick and offensive opeialions, lo sliike one (eneny)
unil (t)) and sliive foi ils lolaI annihiIalion (
+). To lhis pail (j), ve aie lhe supeiioi and
can hghl and vin. This hghling nelhod, hovevei, ie-
quiies foices lo nove quickIy (||]) and con-
cenliale suddenIy (,;), lo hghl and vilhdiav
quickIy ( ]|]j) lul nol lo gel enlangIed vilh lhe
eneny ([;j) and nol lo engage in conpeli-
live alliilion vilh lhe eneny ([;|,|), lo
eal lhe eneny lile ly lile ([|[;), lhus
achieving lhe oljeclive of accunuIaling snaII viclo-
iies inlo lig vicloiies (||).
32

Moie inpoilanlIy, TADS has iecenlIy leen en-
pIoyed ly sone ILA slialegisls lo shov lhe faIIacies
of ISSSO. They, foi inslance, idenlify lvo nev ILA
slialegies lhal have leen deveIoped in oidei lo engage
lhe opponenl in lhe fuluie. One is syslen of syslens
opeialions, and lhe olhei is lhe assassins nace ap-
pioach. Ioi syslen of syslens opeialions, lhese ILA
slialegisls aigue lhal:
il is inpossilIe lo engage in a syslen-on-syslen
confionlalion (__|) vilh lhe povei-
fuI opponenl (). Undei lhe condilion of olvious
asynneliy of conpiehensive povei (in favoi of lhe
opponenl), such a confionlalion nay iepeal lhe his-
loiicaI nislake of engaging lhe poveifuI opponenl in
a 'slale-on-slale, foice-on-foice conlal (]1]
1,).
33

279
Ioi an assassins nace appioach, lhey aigue lhal
il is lechnicaIIy infeasilIe (|Z) lo enpIoy
assassins nace veapons lo vage salolage-and-sliike-
vaifaie (_yt,) againsl lhe opponenls highIy
infoinalized syslen of syslens.
34
Ioi lhese ILA slialegisls, lhe nosl effeclive slial-
egy lo hghl a poveifuI and supeiioi opponenl is ly
foIIoving lhe TADS. Iiisl of aII, lhey leIieve lhal lheie
is no alsoIule infeiioiily and supeiioiily, as Iong as
lhe ILA does nol engage lhe opponenl in a syslen-
on-syslen conlal, lheie aie vays lo nake lhe oppo-
nenl Iose inilialive and supeiioiily. Moieovei, lhey
suggesl lhal connandeis nusl possess exliaoidinaiy
audacily, couiage and insighl (;+) lo caiiy lhe
vai on, lecause lhe oljeclive of lhe supeiioi oppo-
nenl is lo shock and deslioy lhe ILAs viII lo hghl
ly appIying supeiioi infoinalion and hiepovei. Iui-
lheinoie, lhey aigue lhal lhe ILA shouId luin pai-
aIIeI opeialions (`|,) inlo sequenliaI opeialions
({,). The supeiioi side, accoiding lo lhese ILA
slialegisls, piefeis paiaIIeI opeialions, lhal is, lo si-
nuIlaneousIy sliike aII lhe high-vaIue laigels in oidei
lo inpose effeclive conlioI of lhe ILA and lo ieduce
ils ovn casuaIly. The ILA, hovevei, shouId luin lhis
hisl engagenenl inlo ils hisl lallIe (),), foIIoved
ly a sequence of olhei lallIes. SiniIaiIy, lhe supeiioi
opponenl piefeis quick, decisive opeialions (]
j,) ly enpIoying supeiioi infoinalized ains in
oidei lo ieaIize ils oljeclives, vilhoul pioliaclion and
iaIIying nassive foices. The ILA, hovevei, shouId
sliive foi pioliacled decisive opeialions (|j
,) lo shake lhe opponenls viII lo hghl, lo iegain
conlioI of lhe slyIe and pace of vai, and lo foice lhe
opponenl lo yieId lo lhe ILAs vishes and denands.
35
28O
Iuilheinoie, lhese slialegisls piopose lhal lhe
ILA shouId foIIov lhe TADS piincipIe of concen-
lialing nain foices lo annihiIale lhe eneny piece ly
piece (||,[;). ul ialhei lhan
nanpovei, lhe ILA nov can concenliale hiepovei
lo sliike lhe opponenls slialegic and canpaign-IeveI
veak Iinks (j) lhal nay have a decisive inpacl
on lhe viII of opponenl lo hghl. IinaIIy, lo ieduce lhe
opponenls conpaialive supeiioiily and lo gain ini-
lialive, lhe ILA shouId foice lhe opponenl lo hghl in
Iocalions and lines of lhe ILAs choice, ialhei lhan
lhe olhei vay iound.
36
ISSSO and TADS offei lvo diffeienl nodeIs foi
undeislanding hov lhe ILA in geneiaI, and ILAN in
pailicuIai, nay conducl opeialions. In lhe shoil iun,
TADS is IikeIy lo le lhe doninanl nodeI lhal guides
ILA opeialions. Whelhei ISSSO nay gain doninanl
inuence in lhe Iong iun, hovevei, nay depend on
hov successfuI infoinalion syslens inlegialion pio-
ceeds, and vhelhei lhe asynneliy in favoi of lhe su-
peiioi and poveifuI opponenl nay le naiioved ly
lhis inlegialion.
%\@A\'+& +$\$A ($>$C'A'"'%!
Whal nev capaliIilies have leen deveIoped in ie-
cenl yeais lhal have nol leen discussed in lhe eaiIiei
>-)&/ #'*+%)$1 ailicIe, and vhal can accounl foi lhe nev
deveIopnenl` This seclion inlends lo ansvei lhese
queslions. The nev capaliIilies aie divided inlo lvo
calegoiies: fai-seas and neai-seas capaliIilies. WhiIe
fai-seas capaliIilies iefei lo najoi ships lhal can opei-
ale in lolh fai and neai seas, neai-seas capaliIilies ie-
fei lo ships lhal cannol opeiale in lhe fai seas lecause
of lheii Iiniled opeialionaI iadius and suslainaliIily.
281
O.-R!/.6 (.H.W1=1,1/68
In lhe eaiIiei >-)&/ #'*+%)$1 ailicIe, il vas pie-
dicled lhal, vilh inlegialion of lhe concepl of fai-seas
opeialions inlo Chinas navaI slialegy, China vouId
acquiie aiiciafl caiiiei capaliIilies. This piediclion
vas conhined ly lhe connissioning of lhe Type OO1
aiiciafl caiiiei, one lhal vas puichased fion Ukiaine
and iehlled on Seplenlei 25, 2O12.
37

This aiiciafl caiiiei is calegoiized as a scienlihc ie-
seaich and liaining ship. Scienlihc ieseaich is IikeIy lo
iefei lo gaining lechnicaI and opeialionaI paianeleis
and dala foi consliucling nev aiiciafl caiiieis. Tiain-
ing, on lhe olhei hand, appaienlIy iefeis lo liaining
ofhceis and ciev on aII lhe funclionaI, lechnicaI, and
opeialionaI speciaIizalions, and lheii cooidinalion
and inlegialion associaled vilh ship, ship-aiiciafl,
and evenluaIIy lallIe gioup opeialions. WhiIe scien-
lihc ieseaich and liaining nay lake yeais lo conpIele,
lhe connissioning of lhe ship shovs lhe ILANs seii-
ous connilnenl lo lig deck, hxed-ving avialion.
In lhe shoil iun, China nay consliucl an aiiciafl
caiiiei noie oi Iess lased on lhe Type OO1 conhguia-
lion, vhich nay fealuie a ski junp ianp, lhiid gen-
eialion conlal aiiciafl, and aiiloine eaiIy vaining
(ALW) heIicopleis. In lhe nediun iun, hovevei, Chi-
na nay luiId lhe nexl geneialion of Chinas aiiciafl
caiiiei piogian. This lype nay le convenlionaIIy
poveied and equipped vilh slean calapuIls, and cai-
iy lhiid oi fouilh-geneialion conlal aiiciafl. Il nay
inslaII slean calapuIls nainIy lecause lhese calapuIls
have had sulslanliaI lechnoIogicaI accunuIalion (|
Z]) aflei noie lhan 2O yeais of ieseaich and deveI-
opnenl in China.
38
Slean calapuIl lechnoIogies aIso
nake il easiei foi syslens inlegialion vilh lhe slean
282
luilines and loiIeis, lhe IikeIy choice foi lhe povei
pIanl of lhis nev lype. ul noie inpoilanlIy, ILAN
needs hxed-ving ALW aiiciafl, vhich is loo heavy foi
lhe ski-junp ianp of lhe cuiienl Type OO1 pIalfoin
lo Iaunch. In conpaiison vilh ALW heIicopleis lo le
depIoyed on Type OO1, hxed-ving ALW aiiciafl has
nuch noie poveifuI infoinalion, suiveiIIance and
ieconnaissance capaliIilies, and lheiefoie is ciuciaI
and indispensalIe foi ILANs naiiline infoinalion
syslens-lased syslen of syslens opeialions.
39

In lhe Iong iun, hovevei, China nay deveIop nu-
cIeai-poveied aiiciafl caiiieis vilh eIeclionagnelic
calapuIls and fouilh-geneialion Iov-olseivalIe con-
lal aiiciafl. In 2O12, foi inslance, Chinas Minisliy of
Science and TechnoIogy inlioduced lhe 863 Iiojecl foi
Reseaich on Key TechnoIogies and Safely of NucIeai-
poveied Ships (|(j|Z,j(8b3
)) al Inslilule 719 of lhe China ShipluiIding Indus-
liy Coipoialion, lhe conpany lhal iefuilished Type
OO1.
4O
This piojecl is cIeaiIy inlended foi ieseaich and
deveIopnenl of nucIeai povei foi najoi suiface ships
such as aiiciafl caiiieis. ul lecause nucIeai povei
pIanls foi aiiciafl caiiieis nay iequiie expensive in-
veslnenl and a Iong ieseaich and deveIopnenl cycIe
in oidei lo achieve safely and ieIialiIily,
41
China is
IikeIy lo acquiie convenlionaIIy poveied aiiciafl cai-
iieis as slopgaps in lhe neai fuluie.
A piinaiy ieason foi ILAN lo acquiie aiiciafl cai-
iieis is lo foin naiiline opeialions syslen of syslens
(],_), a iequiienenl of ISSSO. A eel vilh-
oul aiiciafl caiiieis, foi inslance, is an inconpIele sys-
len of syslens lecause il cannol ieach aII spaliaI spec-
liuns, pailicuIaiIy lhe aii specliun in lhe fai seas. Il
can depIoy najoi suiface ships such as deslioyeis and
fiigales lo lhe fai seas, lul lhese ships aie exposed
283
and vuIneialIe lo aii, nissiIe, and sulnaiine allacks.
Aiiciafl caiiiei capaliIilies, hovevei, shouId ieduce
lhese vuIneialiIilies. This is lecause a caiiiei can pio-
vide aii capaliIilies lhal can conpele foi aii supeiioi-
ily and piovide aii covei foi suiface opeialions in lhe
fai seas. These aii capaliIilies can aIso le depIoyed
againsl lhe opponenls aii-lased ASW capaliIilies,
lhus piolecling ones ovn sulnaiines opeialing in lhe
fai seas. IinaIIy, a caiiieis aii-lased ASW capaliIilies
can le depIoyed againsl lhe opponenls sulnaiines,
lhus pioviding pioleclion foi ones ovn suiface ships
and sulnaiines opeialing in lhe fai seas. IinaIIy, foi
Iack of oveiseas navaI lases, caiiieis nay seive as sea
lases lo suslain ILANs syslen of syslens opeialions
in lhe fai seas.
Iuilheinoie, an infoinalion syslens-lased sys-
len of syslens nay lecone a foice nuIlipIiei, nol
onIy lecause il can acconpIish vhal an individuaI
veapons pIalfoin cannol acconpIish olheivise, lul
aIso lecause il can ieduce lhe vuIneialiIilies of lhal in-
dividuaI veapons pIalfoin. ILA anaIysls leIieve lhal
a caiiiei lallIe gioup is an ideaI naiiline opeialions
syslen of syslens. Wilh escoils such as deslioyeis,
fiigales, nucIeai allack sulnaiines, and ocean-going
iepIenishnenl ships, lhis syslen of syslens is capalIe
of aii opeialions, sliikes, sulnaiine and ASW vaifaie,
aii and nissiIe defense, and eIeclionic vaifaie, lhus
possessing lhe so-caIIed inlegialed hve opeialionaI
capaliIilies (,). If inlegialed veII ly
lhe infoinalion syslens, il iepiesenls lhe veisaliIeIy
funclionaI and oplinaIIy conlined (_|
{) syslen of syslens, vheie aII individuaI veapons
pIalfoins logelhei nol onIy can conslilule opeialionaI
syneigy againsl lhe opponenl, lul aIso offei suppoil
and pioleclion lo ieduce each olheis vuIneialiIilies,
pailicuIaiIy lhe vuIneialiIilies of lhe caiiiei ilseIf. On
284
lhe olhei hand, il is aIso iecognized lhal such a lallIe
gioup is loo nassive lo conceaI, naking il easy lo de-
lecl and allack undei ceilain condilions.
42
esides connissioning Chinas hisl aiiciafl cai-
iiei, anolhei nev deveIopnenl in ILAN capaliIilies
is nass pioduclion of 6,OOO-lon Type O52C deslioyeis
and 4,OOO-lon Type O54A fiigales, and consliuclion of
6,OOO-lon Type O52D deslioyeis. Aflei Iaunching of
lhe hisl lvo O52Cs in 2OO3, lheie vas a Iong inleivaI
of aloul 7 yeais vhen no nev O52Cs veie consliucl-
ed, Ieading sone anaIysls lo concIude lhal lhe ILAN
vouId nol acquiie najoi suiface ships anynoie. The
consliuclion, hovevei, iesuned in Iale-2O1O, accu-
nuIaling lo vhal appeais lo le foui huIIs eilhei le-
ing connissioned oi undei consliuclion ly 2O13. Ioi
Type O54As, 18 have leen connissioned, Iaunched,
oi aie undei consliuclion fion 2OO6 lo 2O13, vilh a
suige of foui huIIs in 2O11, and noie aie iepoiledIy
pIanned.
IinaIIy, ly Iale-2O12 and eaiIy-2O13, pholos shov-
ing lvo Type-O52D deslioyeis in consliuclion, an up-
giaded vaiianl of Type O52C, legan lo eneige fion
lhe Chinese niIilaiy velsiles. This nev-lype deslioy-
ei exhilils a Iaigei aclive phased-aiiay iadai syslen
in conpaiison vilh lhe one on Type O52C. Ralhei lhan
48 suiface-lo-aii nissiIes (SAM) inledded in eighl ie-
voIvei-lype six-ceII veilicaI Iaunching syslens (VLS)
as vilh O52C, lhe Type O52D has lvo canislei-lype
32-ceII nissiIe VLSs. Il is iepoiled lhal lhe lolaI of 62
nissiIes nay le a nixluie of SAMs, anli-ship ciuise
nissiIes (ASCM), anli-sulnaiine nissiIes, and Iand
allack ciuise nissiIes. If lhis is liue, Type O52D nay le
Chinas hisl dedicaled nuIliioIe deslioyei.
In lhe eaiIiei >-)&/ #'*+%)$1 ailicIe, il vas sug-
gesled lhal Chinese navaI ships acquisilion is Iaige-
285
Iy lased on an incienenlaI appioach vheie a snaII
nunlei of huIIs aie depIoyed foi lesl and liiaI, foI-
Ioved ly consliuclion of anolhei snaII nunlei lhal
incoipoiales ienedies lo lhe defecls idenlihed duiing
lesl and liiaI.To lhe exlenl Type O52C deslioyeis and
Type O54A fiigales, leing lhe voikhoises of lhe coun-
leipiiacy nissions in CuIf of Aden, veie fuIIy lesled
and liiaIed, lheii nass pioduclion indicales lhal lhe
ILAN nay le quile salished vilh lheii peifoinance
in lhe fai seas. The naluiily of Chinese shipluiIding
lechniques such as noduIai assenlIing of Iaige ships,
logelhei vilh sulslanliaI giovlh of lhe defense lud-
gel lecause of iapid econonic giovlh, nay aIso ac-
counl foi lhis nev deveIopnenl. The need lo iepIace a
Iaige nunlei of non-nodeinized Type O51 deslioyeis
and Type O53H seiies fiigales nay le anolhei ieason.
The 7-yeai pause foi O52C consliuclion, on lhe olhei
hand, can le accounled foi ly lhe line-consuning
ieIocalion of lhe }iangnan Shipyaid lo lhe Changxin
IsIand oulside Shanghai, lul nol a ILAN decision nol
lo acquiie najoi suiface ships. ecause lhe hisl lvo
O52Cs veie consliucled ly }iangnan, lhe pause nay
inpIy lhal olhei shipyaids did nol have lhe lechno-
IogicaI capacily lo luiId lhese high-end ships duiing
lhis peiiod. IinaIIy, lhe consideialion foi oiganizing
aiiciafl caiiiei lallIe gioups, oi lhe need lo deveIop a
naiiline syslen of syslens, nay le a najoi inpelus
foi lhe suige in lhe pioduclion of lhese ships, incIud-
ing pailicuIaiIy lhe Type O52Ds, fion Iale-2O1Os on.
286
+/.-R!/.6 (.H.W1=1,1/68
One ienaikalIe deveIopnenl foi ILANs neai-
seas capaliIilies is depIoynenl of noie lhan 6O Type
O22 IACs since 2OO4. Iealuiing a vave-pieicing cala-
naian huII, lhe 22O-lon ciafl iepoiledIy liaveIs al a
naxinun speed of 36 knols, and has an opeialionaI
iange of 3OO naulicaI niIes. Il has aIso adopled sleaIlh
fealuies lhal ieduce iadai, visuaI, acouslic, infiaied,
and eIeclionic enissions signaluies. Moieovei, il is
ained vilh eighl 12O-kiIonelei (kn) iange Y}83 ASC-
Ms, and a dala-Iink anlenna lhal can ieceive off-loaid
sensois foi ovei-lhe-hoiizon laigeling infoinalion.
43

Acquisilion of a Iaige nunlei of Type O22s can
cIeaiIy le accounled foi ly lhe ILAs liadilionaI ac-
live defense slialegy. The ciafl, foi inslance, ieecls
lhe oiiginaI inslilulionaI idenlily of lhe ILAN as an
infeiioi, snaII ciafl navy, vhich is capalIe of effec-
live laclicaI engagenenl againsl a supeiioi opponenl
lhiough noliIily and sleaIlh, pailicuIaiIy in lhe 195Os,
196Os, and 197Os. The high speed, snaII piohIe, and
sleaIlh fealuies nake il possilIe foi lhe ciafl lo ap-
pioach a najoi laigel fion nuIlipIe diieclions fasl,
lul vilh Iov piolaliIily of leing delecled. The op-
eialionaI iange conlined vilh nissiIe iange and voI-
une, logelhei vilh dala-Iink anlenna, on lhe olhei
hand, enalIes lhe Type O22s lo covei nosl of lhe sea
aieas neai Chinas shoies. olh enhance lhe chance of
lhe ciafl lo effecliveIy engage and iaise lhe cosl of a
supeiioi opponenl in lhe neai seas.
ecause Type O22 is designed lo soilie oul in lines
of vai and lecause of ils snaII size and singuIai ioIe,
lhe ciafl does nol have lhe IeveI of suslainaliIily and
veisaliIily foi conducling iouline palioI lo shov na-
vaI piesence in lhe neai seas, pailicuIaiIy in lines of
287
peace and ciisis. As a iesuIl, lhe ILAN has endoised
lhe Type O56 Iighl fiigale lo hII lhis gap. Duiing 2O11-
13, foi inslance, 1O Type O56 Iighl fiigales veie eilhei
connissioned, Iaunched, oi veie undei consliuc-
lion. The 1,4OO-lon ship fealuies a deep V huII,
sIoped suiface and ieduced supeisliucluie cIulleis,
a 15O-kn-iange aii and sea seaich iadai, and a heIi-
pad al lhe slein. Il is ained vilh a 76-niIIinelei gun,
lvo 2-ceII Y}83 ASCM Iauncheis, one 8-ceII IL-3OOON
shoil-iange SAM syslen, and lvo 3-ceII anli-sulna-
iine loipedo lules.
44

These fealuies cIeaiIy inlend lo enhance lhe speed,
sleaIlh, and veisaliIily of lhe ship. The ieIaliveIy sin-
pIe and convenlionaI veapons syslens and sensois
nay aIso seive lo ieduce lhe pioduclion cosl so lhal a
Iaige nunlei can le acquiied. Il is geneiaIIy leIieved
lhal Type O56 is lo suppoil iouline palioI of dispuled
aieas in lhe neai seas ly Chinas civiIian naiiline
Iav-enfoicenenl ships, eilhei in nanaging escaIa-
lion oi engaging in snaII-scaIe naiiline conicls if
nanagenenl faiIs. The ship can aIso seive lo piolecl
Chinese poils and ILANs lases, and fuIhII nonliadi-
lionaI secuiily nissions such as counleiing piiacy and
leiioiisn in lhe neai seas.
Iuilheinoie, lhe need lo iepIace a Iaige nunlei
of non-nodeinized Type O37 coivelles is cIeaiIy an-
olhei ieason foi lhe nass pioduclion of Type O56.
Thal 1O huIIs aie consliucled aInosl sinuIlaneousIy
in shipyaids such as Hudong Zhonghua of Shanghai,
Huangpu of Cuangzhou, Wuchang of Wuhan, and
Liaonan of DaIian, is anolhei exanpIe of naluiily
of noduIai consliuclion lechniques ly Chinas ship-
luiIding indusliy. IinaIIy, veisaliIily of a syslen of
syslens is nol onIy ieecled in lhal syslens can le
depIoyed lo diffeienl dislances and diffeienl spaliaI
288
specliuns, lul aIso in lhal lhey can le depIoyed al
diffeienl lines. To lhe exlenl lhal Type O22 and Type
O56 can le depIoyed lo siniIai dislance lul al diffei-
enl lines of vai, ciisis, and peace, lhey have cIeaiIy
nade inpoilanl conliilulions lo consliucling ILANs
syslen of syslens in lhe neai seas.
(@+(A)!'@+
This chaplei shovs lhal foi Chinas evoIving navaI
slialegy, Hu }inlao has nade lvo concepluaI conlii-
lulions. Al lhe slialegic IeveI, Hu iequiies lhe ILA lo
enhance secuiily of Chinas nevIy eneiging deveIop-
nenl inleiesls, incIuding eneigy secuiily, slialegic sea
Ianes secuiily, oveiseas naikel secuiily, and secuiily
of oveiseas Chinese inveslnenl and peisonneI. Al lhe
opeialionaI IeveI, Hu endoised lhe concepl of ISSSO.
These concepluaI conliilulions have had a ciilicaI in-
uence on lhe specihc nissions foi lhe ILAN lo fuIhII,
and on hov lhe ILA in geneiaI, and lhe ILAN in pai-
licuIai nay conducl opeialions. Ioi ILAN nissions,
lesides lhe neai-seas ones such as deleiiing Taivan
independence and safeguaiding leiiiloiiaI valeis and
naiiline iighls and inleiesls, ILAN is nov iequiied
lo fuIhII fai-seas ones lhal seive lo enhance lhe se-
cuiily of oveiseas eneigy and iesouices, slialegic sea
Ianes, and oveiseas (Chinese) cilizens and IegaI enli-
lies, as veII as piovide hunanilaiian assislance. On
hov lhe ILA and lhe ILAN nay conducl opeialions,
lhe concepl of ISSSO iequiies lhe ILA lo shifl foice
nodeinizalion fion individuaI seivices lo luiIding a
ILA syslen of syslens lo oplinize use of iesouices.
Inlegialed ly infoinalion syslens, lhis syslen of sys-
lens iepoiledIy can achieve connon lallIeheId lians-
paiency foi syslens depIoyed in diffeienl dislances
289
and spaliaI specliuns. This, in luin, vouId nake il
possilIe lo conducl synchionized, paiaIIeI opeialions
lased on quaIilalive supeiioiily slenning fion infoi-
nalion supeiioiily.
This chaplei aIso shovs lhal lelveen neai-seas
and fai-seas nissions, ILAN slialegisls leIieve lhal
neai-seas nissions aie lhe piioiily. This is lecause
lhese nissions deaI vilh issues lhal aie noie ciili-
caI lo Chinas physicaI secuiily, and lhey faII vilhin
conhnes of iegionaI navy and IocaI vai concepls of
lhe ILA. These nissions aie lhe piioiily aIso lecause
ILANs fai-seas capaliIilies aie sliII quile vuIneialIe
foi Iack of oveiseas navaI lases and iolusl ASW ca-
paliIilies. Ioi ISSSO, sone ILA slialegisls aigue lhal
ils inpIicil pienise lhal lhe ILA can achieve supeii-
oiily lhiough infoinalion syslens inlegialion, vhich
vaiianls a diiecl, fionlaI engagenenl of a poveifuI
opponenl, is aved. Inslead, lhey piopose lhal ILA
opeialions shouId sliII le guided ly ils liadilionaI ac-
live defense slialegy, vhich is pienised on infeiioi
hghling supeiioi. This slialegy highIighls nol onIy
slialegic defense, lul laclicaI offense as veII as pio-
liaclion, vhich shouId giaduaIIy heIp lhe ILA lo ie-
gain slialegic inilialives.
Ioi evoIving capaliIilies, lhis chaplei shovs lhal
ILANs acquisilion of nev fai-seas capaliIilies such
as an aiiciafl caiiiei, deslioyeis, and fiigales is pii-
naiiIy diiven ly lhe need lo consliucl naiiline sys-
len of syslens, a iequiienenl of ISSSO. Iaclois such
as avaiIaliIily of nev shipluiIding infiasliucluie,
lechnoIogies, and funding, and lhe need lo iepIace ol-
soIele ships have aIso conliiluled lo lhe suige in such
capaliIilies. Acquisilion of nev neai-seas capaliIilies
such as IACs and Iighl fiigales, on lhe olhei hand,
can le expIained ly ILAs liadilionaI aclive defense
29O
slialegy as veII as a pIan foi syslens consideialions.
Olhei conliiluling faclois incIude avaiIaliIily of nev
shipluiIding lechnoIogies and lhe need lo iepIace
olsoIele ships.
Whal aie lhe poIicy inpIicalions of lhe hndings`
Ioi ILANs fai-seas opeialions, lhey seen lo le Iaige-
Iy diiven ly econonic conceins, and aie associaled
vilh nonliadilionaI secuiily issues such as counlei-
piiacy lo enhance sea Ianes secuiily, and evacualion
of oveiseas Chinese nalionaIs in lines of ciisis. To
lhe exlenl lhe IeveI of econonic inleidependence of
lhe Uniled Slales and China is high, ILANs fai-seas
opeialions shouId offei oppoilunilies foi coopeialion
lelveen lhe U.S. Navy and lhe ILAN, pailicuIaiIy in
counleipiiacy and olhei lypes of nonliadilionaI secu-
iily opeialions lo enhance sea Ianes secuiily.
ecause lhe Chinese econony is sliII nanufaclui-
ing lased, iesouices inlensive, and expoil diiven, and
China is ieIaliveIy scaice in ils iesouices endovnenl,
ils dependence on sea Ianes foi shipping iesouices in-
poils and nanufacluied pioducls is IikeIy lo inciease.
The ILANs fai-seas eel iesponsilIe foi secuiing
lhese sea Ianes, on lhe olhei hand, is IikeIy lo slay
vuIneialIe foi Iack of oveiseas navaI lases and iolusl
ASW capaliIilies. olh faclois iendei lhe Chinese
econony quile vuIneialIe. This vuIneialiIily shouId
piovide Ieveiages and inilialives foi lhe Uniled Slales
in nanaging U.S.-China naiiline ieIalions, ianging
fion coeicive neasuies in lines of ciisis lo coopeia-
live ones in lines of peace, such as aIIoving foi noie
iesponsiliIilies foi lhe ILAN lo shouIdei in enhanc-
ing secuiily of lhese sea Ianes.
The ILANs neai-seas opeialions, hovevei, offei
noie chaIIenges. One najoi chaIIenge is disagieenenl
lelveen lhe Uniled Slales and China ovei inleipiela-
291
lion of Uniled Nalions Convenlion on lhe Lav of lhe
Sea as lo vhal niIilaiy aclivilies aie peinilled vilhin
lhe LLZs of lhe coaslaI slales. WhiIe lhe U.S. iegaids
LLZs as inleinalionaI valeis vheie niIilaiy suiveiI-
Iance opeialions aie IegaI and appiopiiale, China has
a noie iesliiclive inleipielalion. This disagieenenl
has aIieady iesuIled in a fev dangeious incidenls,
incIuding lhe Uniled Slales NavaI Ship (USNS) .0A'*-
*&B2' Incidenl of 2OO9, vhen lhe ships of lolh sides
opeialed in cIose pioxinily of one anolhei in Chinas
LLZs. These incidenls have nol onIy pul hunan Iives
in peiiI, lul caused deleiioialion of ieIalions lelveen
lhe lvo niIilaiies, vhich nay cause danage lo oveiaII
liIaleiaI ieIalions if nanaged pooiIy.
As noie Chinese navaI ships aie depIoyed oul lo
sea noie fiequenlIy, hovevei, il is inevilalIe lhal lhey
nay aIso opeiale in lhe LLZs of olhei counliies, and le
pIaced undei cIose sciuliny ly olhei navies. ILA ana-
Iysls, foi inslance, conpIain lhal Chinese navaI ships
veie aIvays foIIoved, noniloied, and inleiiupled
([1|) ly ships of lhe }apanese Maiiline
SeIf-Defense Ioice, as lhey opeialed and liansiled
noie fiequenlIy in lhe sliails soulhvesl of }apanese
AichipeIago and neai Okinava, vhich faII IaigeIy
vilhin }apans LLZs.
45
Il nov seens lhal even lhough
USNS .0A'**&B2' and ILAN ships had diffeienl nis-
sions lo fuIhII in olhei counliies LLZs, lhe fiuslialion
slenning fion lhe inleiiupled access lo LLZs is quile
idenlicaI. SiniIaiIy, Shi Xiaoqin (")), a noled na-
vaI anaIysl al Chinas Acadeny of MiIilaiy Science,
slales lhal:
il is difhcuIl foi us lo inagine lhal foiliesses can le
luiIl and loundaiy naikeis luiied in sea as on Iand.
Lxcepl foi lhe leiiiloiiaI valeis of 12 naulicaI niIes . . .
292
oceans shouId le fieeIy expIoiled lo lenehl lhe peopIe
of aII counliies . . . ialhei lhan encIosed as ones ovn
Iand (}j). . . . The goaI of Chinas naiiline slialegy
is lo safeguaid, vilh olhei slakehoIdeis, lhe openness
and secuiily of lhe gIolaI connons (|,];[
|1).
46

Whal lhe alove accounl indicales is lhal Chinese
conceplion of niIilaiy aclivilies in LLZs nay le evoIv-
ing, IaigeIy lecause of an inciease in Chinas navaI
aclivilies. If lhis evoIulion nay giaduaIIy change lhe
peispeclive lhal undeiIies Chinas disagieenenl vilh
lhe U.S. ovei niIilaiy aclivilies in LLZs, il offeis an
oppoilunily foi lhe Uniled Slales lo voik oul a sel of
iuIes vilh China lo niligale navaI ships inleiaclions,
so lhal incidenls al sea can le avoided oi nininized.
%+*+@"%! R (?$>"%# c
1. Neai seas iefei lo lhe lhiee seas neai China, lhal is, Soulh
China Sea, Lasl China Sea, and YeIIov Sea. Iai seas iefei lo
lhe seas leyond lhe neai seas, oi lhose in lhe Weslein Iacihc and
Indian Oceans.
2. See Nan Li, The LvoIulion of Chinas NavaI Slialegy and
CapaliIilies: Iion 'Neai Coasl and 'Neai Seas lo 'Iai Seas,
>-)&/ #'*+%)$1, VoI. 5, No. 2, 2OO9.
3. Liu seived as lhe ILAN connandei fion 1982 lo 1988 and
CMC vice chaii fion 1989 lo 1997. Ioi Lius advocacy of lhe aii-
ciafl caiiiei piogian, see Liu Huaqing (['), ['|,
(|iu Huaqings Mcncirs), j;: j[, 2OO4, eijing, China:
Lileialion Ainy Iiess, 2OO4, pp. 477-481. Ioi }iangs iefusaI lo
endoise lhe piogian, aulhois conveisalion vilh infoined souic-
es in Cuangzhou in 2OO3. See aIso [!,`: +
, (Ihoenix Nels SpeciaI Inleiviev vilh Ma Xinchun:
Aiiciafl Caiiiei ShouId Have een DeveIoped 1O Yeais Ago),
Pnccnix Nc|, Oclolei 14, 2OO9. In lhe inleiviev, Ma, a foinei con-
nandei of lhe ILAN Noilh Sea IIeel, nade lhe poinl lhal sone-
293
one vas ciilicized foi advocaling lhe aiiciafl caiiiei piogian 1O
yeais lefoie. He acluaIIy iefeis lo an incidenl vheie a Noilh Sea
IIeel senioi ofhcei vas iepiinanded ly }iang al a NalionaI Ieo-
pIes Congiess annuaI neeling foi advocaling lhe piogian. Lalei,
hovevei, }iang nodeialed his viev and endoised lhe caiiiei pio-
gian in Augusl 2OO4, jusl lefoie he vas lo liansfei lhe posilion of
CMC chaii lo Hu.
4. See Nan Li, The LvoIving Chinese Conceplion of Secuiily
and Secuiily Appioaches, in See Seng Tan and Anilav Achaiya,
eds., Asia-Pacijc Sccuri|q Cccpcra|icn. Na|icna| |n|crcs|s and Rcgicn-
a| Ordcr, Ainonk, NY: M. L. Shaipe, 2OO4.

5. }iang, ciled in Senioi Caplain Tang Iuquan (j) and
Wu Yi (L), ]]|,[| (A Sludy of Chinas Sea De-
fense Slialegy), ]| (@6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'), No. 5,
2OO7, p. 93. Tang is a piofessoi al ILANs DaIian Ship Acadeny,
and Wu is a docloiaI candidale al Chinas Acadeny of MiIilaiy
Science (AMS).
6. Ioi an expIanalion of Hus Nev HisloiicaI Missions, see
Nan Li, Cnincsc Citi|-Mi|i|arq Rc|a|icns in |nc Pcs|-Dcng |ra. |np|i-
*&$)4/- H4% @%)-)- ;&/&('0'/$ &/, 9&G&2 ;4,'%/)P&$)4/, Nevpoil,
RI: NavaI Wai CoIIege Iiess, China Maiiline Sludies No. 4, 2O1O,
pp. 17-18.

7. Hu, ciled in Qu }ianven (]j), ,;j|];
(}] (Sino-uinese OiI and Cas IipeIines Aie Iavoied ly
lhe IeopIe of olh Counliies), ],+_, (Cnina Ycu|n Rcfcr-
'/*'), }uIy 1, 2OO9. Qu is depuly dean of InleinalionaI ReIalions
Sludies Inslilule of Yunnan Univeisily in Kunning.
8. Hu, ciled in CeneiaI IoIilicaI Depailnenl (|,), [
|,7, j, (56'4%'$)*&2 #$+,)'- C'&,'% H4% >%-
nqs Hign and Midd|c-Ran|ing Cadrcs, 8cc| Tuc), j;: j[
, 2O1O, eijing, China: Lileialion Ainy Iiess, 2O1O, p. 435.

9. Hu, ciled in Tang and Wu: A Sludy of Chinas Sea Defense
Slialegy, p. 93.
294
1O. See Majoi CeneiaI Ren Liansheng (), ]
_,[_,[|'+ (A IieIininaiy Undeislanding
iegaiding Infoinalion Syslens-lased Syslens of syslens Opeia-
lions CapaliIilies), @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*', No. 4, 2O1O, p. 26. Ren
is diiecloi of Scienlihc Reseaich Cuidance Depailnenl of AMS.

11. See ]|).]y[{jj (NalionaI
Defense While Iapei: Diveisihed LnpIoynenl of Chinas Ained
Ioices), ' (J)/6+& 9'!- >('/*1), ApiiI 16, 2O13.
12. .B),. Ioi a delaiIed discussion of sea Ianes secuiily, see
Senioi Caplain Liang Iang (), ],[j (On S|ra|cgic
Sca |ancs), j;: [, 2O11, eijing, China: Cuiienl Affaiis
Iiess, 2O11. Liang is a navy facuIly al Chinas NalionaI Defense
Univeisily (NDU) in eijing.
13. NalionaI Defense While Iapei.
14. Wu ShengIi (|]), ,/|_),[
||]|]j (DeepIy InpIenenl Inpoilanl
Slialegic Thoughl of Iiinaiy Thene and Iiinaiy Line, AcliveIy
Iush Ioivaid ellei and Iaslei DeveIopnenl of Navy Consliuc-
lion), ;[] (Pccp|cs Natq), Seplenlei 2O, 2O11. Pccp|cs Natq
is a daiIy nevspapei pulIished ly ILANs IoIilicaI Depailnenl.
15. See NalionaI Defense While Iapei.
16. .B),.

17. See Senioi Caplain Ieng Liang (]), Senioi Caplain Cao
Zichuan (|)), and Caplain Duan Tingzhi (|), ][1
`j] (Cninas Pcaccfu| Dctc|cpncn| and Mari|inc
#'*+%)$1 D/G)%4/0'/$), j;: ;+[, 2O1O, eijing, China:
WoiId KnovIedge Iiess, 2O1O, pp. 3OO-3O1. Ioi piinacy of neai
seas, see aIso Liu Huaqing, ),]||]j,[(
(Silualions Requiie Us lo Do veII lhe Reseaich on NavaI
DeveIopnenl Slialegy), }anuaiy 1987, in Liu Huaqing, ['
( (Sc|cc|cd Mi|i|arq lcr|s cf |iu Huaqing, 8cc| One),
j;: j[, 2OO8, eijing, China: Lileialion Ainy Iiess,
2OO8, p. 529. Ieng, Cao, and Duan aie piofessois al Chinas NavaI
Connand CoIIege in Nanjing.
295
18. See Liu Huaqing, ],[], (NavaI
Slialegy and Iuluie Maiiline Opeialions), ApiiI 29, 1986, in Liu,
Sc|cc|cd Mi|i|arq lcr|s cf |iu Huaqing, p. 457, Liu, |iu Huaqings
;'04)%-, p. 437.
19. Senioi Caplain Li }ie (,), ciled in !.]
_j+(|||( (MiIilaiy Lxpeil: China ShouId
Considei LslalIishing Land-lased Suppoil Cenlei in Laslein Af-
iica), ], (@6)/& C'G)'! 9'!- >('/*1), May 21, 2OO9.
China Reviev Nevs Agency is a pio-China nevs agency in Hong
Kong, and Li is an anaIysl al NavaI MiIilaiy Ail Sludies Inslilule
in eijing.
2O. See China Has No IIan foi Indian Ocean MiIilaiy ases,
An LxcIusive Inleiviev vilh Chinese Defense Minislei CeneiaI
Liang CuangIie, 56' :)/,+, Seplenlei 4, 2O12.

21. Ioi lhese ieasons, see Senioi CoIoneI Huang Yingxu (,_
), ].{[` (Whal Kind of MiIilaiy
Ioice Does Iuluie China Need`), | (#$+,1 5)0'-), ApiiI
27, 2OO9. Huang is diiecloi of Mao Zedong MiIilaiy Thoughl
Sludies Inslilule of AMS, and #$+,1 5)0'- is a veekIy pulIicalion
ly lhe CenliaI Iaily SchooI in eijing.
22. Senioi CoIoneI Lin Dong ([), ]_,[
_[j (DeveIopnenl Concepls on Infoinalion
Syslens-lased MiIilaiy Ioice Syslen of Syslens), @6)/& ;)2)$&%1
#*)'/*', No. 1, 2O11, pp. 19-21, CoIoneI Zhang Hong () and
Caplain Yu Zhao (), ]_,],_
(Ioige Nev-Type OpeialionaI Ioice Syslen of Syslens lased on
Infoinalion Syslens), @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*', No. 5, 2O1O, p. 12.
Lin is an associale piofessoi al Slialegy Teaching and Reseaich
Depailnenl of NDU. Zhang is an associale piofessoi and diiecloi
of Conlined Ains and Taclics Teaching and Reseaich Ofhce of
Ainy Connand CoIIege in Shijiazhuang, and Yu is a nasleis
sludenl lheie.
23. Lin: DeveIopnenl Concepls, pp. 2O-21.
24. .B),, p. 22.
296
25. .B),, Ren: A IieIininaiy Undeislanding, pp. 27-29, Se-
nioi Caplain }iang Lei (), j|]_,[]_,
[_ (Reeclions on Lnhancing Infoinalion Syslens-
lased Maiiline Syslen of Syslens Opeialions CapaliIilies),
@6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*', No. 5, 2O1O, pp. 27-28. }iang is a piofessoi
and diiecloi of Navy DeveIopnenl and Consliuclion Sludies Of-
hce of NavaI Connand CoIIege in Nanjing.
26. Lin: DeveIopnenl Concepls, p. 22.
27. See Iing Zhivei (`), Majoi Zeng Xiaoxiao |
|),and Majoi Zhang Xuehui (), ]_,[_
,|( (A Sludy of Mechanisns foi Infoinalion Syslens-
lased Syslen of Syslens Opeialions), @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*', No.
4, 2O1O, p. 41. Iing is a piofessoi and depuly diiecloi of Can-
paign and Taclics Depailnenl al Ainy Connand CoIIege in Shi-
jiazhuang, and Zeng and Zhang aie Iecluieis in lhe Conlined
Ains Taclics Teaching and Reseaich Ofhce of lhal depailnenl.
28. Ren: A IieIininaiy Undeislanding, p. 27.
29. Senioi CoIoneI Luo Xiangde (|j), ]_,_
,|[{_ (SeveiaI Reeclions on OpeialionaI Cuid-
ance foi Infoinalion Syslens-lased Syslen of Syslens Opeia-
lions), @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*', No. 4, 2O1O, pp. 54-56. Luo is an as-
sociale piofessoi al Slialegy Teaching and Reseaich Ofhce of }oinl
Opeialions Depailnenl of Ainy Connand CoIIege in Nanjing.
3O. .B),, p. 56.
31. AMS MiIilaiy Hisloiy Sludies Depailnenl (||
j(), ];[j[_+ (Sctcn|q Ycars cf Cni-
ncsc Pccp|cs |iocra|icn Arnq), j;: |[, 1997, eijing,
China: MiIilaiy Science Iiess, 1997, pp. 278-279, 282-283, 285-
286, 288-289, 292-293, 324. These opeialionaI piincipIes aie aIso
highIighled in Mao Zedong (;), ],[,[{
(Slialegic Queslions Regaiding Chinas RevoIulionaiy Wais),
in Mao Zedong, ;, ]( (Sc|cc|cd lcr|s cf Mac Zcdcng,
VoI. One), j;: ;[[, 1991, ][, eijing, China: IeopIes
Iiess, 1991, 2nd Ldilion.
297
32. Liu, NavaI Slialegy and Iuluie Maiiline Opeialions,
p. 481.
33. Senioi CoIoneI Dan Xiufa (,) and Majoi Ning }un
(), ;j||( (Re-sludy of Mao Zedongs
Theoiy of Infeiioi Defealing Supeiioi), @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*',
No. 3, 2O1O, p. 67. The cilalion is fion a connenl ly Mao on his
nisfoilune duiing lhe }iangxi Soviel peiiod of eaiIy-193Os. Maos
iuiaInoliIe slialegy of luiIding iuiaI lases and Iuiing eneny
in deep, vhich pioved lo le quile effeclive in counleiing Chiang
Kai-sheks enciicIenenl and annihiIalion canpaigns al lhe line,
vas ciilicized as iighlisl oppoilunisn. As a iesuIl, il vas ie-
pIaced ly a Soviel-slyIe uilan slialegy endoised ly Connunisl
InleinalionaI iepiesenlalives such as Ollo iaun, lo allack uilan
cenleis lo liiggei uilan upiisings. Aflei }anuaiy 1934, hovevei,
lhe Red Ainy lase aieas veie liealed as a Soviel slale lo le de-
fended ly a fionlaI, posilionaI vaifaie of alliilion (j,|,).
The oljeclive vas lo defend lhis slale againsl lhe eneny vho
vouId le defealed oulside lhe gale of lhe slale (#[]{
'). This Soviel-slyIe slialegy of diiecl, fionlaI engagenenl
pioved lo le disaslious, causing huge casuaIlies of lhe Red Ainy,
lecause il ended up as a vai of nalching alliilion. y Oclolei
1934, lhe Red Ainy had lo alandon ils soulhein lases foi lhe
lunuIluous noilhvaid ielieal, knovn as lhe Long Maich. Ioi
Maos connenl, see Mao Zedong, ;,]( (#'-
|cc|cd Mi|i|arq lcr|s cf Mac Zcdcng, VoI. 2), j;: |[,
[[, 1993, eijing, China: MiIilaiy Science Iiess and
CenliaI Docunenls Iiess, 1993, p. 726. Dan is an anaIysl al Slial-
egy Depailnenl of AMS, and Ning is a docloiaI sludenl lheie.
34. Dan and Ning: Re-sludy of Mao Zedongs Theoiy of In-
feiioi Defealing Supeiioi. p. 67.
35. .B),, p. 68.
36. .B),. Ioi a navaI discussion of infeiioi hghling supeiioi,
see Caplain Huang Ieiiong (,)) and Lieulenanl Connandei
Liu ChangIong ([;), ||i)|||j)
(Keep Lnhancing lhe CapaliIilies foi Iighling a Wai lased on
Lxisling Ains), @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*', No. 4, 2O12. Huang is an
associale piofessoi al Opeialions Connand Teaching and Re-
seaich Ofhce of NavaI Connand CoIIege in Nanjing, and Liu is a
docloiaI sludenl speciaIizing in niIilaiy slialegy lheie.
298
37. Ioi infoinalion on nev ILAN acquisilion of najoi con-
lalanls in lhis sludy, consuIl @6)/& ?'H'/-', avaiIalIe fion !!!"
cnina-dcfcnsc.ccn/snf/.
38. See }iang Yu ({), |,j,)+]][
j_ (The Hisloiy of Aiiciafl CalapuIl and Ils DeveIopnenl
Iiospecl foi Chinas Navy), ]y, (Snip-ocrnc lcapcns), Au-
gusl 8, 2O12, p. 29. Snip-ocrnc lcapcns is a pulIicalion of China
ShipluiIding Indusliy Coipoialion.
39. Ioi diffeienl caiiiei lakeoff nodes and lheii diffeienl in-
pacls on ALW capaliIilies, see Nan Li and Chiis Weuve, Chinas
Aiiciafl Anlilions: An Updale, U.S. Nata| lar Cc||cgc Rcticu,
VoI. 63, No. 1, Winlei 2O1O.
4O. See |(j|Z(i)(Reseaich Iiojecl on
Key TechnoIogies of NucIeai-poveied Ships Is Lndoised), ]
[, Ieliuaiy 22, 2O13, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&"*40"*/.

41. See Huo Xin (,(), ] (A HunlIe
Connenl on lhe IiopuIsion foi Chinas Aiiciafl Caiiiei), Snip-
ocrnc lcapcns, ApiiI 4, 2O12, p. 39.
42. ILA anaIysls, ciled in ], )] (Chi-
nas Aiiciafl Caiiiei, fion Today lo lhe Iuluie), j| (|io-
'%&$)4/ >%01 ?&)21), Seplenlei 26, 2O12.
43. See Nan Li, Chinas Navy DeveIops Iasl Allack Ciafl,
]ancs |n|c||igcncc Rcticu, Seplenlei 2OO9. Ioi ieceiving laigeling
infoinalion fion off-loaid sensois, see Huang inlin (,||),
'Sea Snipeis fion a MiIilaiy Ioil of Laslein Shandong Manifesl
Divine Ave (]]')t|), |iocra|icn Arnq
?&)21, Augusl 28, 2OO9.
44. See Wang }in (), )|, ]O56j|
(Nev Missions in lhe Nev Ieiiod, Chinas Type O56 Lighl
Iiigale), Snip-ocrnc lcapcns, Augusl 8, 2O12, Ieng Huo (),),
O56j|[_ (Reeclions on Type O56 Lighl Iiig-
ale), )| (;4,'%/ #6)A-), No. O7, 2O12. ;4,'%/ #6)A- is a
pulIicalion of China ShipluiIding Indusliy Coipoialion.
299
45. Xing Cuangnei ()]), Li }ie, and Du WenIong (|
), ciled in 7||{||]] (}apanese Waiships
and Aiiciafl IiequenlIy Iiovoke lhe Chinese Navy), |||
(O)&/M)&/( DG'/)/( 9'!-), Hangzhou, ApiiI 9, 2O13. Xing is diiec-
loi of LegaI Sludies Ofhce of NavaI MiIilaiy Ail Sludies Inslilule
in eijing, and Du is a piofessoi al Chinas NDU.
46. Shi, ciled in Wu Ting (j), ]{jj]
|),|{ (China ShouId Leain lo LnpIoy NavaI Ioic-
es RalionaIIy lo Suslain Ils IdeaI of a CIolaI Oidei), =|
(Oricn|a| Mcrning Pcs|), Shanghai, Augusl 1, 2O11. Shi is an anaIysl
al Wai Theoiy and Slialegy Sludies Depailnenl of AMS, aulhoi
of ]|_ (On Sca Pcucr and Sinc-U.S. Rc|a|icns), j;:
|[, eijing, China: AMS Iiess, 2O12, and depuly ed-
iloi-in-chief of #$%&$'()* #$+,)'- (,[(), a pulIicalion of AMS.
3O1
(?$>"%# f
!%(@+* $#"'AA%#E '+ "?% ?) F'+"$@ %#$U
*@("#'+% $+* ($>$C'A'"'%!
D12I./= !8 (I.6/
The vievs expiessed in lhis chaplei do nol necessaiiIy
ieecl lhe vievs of lhe U.S. NavaI Wai CoIIege oi lhe
U.S. Navy.
This chaplei assesses lhe docliine and capaliIi-
lies of Chinas slialegic nissiIe foice~lhe IeopIes
Lileialion Ainy Second AiliIIeiy Ioice (ILASAI)~
duiing lhe Hu }inlao eia. Duiing lhe Hu }inlao eia,
Second AiliIIeiy nade inpiessive piogiess in doclii-
naI deveIopnenl, foice nodeinizalion, and liaining,
eneiging as a coineislone of Chinas gioving niIi-
laiy povei. The IeopIes Lileialion Ainy (ILA) pul-
Iished inpoilanl voIunes eIaloialing ils docliine foi
nissiIe foice deleiience opeialions and canpaigns.
Aflei decades of vuIneialiIily, ILASAIs depIoy-
nenl of ioad-noliIe inleiconlinenlaI laIIislic nissiIes
(ICMs) enhanced lhe suivivaliIily of lhe nucIeai
nissiIe foice and slienglhened lhe ciediliIily of Chi-
nas slialegic deleiienl. The Hu eia aIso fealuied lhe
expansion of ILASAIs convenlionaI capaliIilies, giv-
ing eijing nev oplions lo enpIoy convenlionaI nis-
siIes foi deleiience, inlinidalion, and piecision sliike
opeialions. In addilion, Second AiliIIeiy inpioved ils
connand aulonalion, inleIIigence, suiveiIIance, and
ieconnaissance (ISR), connunicalions capaliIilies,
and incieased lhe ieaIisn and conpIexily of nissiIe
foice liaining.
3O2
>@A'(E 'D>A'($"'@+!
- Chinas gioving nucIeai and convenlionaI
nissiIe capaliIilies have fai-ieaching inpIica-
lions foi lhe Uniled Slales. SpecihcaIIy, Chinas
gioving nucIeai capaliIilies aie IikeIy lo con-
pIicale fuluie ains conlioI negolialions, and
aspecls of ILASAI docliine couId cieale seii-
ous ciisis slaliIily and escaIalion nanagenenl
chaIIenges.
- Slialegic diaIogue on lhese issues is iequiied
lo niligale escaIalion iisks and Iay lhe giound-
voik foi fuluie Chinese pailicipalion in nuIli-
IaleiaI ains conlioI discussions.
- Iuilheinoie, ILASAIs gioving convenlionaI
nissiIe capaliIilies viII aIIov China lo pose an
incieasingIy seiious lhieal lo laigels Iike ie-
gionaI lases and suiface ships.
- This viII iequiie lhe Uniled Slales lo ielhink
aspecls of ils liadilionaI appioach lo niIilaiy
opeialions, deleiience, and assuiance of aIIies
and pailneis in lhe iegion.
'+"#@*)("'@+
Duiing lhe Hu eia, Second AiliIIeiy nade najoi
sliides in lhe deveIopnenl of ils nucIeai and conven-
lionaI nissiIe capaliIilies. In 2OO2, lhe yeai Hu }inlao
lecane Iiesidenl of China and Secielaiy CeneiaI of
lhe Chinese Connunisl Iaily (CCI), China vas in lhe
piocess of iepIacing ils CSS-4 Mod 1 siIo-lased ICMs
vilh lhe Iongei-iange CSS-4 Mod 2s, lul ioad noliIe
ICMs ienained undei deveIopnenl.
1
Duiing lhe Hu
eia, China inpioved lhe suivivaliIily and sliiking
povei of ils nucIeai foice ly depIoying lhe DI-31 and
DI-31A ioad noliIe ICMs. Second AiliIIeiys con-
3O3
venlionaI capaliIilies aIso incieased dianalicaIIy dui-
ing lhe Hu eia. In 2OO2, China had depIoyed aloul 35O
convenlionaI shoil-iange laIIislic nissiIes (SRMs)
opposile Taivan.
2
y 2O12, ILASAI had ioughIy lii-
pIed lhe size of ils convenlionaI SRM foice lo aloul
1,O5O-1,15O nissiIes. InpoilanlIy, China aIso diveisi-
hed ils convenlionaI nissiIe foice lo incIude conven-
lionaI nediun-iange laIIislic nissiIes (MRMs) and
lhe voiIds hisl anli-ship laIIislic nissiIe (ASM).
These foice nodeinizalion deveIopnenls have aI-
Ioved Second AiliIIeiy lo slienglhen ils aliIily lo pei-
foin ils key nissions: slialegic deleiience and con-
venlionaI piecision sliike.
3
Chinas 2OO8 Dcfcnsc lni|c
E&A'% eIaloiales on lhese nissions as foIIovs:
Second AiliIIeiy Ioice slicks lo Chinas poIicy of no
hisl use of nucIeai veapons, inpIenenls a seIf-defen-
sive nucIeai slialegy, sliiclIy foIIovs lhe oideis of lhe
CMC |CenliaI MiIilaiy Connissionj, and lakes il as
ils fundanenlaI nission lhe pioleclion of China fion
any nucIeai allack. . . . The convenlionaI nissiIe foice
of Second AiliIIeiy Ioice is chaiged nainIy of lhe
lask of conducling nediun- and Iong-iange piecision
sliikes againsl key slialegic and opeialionaI laigels of
lhe eneny.
4

SiniIaiIy, Second AiliIIeiy pulIicalions indicale
lhal ILASAIs nain nission is duaI deleiience, duaI
opeialions ()|],),), neaning il is iespon-
silIe foi nucIeai deleiience and nucIeai counleisliikes,
as veII as convenlionaI deleiience and convenlionaI
piecision sliikes.
5

Second AiliIIeiys cenliaI focus ienains on ils coie
niIilaiy capaliIilies. Accoiding lo lhe #*)'/*' 4H #'*4/,
>%$)22'%1 @&0A&)(/- (SSAC), vilh lhe poveifuI nucIeai
and convenlionaI nissiIe foice capaliIilies lhal aIIov
3O4
Second AiliIIeiy lo peifoin ils deleiience and vai-
hghling nissions, Chinas slialegic nissiIe foice has
lecone lhe liunp caid foi vinning IocaI vais undei
infoinalized condilions.
6
Al lhe sane line, hovevei,
ILASAI is aIso iesponsilIe foi inpioving ils aliIily
lo pailicipale in olhei lypes of opeialions, such as do-
neslic disaslei ieIief aclivilies.
7
Ioi exanpIe, Second
AiliIIeiy engineeiing and nedicaI unils pailicipaled
in disaslei ieIief opeialions foIIoving lhe iain and ice
sloin in Soulh China in eaiIy-2OO8 and lhe devaslal-
ing eailhquake in Wenchuan, Sichuan Iiovince, in
May 2OO8. In a ieviev of Second AiliIIeiys iecenl ac-
conpIishnenls, lhen Connandei }ing Zhiyuan and
lhen IoIilicaI Connissai Ieng Xiaofeng highIighled
ILASAIs disaslei ieIief conliilulions,
8
and niIilaiy
nedia has aIso pioninenlIy coveied ILASAIs in-
voIvenenl in such aclivilies.
9
Senioi ILASAI ofhceis pIace aII of lhese iesponsi-
liIilies in lhe conlexl of lhe hisloiic nissions Iiesidenl
Hu assigned lo lhe ILA in 2OO4.
1O
eyond lhe enuncia-
lion of lhe ILAs hisloiic nissions, Iiesidenl Hu has
appaienlIy paid a consideialIe anounl of allenlion
lo Second AiliIIeiy duiing his lenuie as Chinas lop
Ieadei. Accoiding lo }ing and Ieng:
Coniade Hu }inlao has allached gieal inpoilance lo
and pIaced high hope on lhe giovlh of Second AiliI-
Ieiy, enphasizing lhal Second AiliIIeiy is a sliale-
gic foice undei lhe CIC CenliaI Connillee and lhe
CenliaI MiIilaiy Connissions diiecl connand, acls
as oui counliys coie foice foi slialegic deleiience,
and pIays a pailicuIaiIy inpoilanl ioIe in peifoin-
ing lhe ILAs hisloiic nission al lhe nev slage in lhe
nev cenluiy.
11

3O5
The exlenl lo vhich Chinas lop Ieadeis viev lhe
nissiIe foice as capalIe of suppoiling lheii lioadei
poIilicaI and dipIonalic oljeclives is difhcuIl lo gauge,
lul ILASAIs senioi Ieadeis appeai incieasingIy con-
hdenl aloul ils aliIily lo peifoin ils nissions. In an
aulhoiilalive ieviev of lhe deveIopnenl of Second
AiliIIeiy in lhe iefoin and opening eia, Second AiliI-
Ieiy Connandei }ing Zhiyuan and lhen Second AiliI-
Ieiy IoIilicaI Connissai Ieng Xiaofeng highIighled a
vaiiely of achievenenls, incIuding inpiovenenls in
conlal capaliIily, veapons and equipnenl, exeicises
and liaining, poIilicaI voik, peisonneI deveIopnenl
and educalion, and suppoil capaliIilies.
12
In pailicu-
Iai, }ing and Ieng undeiscoied lhe slienglhening of
lhe conlal capaliIily of lhe nissiIe foice, viiling lhal
lhe inlegialed conlal capaliIily of ILASAI has
leen eIevaled signihcanlIy.
13
Moie specihcaIIy, ac-
coiding lo }ing and Ieng:
Second AiliIIeiy has laken a lig sliide, vilh lhe con-
lal foice evoIving fion a unilaiy nucIeai foice inlo
an ained lianch conlining lolh nucIeai and con-
venlionaI veapons, lhe conlal node evoIving fion
hxed posilion opeialion lo noliIe conlal opeialion,
and conlal capaliIilies expanded fion lhe node of
neai-, inleinediale-, and Iong-iange sliikes lo lhal of
inleiconlinenlaI sliikes.
14
This seIf-assessnenl appeais ieasonalIy accuiale.
Indeed, il ieecls inpiessive advances in ILASAIs
nucIeai and convenlionaI nissiIe foice capaliIilies
duiing lhe Hu eia. In aII, lhese deveIopnenls iesuIled
in a consideialIe inciease in ILASAIs deleiienl and
vaihghling capaliIilies duiing lhe Hu eia. As }ing
and Ieng pul il, ILASAIs advances in ciuciaI aieas
such as docliine, haidvaie, and liaining ieecl a
3O6
nev upgiade of lhe lioops slialegic deleiience and
defense opeialion capaliIilies undei infoinalized
condilions.
15
The ienaindei of lhis chaplei is oiganized as foI-
Iovs. Iail lvo evaIuales ILASAI docliine duiing
lhe Hu }inlao eia. Iail lhiee piovides an oveiviev of
key deveIopnenls in ILASAI capaliIilies, incIuding
nucIeai and convenlionaI nissiIes, connand, conlioI,
connunicalions, conpuleis, and inleIIigence sui-
veiIIance and ieconnaissance (C4ISR), and connand
aulonalion syslens. Il aIso coveis inpoilanl deveI-
opnenls invoIving liaining and exeicises. Iail foui
liiey Iooks ahead lo sone possilIe changes anaIysls
nay need lo valch foi duiing lhe Xi }inping eia. Iail
hve iecaps sone of lhe key lhenes of lhe chaplei and
exanines lhe inpIicalions foi lhe Uniled Slales.
!%(@+* $#"'AA%#E *@("#'+%
'+ "?% ?) F'+"$@ %#$
Duiing lhe Hu eia, Second AiliIIeiy has focused
on lhe iequiienenls of duaI deleiience, duaI opeia-
lions.
16
AIong vilh lhe nodeinizalion of ils foices,
ILASAI has aIso engaged in lhe eIaloialion and ie-
hnenenl of ils docliine, vhich in luin is inlended lo
guide lhe fuilhei deveIopnenl and fuluie enpIoy-
nenl of ils nucIeai and convenlionaI nissiIe foice ca-
paliIilies. Deleinining vhal exaclIy is nev in lhe Hu
eia in leins of docliine is conpIicaled ly lhe facl lhal
lhe key looks pulIished in lhe nid-2OOOs veie lased
on docunenls issued in lhe Iale-199Os, specihcaIIy lhe
1999 Ou||inc fcr Scccnd Ar|i||crq Canpaigns and Ou||inc
fcr ]cin| Canpaigns.
17
NonelheIess, ILASAI ofhceis
appeai lo feeI as lhough lhe nissiIe foice has nade
inpoilanl piogiess in lhis aiea. Accoiding lo Yu }ixun:
3O7
LspeciaIIy since lhe leginning of lhe nev cenluiy,
cIoseIy foIIoving lhe nission and lasks given lo us
ly lhe CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission, ve have enan-
cipaled oui lhoughls vilh loId innovalions, acliveIy
uliIized nodein ieseaich nelhods and neasuies, fo-
cused on lhe ieIevance, foivaid Iooking naluie, and
effecliveness of conlal lheoiy ieseaich, achieved
a gieal deaI of vaIualIe and inuenliaI iesuIls, en-
iiched and peifecled lhe syslen of slialegic nissiIe
lioop conlal lheoiies, and piovided soIid lheoielicaI
suppoil lo lhe acceIeialing piepaialions foi niIilaiy
sliuggIe and slialegic nissiIe lioop liansfoinalion.
18

In pailicuIai, docliinaI pulIicalions suggesl lhal
inpoilanl deveIopnenls have leen nade in hov Sec-
ond AiliIIeiy lhinks aloul deleiience opeialions and
nissiIe foice canpaigns.
!/2<75 $-,1==/-: */,/--/72/ @H/-.,1<768
Second AiliIIeiy pulIished a consideialIe lody of
lhinking aloul deleiience opeialions duiing Hu }in-
laos decade as Chinas lop Ieadei. Chinese niIilaiy
pulIicalions ieIeased duiing lhis peiiod of line, in-
cIuding |n|inida|icn larfarc and SSAC (]|,
), cIeaiIy highIighled lhe nissiIe foices deleiienl
ioIe. In lhis conlexl, il is inpoilanl lo nole lhal lhe
Chinese lein !')-6' (|]), vhich is aIvays liansIaled
as deleiience ly ofhciaI Chinese souices, is sone-
lines used in a vay lhal enconpasses lolh deleiience
and conpeIIence oi coeicive dipIonacy, as lypicaIIy
dehned in Weslein poIilicaI science Iileialuie. Ac-
coidingIy, il is sonelines noie appiopiiale lo lhink
of !')-6' as ioughIy equivaIenl lo Thonas ScheIIings
lioadei concepl of coeicion, vhich incIudes delei-
3O8
ience and conpeIIence.
19
Sone Chinese schoIais aIso
acknovIedge lhal lhe neaning of !')-6' is cIosei lo
coeicion. Ioi exanpIe, accoiding lo Li in, 'veishe
does nol nean deleiience, 'veishe neans coeicion:
lo foice olheis lo yieId lo oneseIf.
2O
ConsequenlIy,
aIlhough lhis chaplei foIIovs lhe convenlion of lians-
Ialing !')-6' as deleiience, il nusl le noled lhal lhis
is acluaIIy a lioadei concepl lhal can enconpass lolh
deleiience and conpeIIence oi coeicive dipIonacy.
Accoiding lo SSAC, Second AiliIIeiy canpaign
deleiience (]|,|]) is a seiies of niIilaiy
aclivilies in vhich nissiIe foice unils cieale nonen-
lun and denonsliale slienglh (,1,) in oidei
lo acconpIish specihed slialegic and canpaign-IeveI
oljeclives.
21
The aulhois sliess lhal canpaign delei-
ience opeialions conslilule an inpoilanl conponenl
of Second AiliIIeiys nission of duaI deleiience, duaI
opeialions. The goaI of canpaign deleiience opeia-
lions is lo conpeI an eneny lo accepl oui viII oi lo
conlain an enenys hosliIe aclions.
22

Chinese niIilaiy pulIicalions indicale lhal ILA-
SAI canpaign deleiience opeialions lake pIace in
peaceline, ciisis, and vailine. LocaI vais undei in-
foinalized condilions, lhe lype lhe ILA expecls il nay
need lo hghl in lhe fuluie, oflen legin vilh canpaign
deleiience opeialions ained al conpeIIing lhe ad-
veisaiy lo accepl ceilain condilions. Second AiliIIeiy
duaI deleiience opeialions aie one of lhe nain aclivi-
lies in lhe pioIogue slages of IocaI vais undei infoi-
nalized condilions. One Chinese souice, Zhao Xijuns
|n|inida|icn larfarc, desciiles nissiIe foices on high
aIeil as Iike svoids diavn oul of lheii shealh, aiiovs
on lhe lenl lov, and luIIels Ioaded.
23
NucIeai and
convenlionaI nissiIe foice unils can lhus le used lo
conducl deleiience opeialions designed lo cieale an
advanlageous silualion foi China.
3O9
The oljeclive of Second AiliIIeiy canpaign delei-
ience aclivilies is lo conpeI lhe eneny lo accepl lhe
condilions pul foivaid ly China lhiough a piocess
of inlinidalion (]'). This piocess legins vilh Iovei
inlensily deleiience aclions such as vainings and
denonslialions of slienglh and giaduaIIy piogiesses
lo highei inlensily deleiience aclions such as Iaunch
exeicises oi even lesl Iaunches cIose lo eneny lai-
gels.
24
Chinese pulIicalions poiliay Second AiliIIeiy
canpaign deleiience aclivilies as an inpoilanl neans
foi achieving canpaign-IeveI oljeclives, and even na-
lionaI slialegic goaIs.
25

The guiding lhoughls foi Second AiliIIeiy can-
paign deleiience aclions aie luiIding nonenlun
and using slialagen, and leing appiopiiale and effec-
live (,|,[|).
26
The puipose is lo cie-
ale an advanlageous silualion ly foining a poveifuI
foice lhal iesenlIes a louIdei ioIIing dovn a sleep
nounlain.
27
Chinese niIilaiy pulIicalions idenlify
seveiaI canpaign deleiience nissions foi lhe nissiIe
foice. Anong lhese deleiience nissions aie: pievenl-
ing vais fion lieaking oul, deleiiing escaIalion of a
vai lhal has aIieady slailed, using nucIeai deleiience
as a lackslop lo suppoil convenlionaI opeialions,
and conpeIIing sulnission of lhe eneny lhiough
high-inlensily deleiience aclions.
28

Second AiliIIeiy nucIeai and convenlionaI nissiIe
foice unils use a vaiiely of nelhods lo suppoil lhese
oljeclives.
29
One of lhe nosl inpoilanl canpaign de-
leiience nelhods foi lhe nissiIe foice is dispIaying
slienglh (j). This nainIy invoIves ieveaI-
ing nissiIes and vaiious lypes of Iaunch and suppoil
equipnenl, and denonslialing lhe high quaIily nis-
siIe foice peisonneI. CIoseIy ieIaled lo denonslialing
slienglh is lhe concepl of using lhe lioops lo luiId
31O
nonenlun (|,). Accoiding lo SSAC, lhis
iefeis lo lhe use of lioop depIoynenls lo cieale an ad-
vanlageous silualion foi China.
Al a noie conciele IeveI, Second AiliIIeiy pulIica-
lions discuss a vaiiely of specihc nelhods lhe nissiIe
foice can enpIoy lo delei oi inlinidale an adveisaiy.
Sone lhal have leen caiiied oul in iecenl yeais incIude
sending connandeis lo inspecl oi ieviev lhe lioops,
issuing slalenenls aloul lhe deveIopnenl oi depIoy-
nenl of nev lypes of nissiIes, ieIeasing picluies oi
videos of nissiIe foice exeicises lo lhe inleinalionaI
nedia, and dispIaying nucIeai and convenlionaI nis-
siIes in NalionaI Day niIilaiy paiades. Chinese niIi-
laiy pulIicalions aIso desciile a vaiiely of deleiience
aclions lhal couId le enpIoyed undei ciisis oi conicl
condilions. These incIude lhe foIIoving:
- Moving nissiIe Iauncheis and suppoil vehicIes
inlo viev as lhe enenys ieconnaissance saleI-
Iiles aie aloul lo pass oveihead lo shov lhal
Chinas nissiIe foices aie piepaiing lo conducl
conlal opeialions.
- Lngaging in feinl aclivilies vilh a nix of ieaI
foices and foices equipped vilh fake nissiIes
and equipnenl lo cieale lhe inpiession lhal a
Iaigei nunlei of foices aie invoIved in lhe na-
neuveis, vhich in luin is supposed lo inciease
lhe oveiaII effecls of lhe deleiience opeialions.
- Conducling sinuIaled nissiIe Iaunches ly de-
pIoying noliIe nissiIes lo liaining aieas and
fake Iaunch siles jusl lefoie lhe enenys iecon-
naissance saleIIiles aie aloul lo pass oveihead,
lhe noliIe nissiIe unils can lhen piepaie lheii
equipnenl, eiecl lhe nissiIes, and conducl
pie-Iaunch inspeclions. SiniIaiIy, Chinas Iiq-
uid-fueIed nissiIes can caiiy oul sinuIaled
fueIing.
3O
311
- LnpIoying deceplion lechniques lhal invoIve
lhe use of eIeclionic equipnenl and connu-
nicalions geai lo sinuIale lhe eIeclionagnelic
iadialion chaiacleiislics and connunicalions
palleins of nissiIe foice and connand cenlei
aclivilies.
- Ciealing lhe appeaiance of aII-oul escaIalion ly
oideiing siIo-lased nissiIes and nissiIe unils
al Iaunch pads lo conducl nissiIe veaponiy
lechnicaI piepaialions al lhe sane line.
31
- Using lhe doneslic and inleinalionaI nedia
lo inuence olhei counliies.
32
Sone of lhe spe-
cihc nelhods lhal can le used incIude issuing
lhieals lo caiiy oul nissiIe sliikes lhiough
leIevision nevs lioadcasls, piess confeiences,
and lhe Inleinel. Ioi exanpIe, if a sliong en-
eny senl ils aiiciafl caiiieis lo inleivene in a
ciisis invoIving China, Second AiliIIeiy couId
lhiealen convenlionaI nissiIe sliikes againsl
lhe caiiieis lo delei lhe eneny.
33
- Incieasing lhe IeveI of ieadiness of lhe nis-
siIe foice in accoidance vilh lhe appiopiiale
ieguIalions on IeveIs of veapons piepaialion
lo denonsliale diffeienl degiees of deleiienl
slienglh.
- Conducling Iaunch exeicises is anolhei inpoi-
lanl nelhod foi achieving canpaign deleiience
oljeclives. This invoIves Iaunching nissiIes al
pie-deleinined giound oi sea laigels lo pIace
psychoIogicaI piessuie on eneny decisionnak-
eis.
- Anolhei oplion is lesl-Iaunching nissiIes cIose
lo eneny leiiiloiy oi eneny ships. The oljec-
live is lo convince lhe eneny lhal if il iisks pio-
voking China, il nay face a devaslaling nissiIe
312
allack. One oplion is conducling lesl Iaunches
fion lolh anks, vhich iequiies Iaunching
nissiIes al lvo oi noie inpoilanl eneny lai-
gels. Anolhei is a cioss-isIand offensive lesl
Iaunch, vhich invoIves Iaunching a nissiIe
acioss an eneny-heId isIand.
- SliII anolhei oplion is Iaunching one oi noie
nissiIes cIose lo an eneny aiiciafl caiiiei. Ac-
coiding lo SSAC:
vhen conducling deleiience sliikes againsl
an eneny aiiciafl caiiiei lallIe gioup lhal is
inliuding inlo oui leiiiloiiaI valeis, ve can
Iaunch nissiIes neai lheii anks oi in fionl of
lhen lo denonsliale lhal ve have lhe capaliI-
ily and deleininalion lo caiiy oul a desliuclive
sliike againsl lhe enenys nucIeai-poveied
caiiiei, lhis viII fiighlen lhe eneny inlo Ieaving
oui leiiiloiiaI valeis.
34
- SSAC aIso nenlions lhe possiliIily of Ioveiing
lhe nucIeai deleiience lhieshoId oi adjusling
nucIeai poIicy, neaning China couId diop oi
pIace condilions on ils Iong-slanding no hisl
use poIicy in iesponse lo pailicuIaiIy lhiealen-
ing aclions ly a poveifuI eneny. SpecihcaIIy,
lhey slale lhal lhis nelhod couId le used vhen
a poveifuI nucIeai-ained eneny lhal enjoys
convenlionaI niIilaiy supeiioiily conducls
conlinuous nediun oi high inlensily aii iaids
againsl najoi slialegic laigels in China. Undei
such ciicunslances, lhe supiene connand
couId choose lo adjusl Chinas Iong-slanding
no hisl use nucIeai deleiience poIicy and oi-
dei lhe nissiIe foice lo acliveIy caiiy oul pov-
eifuI nucIeai deleiience againsl lhe eneny lo
313
delei lhe eneny fion conlinuousIy Iaunching
convenlionaI aii iaids againsl |Chinasj najoi
slialegic laigels.
35
Chinese souices nole lhal vhen conducling delei-
ience opeialions, Second AiliIIeiy nusl choose ap-
piopiiale nelhods lo inuence lhe adveisaiy. They
aIso enphasize lhal ILASAI shouId ieveaI enough
infoinalion aloul ils piepaialions lo delei lhe en-
eny, vhiIe al lhe sane line conceaIing infoinalion
lhal couId expose vuIneialiIilies. Ioi exanpIe, ac-
coiding lo SSAC, lecause lhe lechnicaI piepaialion
of nissiIes is usuaIIy caiiied oul in cenliaI sloiage fa-
ciIilies undei condilions of conceaInenl, lhe eneny is
unIikeIy lo delecl lhe incieased ieadiness of Chinese
nissiIe syslens. ConsequenlIy, Second AiliIIeiy nusl
iecoid videos of lhe piepaialions and disliilule lhen
via leIevision and Inleinel, lul lhe scenes lhal aie ie-
veaIed nusl le caiefuIIy seIecled in oidei lo avoid di-
vuIging lechnicaI seciels.
!/2<75 $-,1==/-: (.9H.10768
Second AiliIIeiy aIso appeais lo have nade inpoi-
lanl piogiess in lhe deveIopnenl of docliine lo guide
lhe execulion of nissiIe foice canpaigns and lhe pai-
licipalion of nissiIe foice unils in joinl canpaigns. Ac-
coiding lo SSAC, lhe science of canpaigns nol onIy
piovides guidance foi liaining and lhe conducl of fu-
luie opeialions, lul aIso eslalIishes a foundalion foi
naking decisions aloul equipnenl deveIopnenl and
ainy luiIding. Il is usefuI foi lhinking aloul hov lo
hghl lallIes, vhal kinds of veapons aie needed, and
in vhal foins lhe liaining of lhe foice and soIdieis
shouId le oiganized.
36
ecause ILASAI Iacks acluaI
314
opeialionaI expeiience, ils canpaign concepls aie de-
iived fion lheoielicaI anaIysis, assessnenls of foieign
niIilaiy opeialions, and ils expeiiences in liaining
and exeicises.
37

The 2OO6 edilion of #*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/-, pulIished
ly lhe ILAs NalionaI Defense Univeisily Iiess, de-
hnes a Second AiliIIeiy canpaign as:
lhe execulion of a seiies of nucIeai oi convenlionaI
nissiIe sliikes as veII as associaled aclions ly a Sec-
ond AiliIIeiy canpaign Iaige foinalion, so as lo foin
opeialionaI aclivilies in oidei lo achieve lhe oljeclives
of lhe vai, eilhei in pail oi oveiaII, in accoidance vilh
lhe opeialionaI inlenl of lhe highei-IeveI aulhoiilies.
38

This dehnilion appeais lo le deiived fion lhe
ILAs }anuaiy 1999 OulIine foi Second AiliIIeiy
Canpaigns (]|,;), vhich is ciled in
SSAC.
39
Chinese niIilaiy pulIicalions indicale lhal Second
AiliIIeiy canpaigns nay le calegoiized in a nunlei
of vays. One is accoiding lo lhe scaIe of lhe foices in-
voIved. Accoiding lo SSAC and SOC (2OO6), a can-
paign couId le a MissiIe ase Cioup Canpaign
(j,) invoIving nuIlipIe nissiIe lases, a
MissiIe iigade Cioup Canpaign (j,)
invoIving nuIlipIe convenlionaI nissiIe liigades, oi
a MissiIe ase Canpaign (j,) invoIv-
ing a singIe nissiIe lase.
4O
Second AiliIIeiy canpaigns
nay aIso le calegoiized on lhe lasis of vhelhei nu-
cIeai oi convenlionaI veapons aie enpIoyed. Spe-
cihcaIIy, lhey can le divided inlo lvo najoi lypes of
canpaigns: convenlionaI nissiIe sliike canpaigns
(;|,t,) and nucIeai counleisliike
canpaigns (|t,).
41

315
@4/G'/$)4/&2 ;)--)2' #$%)I' @&0A&)(/-"
The hisl aulhoiilalive dehnilion of lhe convenlion-
aI nissiIe allack canpaign appeaied in a 1996 Chinese
niIilaiy lexllook enlilIed @4/G'/$)4/&2 ;)--)2' #$%)I'
@&0A&)(/- (;|,t,), and il has since leen
iehned and eIaloialed in a nunlei of olhei pulIica-
lions.
42
In lhe 2OO6 edilion of #*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/-, lhe
convenlionaI nissiIe allack canpaigns is dehned as:
lhe seiies of convenlionaI nissiIe sliikes and ieIaled
opeialionaI aclivilies ly Second AiliIIeiy convenlionaI
canpaign Iaige foinalion, undei unihed connand, in
oidei lo achieve lhe goaIs of lhe vai, eilhei pailiaIIy oi
conpIeleIy.
43
Iuilheinoie, accoiding lo SOC (2OO6),
lhe convenlionaI nissiIe sliike canpaign vouId usu-
aIIy le execuled as an inpoilanl pail of a joinl can-
paign, lul il couId aIso le caiiied oul independenlIy
undei lhe appiopiiale ciicunslances.
44
SSAC aIso
indicales lhal a convenlionaI nissiIe sliike canpaign
vouId IikeIy conslilule pail of a joinl canpaign, such
as lhe joinl lIockade canpaign, joinl isIand Ianding
canpaign, joinl loidei counleiallack canpaign, oi
joinl anli-aii iaid canpaign, lul couId le conducled
independenlIy undei ceilain condilions.
45
Chinese niIilaiy pulIicalions ieIeased duiing lhe
Hu eia have discussed lhe nissions, chaiacleiislics,
guiding lhoughls, and piincipIes of convenlionaI nis-
siIe sliike canpaigns. In aII, Chinese niIilaiy viilings
on convenlionaI nissiIe canpaigns sliess lhe inpoi-
lance of suipiise and suggesl a piefeience foi pieenp-
live sliikes.
Accoiding lo SSAC, lasic nissions of a conven-
lionaI nissiIe sliike canpaign incIude Iaunching
hiepovei sliikes againsl inpoilanl laigels in lhe
316
enenys canpaign and slialegic deep aieas, cooidi-
naling vilh lhe aii foice lo assisl in seizing canpaign
aii doninance, cooidinaling vilh lhe navy lo assisl
in seizing canpaign connand of lhe sea, cooidinal-
ing vilh lhe ainy lo assisl in seizing lhe inilialive in
giound opeialions, and inpIenenling convenlionaI
deleiience. Moie concieleIy, SSAC Iisls a nunlei of
polenliaI laigels foi nissiIe sliikes in suppoil of lhese
oljeclives, incIuding lhe foIIoving: eneny slialegic
and canpaign connand cenleis, connunicalions
huls, iadai slalions, olhei infoinalion and connu-
nicalions-ieIaled laigels, guided nissiIe posilions, aii
foice lases, navaI faciIilies, iaiIvay slalions, liidges,
IogislicaI faciIilies, eneigy faciIilies, eIecliicaI povei
cenleis, and aiiciafl caiiiei sliike gioups. As foi lhe
goaIs of a Second AiliIIeiy convenlionaI nissiIe sliike
canpaign, SSAC indicales lhal lhey incIude:
paiaIyzing lhe enenys connand syslen, veakening
lhe enenys niIilaiy slienglh and ils aliIily lo conlin-
ue opeialions, ciealing psychoIogicaI shock in lhe en-
eny and shaking ils opeialionaI iesoIve, and checking
lhe poveifuI enenys niIilaiy inleivenlion aclivilies
(][||).
46
Accoiding lo SSAC, lhe key chaiacleiislics of a
convenlionaI nissiIe canpaign incIude lhe need foi
high-IeveI decisionnaking and lhe ieaIily of poIilicaI
consliainls, lhe poveifuI deep sliike capaliIilies and
oveiaII inpacl of convenlionaI nissiIes as Iong-iange
hiepovei sliike veapons, lhe conpIexily of cooidina-
lion ieIalionships, heavy iequiienenls foi canpaign
suppoil oving lo lhe lechnicaI naluie of nissiIe sys-
lens, and dangeis of exposuie and difhcuIlies inhei-
enl in defending againsl eneny allacks, especiaIIy aii
sliikes and speciaI opeialions iaids.
47
317
Scccnd Ar|i||crqs Rc|c in ]cin| Canpaigns8
ILA and ILASAI voIunes pulIished duiing lhe
Hu yeais indicale lhal Second AiliIIeiy vouId pIay a
key ioIe in fuluie ILA joinl canpaigns. In pailicuIai,
Chinese niIilaiy pulIicalions undeiscoie lhe cenliaI-
ily of nissiIe allacks in opeialions ained al achieving
infoinalion doninance, aii supeiioiily, and sea con-
lioI as veII as counleiing lhiid paily inleivenlion. In
pailicuIai, Chinese niIilaiy pulIicalions highIighl lhe
cenliaIily of lhe convenlionaI nissiIe foice in a vaiiely
of canpaigns, incIuding lhe joinl anphilious Ianding
canpaign, joinl lIockade canpaign, and joinl anli-aii
iaid canpaign.
SOC (2OO6) dehnes a joinl anphilious Ianding
canpaign as one lhal invoIves:
sea-ciossing offensive opeialions, undei unihed con-
nand and vilh unihed pIanning, caiiied oul againsl
lhe enenys defended coasls and isIands ly lhe Ainy,
Navy, Aii Ioice, and Second AiliIIeiy, vilh lhe assis-
lance and coopeialion of lhe IAI, niIilia, and IocaI
foices.
48

Such opeialions depend highIy on infoinalion, aii,
and sea supienacy, vhich sone Chinese niIilaiy pul-
Iicalions desciile coIIecliveIy as lhe lhiee supiena-
cies. Accoiding lo SOC (2OO6), foi exanpIe, onIy
ly seizing and nainlaining lhe 'lhiee supienacies is
il possilIe lo liuIy gain lhe inilialive in anphilious
Ianding canpaigns.
49
ILASAIs convenlionaI nis-
siIe foices vouId cooidinale vilh lhe ILA Aii Ioice
(ILAAI) and speciaI opeialions foices in conducling
allacks againsl laigels such as eaiIy vaining syslens,
connand, conlioI, and connunicalions syslens, aii
defense syslens, aiiheIds, hangeis, and iunvays, and
318
hailois and navaI lases. The convenlionaI nissiIe
foice vouId lhus have a ciuciaI ioIe lo pIay in seizing
and nainlaining lhe lhiee supienacies, vhich vouId
le inlended lo iesuIl in conpiehensiveIy paiaIyzing
lhe enenys defensive syslen and ciealing favoialIe
condilions foi ollaining vicloiy in lhe anphilious
Ianding canpaign.
5O
Chinese niIilaiy pulIicalions indicale lhal lhe joinl
lIockade canpaign ({|),) invoIves aii, navaI,
and nissiIe foice aclion ained al enfoicing an aii and
navaI lIockade of Taivan. SpecihcaIIy, SOC (2OO6)
dehnes a joinl lIockade canpaign as an offensive op-
eialion lhal is inpIenenled ly navy, aii foice, Second
AiliIIeiy and giound foice canpaign foinalion ([)
. . . in oidei lo sevei lhe enenys econonic and niIi-
laiy conneclions vilh lhe oulside voiId.
51
As Wayne
UInan poinls oul, lhe ILAs joinl lIockade canpaign
vouId le pIanned as a nuch noie desliuclive opeia-
lion lhan a sinpIe quaianline oi enlaigo. Lnfoicing
lhe joinl lIockade vouId IikeIy invoIve kinelic sliikes
againsl al Ieasl poils, aiiheIds, and aii-defense as-
sels.
52
ILASAI convenlionaI nissiIe sliikes vouId
lhus IikeIy pIay a key ioIe in such a canpaign. Indeed,
SOC (2OO6) highIighls lhe ioIe convenlionaI nissiIe
sliikes vouId pIay in achieving aii, sea, and infoina-
lion supeiioiily, as veII as in lIockading eneny poils
and navaI lases.
53
Second AiliIIeiy vouId aIso pIay a key ioIe in
lhe joinl anli-aii iaid canpaign, vhich SOC (2OO6)
desciiles as a defensive canpaign vilh inlegialed
offense and defense, ained al lhvailing eneny aii
iaids.
54
As lhis dehnilion indicales, lhe ILAs anli-
aii iaid canpaign incIudes nol onIy defensive aclions,
lul aIso offensive opeialions. In pailicuIai, il invoIves
aii defense of ciilicaI laigels on lhe Chinese nain-
319
Iand lo piolecl lhen fion eneny piecision sliikes,
and offensive aii and nissiIe sliikes againsl laigels
such as eneny aii lases, caiiiei sliike gioups (CSCs),
and Iogislics and connunicalions faciIilies.
55
Chinese
niIilaiy pulIicalions highIighl lhe inpoilance of lhe
anli-aii iaid canpaign in leins of gaining, oi Iosing,
lhe opeialionaI inilialive, and foi Chinas nalionaI se-
cuiily noie lioadIy. SpecihcaIIy, SOC (2OO6) slales:
lhe piaclice of iecenl IocaI vais denonsliales lhal aii
iaids have aIieady lecone lhe enenys nain neans
of achieving slialegic and canpaign goaIs, and in lhe
fuluie il viII le one of lhe giealesl lhieals lhe ILA
faces in lhe oiganizalion and inpIenenlalion of joinl
opeialions.
56

Second AiliIIeiys nucIeai nissiIe foice vouId aIso
pIay an inpoilanl ioIe in a fuluie joinl canpaign. Ac-
coiding lo SSAC:
In fuluie joinl opeialions, Second AiliIIeiy nucIeai
nissiIe unils aie lhe IeopIes Lileialion Ainys
nain foice foi caiiying oul nucIeai deleiienl, coun-
lei-nucIeai deleiienl and nucIeai counlei-sliike du-
lies, oiganizing and execuling nucIeai deleiienl and
counlei-nucIeai deleiienl aclions aie lhe cenliaI du-
lies foi nucIeai nissiIe unils duiing joinl canpaigns.
These unils ain nainIy lo fuIIy denonsliale lheii ioIe
in nucIeai deleiience and pievenl lhe vai fion nov-
ing lovaids videning oi spieading, and lo delei lhe
eneny fion inilialing nucIeai vai, and lheiely con-
lioIIing lhe vai ly keeping il IocaIized, Iiniled and
leaialIe in scope.
57

NucIeai deleiience lhus pIays an inpoilanl ioIe
duiing convenlionaI conicls in deleiiing nol onIy
nucIeai allack, lul aIso ceilain lypes of convenlionaI
escaIalion.
32O
Second AiliIIeiy nusl lheiefoie cooidinale lhe
aclions of ils nucIeai and convenlionaI nissiIe unils
in oidei lo achieve oplinun deleiience effecls.
58
e-
cause opeialions viII lake pIace undei lhe shadov of
nucIeai lhieals, SSAC indicales:
nucIeai nissiIe foice deleiience aclions and conven-
lionaI nissiIe sliike opeialions nusl le fused logelhei
and nuluaIIy inleivoven (, |]) in
oidei lo fuIIy liing inlo pIay Second AiliIIeiys delei-
ience and opeialionaI duaI funclions (],)_).
59

SiniIaiIy, Zhao Xijun enphasizes lhal nucIeai
deleiience and convenlionaI nissiIe foice opeialions
viII le conducled logelhei as pail of an inlegialed
and inleivoven aclion.
6O
9+*2'&% @4+/$'%-$%)I' @&0A&)(/-"
ILASAI appeais lo have nade sone piogiess in
ils lhinking aloul lhe nucIeai counleisliike canpaign,
hisl dehned in lhe nid-198Os and fuilhei deveIoped
in lhe 199Os.
61
As foi lhe cuiienl dehnilion, in SOC
(2OO6), lhe nucIeai counleisliike canpaign vas de-
hned as:
lhe seiies of nucIeai nissiIe sliikes and ieIaled op-
eialionaI aclivilies of a Second AiliIIeiy nucIeai can-
paign Iaige foinalion, vhich aie sliiclIy caiiied oul
undei lhe diiecl connand and conlioI of lhe Supiene
Connand, and in accoidance vilh lhe inlenl of lhe
Supiene Connand, in oidei lo achieve speciaIIy des-
ignaled slialegic goaIs.
62

The dehnilion of lhe nucIeai counleisliike can-
paign in SOC (2OO6) is veiy siniIai lo lhe dehni-
321
lions offeied in @&0A&)(/ 56'4%1 #$+,1 L+),' (CTSC)
and SSAC.
63
olh of lhese pulIicalions nole lhal lhe
nucIeai counleisliike canpaign couId le caiiied oul
eilhei independenlIy oi as a najoi pail of a joinl nu-
cIeai counleiallack canpaign ({|t,).
64
The
Iallei lype of canpaign vouId invoIve cooidinalion
vilh lhe nucIeai foices of lhe ILA Navy (ILAN), pie-
sunalIy Chinas Type-O94 nucIeai-poveied laIIislic
nissiIe sulnaiines (SSNs), vhich have enleied sei-
vice vilh lhe ILAN, lul sliII avail conpIelion of lhe
deveIopnenl of lhe }L-2 sulnaiine-Iaunched laIIislic
nissiIe (SLM), and possilIy lhe ILAAI, if ils lonl-
eis veie lo le ained vilh nucIeai veapons. None-
lheIess, Second AiliIIeiy vouId pIay lhe cenliaI ioIe
in such a canpaign.
65
In addilion, accoiding lo CTSC,
apail fion dividing nucIeai counleisliike canpaigns
inlo lhose lhal aie execuled independenlIy ly Second
AiliIIeiy oi joinlIy vilh lhe olhei seivices, lhey nay
aIso le calegoiized as Iaige-scaIe oi snaII-scaIe nucIe-
ai counleiallack canpaigns.
66
eyond lhe issue of calegoiizalion, lhe key Chi-
nese pulIicalions piovide consideialIe delaiI on
lhe nissions, chaiacleiislics, and guiding piincipIes
of nucIeai counleisliike canpaigns. Accoiding lo
CTSC, lhe lasic nission of a nucIeai counleiallack
canpaign is:
caiiying oul nucIeai counleisliikes againsl lhe en-
enys inpoilanl slialegic and canpaign laigels, in ac-
coidance vilh lhe inlenlions of highei IeveIs, in oidei
lo lhvail lhe enenys slialegic inlenlions, shake lhe
enenys viII, paiaIyze lhe enenys connand sys-
lens, ielaid lhe enenys opeialionaI aclivilies, veak-
en lhe enenys vai polenliaI, and delei lhe escaIalion
of nucIeai vaifaie.
67

322
Again, lhis liacks veiy cIoseIy vilh lhe discussion
of lhe nission of lhe nucIeai counleisliike canpaign
lhal appeais in SSAC.
68
As foi lhe specihc laigels, lhey
vouId incIude eneny connand cenleis, connunica-
lions nodes, lianspoilalion huls, niIilaiy lases, po-
IilicaI and econonic cenleis, inpoilanl indusliiaI fa-
ciIilies, and olhei slialegic and canpaign laigels.
Chinese niIilaiy pulIicalions aIso highIighl sev-
eiaI key chaiacleiislics of nucIeai counleisliike can-
paigns lhal dislinguish lhen fion olhei canpaigns.
69

One nolalIe chaiacleiislic is lhe exlieneIy haish
lallIeheId enviionnenl. This is a funclion of Chinas
no hisl use poIicy. AIlhough lhe aulhois of SSAC dis-
cuss ciicunslances undei vhich nucIeai nissiIe foice
deleiience opeialions couId le used lo delei conven-
lionaI allacks, lhey nonelheIess appeai lo assune lhal
a nucIeai counleiallack canpaign vouId le execuled
onIy aflei China had suffeied an eneny nucIeai al-
lack. Indeed, accoiding lo SSAC:
In Iighl of oui nalions piincipIed sland on lhe issue of
no hisl use of nucIeai veapons, Second AiliIIeiy can
onIy caiiy oul nucIeai nissiIe sliikes againsl lhe en-
enys inpoilanl slialegic laigels . . . aflei lhe eneny
has caiiied oul a nucIeai iaid againsl oui nalion.
7O

ecause Second AiliIIeiy vouId piesunalIy le
an inpoilanl laigel foi iniliaI eneny nucIeai sliikes,
ILASAI connand cenleis, nissiIe lases, vaihead
sloiage faciIilies, and olhei inpoilanl laigels vouId
suffei heavy danage fion lhe enenys nucIeai allack.
The videspiead desliuclion and disiuplion caused ly
eneny nucIeai delonalions vouId cieale exlieneIy
haish condilions, undei vhich suiviving ILASAI
foices vouId have lo conducl nucIeai counleiallack
canpaign opeialions.
71
ConsequenlIy, lhe iequiie-
nenls foi pioleclion of lhe foice aie veiy high.
72

323
Anolhei chaiacleiislic lhal dislinguishes nucIeai
counleiallack canpaigns fion aII olhei lypes of can-
paigns is lhe huge desliuclive polenliaI of nucIeai
veapons, vhich necessilales highIy cenliaIized con-
nand and conlioI. The Iong iange and enoinous povei
of nucIeai veapons sel lhen apail fion convenlionaI
veapons. Any use of nucIeai veapons vouId have a
dianalic effecl nol onIy on lhe couise and oulcone of
a vai, lul aIso on lhe oveiaII slale of lhe nalions po-
IilicaI, econonic, dipIonalic, and niIilaiy sliuggIe.
73

This has olvious inpIicalions foi lhe connand and
conlioI of nucIeai counleiallack canpaigns. Accoid-
ing lo #*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/- (2OO6), vhelhei lhe nucIeai
counleisliike canpaign is conducled joinlIy oi inde-
pendenlIy, lecause il is a slialegic canpaign, il nusl
le oiganized and caiiied oul sliiclIy accoiding lo lhe
decisions of lhe supiene connand.
74
SSAC and olh-
ei Chinese niIilaiy pulIicalions aIso undeiscoie lhal
highIy cenliaIized connand is essenliaI in nucIeai
counleiallack canpaigns. The Supiene Connand
nusl nake aII of lhe key decisions. This in luin neces-
silales connand, conlioI, and connunicalions (C3)
syslens lhal aie iesislanl lo inleifeience and desliuc-
lion.
75
Chinese docliinaI pulIicalions offei IillIe infoi-
nalion aloul vhal vouId happen if ILASAI unils
veie unalIe lo connunicale vilh lhe Supiene Con-
nand (,|), lul SSAC slales lhal vhen connand
is disiupled oi vhen lhe silualion is uigenl, Second
AiliIIeiy canpaign connandeis and lheii connand
ofhces shouId, vilhin lheii Iiniled scope of aulhoi-
ily, acl on lheii ovn judgnenl, in Iighl of lhe slialegic
inlenlions of headquaileis.
76
324
The guiding piincipIes foi Second AiliIIeiy nu-
cIeai counleiallack canpaigns aie cIose pioleclion
and key poinl counleiallacks (||))
t).
77
CIose pioleclion conceins lhe suivivaliIily of
lhe nissiIe foice, and is lheiefoie a vilaI pieiequisile
foi successfuIIy caiiying oul a nucIeai counleiallack
canpaign. Accoiding lo SSAC, cIose pioleclion is lhe
fundanenlaI channeI lhiough vhich Second AiliIIeiy
incieases suivivaliIily and lhe effeclive pieseivalion
of nucIeai counleiallack slienglh undei nucIeai con-
dilions. The puipose of cIose pioleclion is avoiding
oi lo lhe giealesl exlenl possilIe ieducing lhe Iosses
caused ly an eneny nucIeai iaid oi piecision sliike.
SSAC undeiscoies lhe need lo piolecl againsl nucIeai
allacks, convenlionaI sliikes and eIeclionic vaifaie
lhieals.
78
The need foi cIose pioleclion againsl eneny
allacks peisisls lhioughoul a vai lecause sudden en-
eny iaids nay occui al anyline, nol onIy in lhe legin-
ning, lul aIso in lhe niddIe oi al lhe end of a conicl.
Key poinl counleiallacks invoIve conducling nucIeai
hiepovei key poinl sliikes on lhe enenys ciuciaI lai-
gels.
79
The oljeclives of key poinl counleiallacks aie
lo cause huge Iosses foi lhe eneny, and lo cause lhe
eneny lo le seiiousIy shaken psychoIogicaIIy, in oi-
dei lo achieve lhe goaI of veakening lhe enenys viII
lo vage vai.
8O

!%(@+* $#"'AA%#E ($>$C'A'"'%!
'+ "?% ?) F'+"$@ %#$
Duiing lhe Hu eia, Second AiliIIeiy nade najoi
inpiovenenls in ils nucIeai capaliIilies, diveisihed
and enhanced ils convenlionaI nissiIe capaliIilies,
and upgiaded ils connand aulonalion and C4ISR
syslens. In lheii ieviev of ILASAI foice sliucluie
325
deveIopnenls, }ing and Ieng slale lhal ILASAI has
nade najoi lieaklhioughs in lhe deveIopnenl of
veapons and equipnenl.
81
SpecihcaIIy, lhey viile:
InpIenenlalion of lhe nev veapon deveIopnenl slial-
egy has leen slepped up. Second AiliIIeiy has voiked
logelhei vilh olhei depailnenls conceined lo iun key
ieseaich piojecls, succeeded in deveIoping vaiious
nodeIs of nissiIes, lhus luiIding an ainanenl seiies
conpiising lolh nucIeai and convenlionaI veapons
lhal coveis a fuII specliun in leins of hie iange and
povei vilh sulslanliaIIy enhanced efhcacy.
82
+42=/.- D1661=/ O<-2/ (.H.W1=1,1/68
Duiing lhe Hu eia, China nodeinized ils nucIeai
foices lo enhance lheii suivivaliIily, inciease lheii
sliiking povei, and counlei nissiIe defense deveIop-
nenls. eijings goaI is heIding a Iean and effeclive
nucIeai foice lhal neels ils evoIving secuiily needs.
83

China cuiienlIy nainlains lhe DI-3 inleinediale
iange laIIislic nissiIe (IRM) and DI-21 and DI-21A
nediun iange laIIislic nissiIes (MRMs) foi lhealei
nucIeai deleiience nissions. The IRCs inleiconli-
nenlaI nucIeai laIIislic nissiIe foice consisls of oIdei,
Iiniled-iange DI-4 ICMs, siIo-lased DI-5 ICMs,
and lhe iecenlIy depIoyed ioad noliIe DI-31 and DI-
31A ICMs. China is aIso enhancing ils siIo-lased sys-
lens.
84
In addilion, China nay le deveIoping a nev
noliIe ICM, possilIy capalIe of caiiying nuIlipIe
independenlIy laigelalIe ieenliy vehicIes (MIRVs).
85
Nuc|car MR8Ms, |R8Ms, and |ini|cd-Rangc |C8Ms8
China cuiienlIy depIoys seveiaI diffeienl nissiIe
syslens foi iegionaI nucIeai deleiience nissions.
86

326
The DI-3 (CSS-2), hisl depIoyed in 1971, is a singIe-
slage Iiquid piopeIIanl IRM vilh a naxinun iange
of aloul 3,OOO kiIoneleis (kn, 1,9OO niIes). The Na-
lionaI Aii and Space InleIIigence Cenlei (NASIC)
assesses lhal lhe DI-3 (CSS-2) is lianspoilalIe lul
has Iiniled noliIily. China has aloul 14-18 Iiquid-
fueIed DI-3 (CSS-2) IRMs vilh aloul hve lo 1O CSS-
2 Iauncheis.
87
The IRC aIso sliII depIoys sone of ils
Iiniled iange, Iiquid-fueIed DI-4 ICMs, vhich have
a iange of aloul 5,4OO kn (3,4OO+ niIes).
88

China has leen liansilioning lo a noie suiviv-
alIe, ioad-noliIe lhealei nucIeai foice fealuiing lhe
DI-21 and DI-21A MRMs. Accoiding lo lhe 2OO9
Depailnenl of Defense (DoD) iepoil on Chinese niIi-
laiy povei, lhe ILA has aloul 6O-8O nucIeai-ained
MRMs and 7O-9O associaled Iauncheis.
89
The DI-
21 and DI-21A aie lvo-slage soIid piopeIIanl ioad-
noliIe nissiIes vilh naxinun ianges of noie lhan
1,75O kn (1,1OO+ niIes).
9O

Nuc|car |n|crccn|incn|a| 8a||is|ic Missi|cs (|C8Ms).
The siIo-lased DI-5 (CSS-4) ICM, a Iiquid-pio-
peIIanl, lvo-slage nissiIe, has leen lhe nainslay of
Chinas inleiconlinenlaI nucIeai deleiience foice since
ils iniliaI depIoynenl in 1981. China cuiienlIy depIoys
aloul 2O DI-5s, vhich have a iange of al Ieasl 13,OOO
kn (8,OOO+ niIes), enough lo sliike laigels lhioughoul
lhe Uniled Slales.
91
Accoiding lo lhe U.S. Defense In-
leIIigence Agency (DIA), China is enhancing ils siIo-
lased syslens.
92

The nosl inpoilanl nucIeai foice deveIopnenl
duiing lhe Hu eia has leen lhe Iong-availed depIoy-
nenl of ioad-noliIe ICMs, vhich has piovided
China vilh a nuch noie suivivalIe nucIeai foice.
327
Undei Hu, ILASAI hnaIIy heIded lvo lypes of
ioad-noliIe ICMs, lhe DI-31 and DI-31A. The DI-
31 (CSS-1O Mod 1) is a lhiee-slage, soIid piopeIIanl,
ioad-noliIe ICM, vilh a naxinun iange of noie
lhan 7,2OO kn (4,5OO+ niIes).
93
Aflei a pioliacled de-
veIopnenl hisloiy lhal legan in lhe 198Os, lhe DI-31
ioad-noliIe ICM vas hnaIIy depIoyed in 2OO6.
94
The
DI-31A (CSS-1O Mod 2) is a lhiee-slage ioad-noliIe
ICM, vilh a naxinun iange of noie lhan 11,2OO kn
(7,OOO+ niIes). The DI-31As Iongei iange aIIovs il lo
ieach laigels lhioughoul nosl of lhe Uniled Slales.
China legan depIoying lhe DI-31A (CSS-1O Mod 2)
ioad-noliIe ICM in 2OO7.
95

Anolhei inpoilanl deveIopnenl is Chinas nove-
nenl lovaid an opeialionaI sea-lased deleiienl
lo conpIenenl ILASAIs Iand-lased nucIeai nis-
siIes. Accoiding lo Chinas 2O1O Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr,
lhe ILAN is enhancing ils slialegic deleiience and
counleiallack capaliIilies.
96
The ]in-cIass SSN has
aIieady enleied seivice vilh lhe ILAN, lul lhe }L-2
SLM has faced iepealed deIays.
97
NonelheIess, il
nay ieach iniliaI opeialing capaliIily vilhin lhe nexl
2 yeais, accoiding lo lhe 2O12 DoD iepoil on Chinese
niIilaiy povei.
98
When lhis happens, China viII h-
naIIy have an opeialionaI nucIeai dyad. NonelheIess,
ILASAI viII ienain lhe coie of Chinas slialegic
nucIeai deleiienl.
328
(<7J/7,1<7.= D1661=/ (.H.W1=1,1/68
ILASAIs convenlionaI nissiIe foice has giovn
iapidIy since ils inceplion lo enalIe China lo inpIe-
nenl ils concepls foi enpIoying il foi deleiience,
conpeIIence, and convenlionaI hiepovei sliike op-
eialions. Today, Chinas convenlionaI laIIislic nissiIe
foice incIudes DI-15 and DI-11 SRMs and DI-21
MRMs. China has depIoyed lhe DH-1O Iand-allack
ciuise nissiIe (LACM) lo enhance lhe ILAs iegionaI
piecision sliike capaliIilies. China is aIso deveIoping
and depIoying an ASM lased on a vaiianl of lhe DI-
21 MRM. eyond lhese capaliIilies, Taivan ofhciaIs
have slaled pulIicIy lhal China is depIoying nev DI-
16 laIIislic nissiIes, vilh a iange of aloul 1,OOO-1,5OO
kn.
99
In addilion, IRC nedia iepoils indicale lhal
China is deveIoping anolhei convenlionaI nissiIe sys-
len vilh a iange of 4,OOO kn.
1OO
Sncr|-Rangc 8a||is|ic Missi|cs (SR8Ms).
Since lhe eaiIy-199Os, vhen lhe convenlionaI
nissiIe foice conponenl of Second AiliIIeiy vas es-
lalIished, Chinas SRM foices have expanded dia-
nalicaIIy. Indeed, eslinales piesenled in DoDs an-
nuaI iepoils on Chinese niIilaiy povei ieveaI lhal
lhe nunlei of depIoyed SRMs has ioughIy liipIed
since lhe eaiIy-2OOOs. y Decenlei 2O1O, Chinas ai-
senaI consisled of aloul 1,OOO-1,2OO soIid piopeIIanl
ioad-noliIe SRMs, aII depIoyed in aieas opposile
Taivan.
1O1
Accoiding lo DoD, lhis incIudes aloul 35O-
4OO DI-15 (CSS-6) SRMs and aloul 7OO-75O DI-11
(CSS-7) SRMs.
1O2
China has aIso heIded a consid-
eialIe foice of noliIe Iauncheis foi lhese nissiIes.
NASIC eslinales lhal China has depIoyed noie lhan
329
2OO Iauncheis foi ils SRMs.
1O3
SiniIaiIy, DoDs nosl
iecenl iepoil piovides an eslinaled oidei of lallIe
of 21O-25O lolaI SRM Iauncheis, incIuding 9O-11O
DI-15 (CSS-6) Iauncheis and 12O-14O DI-11 (CSS-7)
Iauncheis.
1O4

Recenl edilions of lhe DoD Chinese niIilaiy povei
iepoil indicale lhal aIlhough lhe iale of giovlh ap-
peais lo have sIoved, lheie have leen fuilhei in-
piovenenls in quaIily as China has conlinued lo up-
giade lhe capaliIilies of ils SRMs. In ils 2O1O iepoil,
DoD noled lhal China vas incieasing ils invenloiy al
a sIovei iale lhan in pasl yeais.
1O5
DoD expanded on
lhis judgnenl in ils 2O11 iepoil, indicaling lhal lhe
nunlei of SRMs appeais lo le hoIding ieIaliveIy
sleady, lul lhal China is iepIacing oIdei nissiIes vilh
nevei, noie accuiale and capalIe nodeIs. Accoiding
lo lhe 2O11 iepoil:
As of Decenlei 2O1O, lhe ILA had sonevheie le-
lveen 1,OOO-1,2OO SRMs. The lolaI nunlei of SRMs
iepiesenls IillIe lo no change ovei lhe pasl yeai. Hov-
evei, lhe ILA conlinues lo heId advanced vaiianls
vilh inpioved ianges and noie sophislicaled pay-
Ioads lhal aie giaduaIIy iepIacing eaiIiei geneialions
lhal do nol possess liue piecision sliike capaliIily.
1O6

|cngcr-rangc Ccntcn|icna| 8a||is|ic Missi|cs.
China has depIoyed convenlionaI MRMs and is
deveIoping and depIoying an ASM. Accoiding lo
NASIC: China is aIso acquiiing nev convenlionaIIy
ained MRMs lo conducl piecision sliikes al Iongei
ianges. These syslens aie IikeIy inlended lo hoId al
iisk, oi sliike, Iogislics nodes and iegionaI niIilaiy
lases incIuding aiiheIds and poils.
1O7
Chinas DI-21
convenlionaI MRM is a lvo-slage soIid piopeIIanl
33O
noliIe nissiIe vilh a naxinun iange of aloul 1,75O
kn (1,1OO niIes).
1O8
Ieihaps of giealesl signihcance is Chinas deveI-
opnenl of a nediun-iange ASM lased on lhe DI-21
(CSS-5). Chinas inleiesl in enpIoying laIIislic nis-
siIes lo laigel aiiciafl caiiieis appeais lo dale lack
al Ieasl lo lhe 1995-96 Taivan Sliail Ciisis, vhen lhe
Uniled Slales depIoyed lvo aiiciafl caiiiei gioups lo
lhe iegion in iesponse lo Chinese SRM ighl lesls
and niIilaiy exeicises. The DI-21D ASM is a lvo-
slage soIid-piopeIIanl noliIe nissiIe vilh a iange of
1,5OO+kn (932+ niIes).
1O9
Accoiding lo Taivans 2O11
9&$)4/&2 ?'H'/-' C'A4%$, slailing in 2O1O, China has
leen depIoying lhe DI-21D in snaII nunleis.
11O

|and A||ac| Cruisc Missi|cs (|ACMs).
ILASAI has aIso heIded giound-Iaunched Iand al-
lack ciuise nissiIes (LACMs), fuilhei conliiluling lo
lhe enhancenenl of ils convenlionaI Iong-iange pieci-
sion-sliike capaliIilies. Accoiding lo DoD, The ILA
is acquiiing Iaige nunleis of highIy accuiale ciuise
nissiIes, such as lhe doneslicaIIy pioduced giound-
Iaunched DH-1O LACM, vhich has a iange of noie
lhan 1,5OO kn.
111
The 2O12 DoD iepoil lo Congiess es-
linales lhal China has depIoyed aloul 2OO-5OO DH-1O
LACMs and 4O-55 Iauncheis.
112

(N'!# .75 (<99.75 $4,<9.,1<78
AIlhough nev pIalfoins and veapons oflen
capluie lhe nosl allenlion, lhe ILAs deveIopnenl
of inpioved C4ISR, connunicalions syslens, and
connand aulonalion capaliIilies has piolalIy leen
equaIIy inpiessive ovei lhe pasl decade. Indeed, il is
331
cIeai lhal lhe ILA feeIs il nade najoi sliides in ils
connunicalions infiasliucluie and ieIaled capa-
liIilies duiing lhe Hu eia. Chinas 2O1O Dcfcnsc lni|c
E&A'% highIighls lhe ILAs ovn assessnenl of ils ad-
vances in nodeinizing ils C4ISR aichilecluie. Accoid-
ing lo lhe 2O1O lni|c Papcr:
The lolaI Ienglh of lhe nalionaI defense oplicaI hlei
connunicalion nelvoik has incieased ly a Iaige nai-
gin, foining a nev geneialion infoinalion liansnis-
sion nelvoik vilh oplicaI hlei connunicalion as lhe
nainslay and saleIIile and shoil-vave connunica-
lions as assislance.
113

Second AiliIIeiy has cIeaiIy lenehled fion lhis
expansion and nodeinizalion of lhe ILAs C4ISR ca-
paliIilies. In pailicuIai foi ILASAI, sone of lhe key
deveIopnenls duiing lhe Hu eia have incIuded ad-
vances in ISR and connunicalions lechnoIogy and
lhe deveIopnenl of capaliIilies Iike lhe inlegialed
connand pIalfoin.
In a ieliospeclive on key deveIopnenls duiing
lhis peiiod, Lieulenanl CeneiaI Wei Ienghe, vho vas
Second AiliIIeiys Chief of Slaff fion 2OO6-1O, sulse-
quenlIy seived as a Depuly Chief of lhe CeneiaI Slaff,
and is nov ILASAI Connandei, highIighls najoi
inpiovenenls in ISR, connunicalions, and piecision
guidance capaliIilies.
114
In addilion, accoiding lo foi-
nei ILASAI Depuly Connandei Zhang Xiang, an-
olhei key deveIopnenl in lhe ILASAIs nodeiniza-
lion duiing lhis peiiod vas lhe depIoynenl of noliIe
connand syslens.
115

Accoiding lo Chinese souices, anolhei aiea of pai-
licuIai enphasis duiing lhe Hu yeais vas inpioving
Second AiliIIeiys connand aulonalion capaliIi-
lies.
116
SulsequenlIy, accoiding lo Wei, ILASAI:
332
successfuIIy conpIeled lhe deveIopnenl of lhe fun-
danenlaI aulonaled connand syslen and inslaIIed
il in lhe vaiious unils one aflei anolhei, naiking an
inpoilanl niIeslone in lhe hisloiy of consliuclion of
connand equipnenl of Second AiliIIeiy.
In Maich 2OO7, Wei iepoils lhal ILASAI:
oiganized a lesl of aII lhe essenliaI eIenenls and lhe
fuII-Ioad funclions of lhe connand syslen, vhich
pioved lhal lhe connanding pIalfoins al diffeienl
IeveIs aII possessed advanced piopeilies, veie iun-
ning ieIialIy, and lhal aII lhe noins nel lhe iequiie-
nenls foi use in conlal opeialions.
117
Chinese niIilaiy nedia iepoils highIighl lhe nain
advanlages of ILASAIs enpIoynenl of lhe inle-
gialed connand pIalfoin, indicaling lhal il enalIes
connandeis lo cooidinale and diiecl lhe opeialions
of nuIlipIe liigades and Iaunch unils vilh diffeienl
lypes of equipnenl,
118
and lo conducl sliucluied al-
lacks.
119
Accoiding lo one iepoil, lhe inlegialed con-
nand pIalfoin is lhe veiy keineI of naleiiaI suppoil
foi lhe deveIopnenl of connand capaliIily undei in-
foinalized condilions, and an essenliaI aspecl of lhe
ILAs effoils lo inpiove ils aliIily lo conducl infoi-
nalion-syslen lased syslen of syslens opeialions.
12O
"-.17170 .75 %Y/-216/68
The ILA has focused on inpioving liaining, and
Second AiliIIeiy has leen no exceplion. Indeed, ils lop
Ieadeis have fiequenlIy enphasized lhe inpoilance of
liaining. In }anuaiy 2O11, foi exanpIe, ILASAI Con-
nandei }ing Zhiyuan and IoIilicaI Connissai Zhang
333
Haiyang issued an oidei enphasizing lhe cenliaI ioIe
of liaining in fuilhei enhancing lhe conlal capaliIi-
lies of lhe nissiIe foice. }ing and Zhang uiged lhe nis-
siIe foice lo uphoId niIilaiy liaining as a key focus
in expanding and deepening piepaialion foi niIilaiy
sliuggIe, lhe lasic vay lo geneiale, consoIidale, and
enhance conlal povei, and ieguIai, coie voik in lhe
deveIopnenl of |nissiIe foicej unils.
121
Reecling lhis
high-IeveI enphasis on lhe inpoilance of liaining,
Chinese niIilaiy nedia iepoils suggesl lhal ILASAI
liaining incieased in ieaIisn and conpIexily duiing
lhe Hu eia.
OveiaII, ILASAI enphasizes lhal lioops shouId
liain as lhey viII hghl, neaning lhal exeicises shouId
lake pIace undei ieaIislic condilions lo lenpei lhe
skiIIs lheii unils viII need in acluaI conlal. One in-
poilanl vay in vhich nany ILA exeicises nov al-
lenpl lo enhance lhe IeveI of ieaIisn is ly incoipoial-
ing opposing foices.
122
The enpIoynenl of lIue foices
in exeicises is a nolevoilhy deveIopnenl lecause il
nakes liaining noie ieaIislic and chaIIenging, en-
couiages ofhceis lo lake lhe inilialive in iesponse lo
changing silualions, and gives lioops exposuie lo pos-
silIe adveisaiy laclics.
Olhei iepoils indicale lhal liaining sonelines
foices pailicipaling unils lo deviale fion lheii pie-
paied pIans. This is done lo piepaie ofhceis and soI-
dieis lo cope vilh acluaI conlal silualions in vhich
lhey nay Iose lhe aliIily lo connunicale vilh highei
headquaileis oi hnd lhal lhe eneny has ieacled lo
lheii aclions in unexpecled vays. AIong lhese Iines,
ILASAI unils have piacliced noving lo aIleinale
Iaunch siles and eiecling lenpoiaiy Iaunch pads
vhen piinaiy Iaunch posilions aie deslioyed dui-
ing exeicises.
123
ILASAI liaining has aIso enphasized
334
inleilhealei depIoynenls, vhich enlaiI consideialIe
opeialionaI and IogislicaI chaIIenges. Indeed, iecenl
]icfangjun oac iepoils have highIighled piogiess in
cioss-iegion noliIily liaining.
124
In addilion, Chinese
niIilaiy nedia iepoils indicale lhal ILASAI unils aie
conducling nighlline naneuvei liaining.
125
ILASAI has aIso piacliced a vaiiely of lechniques
lo counlei eneny inleIIigence, suiveiIIance, and ie-
connaissance (ISR), piecision sliike, janning, and
eIeclionic vaifaie allacks.
126
In keeping vilh lhe en-
phasis on liaining in a conpIex eIeclionagnelic en-
viionnenl conlained in iecenl CeneiaI Slaff Depail-
nenl liaining guideIines, lhis is inlended lo inpiove
lhe ILAs aliIily lo opeiale in an eIeclionic-vaifaie
(LW) enviionnenl and lo aIIov niIilaiy unils lo
piaclice vaiious lypes of counlei-ieconnaissance,
eIeclionic vaifaie, and counlei-LW lechniques. In ad-
dilion, Chinese nedia iepoils indicale lhal ILASAI
is conducling exeicises lhal lesl ils aliIily lo enpIoy
incieasingIy sophislicaled decoys and canouage
nelhods lo counlei adveisaiy aiiloine and space-
lased ISR capaliIilies, incIuding oplicaI, infiaied, and
iadai inageiy syslens.
127
SliII anolhei inpoilanl aiea
of enphasis in liaining is connand aulonalion and
nissiIe foice C2. Cuiienl senioi Ieadeiship liaining
guidance highIighls lhe inpoilance of lhe infoinali-
zalion of lhe nissiIe foice and lhe deveIopnenl of in-
foinalion syslen-lased syslen of syslens opeialions
capaliIilies.
128

IinaIIy, a sonelines oveiIooked lul inpoilanl
eIenenl of lhe ILAs liaining iefoin piogian is
slandaidizalion of liaining and lhe deveIopnenl and
appIicalion of noie sliingenl ciileiia foi exaninalion
and evaIualion. This enphasis on iigoious scieening
and evaIualion is ieecled in lhe iecenl pionolion of
335
lvo connandeis, one opeialoi lesling and evaIu-
alion, vhich focuses on assessing lhe capaliIilies of
nissiIe Iaunchei and Iaunch lallaIion connandeis
and speciaIisl opeialois in ILASAI.
129
This naiks a
pailicuIaiIy inpoilanl change in lhal noie iigoious
evaIualion of liaining can heIp idenlify piolIens and
shoilconings and conliilule lo lhe deveIopnenl of a
noie ieaIislic appiaisaI of ieadiness and conlal ca-
paliIilies. In addilion, ILASAI has issued a seiies of
ieguIalions inlended lo slandaidize liaining piaclices
and pionole noie iolusl lesling and evaIualion of
nucIeai and convenlionaI nissiIe-foice unils.
13O

AIlhough ILA and Second AiliIIeiy iepoiling on
liaining and exeicises conlinues lo highIighl dehcien-
cies in ceilain aieas and undeiscoie lhe need foi fui-
lhei inpiovenenls, ILASAIs ovn seIf-assessnenls
suggesl lhal oveiaII lhey nade najoi sliides in liain-
ing and exeicises duiing lhe Hu yeais. As }ing and
Ieng pul il, The degiee of acluaI conlal IifeIikeness
has leen conslanlIy enhanced foi niIilaiy liaining.
131

Moieovei, lhey slale:
. . . Second AiliIIeiy has peifeclIy conpIeled a nun-
lei of najoi exeicises and conlal-ieadiness-ieIaled
lasks assigned ly lhe CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission.
In pailicuIai, in lhe pasl fev yeais, duiing najoi Iive
canpaign exeicises lased on conpIex eIeclionagnelic
scenaiios, nissiIe liigades pailicipaling in lhe exeicis-
es used vaiious lypes of nissiIes lo deIivei piecision
hie sliikes on a vaiiely of laigels in seveiaI iounds,
accuialeIy hilling aII lhe laigels.
132

SiniIaiIy, Wei Ienghe highIighls lhe inpoilance
of lenpeiing lhe lioops lhiough iigoious liaining,
and highIighls achievenenls in liaining and exei-
cises, incIuding Iive nissiIe Iaunches, duiing lhe Hu
336
yeais. In addilion, one iecenl ]icfangjun oac iepoil
highIighled sunnei 2O12 liaining invoIving seveiaI
nissiIe liigades as ieecling a hisloiic Ieap in lhe coie
niIilaiy capaliIilies of Chinas slialegic nissiIe foice,
especiaIIy ils aliIily lo conducl Iong dislance noliIe
conlal opeialions and ils gioving piecision sliike
capaliIily.
133
A@@G'+& $?%$*U !%(@+* $#"'AA%#E
'+ "?% Q' F'+>'+& %#$
In a Decenlei 2O12 neeling vilh deIegales lo
Second AiliIIeiys 8lh Iaily Congiess, Xi }inping
desciiled ILASAI as lhe coie slienglh of Chinas
slialegic deleiience, lhe slialegic suppoil foi lhe
counliys slalus as a najoi povei, and an inpoilanl
coineislone safeguaiding nalionaI secuiily.
134
e-
yond Xis exhoilalion lo luiId a poveifuI and lech-
noIogicaIIy advanced nissiIe foice, hovevei, IillIe has
leen ieveaIed aloul lhe specihcs of his vievs on lhe
fuluie deveIopnenl of ILASAIs nucIeai and con-
venlionaI nissiIe capaliIilies. Chinas Iiniled lians-
paiency fuilhei conpIicales effoils lo piedicl fuluie
nissiIe foice deveIopnenls, lul liends duiing lhe Hu
eia and lhe connenls of senioi nissiIe foice ofhceis
piolalIy offei a ieasonalIe guide lo undeislanding
ILASAIs IikeIy diieclion undei Xis Ieadeiship. Ac-
coiding lo foinei Second AiliIIeiy Connandei }ing
Zhiyuan, fuluie deveIopnenls acioss lhe nissiIe foice
viII incIude inpiovenenls in ISR, aliIily lo peneliale
nissiIe defenses, desliucliveness, suivivaliIily and
pioleclion, piecision sliike, and iapid ieaclion capa-
liIilies.
135
As foi fuluie nucIeai nissiIe foice deveIop-
nenls, China is aII lul ceilain lo depIoy lhe foices il
peiceives as iequiied lo ensuie il viII have an assuied
337
ielaIialion capaliIily. }ing viiles lhal Chinas Iiniled
deveIopnenl of nucIeai veapons viII nol conpele in
quanlily vilh lhe nucIeai supeipoveis. Inslead, he
viiles, eijing inlends lo nainlain lhe Iovesl IeveI of
nucIeai veapons lhal is sufhcienl foi lhe ILASAI lo
guaid lhe nalionaI secuiily. NonelheIess, lhis is IikeIy
lo enlaiI consideialIe fuilhei giovlh in lhe size of
Chinas nucIeai nissiIe foice. Accoiding lo DIA, Chi-
nas slialegic nissiIe foice . . . cuiienlIy has fevei lhan
5O ICMs lhal can sliike lhe conlinenlaI Uniled Slales,
lul il piolalIy viII noie lhan doulIe lhal nunlei ly
2O25.
136

Tovaid lhis end, accoiding lo DoD, China nay
aIso le deveIoping a nev ioad noliIe ICM, possilIy
capalIe of caiiying a nuIlipIe independenlIy laigeled
ie-enliy vehicIes (MIRV).
137
This slalenenl foIIoved
nany yeais of specuIalion aloul possilIe foIIov-on
ICM syslens. Runois aloul a possilIe DI-41 ICM
piogian have leen in ciicuIalion foi veII ovei a de-
cade,
138
and pholos of a Iaige, eighl-axIe lianspoilei
eiecloi Iaunchei (TLL) lhal appeaied on lhe Inleinel
in 2OO7 have conliiluled lo ieneved discussion aloul
nev ioad noliIe ICMs.
139

Wilh iegaid lo lhe conlinued nodeinizalion of lhe
convenlionaI nissiIe foice, ILASAI appeais poised lo
conlinue exlending lhe povei and ieach of ils conven-
lionaI piecision sliike capaliIilies. Accoiding lo Maik
Slokes, aflei lhe depIoynenl of lhe DI-21D, lhe Iogi-
caI nexl slep foi China vouId le lo deveIop a Iongei-
iange ASM, capalIe of lhiealening U.S. aiiciafl cai-
iieis oul lo a dislance of al Ieasl 3,OOO kn, possilIy ly
lhe end of lhe 12lh Iive Yeai IIan in 2O15.
14O
Anolhei
possiliIily is lhal eijing nighl choose lo puisue nev
Iongei-iange convenlionaI sliike nissions and ca-
paliIilies foi Second AiliIIeiy.
141
SpecihcaIIy, fuluie
338
deveIopnenls nay incIude fuilhei expansion of ils
convenlionaI MRM foice and possilIy convenlionaI
IRMs. Accoiding lo lhe 2O11 DoD iepoil on Chi-
nese niIilaiy deveIopnenls, Chinas laIIislic nissiIe
foice is acquiiing convenlionaI nediun-iange and
inleinediale-iange laIIislic nissiIes lhal exlend lhe
dislance al vhich il can lhiealen olhei counliies vilh
convenlionaI piecision oi neai-piecision sliikes.
142

Moieovei, accoiding lo a Chinese nedia iepoil, Chi-
na is deveIoping an inleinediale-iange convenlionaI
nissiIe vilh a iange of aloul 4,OOO kn. The nissiIe,
vhich is iepoiledIy scheduIed foi depIoynenl in 2O15,
vouId enalIe Second AiliIIeiy lo Iaunch convenlionaI
sliikes againsl laigels as fai avay as Cuan.
143

AIlhough il is possilIe lo skelch lhe oulIines of
sone polenliaI deveIopnenls ovei lhe nexl decade,
a nunlei of inpoilanl queslions aloul Second AiliI-
Ieiys fuluie ienain unansveied: Whal nev nucIeai
and convenlionaI nissiIe capaliIilies viII Second
AiliIIeiy depIoy duiing lhe Xi }inping eia` WiII Sec-
ond AiliIIeiy acquiie nev nissions, such as offensive
counleispace opeialions` Hov viII slialegy and doc-
liine evoIve as ILASAI capaliIilies conlinue lo in-
piove and lhe nissiIe foice polenliaIIy lakes on nev
iesponsiliIilies`
(@+(A)!'@+ $+* 'D>A'($"'@+!
In lhe Hu }inlao eia, Second AiliIIeiy nade in-
piessive sliides in lhe deveIopnenl of ils nucIeai
deleiience and convenlionaI sliike capaliIilies. The
depIoynenl of sulslanliaI nunleis of ioad noliIe
ICMs is giving China lhe assuied ielaIialion capaliI-
ily il has Iong soughl foi ils gioving, lul sliII ieIaliveIy
snaII nucIeai nissiIe foice. The expansion and divei-
339
sihcalion of ILASAIs convenlionaI nissiIe foice has
giealIy enhanced Chinas convenlionaI deleiience,
coeicive dipIonacy, and iegionaI piecision sliike
capaliIilies. Iuilheinoie, Second AiliIIeiys inslilu-
lionaI slaluie appeais lo have incieased aIong vilh
lhese foice nodeinizalion deveIopnenls, as ieecled
ly lhe cenliaI ioIe ILASAI has leen assigned in ILA
joinl canpaigns and lhe eIevalion of Second AiliI-
Ieiys Connandei lo nenleiship in lhe CMC. Ovei
lhe nexl 1O yeais, China can le expecled lo conlinue
lo slienglhen ILASAIs nucIeai nissiIe foice, vhich
viII ienain lhe nosl inpoilanl eIenenl of Chinas
nucIeai deleiienl posluie, even aflei lhe anlicipaled
inlioduclion of Type O94 nucIeai-poveied laIIislic
nissiIe sulnaiines and }L-2 SLMs inlo lhe ILANs
invenloiy. Ieihaps lhe nosl inpoilanl deveIopnenl
in lhis iegaid couId le lhe depIoynenl of MIRVed
ioad-noliIe ICMs. China can aIso le expecled lo fui-
lhei enhance ILASAIs convenlionaI piecision sliike
capaliIilies vilh upgiaded SRMs, MRMs, and AS-
Ms. In addilion, il nay add sone Iongei-iange con-
venlionaI nissiIe syslens lo ils invenloiy.
The deveIopnenl of Chinese nucIeai and conven-
lionaI nissiIe capaliIilies has inpIicalions in a nun-
lei of aieas. Iiisl, even lhough China does nol seen lo
le inleiesled in seeking paiily vilh lhe nucIeai supei-
poveis, Chinas gioving nucIeai aisenaI viII nake il
a noie inpoilanl consideialion in discussions aloul
fuluie nucIeai ains conlioI agieenenls. Chinas inle-
gialion inlo lhe gIolaI nucIeai ieduclion piocess lhal
Iiesidenl aiack Olana oulIined in his 2OO9 Iiague
speech viII evenluaIIy le iequiied lo nove lovaid lhe
Iong-lein goaI of a voiId fiee of nucIeai veapons.
144

eijing is veII avaie of lhe possiliIily lhal China viII
face giealei piessuie as a iesuIl. Teng }ianqun of lhe
34O
China Inslilule of InleinalionaI Sludies, foi exanpIe,
sees Washinglons appioach as sliII focused nainIy on
Russia al piesenl, lul noles lhal as liIaleiaI disaina-
nenl piogiesses, lhe U.S. viII ceilainIy pay incieas-
ing allenlion lo Chinas ains conlioI poIicies.
145
ul
China is cIeaiIy fai fion eagei lo le diavn inlo lhe
piocess, especiaIIy given lhe asynneliy in lhe size
of Chinas nucIeai aisenaI conpaied lo lhose of lhe
Uniled Slales and Russia.
146
Il shouId le noled, hov-
evei, lhal China has nol specihed exaclIy vhal nun-
lei vouId conslilule an appiopiiale IeveI, suggesling
lhal eijing viII ienain ieIuclanl lo enlei inlo such
negolialions. NonelheIess, ovei line, diaIogue on
lhese issues couId heIp Iay lhe gioundvoik foi fuluie
Chinese pailicipalion in nuIliIaleiaI ains conlioI
discussions.
Second, chaIIenges foi escaIalion nanagenenl lhal
aiise fion ILASAI capaliIilies and docliine viII aIso
neiil consideialion. Taken logelhei, nucIeai and con-
venlionaI nissiIe foice deveIopnenls, especiaIIy sone
of Chinas lhinking vilh iespecl lo using lhe nissiIe
foice lo conducl deleiience opeialions lo send signaIs
ained al inuencing an adveisaiy, aIso iaise lhe pos-
siliIily of niscaIcuIalion oi inadveilenl escaIalion in a
ciisis oi conicl scenaiio. MiscaIcuIalion in lhe nidsl
of a ciisis is a pailicuIaiIy lioulIing possiliIily, one
lhal couId le heighlened ly unceilainly ovei lhe nes-
sage lhal one side is liying lo convey lo lhe olhei oi ly
oveiconhdence in lhe aliIily lo conlioI escaIalion. The
nosl seiious concein is lhal sone of lhe signaIing ac-
livilies desciiled in Chinese pulIicalions couId easiIy
le inleipieled nol as a denonslialion of iesoIve oi as
a vaining, lul as piepaialion lo conducl acluaI nucIe-
ai nissiIe sliikes, possilIy decieasing ciisis slaliIily
oi even liiggeiing escaIalion ialhei lhan slienglhen-
341
ing deleiience. Indeed, sone Chinese souices conlain
iefeiences lhal iaise lioulIing queslions aloul polen-
liaI niscaIcuIalions lhal couId iesuIl fion allenpls
lo inciease lhe inlensily of deleiience duiing a ciisis
oi in lhe nidsl of a convenlionaI conicl.
147
AIlhough
Chinese aulhois appeai lo denonsliale al Ieasl sone
avaieness of lhe dangei lhal aclions inlended lo delei
an adveisaiy couId inslead liiggei escaIalion, lhe dis-
cussions of lhese iisks in lhe ieIevanl pulIicalions aie
quile Iiniled.
148
One possiliIily is lhal such issues aie
loo sensilive lo le addiessed in giealei delaiI in lhese
pulIicalions. On lhe vhoIe, hovevei, lhe avaiIalIe
souices suggesl lhal Chinese lhinking aloul lhe iisks
of specihc aclions nay le ialhei undeideveIoped,
vhich in luin couId nake allenpls al escaIalion nan-
agenenl in a U.S.-China ciisis oi conicl exlieneIy
chaIIenging and polenliaIIy veiy dangeious foi lolh
pailies. Slialegic diaIogue on lhese issues couId heIp
niligale escaIalion iisks.
IinaIIy, ILASAI foice sliucluie inpiovenenls,
enhanced capaliIilies foi lhe enpIoynenl of nissiIe
foice unils in joinl canpaigns, and ieIaled docliinaI
deveIopnenls cIeaiIy pose seiious laclicaI, opeia-
lionaI, and slialegic chaIIenges foi lhe Uniled Slales
and ils fiiends and aIIies in lhe iegion. The liends lhal
have laken shape duiing lhe Hu eia suggesl Second
AiliIIeiy is IikeIy lo nake fuilhei inpiovenenls in
lhese aieas undei lhe nev Ieadeiship. AIong vilh
Chinas gioving aii, navaI, space and counleispace,
and infoinalion and eIeclionic vaifaie capaliIilies,
lhe conlinuing nodeinizalion of ILASAIs nucIeai
and convenlionaI nissiIe foices viII IikeIy iequiie
sulslanliaI changes in lhe U.S. niIilaiys opeialionaI
concepls and capaliIilies. SpecihcaIIy, il viII piolalIy
necessilale changes in Aneiicas liadilionaI appioach
342
lo deleiience and assuiance of U.S. aIIies and secuiily
pailneis, vhich has Iong ieIied heaviIy on iegionaI
niIilaiy lases and foivaid depIoyed foices such as
Iand-lased laclicaI aiiciafl and U.S. Navy aiiciafl cai-
iiei sliike gioups.
%+*+@"%! R (?$>"%# f
1. Annua| Rcpcr| cn |nc Mi|i|arq Pcucr cf |nc Pccp|cs Rcpuo-
|ic cf Cnina, 2002, Washinglon, DC: Depailnenl of Defense,
2OO2, pp. 2-3.
2. .B),., pp. 2-3.
3. Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2008, eijing, China: Slale Coun-
ciI Infoinalion Ofhce, }anuaiy 2OO9, avaiIalIe fion !!!"'/(2)-6"
gct.cn/cfjcia|/2009-01/20/ccn|cn|_1210227.n|n"
4. .B),.
5. IeopIes Lileialion Ainy Second AiliIIeiy Ioice (];
[j]|), ]|,) (#*)'/*' 4H #'*4/, >%$)22'%1
@&0A&)(/- |SSACj), j;: j[, 2OO4, eijing, China: ILA
Iiess, 2OO4, p. 138.
6. .B),., p. 138.
7. }ing Zhiyuan and Ieng Xiaofeng, {) (Rid-
ing on lhe Tide, Shaipening lhe Svoid, and Ciealing CIoiy),
+|. [+[)jj[]| (L24%)4+- D%&X
|cc|ing 8ac| cn Scccnd Ar|i||crqs Dctc|cpncn| and Adtanccs in |nc
Pcricd cf Rcfcrn and Opcning), eijing, China: Zhongyang Wenx-
ian IulIishing, 2OO8, pp. 1-22.
8. .B),.
9. ]|;)^,|],_ ]j,]|[
]4 ({ (2nd AiliIIeiy 'Thousand Ieison 1OO VehicIe
High-Speed NalionaI Lailhquake Disaslei Rescue Tean Saves
Ioui Suivivois), j| (P|A Dai|q), ApiiI 16, 2O1O.
343
1O. }ing and Ieng, Riding on lhe Tide.
11. .B),.
12. .B),.
13. .B),.
14. .B),.
15. .B),.
16. SSAC, p. 138.
17. See lhe poslsciipl in SSAC foi conhinalion lhal lhe look
is lased on lhe Second AiliIIeiy Canpaigns (&/(1&4 and }oinl
Canpaigns (&/(&14, lolh of vhich veie issued in 1999.
18. Yu }ixun, ,|[,[[,]
j (The Innovalive DeveIopnenl of Conlal Opeialions The-
oiies of lhe Slialegic MissiIe Ioice al lhe Nev Slage and in lhe
Nev Cenluiy), +|. [+[)jj[]
| (CIoiious Lia), pp. 441-446.
19. On lhe dislinclions lelveen deleiience and conpeIIence,
see Thonas C. ScheIIing, Arns and |nucncc, Nev Haven, CT:
YaIe, 1966, pp. 69-78.
2O. Li in, Chinas NucIeai Slialegy, piesenlalion al Cain-
egie InleinalionaI NonpioIifeialion Confeience, Washinglon, DC,
}une 25-26, 2OO7, avaiIalIe fion uuu.carncgiccndcuncn|.crg/j|cs/
,'$'%R,)-&%0R2)"A,H.
21. SSAC, p. 27O.
22. .B),.
23. Zhao Xijun, ],--|];], (|n|inida|icn larfarc. A
@40A%'6'/-)G' ?)-*+--)4/ 4H ;)--)2' ?'$'%%'/*'), eijing, China: Na-
lionaI Defense Univeisily Iiess, May 2OO5, p. 114.
344
24. SSAC, p. 271.
25. .B),., p. 271.
26. .B),., pp. 277-278.
27. .B),., p. 278, |n|inida|icn larfarc, p. 8O.
28. SSAC, pp. 271-274.
29. .B),., pp. 281-296, see aIso |n|inida|icn larfarc, p. 34.
3O. See SSAC, p. 289.
31. .B),., pp. 289-29O.
32. .B),., p. 282.
33. .B),., p. 283.
34. .B),., pp. 292-293.
35. .B),., p. 294.
36. .B),. , p. 18.
37. .B),., p. 36.
38. Zhang YuIang, ed., , (#*)'/*' 4H @&0A&)(/- |SOCj),
eijing, China: NalionaI Defense Univeisily Iiess, 2OO6,
pp. 616-628.
39. SSAC, p. 42.
4O. .B),., pp. 46-47.
41. .B),., pp. 45-46.
42. .B),., p. 41.
43. SOC (2OO6), p. 617.
345
44. SSAC, p. 317.
45. .B),., p. 317.
46. .B),., p. 318.
47. .B),., pp. 318-322.
48. SOC (2OO6), p. 293.
49. .B),., p. 294.
5O. .B),., p. 296.
51. .B),., pp. 276-292.
52. Wayne A. UInan, Chinas MiIilaiy Avialion Ioices,
Andiev S. Liickson and LyIe }. CoIdslein, eds., @6)/'-' >'%4-A&*'
E4!'%= DG42G)/( ;&%)$)0' C42'-, AnnapoIis, MD: NavaI Inslilule
Iiess, 2O11, p. 42.
53. Ioi noie on lhe joinl lIockade canpaign, see SOC (2OO6),
pp. 276-292.
54. .B),., p. 312.
55. .B),., pp. 312-33O.
56. .B),., p. 312.
57. SSAC, p. 139.
58. .B),., pp. 9O-91.
59. .B),., pp. 9O-91.
6O. |n|inida|icn larfarc, p. 9O.
61. SSAC, pp. 4O-41.
62. SOC (2OO6), pp. 616-628
346
63. Ioi lhe piecise voiding of lhe olhei dehnilions, see SSAC,
p. 297, and Xue XingIin, ed., ,|] (@&0A&)(/ 56'4%1
#$+,1 L+),' |CTSCj), eijing, China: NalionaI Defense Univeisily
Iiess, 2OO1, p. 384.
64. See CTSC, and SOC (2OO6).
65. SSAC, p. 297.
66. CTSC, p. 384.
67. CTSC, pp. 384-385.
68. SSAC, p. 298.
69. CTSC, pp. 385-386.
7O. SSAC , p. 298.
71. .B),., pp. 298-299.
72. Melhods of pioleclion Iisled in SSAC incIude inpioving
eaiIy vaining syslens, ensuiing appiopiiale dispeisaI of posi-
lions, haidening nissiIe siIos, sloiage faciIilies, and connand
cenleis, enpIoying aii defense, giound defense, and eIeclionic
vaifaie capaliIilies, and enphasizing conceaInenl and canou-
age lo hide lhe aclivilies of nissiIe foice unils.
73. SSAC, p. 3OO.
74. SOC (2OO6), p. 46.
75. SSAC, p. 3OO.
76. .B),., p. 3OO.
77. CTSC, pp. 386-387.
78. SSAC, p. 3O3.
79. .B),., p. 3O4.
347
8O. .B),., p. 3O4.
81. }ing and Ieng, Riding on lhe Tide.
82. .B),.
83. }ing Zhiyuan, |]||,[[|;
|])[ (Ciealing a Lean and Lffeclive Slialegic
MissiIe Tioop Conliiluling lo InleinalionaI NucIeai Secuiily),
][ (@6)/& >%0', F4%*'-), No. 6, 2O1O, pp. 4-5 (Chinese),
pp. 6-7 (LngIish).
84. Lieulenanl CeneiaI RonaId L. uigess, }i., AnnuaI Thieal
Assessnenl, Slalenenl efoie lhe Senale Ained Seivices Con-
nillee, Uniled Slales Senale, Ieliuaiy 16, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.dia.ni|/puo|ic-affairs/|cs|incnics/2012-02-16.n|n|.
85. uigess, AnnuaI Thieal Assessnenl.
86. 8a||is|ic and Cruisc Missi|c Tnrca|, NASIC-1O31-O985-O9,
Wiighl-Ialleison Aii Ioice ase, OH: NalionaI Aii and Space In-
leIIigence Cenlei, ApiiI 2OO9, p. 14.
87. .B),., p. 17.
88. .B),., p. 21.
89.Annua| Rcpcr| cn |nc Mi|i|arq Pcucr cf |nc Pccp|cs Rcpuo|ic cf
@6)/&, 2009, Washinglon, DC: Depailnenl of Defense, 2OO9, p. 66.
9O. 8a||is|ic and Cruisc Missi|c Tnrca|, p. 17.
91. .B),., p. 21.
92. uigess, AnnuaI Thieal Assessnenl.
93. Roleil D. WaIpoIe, 'Slalenenl foi lhe Recoid lo lhe Senale
Sulconnillee on InleinalionaI Secuiily, IioIifeialion, and Ied-
eiaI Seivices on lhe aIIislic MissiIe Thieal lo lhe Uniled Slales,
Ieliuaiy 9, 2OOO, Washinglon, DC, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*)&"(4G3
ncus-infcrna|icn/spcccncs|cs|incnq/2000/nic_spcccn_020900.n|n|4.
348
94. Annua| Rcpcr| cn |nc Mi|i|arq Pcucr cf |nc Pccp|cs Rcpuo|ic
cf Cnina, 2009, p. 24.
95. 8a||is|ic and Cruisc Missi|c Tnrca|, p. 21.
96. Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2010, eijing, China: Slale
CounciI Infoinalion Ofhce, 2O1O.
97. Mi|i|arq and Sccuri|q Dctc|cpncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs
Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina 2012, Washinglon, DC: Depailnenl of
Defense, p. 23.
98. .B),.
99. RusseII Hsiao, Taivans InleIIigence Chief Wains aloul
lhe ILAs Cioving Slialegic Weapon Syslens, Cnina 8ricf, VoI.
11, No. 5, Maich 25, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion !!!"M&0'-$4!/"4%(3A%4-
(%&0-3*6)/&B%)'H3.
1OO. Zhang Han and Huang }ingjing, Nev MissiIe 'Ready
ly 2O15, L24B&2 5)0'-, Ieliuaiy 18, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion 0)2)$&%1"
g|coa||incs.cn/cnina/2011-02/624275.n|n|.
1O1. ;)2)$&%1 &/, #'*+%)$1 ?'G'24A0'/$- ./G42G)/( $6' E'4-
p|cs Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina, 2011, Washinglon, DC: Depailnenl of
Defense, p. 3O.
1O2. ;)2)$&%1 &/, #'*+%)$1 ?'G'24A0'/$- ./G42G)/( $6' E'4-
p|cs Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina, 2010, Washinglon, DC: Depailnenl of
Defense, p. 66.
1O3. 8a||is|ic and Cruisc Missi|c Tnrca|, p. 13.
1O4. Mi|i|arq and Sccuri|q Dctc|cpncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs
Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina, 2010, p. 66.
1O5. .B),., p. 31.
1O6. Mi|i|arq and Sccuri|q Dctc|cpncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs
Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina, 2011, p. 3O.
1O7. 8a||is|ic and Cruisc Missi|c Tnrca|, p. 14.
349
1O8. .B),., p. 17.
1O9. Mi|i|arq and Sccuri|q Dctc|cpncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs
Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina, 2010, p. 2.
11O. NalionaI Defense Repoil LdiloiiaI oaid, T[[)
+[|, (RepulIic of China CenlenniaI 2O11 NalionaI De-
fense Repoil), Taipei, Taivan: Minisliy of Defense, 2O11, p. 6O.
111. .B),., p. 29.
112. Mi|i|arq and Sccuri|q Dctc|cpncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs
Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina, 2012, p. 29.
113. Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc in 2010.
114. Wei Ienghe, |)(P (Oui Mission is Weighliei
lhan Tai Shan), +|. [+[)jj[]
| (L24%)4+- D%&), pp. 493-5OO.
115. Zhang Xiang, ]|jj| (Hisloiy of
lhe Infoinalizalion DeveIopnenl of Second AiliIIeiy), +
|. [+[)jj[]| (L24%)4+- D%&), pp.
528-538.
116. Wei, Oui Mission is Weighliei lhan Tai Shan, Oui
SliuggIe Achieves LxceIIence.
117. .B),.
118. Chang Sheng and He Tianjin, j)j),
j)|(, (ase Sleps Up LeveI-ly-LeveI Inlegial-
ed Tiaining, oosls Coie MiIilaiy CapaliIilies), ,|| (C4*I'$
F4%*' 9'!-), }une 21, 2O1O, p. 2.
119. Ding Haining and Liang Iengfei, ],[[]
||t]| 4 j{),|(
| '|((Ioui Second AiliIIeiy MissiIe iigades in }oinl Tiain-
ing Conducl Live Launches, Hil Taigels LxaclIy), j| (P|A
?&)21), }uIy 17, 2OO9, p. 5.
35O
12O. j[)||]j||`|||
] (Chengdu MiIilaiy Region Headquaileis Iionoles
Sludy of Inlegialed Connand IIalfoin lo Advance lhe RevoIu-
lion in Connand), j| (P|A Dai|q), Decenlei 14, 2O11.
121. }ing Zhiyuan and Zhang Haiyang, ]|O+
),) (MoliIizalion Oidei foi Second AiliIIeiys Mi-
Iilaiy Tiaining in 2O11), ,|| (C4*I'$ F4%*' 9'!-), }anuaiy 1,
2O11, p. 1.
122. Xu ChangIei, Chen Leixiang, and Li Yongfei, j(
),|, ||], (A Ceilain iigade Takes Ain
al Tiansfoinalion of Tiaining, Sels Up Nev Opposing Ioice Tiai-
ning Lxeicise Suljecls), ,|| (C4*I'$ F4%*' 9'!-), Ieliuaiy
19, 2O11, p. 2.
123. Yu }uncheng, [|Hj (Tenpoiaiy
Launch Iad LslalIished InnedialeIy), ,|| (C4*I'$ F4%*'
Ncus), May 2O, 2OO6, p. 1.
124. Liang Iengfei and Liu Cang, )t]|j
[,)j, (CIicking on lhe Keyvoids of a Ceilain Second
AiliIIeiy ases Cioss-Region IieId Tiaining), j| (P|A
?&)21), Augusl 15, 2O12.
125. Ma Zhonglo, ), ] (AII-
IeisonneI, AII-Lquipnenl, and AII-LIenenl Lxeicise InvoIving
MuIlipIe Appioaches, Diieclions, and Suljecls), ,|| (C4I-
I'$ F4%*' 9'!-), Augusl 1, 2OO6, p. 2.
126. Yan Xifei, Tang Licheng, and Zhang }iangang, ',+
| (Iue Ioice in Aclion), ,|| (C4*I'$ F4%*' 9'!-), }une
11, 2O1O, p. 4.
127. Wang Tie and Wu Yanling, |!|
].][}] (AII-Ainy Canouage Spe-
ciaIly Cioup Depuly Head Wang Xiangvei: My Iiofession Is
'Iiaud and Deceplion), ],+ (Cnina Ycu|n), Oclolei 1,
2OO3, pp. 24-26.
128. }ing and Zhang, MoliIizalion Oidei foi Second
AiliIIeiys MiIilaiy Tiaining in 2O11.
351
129. See, foi exanpIe, Yue XiaoIin, Li Iunin, and Yu Xihong,
j|(,|;)[|(j: ||` ]||
(A Ceilain ase Lxeils Woiks Tovaid Slienglhening
lhe Coie Iunclion of Coie allIe Iosilion IeisonneI: AdniialIe
Conpelilion on Tvo Connandeis, One Opeialoi Lxeicise
Ciound), ,|| (C4*I'$ F4%*' 9'!-), }uIy 31, 2O1O, p. 2.
13O. Zhang Ligang, He Tianjin, and Kang Iashun, ]
),,+j) (Second AiliIIeiy MiIilaiy Tiain-
ing Confeience HeId al a Ceilain ase), ,|| (C4*I'$ F4%*'
9'!-), Augusl 15, 2OO6, p. 1.
131. }ing and Ieng, Riding on lhe Tide.
132. .B),.
133. Liang Iengfei and Cai Ruijin, ]|j)P,
[[]^[[[|, |]|t |)
(Second AiliIIeiy has ConpIeled a Conpiehensive Tiansfoina-
lion fion a 'Ioice in Mounlain VaIIeys lo a 'Ioice on WheeIs,
and il has CiealIy Incieased ils Iiecision Sliike CapaliIily), j
| (P|A Dai|q), Augusl 27, 2O12.
134. See Xi }inping CaIIs foi IoveifuI MissiIe Ioice, J)/6+&,
Decenlei 5, 2O12, and Wei Ienghe and Zhang Haiyang,
|[],[[ (DiIIigenlIy uiId a IoveifuI,
Infoinalized Slialegic MissiIe Ioice), ;[| (Pccp|cs Dai|q),
Decenlei 13, 2O12.
135. }ing, Ciealing a Lean and Lffeclive Slialegic MissiIe
Tioop.
136. uigess, AnnuaI Thieal Assessnenl.
137. Mi|i|arq and Sccuri|q Dctc|cpncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs
Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina 2010, p. 2.
138. IaneIa Iun, 'Lxpeils: DI-41 CouId Ioice US lo Adjusl ils
Slialegy, :4/( V4/( #$&/,&%,, Oclolei 15, 1999, p. 6.
352
139. Seynoui }ohnson, Sighling of Road MoliIe Chinese
ICM Lneiges, ]ancs Missi|cs and Rcc|c|s, May 16, 2OO7, avaiIalIe
fion ar|ic|cs.jancs.ccn/ar|ic|cs/]ancs-Missi|cs-And-Rcc|c|s-2007/
Sign|ing-cf-rcad-ncoi|c-Cnincsc-|C8M-cncrgcs.n|n|. See aIso Rich-
aid D. Iishei }i., Red AIeil~China Modeinizes ils NucIeai Mis-
siIe Ioice, ]ancs |n|c||igcncc Rcticu, May 14, 2OO9, and Richaid
D. Iishei }i., Tvo Cheeis foi lhe 2OO7 ILA Repoil, }une 2O,
2OO7, avaiIalIe fion uuu.s|ra|cgqccn|cr.nc|/rcscarcn/puo|D.162/
A+BR,'$&)2"&-A.
14O. Maik Slokes, @6)/& DG42G)/( @4/G'/$)4/&2 #$%&$'()* #$%)I'
Capaoi|i|q. Tnc An|i-Snip 8a||is|ic Missi|c Cna||cngc |c U.S. Mari|inc
Opcra|icns in |nc lcs|crn Pacijc and 8cqcnd, Iiojecl 2O49 Inslilule,
Seplenlei 14, 2OO9, p. 2.
141. }anes C. MuIvenon, Muiiay Scol Tannei, MichaeI S.
Chase, David IieIingei, David C. Conpeil, Mailin C. Lilicki, and
Kevin L. IoIIpelei, @6)/'-' C'-A4/-'- $4 K"#" ;)2)$&%1 5%&/-H4%0&-
$)4/ &/, .0A2)*&$)4/- H4% $6' ?'A&%$0'/$ 4H ?'H'/-', Sanla Monica,
CA: RAND, 2OO6, p. 95. See aIso Slokes, @6)/& DG42G)/( @4/G'/-
$)4/&2 #$%&$'()* #$%)I' @&A&B)2)$1, Iiojecl 2O49 Inslilule.
142. Mi|i|arq and Sccuri|q Dctc|cpncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs
Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina, 2011 Washinglon, DC: Depailnenl of Defense,
2O11, p. 33.
143. Zhang Han and Huang }ingjing, Nev MissiIe 'Ready ly
2O15. AIlhough lhe iepoil did nol specify lhe nissiIes nission,
il quoled an unnaned niIilaiy souice as slaling lhal lhe piojecl
exlends lhe iange of Chinas nissiIes and viII lheiefoie giealIy
enhance lhe nalionaI defense capaliIilies.
144. The 2O1O 9+*2'&% E4-$+%' C'G)'! ieecls lhis chaIIenge,
slaling, ovei line lhe Uniled Slales viII aIso engage vilh olh-
ei nucIeai veapon slales, incIuding China, on vays lo expand
lhe nucIeai ieduclion piocess in lhe fuluie. See 9+*2'&% E4-$+%'
C'G)'! C'A4%$, Washinglon, DC: Depailnenl of Defense, ApiiI
2O1O, p. 12.
145. Teng }ianqun, Chinas Ieispeclives on NucIeai Delei-
ience and Disainanenl, MaIcoIn ChaIneis, Andiev Sonei-
viIIe and Andiea eigei, eds., #0&22 9+*2'&% F4%*'-= F)G' E'%-A'*-
353
$)G'-, WhilehaII Repoil 3-11, London, UK: RoyaI Uniled Seivices
Inslilule, Decenlei 2O11, p. 5O.
146. .B),.
147. Zhao, |n|inida|icn larfarc, p. 185.
148. .B),., p. 35.
355
(?$>"%# b
S;?@ ($#%! 'O E@)B\% C%%+ '+ $ ;$#PT
\%"%#$+ $("'\'!DX !"$"% #%>#%!!'@+X
$+* ('\'ARD'A'"$#E #%A$"'@+!
'+ ?)R%#$ (?'+$
+/1= F8 *1.9.7,
D$'+ $#&)D%+"
ReIying nainIy on lIog posls and niIilaiy vel-
siles, lhis chaplei exanines piolesling, pelilioning,
and olhei foins of aclivisn anong IeopIes Lileia-
lion Ainy (ILA) veleians, and lhe fiequenl iepies-
sion of lhese piolesls, as an inpoilanl vay of gauging
lhe sociaI, poIilicaI, and cuIluiaI slalus of lhe niIilaiy
duiing lhe Hu }inlao eia.
Looking lo nove leyond piopagandislic inages of
heioic soIdieis in lhe ofhciaI nedia, I hnd lhal, ovei-
aII, nany ILA veleians have had difhcuIly adjusling
lo lhe nassive changes in lhe iefoin peiiod, nany of
lhen hnding lhenseIves in a piecaiious posilion in
lhe slale and sociely. The chaplei fuilhei aigues lhal
veleians, incIuding ofhceis, aie 7<, a vialIe lhieal lo
lhe iegine nainIy on accounl of lheii oId age, physi-
caI piolIens, Iack of Iaige scaIe oiganizalion, and de-
pendence on lhe slale. Iuilhei nodeinizalion of lhe
ILA on lhe lasis of foice ieduclion is 47H-<W=/9.,12,
given lhe iesouices lhe Chinese Connunisl Iaily
(CCI) has invesled in doneslic secuiily unils.
356
>@A'(E 'D>A'($"'@+!
- When olseiving paliiolic oi nalionaIislic pio-
lesls in China, lhe Uniled Slales vouId do veII
lo avoid oveieslinaling lhe Chinese pulIics
suppoil foi lhe ILA, oi conicl. AIlhough
lheie is a popuIai eIenenl in lhese aclivilies,
lheie aIso is a signihcanl degiee of slale oi-
cheslialion lhal is inlended lo gain Ieveiage in
negolialions.
- The Chinese pulIics suppoil foi lhe ILA is nol
ieexive oi lIind, in facl, nany oppose niIilaiy
lenehls and iefuse lo considei niIilaiy seivice
lhenseIves. If lheie aie signihcanl cosls lo a
niIilaiy exchange~inpacling liade, enpIoy-
nenl, slaliIily, inveslnenl, and liaveI oppoi-
lunilies~lhe Chinese pulIic viII 7<, suppoil
il. The Uniled Slales shouId ienind China of
lhese polenliaI cosls in a vaiiely of foia.
- In eveiy poIicy aiena, Chinese poIicynaking
nusl le concepluaIized lhiough lhe piisn of
fiagnenlalion, decenliaIizalion, conpelilion
lelveen faclions, and uncIeai Iines of aulhoi-
ily~veiy nuch conliaiy lo lhe inage pie-
senled ly lhe IeopIes RepulIic of China (IRC)
goveinnenl lo lhe voiId al Iaige. The ILA, il
foIIovs, is lul one inslilulion vying foi povei,
iesouices, and pieslige. When consideiing lhe
possiliIily of a aie-up in lhe Soulh China Sea,
lhe inleiesls of nuIlipIe nonniIilaiy agencies
nusl le evaIualed as veII.
357
'+"#@*)("'@+
On Maich 18, 2O1O, Xu Lingjun), a dis-
alIed ILA veleian, slaived lo dealh vhiIe in a LegaI
Tiaining Cenlei,]))(), noie accuialeIy
desciiled as a goveinnenl delenlion cenlei foi liou-
lIesone pelilioneis. Accoiding lo lhe invesligalions
Iaunched ly iepoileis fion seveiaI nevspapeis in lhe
afleinalh of Xus dealh, as veII as in Inleinel poslings
on veleian velsiles (o|cg.ocxun.ccn/ncrc/tcicccftc|cran
and !!!"M+/6+/!"*/), Xu vas loin in 1964, joined
lhe ILA aflei niddIe schooI, and vas injuied dui-
ing his seivice. Senl lo a facloiy pioducing spiiils in
1988, he Iosl his jol in lhe 199Os as a iesuIl of facloiy
iefoins, despile CiviI Affaiis IiefeienliaI Tiealnenl
|jieguIalions lhal veie supposed lo piolecl
lhe jols of disalIed veleians. Iacloiy ofhciaIs aIIeg-
edIy said, The facloiys leen piivalized, so nolhing
can le done aloul il. UnviIIing lo keep quiel aloul
lhe nallei, and piolalIy in despeiale hnanciaI sliails,
Xu legan pelilioning in 2OO5, nosl IikeIy encouiaged
ly piopaganda pionoling a faiiei shake foi Chinas
iuiaI aieas. Nol ieceiving any assislance secuiing his
jol, he conlinued lo visil lhe cenliaI aulhoiilies, lhus
acquiiing a iepulalion as a lioulIenakei (j,{) in
lhe counly goveinnenl. y 2OO8, in a nove ieecling
lhe noie conseivalive lenoi of lhe Hu eia, lhe counly
eslalIished ils IegaI liaining cenlei foi pelilioneis.
Slaffed ly six ofhciaIs assigned fion lhe IulIic Secu-
iily uieau, IoIilicaI-LegaI Connillee, Couil, and lhe
Lelleis and Visils uieau, lhe liaining cenleis nain
lask vas lo pievenl pelilioning in lhe hisl pIace, as
veII as lo delain pelilioneis foi 3-8 nonlhs (vilhoul
foinaI aiiesl), duiing vhich line lhey veie lo ieceive
insliuclion in lhe Slale CounciI ReguIalions foi Ieli-
358
lioning, noiaI educalion, and niIilaiy-slyIe diiIIing.
In 2OO9, vhen Xu venl lo eijing yel again, lhe coun-
ly~vhich suieIy had hin undei suiveiIIance, dis-
palched ofhciaIs lo lhe capilaI lo liing hin lack. Ac-
coiding lo his liolhei, Xu Lingjun, vho aIso seived in
lhe ILA and vas aIso aiiesled foi pelilioning, Xu vas
onIy given lvo neaIs a day, and onIy pIain noodIes
foi dinnei and Iiniled diinking valei. When he gol
inlo a hghl vilh anolhei delainee, he vas punished ly
leing denied food. y Iale-2OO9 and eaiIy-2O1O, he had
a leaid, Iooked haggaid, diily, and lhin~nol al aII
Iike a soIdiei, accoiding lo his liolhei. In Maich, he
died. Aflei his dealh his disliaughl faniIy venl lo lhe
IocaI piocuialoi and couil lo hIe suil, lul lhe case vas
nevei accepled. His liolhei liied lo foIIov up in Xian
and eijing. IiolalIy as a iesuIl of veleians lIogs, lhe
case cane lo lhe allenlion of seveiaI nevspapeis, aII
of vhich posled ioughIy siniIai veisions of lhe sloiy
duiing }uIy 2O11. Il is nol cIeai if anylhing vas done lo
lhe ofhciaIs iesponsilIe.
To le suie, individuaI veleians and lheii fani-
Iies aie nol lhe onIy ones piolesling jol Ioss and lhe
faiIuie of lhe slale lo guaianlee veleian lenehls as
hins iesliucluie and piivalize. Despile pionises
and ieguIalions issued in 2OO4 lhal lhe CCI vouId
pIace a high piioiily on veleian affaiis, lhe Hu eia has
vilnessed hundieds, if nol lhousands, of piolesls ly
Iaige gioups of oiganized veleians, incIuding enIisled
nen and senioi ofhceis. In 2O1O, foi exanpIe, a gioup
of ofhceis fion Zhejiang cIaining lo iepiesenl 2O,OOO
ofhceis viole an open Iellei lo piovinciaI aulhoiilies
(paily, goveinnenl, niIilaiy, and voik unils) and
oidinaiy peopIe denanding sociaI juslice.
1
In eaiIy-
Seplenlei 2OO7, lhousands (eslinales ianged fion
1,OOO lo 2,OOO) of iuiaI veleians, noslIy enIisled nen,
359
iioled al RaiIioad Minisliy-iun jol liaining cenleis in
aolou, Wuhan, and aoji ovei pooi condilions, lhe
snaII denoliIizalion gianl (1O,OOO-2O,OOO ienninli
|inlj), and lhe Iack of assislance vilh neaningfuI jol
liaining. As a iesuIl of lhis iioling, lhe goveinnenl
issued an eneigency deciee lo cease schooIing in aII
RaiIvay Minisliy schooIs and lo send aII veleians lack
lo lheii nalive pIaces. This oidei iesuIled in even noie
piolesls. In nid-Seplenlei, lhe Hong Kong nevspa-
pei ;)/( E&4 iepoiled lhal in HeiIongjiang Iiovince,
appioxinaleIy 1,OOO veleians-luined-sludenls al lhe
Qiqihaei schooI legan lo do danage lo lhe leach-
ing luiIding and doiniloiy vilh leei lollIes and aIso
allenpled lo lieak oul of lhe schooI and head foi lhe
iaiIvay slalion. The veleians veie suiiounded ly
seveiaI hundied pulIic secuiily and speciaI poIice
peisonneI ained vilh Ioaded veapons.
2
Then lheie
veie cases invoIving hundieds of ainy engineeis in
Cuangdong (2OO8) conpIaining lhal lhe IocaI aulhoi-
ilies have faiIed lo inpIenenl eijing oideis lo pay
lheii pensions.
3
Iailhei noilh, aiound 1OO veleians,
incIuding ofhceis and enIisled nen, fion Weifang in
Shandong appeaied al lhe Slale CounciI uieau of
Lelleis and Visils lo denand lhal IocaI aulhoiilies
enfoice cenliaI slale poIicy and aIIov lhen lo gel lhe
lenehls lhal lhey deseive.
4
SiniIai denands veie
nade ly 3OO-4OO veleians in Shaanxi vho heId a
nass sil-in al lhe IiovinciaI goveinnenl lo denand
lhal lhe goveinnenl enfoice Docunenl #14O, give
lhen appiopiiale iesellIenenl and ieIease pelilion-
eis iepiesenlalives vho had aIieady leen aiiesled.
5

olh of lhese piolesls veie snaII conpaied lo one in
Cuangxi invoIving 1,OOO veleians fion Chinas vai
againsl Vielnan vho naiched lhiough CuiIin Cily
Cenlei hoIding lanneis caIIing foi lhe goveinnenl lo
inciease lheii hnanciaI conpensalion.
6

36O
As is cIeai fion lhese skelches and in lhe cases
desciiled in giealei delaiI, veleians aie nol enliieIy
heIpIess vhen il cones lo inleiacling vilh slale au-
lhoiilies. y galheiing in Iaige nunleis fion viIIages
and vaiious cilies, veleians cIeaiIy have oiganizalion-
aI and nelvoiking skiIIs, lhey engage in vhal poIilicaI
scienlisl Kevin Oiien has caIIed iighlfuI iesislance
(nainIy ly faineis) ly ciling docunenls and ieguIa-
lions lhal suppoil lheii case, lheii iheloiic oflen ap-
peaIs lo high-ninded ideaIs such as lhe CCIs ievo-
Iulionaiy hisloiy, peisonaI saciihce, and pioleclion of
lhe leiiiloiiaI inlegiily of lhe honeIand. High-ianking
ofhceis, no sIouches vhen il cones lo undeislaling
lhe iegine fion vilhin, have leen invoIved. Do lhese
piolesls lhiealen lhe iegine in any vay` Aie foinei
ILA ofhceis in a posilion lo chaIIenge lhe supienacy
of lhe CCI lecause of lheii pioven IoyaIly lo paily
and counliy` Can lhe scaIe and fiequency of veleian
piolesls pievenl fuilhei nodeinizalion of lhe ILA as
il seeks lo lecone noie ieIianl on lechnoIogy lhan
Iaige nanpovei iesouices`
7

In lhis chaplei, I aigue lhal lhe CCI has leen quile
successfuI nanaging lhese piolesls, lhanks lo fai supe-
iioi iesouices (especiaIIy funding foi secuiily seivices)
and a nonopoIy ovei vioIence in nany diffeienl foins,
incIuding lealings, aiiesls, and delenlion. Thanks lo
ils expeiience in deaIing vilh nany olhei disgiunlIed
popuIalions in lhe iefoin eia, lhe slale has deveIoped
a veII-honed iepeiloiie foi deaIing vilh veleians, one
iaieIy sees even veiy Iaige-scaIe piolesls geneialing
noie lhan a Iavsuil oi conlainalIe vioIence. The CCI
has leen assisled ly happenslance as veII~nany of
lhe veleians il faces veie diafled duiing lhe Maoisl
yeais. Quile a fev aie pooi and in lheii 6Os-8Os, dis-
aliIily Iinils conlenlious aclion, sone veie invoIved
361
in niIilaiiIy anliguous lallIes and piojecls. Then
lheie is lhe issue of veleians denands, vhich ovei-
vheIningIy focus on naleiiaI inpiovenenls ialhei
lhan poIilicaI change. IinaIIy, oving lo slale poIicy as
desciiled leIov, lhe najoiily of lhe veleians invoIved
in piolesls and pelilioning novenenls appeai lo le
concenlialed in ieIaliveIy peiipheiaI aieas, such as iu-
iaI Shandong, Yunnan, Cuangxi, Shaanxi, Henan, and
Cuangdong, ieecling lhe Iovei-cIass conposilion of
lhe ILA ilseIf.
Lven if veleians cuiienlIy do nol pose a seiious
lhieal lo lhe iegine and face piolIens such as pov-
eily, heaIlh, and econonic insecuiily lhal aie nol en-
liieIy diffeienl fion nany undeipiiviIeged gioups, il
sliII lehooves us lo deIve deepei inlo lheii dislinclive
silualion duiing lhe Iasl decade oi so. MelhodoIogi-
caIIy, lhis chaplei aigues lhal veleians~lhe poIicies
aloul lhen, hov lhey aie liealed, and hov lhey in-
leiacl vilh diffeienl IeveIs of goveinnenl as veII as
vilh oidinaiy peopIe~speak lo issues leyond lheii
polenliaI lhieal oi giievances. Veleians, aflei aII, do
nol appeai on lhe poIilicaI scene oul of lhe lIue~lhey
seived in lhe ILA duiing specihc peiiods, sone quile
conlioveisiaI, peihaps engaged in lallIes oi doneslic
iepiession, haiI fion a pailicuIai IocaIe, enjoy a slale-
pioffeied iepulalion, and have cIose associalion vilh
slale poIicies enfoiced ly nuIlipIe adninislialive en-
lilies (CiviI Affaiis, HeaIlh, Laloi and SociaI Secuiily,
}uslice). UnIike faineis and voikeis vho have leen
viiluaIIy ignoied as nalionaI synloIs in lhe iefoin eia
(cIass sliuggIe, aflei aII, is ovei) oi as lhe lenehciaiies
of speciaI liealnenl poIicies, lhe IRC, in ils nuneious
veleian-ieIaled ieguIalions, piopaganda canpaigns
(Ainy Day and Spiing IeslivaI), popuIai nedia, and
inveslnenl in vailine connenoialion in lhe foin of
362
nailyi shiines, hisloiy nuseuns, and paliiolic edu-
calion siles, ofhciaIIy lieals niIilaiy peisonneI as an
enlilIenenl gioup~lhal is, as a gioup lhal is said lo
deseive lellei liealnenl lhan olheis lecause of lheii
nalionaI conliilulions lo slale secuiily and nalionaI
soveieignly.
8
Veleians lake lhis seiiousIy and expecl
lhal lhe goveinnenl viII fuIhII ils connilnenls and
lieal lhen vilh noie iespecl lhan if lhey veie jusl
oidinaiy cilizens. ecause of lhis, veleians expecla-
lions fion lhe slale lend lo le highei lhan olheis fion
lheii socio-econonic lackgiound. Al lhe sane line,
hovevei, veleians aie suljecl lo lhe exacl sane nac-
io-econonic and lechnoIogicaI liends lhal have chai-
acleiized lhe Hu eia noie geneiaIIy, nosl nolalIy,
hscaI decenliaIizalion and lhe deepening of Inleinel
penelialion. Veleians, lheiefoie, nighl le said lo Iie
snack in lhe niddIe of nany inleisecling hisloiicaI,
niIilaiy, poIilicaI, econonic, sociaI, and even cuIluiaI
veclois. Ioi exanpIe, veleians speak lo issues of gov-
einance~vhy do lhey fiequenlIy conpIain lhal poIi-
cies aie nol enfoiced ly IocaIilies (,|)` Vel-
eians can speak lo issues such as nailiaI vaIues: Do
peopIe appieciale lhe ILAs conliilulion` CeilainIy
veleian issues, incIuding veleian poIicy, speak lo is-
sues iegaiding slale piioiilies and even Iegilinacy. In
lhe Uniled Slales, lhe iising povei and slalus of velei-
ans lelveen WoiId Wai I and WoiId Wai II, as veII as
lhe popuIai vievs abnut thnsc cnn0Icts, can le seen
in lhe diffeienliaI liealnenl affoided lo lhe Iallei con-
paied lo lhe foinei (noie lenehls, iecognilion, and
inuence). In China, is il possilIe lhal lhe piolesls in-
voIving ils Vielnan Wai veleians ieecl videspiead
ignoiance, confusion, oi piofound disagieenenls ovei
vhal lhal vai vas acluaIIy aloul`
363
><=12: A/0.21/68
Despile ofhciaI iecognilion ly lhe slale lhal vel-
eians aie voilhy of piefeienliaI liealnenl, in acluaI
piaclice, vilh onIy seveiaI exceplions, lhe CCIs ap-
pioach lovaid lhe oveivheIning najoiily of ils vel-
eians since ils lakeovei has focused on keeping lhen
al ains Ienglh fion signihcanl poIilicaI povei, as
veII as aulhenlic cuIluiaI and sociaI iepiesenlalion.
China, unIike nosl counliies ve nov caII nodein,
has nevei had a nalionaI ainy, and Leninisl docliine,
enliaced ly lhe Cuonindang and lhe Connunisls,
aIvays caIIed foi sliicl niIilaiy suloidinalion lo civiI-
ian aulhoiilies. China does have ieguIalions govein-
ing nany aspecls of veleian affaiis, lul il has nevei
passed a singIe slalule guaianleeing lhen lenehls,
noi have senioi Ieadeis openIy and foicefuIIy advo-
caled foi veleians as a coipoiale gioup vilh fuII inle-
gialion inlo lhe slale, in conliasl lo lhe Union of Soviel
SociaIisl RepulIics (USSR) duiing lhe peieslioika eia.
9

UnIike nosl aII Weslein counliies, ils Asian counlei-
pails, and Leninisl sislei slales, China has nevei aI-
Ioved veleians lo oiganize on any scaIe leyond Io-
caI connunilies~China does nol have an equivaIenl
lo Taivans Veleians Affaiis Connission ([j|
||[)), lhe RepulIic of Koieas (ROK)
Minisliy of Ialiiols and Veleians, oi lhe Aneiican
Legion oi Veleians of Ioieign Wais. Iion a cuIluiaI
peispeclive, China piolalIy has pioduced noie vai
novies lhan any olhei counliy in hisloiy, lul haidIy
ieecling an aulhenlic veleian posl-vai expeiience
(Iike The esl Yeais of Oui Lives in 1946 oi oin
on lhe 4lh of }uIy), noi have ils veleians pulIished
looks ieecling lheii niIilaiy expeiiences (Ca|cn 22,
56' 9&I', &/, $6' ?'&,, A|| Quic| cn |nc lcs|crn |rcn|).
364
Duiing lhe veiy hisl paiades slaged in lhe IRC, vel-
eians veie ignoied vhiIe gioups such as ailisls, alh-
Ieles, ninoiilies, and olhei uniled fionl peisonaIi-
lies veie iepiesenled.
10
These Iegacies, vhich ieecl
a ceilain appioach lovaid civiI-niIilaiy ieIalions, can
le seen conlenpoiaiiIy in cuiienl poIicy as veII as in
veleian aclivisn. To undeisland veleian poIicy in lhe
Hu eia, il heIps lo lake nole of hve key poIicy conlinu-
ilies, especiaIIy lecause Hu }inlao, consislenl vilh his
poIilicaI iecoid oveiaII since leing Secielaiy CeneiaI
of lhe CCI, did nol offei nuch ly vay of nev poIicy
inilialives.
11
1. +.,1J/ >=.2/ #/6/,,=/9/7, ()). Duiing
lhe Mao yeais, vilh lhe exceplion of 1969-71~peihaps
lhe heighl of ILA inuence in lhe Chinese poIilicaI
syslen~lhe oveivheIning najoiily of denoliIized
soIdieis veie senl lack lo lheii nalive pIaces, even if
lheii viIIages had leen iavaged ly vai in lhe 194Os oi
if lheii faniIy nenleis veie no Iongei Iiving lheie.
Theie is no inleinalionaI piecedenl foi lhis iequiie-
nenl, and il ieecled lolh lhe oveivheIningIy iuiaI
conposilion of lhe ILA al lhe line, lhe CCI Ieadei-
ships posl-1949 piioiilizalion of sociaIisn luiIl upon
lhe Soviel Unions nodeI of heavy indusliy, as veII
as, I suspecl, lhe disdain lhal educaled Chinese oflen
heap upon lheii iuiaI lielhien (accoiding lo lhe po-
IilicaI scienlisl Vicloi Shih and his coIIaloialois lhe
najoiily of CenliaI Connillee nenleis duiing nosl
of lhe Mao yeais veie May 4lh |1919j inleIIecluaIs,
aIleil Leninisls).
12
The 1+&/M) &/P6) poIicy vas lolh a
vioIalion of lhe 1954 Conslilulion, vhich gave cilizens
fieedon of iesidence, lul noie inpoilanlIy, veleians
nosl fundanenlaI desiie lhioughoul lhe hisloiy of
lhe IRC~lo acquiie lhe lenehls of uilan iesidence.
In lhe 195Os, veleians veie undeislandalIy confused
365
ly lhis poIicy. Aflei having Iileialed lhe counliy, vhy
couId lhey nol nove fieeIy vilhin il` Thousands, in
facl, voled vilh lheii feel. Despile lhe poIicy, velei-
ans soId off lheii leIongings in lhe counliyside and
lIindIy noved lo cilies, accoiding lo iiale uilan
ofhciaIs. Shandong, a popuIai ieciuiling aiea foi lhe
ILA and lheiefoie hone lo nany veleians (even lo-
day), vilnessed a Iaige oulov of niIilaiy peisonneI.
In 1954, neaiIy 3,OOO veleians depailed lhe piovince
and headed noilheasl aflei seIIing lheii fain naleiiaI
and peisonaI possessions.
13
Resislance lo lhe 1+&/M)
&/P6) poIicy conlinued veII inlo lhe Iale-195Os, ieIax-
ing onIy sonevhal in lhe yeais piioi lo lhe CuIluiaI
RevoIulion. Yel, despile a Iong hisloiy of iesislance
lo 1+&/M) &/P6), and Chinas exposuie lo aIleinalive
nodeIs of veleian goveinance, veiy IillIe has changed
in lhis fundanenlaI appioach. Of couise, lhe iuiaI
econony has changed, and noie veleians, pailicuIai-
Iy in veaIlhiei coaslaI aieas, have leen alsoiled inlo
lovnship and viIIage enleipiises, lul lhe pailys viev
of niIilaiy peisonneI~seeing lhen as a depIoyalIe
slale iesouice ialhei lhan as peopIe vilh pailicuIai
aspiialions~has nol. Many piolesls invoIving velei-
ans loday invoIve lhose vho veie denoliIized lo lhe
inleiioi counliyside, and nov hnd lhenseIves in dif-
hcuIl hnanciaI sliails.
2. @-0.71].,1<7. Yuanji anzni is nol lhe onIy un-
usuaI fealuie of lhe IRCs Iong-slanding veleian
poIicy. Anolhei is ils lan on any signihcanl foin of
veleian seIf-oiganizalion~Iaige fialeinaI associalions
and/oi inleiesl gioups lhal hisloiicaIIy have leen
an inpoilanl foice lehind gains in veleian iighls
(foi inslance, in lhe Uniled Slales, lhe Aneiican Le-
gion diafled lhe CI iII of 1944). Leninisl piincipIes
of civiI-niIilaiy ieIalions cannol expIain lhis: aflei
366
WoiId Wai II, lhe USSR had a nalionaI IeveI veleians
associalion~lhe Soviel Connillee of Wai Veleians
(SKVV)~vhich vas an effeclive Iollyisl foi velei-
ans iighls in lhe innediale yeais foIIoving SlaIins
dealh in 1953 vhen China vas lusiIy Ieaining fion
ils Soviel eIdei liolhei. Accoiding lo Maik LdeIes
ieseaich, lhe SKVV vas nol sinpIy a iecognilion
'fion alove of popuIai aspiialions, lul ialhei an ap-
piopiialion 'fion leIov of an inslilulion vhich vas
ciealed foi fundanenlaIIy diffeienl puiposes. (Il vas
oiganized lecause lhe Soviels vanled lo pailicipale
in lhe WoiId Veleians Iedeialion as an aiena foi
coId vai piopaganda.
14
) SiniIai lo lhe iesislance lo
iesellIenenl poIicy, IRC veleians have a Iong hisloiy
of allenpling lo foin lheii ovn oiganizalions vhen-
evei ciicunslances aIIoved. Veleians oiganized dui-
ing lhe Hundied IIovei Canpaign (1956) and foined
nany unils duiing lhe CuIluiaI RevoIulion on lolh
lhe conseivalive and ieleI side. In lhe eaiIy yeais of
lhe iefoin eia, ioughIy 6,OOO veleians in Cuangdong
oiganized a Ciieving Heails Ainy lecause:
lhousands of young peasanls casl lheii foilunes vilh
lhe Ainy onIy lo have Ianded lack in lhe inpovei-
ished aiea and discoveied lhal lheii faniIies have
Iosl noney lhiough lheii alsence, viIIage giiIs puisue
piospeious peasanls and good jols aie nol lo le had.
Aflei an incidenl in vhich lhis ainy look ovei
a Connunisl Iaily headquaileis, piovinciaI aulhoii-
lies iepiessed il, sending ils Ieadeis lo piison.
15
This
appioach conlinued inlo lhe Ialei iefoin peiiod~vel-
eians sliII do nol have iecognized counly, piovinciaI,
oi nalionaI IeveI fialeinaI associalions~lul, Iike vilh
lhe olhei veleian poIicies, veleians have leen alIe lo
lake advanlage of lhe Inleinel lo hnd lheii voice and
367
nelvoik. Tvo of lhese foiuns~lhe Ainy Spiiil Nel-
voik ([), a S, and lhe Voice of Veleian
lIog posl sile (hosled on U.S.-lased seiveis)~incIude
veiy usefuI infoinalion on veleian oiganizalion in lhe
shadov of slale suiveiIIance, vhich is inlensive.
3. "I/ -/=1.72/ <7 H<=121/6X 6,.,/9/7,X -/04=.R
,1<76 .75 W4-/.42-.2:. Anolhei Iegacy of lhe pie-
Hu IRC veleian poIicy lhal has conlinued unalaled
is lhe slales unviIIingness lo give 6,.,4,<-: V<-9 lo
lenehls piovided lo veleians and olhei niIilaiy ie-
Ialed peisonneI: China has nolhing equivaIenl lo a
Veleians Lav. Iion lhe veiy leginning, lhe cenlei,
as veII as IocaIilies, has issued a vide iange of docu-
nenls in veleian poIicy. These incIude: poIicies,
(|), decisions (), ieguIalions (|),
piovisionaI ieguIalions (|]), nolices
(), opinions (), neasuies ([,),
and, ciicuIais (). These nighl le issued ly
lhe Slale CounciI, piovinciaI goveinnenls, and ninis-
liies. elveen 1949 and 1978, hundieds of lhese docu-
nenls have leen issued ly aulhoiilies, and since lhe
iefoin peiiod, nany Iavs ieIevanl lo veleians have
leen added, Iike lhe Laloi Lav (1994), Laloi Conliacl
Lav (2OO8), lhe Revised MiIilaiy Lav (2O11, veleians
aie expecled lo hnd voik lhenseIves), and lhe Con-
slilulion (2OO4 Revision, AilicIe 35: Cilizens of lhe
IeopIes RepulIic of China enjoy fieedon of speech,
of lhe piess, of assenlIy, of associalion, of piocession,
and of denonslialion). Chinese Iavnaking is, piol-
alIy ly design, veiy pooi in ensuiing piediclaliIily,
lianspaiency, and anylhing iesenlIing unifoin ap-
pIicalion. Many Iavs aie puiposeIy vague, lhe iesuIl of
conpionises lelveen diffeienl ninisliies, indusliies,
and olhei inleiesl gioups, and usuaIIy Ieave nuIlipIe
oul cIauses foi IocaI ofhciaIs in lhe nane of ensuiing
368
naxinun exiliIily and adaplaliIily, vhal LIizalelh
}. Ieiiy and Selaslian HeiInann have desciiled as
gueiiiIIa-slyIe poIicynaking.
16
This poIicy slyIe is
aIso ieecled in lhe veiy high IeveI of hscaI decenliaI-
izalion: IocaI aulhoiilies pay foi nosl aII veleian len-
ehls oul of lheii ovn pockels (vhal ve caII unfunded
nandales), iesuIling in a luiIl-in lension lelveen
nalionaI IeveI poIicies, nany of vhich aie vague and
sonelines conliadicloiy, vilhoul cIeaiIy idenlifying
vho pays foi lheii inpIenenlalion.
WhiIe poIicy slyIe shovs conlinuilies lelveen lhe
pie-iefoin and iefoin aieas, cilizens access lo infoi-
nalion aloul lhese poIicies duiing lhe Hu eia iepie-
senls a shaip disjuncluie. UnIike veleians of pievious
geneialions vho veie oflen lIind in leins of poIicy
knovIedge, veleians loday can upIoad poIicy docu-
nenls and Iocale lhe cIauses ieIevanl lo lheii cause
fion lhe vel. They do lhis vilh fiequenl guslo, lian-
dishing a vide vaiiely of nalionaI and IocaI ieguIa-
lions, lhe MiIilaiy Lav, and Hunan Resouices and
SociaI Secuiily ciicuIais in lheii confionlalions vilh
aulhoiilies. This fiuslialion Ieads nany veleians,
vho feeI enlilIed lo lellei liealnenl, lo lhe slieels
conpIaining aloul Iack of enfoicenenl and caIIing
upon lhe cenlei lo cone lo lheii iescue.
4. >-<H.0.75.. Since lhe eijing OIynpics in 2OO8,
one of lhe nosl chaIIenging aspecls of pedagogy is lo
convince sludenls lhal lhe Chinese slale, viil Iaige,
does nol funclion as veII as ils OIynpic Oiganizing
Connillee. oIsleied ly a ludgel of ioughIy $65 liI-
Iion and suppoiled ly lhe CCI as lhe lop piioiily foi
2OO8, lhe OIynpics veie a nasleipiece of slale slage-
ciafl: lhousands of peifoineis dancing in Iock-slep,
voIunleeis eveiyvheie, and lIue skies lhanks lo fac-
loiy cIosings. China seened lo le a can do slale.
369
Whal lhe OIynpics acluaIIy denonslialed vas lhal
lhe CCI, Iike lhe dynaslies il iepIaced, pIaces noie
enphasis on conlioIIing inageiy, lexls, synloIisn,
and naking pioaclive use of Chinas alundanl cuIlui-
aI sloiehouse lhan iuIing lhiough coheienl Iav and
ieguIalions. As noled ly hisloiian Chang Tai-hong,
lhe focus on inageiy ieecled lhe CCIs ieaIizalion
lhal seizing povei vas noie lhan a poIilicaI and
niIilaiy canpaign, A'%6&A- 'G'/ 04%' )0A4%$&/$ !&- $6'
acs|nc|ic oa|||c ctcr |nc ccn|rc| cf cc|crs, signs, sqnoc|s and
G)-+&2 G4*&B+2&%1.
17
Today, lhe CCIs Depailnenl of
Iiopaganda ienains one of lhe nosl poveifuI posls
in lhe paily, conlioIIing vasl, ievenue-pioducing ie-
souices (hIn, TV, pulIishing, iadio, elc.) and is IaigeIy
unaccounlalIe.
Veleians, Iike lhe ILA, veie expecled lo le leneh-
ciaiies of lhis syslen. Theie vas nevei a line in IRC
hisloiy vhen veleians veie poiliayed in a ciilicaI
Iighl. Veleians aie said lo have a esh and lIood ieIa-
lionship vilh lhe ievoIulion, a ied heail vilh sleadfasl
leaiing. Canpaigns Iong enphasized lhe cIose con-
neclion, even Iove, lelveen lhe peopIe and lhe ainy
([,[). Duiing lhe Hu eia, a conslanl sliean
of piopaganda hIns aloul lhe ILA and ils heioics
duiing WoiId Wai II, lhe CiviI Wai, and Koiean Wais
ooded lhe aiivays (connenoialing 6O yeais since
lhe end of WoiId Wai II, lhe 9Olh Anniveisaiy of lhe
Iounding of lhe CCI, and lhe 8Olh Anniveisaiy of lhe
Iounding of lhe ILA). The CCI, unIike lhe Connu-
nisl Iaily of lhe foinei Soviel Union oi Vielnan, has
nevei aIIoved ils veleians, viileis, hIn nakeis, and
ailisls lo deaI vilh vais nany conpIicalions, con-
pionises, and noiaI anliguilies, Iel aIone vais vilh
oulcones lhal aie nol veiy alleiing, such as Chinas
vai vilh Vielnan in 1979. AIso given shoil shiifl aie
37O
olhei piojecls lhe ILA vas invoIved in duiing lhe
Mao yeais~luiIding iaiIvays, lunneIs and lianspoi-
lalion piojecls alioad (Iakislan), oi Xinjiang. Undei
Hu, CCI ahisloiicaI liiunphaIisn, so evidenl in lhe
OIynpics and conlenpoiaiy niIilaiy and Yanan-eia
ievoIulionaiy peiiod piopaganda, has leen lhe doni-
nanl appioach lo goveining lhe cuIluiaI spheie.
Veleians and olhei niIilaiy peisonneI, as nighl le
expecled, have aIvays leen avaie of lhese nessages.
In nany cases, posilive inageiy of niIilaiy piovess
conliadicls lheii ovn expeiiences in lhe heId. Theii
deaIings vilh slale aulhoiilies and lhe peopIe fie-
quenlIy depail fion lhe inage of Iove. Thanks lo lhe
Inleinel loon duiing lhe Hu yeais, veleians as veII
as soIdieis can dig inlo lhe Iayeis of Iies upon vhich
ofhciaI niIilaiy hisloiy iesls.
18
The nolion lhal ILA
soIdieis aie lhe nosl cheiished peopIe ([;)
has noiphed in piolesls in vhich veleians desciile
lhenseIves as lhe nosl pilialIe peopIe ( [;).
In nany iespecls, lhe CCI iuns a piopaganda slale
noie lhan a slale of Iavs (|,,]). y doing lhis, il
conslanlIy iuns lhe iisk lhal eveiyday ingIoiious ieaIi-
lies viII iun face hisl inlo lhe high expeclalions genei-
aled ly piopaganda.
5. \/,/-.7 -/H-/661<7. Tvo lypes of veleian peli-
lioning and piolesling viII le discussed: (1) foinei
enIisled nen, especiaIIy lhose vho veie invoIved in
oi disalIed ly lhe vai vilh Vielnan, piolesling foi
noie iecognilion and lenehls, and (2) piolesls invoIv-
ing foinei ILA ofhceis and senioi nonconnissioned
ofhceis (NCOs) vho lecane slale cadies (|)
in indusliy, chaIIenging lhe diaslic ieduclion in lheii
slalus duiing lhe Hu yeais. Aflei lhese cases, I viII
Iook noie cIoseIy al lhe inleinaI voikings of slale se-
cuiily iepiession of veleians. I lake lhis iepiession as
371
a ieeclion of vheie slale piioiilies have leen duiing
lhe Hu eia in civiI-niIilaiy ieIalions.
\'%"+$D
The avaiIalIe evidence I cuiienlIy have al ny dis-
posaI sliongIy suggesls lhal lhe souice of nany piol-
Iens in civiI-niIilaiy ieIalions lhal faced Hu }inlao
veie, and conlinue lo le, lhe pioducls of poIicies and
vais foughl lefoie his lenuie, I have found fevei cases
of coIIeclive aclion and gioup pelilioning ly veleians
in lheii nid-2Os~nosl of vhon, I piesune, aie ieIa-
liveIy heaIlhy and iequiie Iess assislance secuiing a
lasic Iiving. In lhe avaiIalIe souices on veleians in lhe
Hu eia, lhe Iaigesl and nosl synloIicaIIy piolIenalic
piolesls have leen nounled ly veleians of Chinas
invoIvenenl in Vielnan, lolh in lhe 196Os and aflei
1979. These veie veleians vho had a veiy difhcuIl
line fion lhe leginning, as suggesled in lhe Ciieving
Heails Ainy case nenlioned eaiIiei. LaigeIy haiIing
fion pooi counlies and piovinces (Cuangxi and Yun-
nan especiaIIy), nany ieluined hone onIy lo hnd lhal
lhose vho had nol pailicipaled in lhe vai veie enjoy-
ing giealei piospeiily. Saciihce foi lhe slale did nol
pay off in a nev eia in vhich naleiiaIisn, consun-
eiisn, and individuaIizalion lecone lhe doninanl
2')$04$)H-. }usl Iike nany veleians dischaiged aflei lhe
Koiean Wai found lhal lhe fiuils of lhe vicloiy in lhe
ievoIulion had aIieady leen disliiluled (Iand and po-
IilicaI povei),
19
Vielnan Wai veleians in China have
liuIy leen a Iosl geneialion in leins of veleian poIicy,
as veII as lheii pIace in lhe Iaigei poIilicaI cuIluie. Un-
Iike Chinas vicloiy againsl lhe Uniled Slales dui-
ing lhe Koiean Wai, cuiienlIy ceIelialed ly Chinas
so-caIIed nalionaIisls, lhe anliguous oulcone in
372
Vielnan (acknovIedged ly nelizens in lIog posls),
lhe need lo nainlain good lies lo lhe Associalion of
Soulh Lasl Asian Nalions (ASLAN), and lhe neai
alsence of vai veleians in lop Ieadeiship posilions
have nol piovided a conducive enviionnenl foi lhese
veleians lo piess lheii cIains. Of couise, lhis is nevei
easy, even in denociacies. Whal has nade lhe diffei-
ence in poIicy and cuIluie has leen lhe exislence of
Iaige scaIe J/,/-.7 <-0.71].,1<76 vilh devoled, veII-
connecled, and feisly nenleiship, vhich China Iacks.
In lhe Uniled Slales, il vas lhe Vielnan Wai Meno-
iiaI Iund, Ied ly veleians, lhal sponsoied lhe Viel-
nan Veleians MenoiiaI, and veII-heeIed veleians of
lhe vai Iike hIn diiecloi OIivei Slone have pioved
veiy insliunenlaI in fosleiing a noie veIconing
enviionnenl.
Lel us nov discuss cases of individuaI and coIIec-
live pelilions as exanpIes of hov Vielnan veleians
have faied and hov lhey have inleiacled vilh aulhoi-
ilies (lhis nighl le caIIed lhe lollon-up peispeclive
on civiI-niIilaiy ieIalions). Xu Kaisheng, fion Lingao
Counly, Hainan, joined lhe ILA in 1977, and lhe CCI
in 1979. Accoiding lo his seIf-naiialive, he vas injuied
in lhe vai and avaided IeveI-3 neiiloiious seivice
honois. He vas anong lhe foilunale lo ieceive voik
aflei his dischaige. Iion 198O lo 1992, he vas en-
pIoyed al a giain luieau. In 1992, hovevei, he vas
Iaid off and had lo ieIy on veIfaie (]]) fion lhe
counly paily connillee, IocaI goveinnenl, and civiI
affaiis. UnenpIoyed foi 1O yeais, he hnaIIy found a
posilion, lul vhen lhal conpany vas soId lo a piivale
hin in 2OO7, he had no Ialoi ieIalions vilh lhen.
Nov, he said, he vas oId, inhin, vounded, disalIed,
and oflen iII lul Iacked nedicaI insuiance lo covei his
nany injeclions. This, in his viev, vas a cIeai vioIalion
373
of lhe lenehl ieguIalions foi veleians (;j||
]). MedicaI piolIens and Iack of olhei iesouices Ied
hin lo piolesl. Togelhei vilh his feIIov veleian Wang
Shaoxiong, he nade iepealed visils lo lhe counly pai-
ly connillee and goveinnenl. Nov veII inlo lhe Hu
eias olsession vilh inleinaI secuiily, Xu and Wang
found lhenseIves laigels of slale invesligalion~lheii
IavfuI and noinaI pelilioning lecane opposing
lhe goveinnenl and paily. This lecane noie lhan
a IocaI nallei. IIush vilh funding, a slale secuiily
(]) ofhciaI opeialing undei lhe IiovinciaI IulIic
Secuiily Depailnenl vas dispalched lo lhe counly
lo assisl vilh lheii secuiily voik. This ofhciaI lhiev
lhe look al Xu and Wang, chaiging lhen vilh ciines
ianging fion hnanciaI fiaud, iIIegaIIy occupying an
ofhciaI posl, and disluiling pulIic oidei, anong
olheis. The lvo veie lhiovn in lhe counly piison.
This Iisl of ciines vas nol coincidenlaI. The secu-
iily aulhoiilies had leen galheiing infoinalion aloul
lheii aclivilies, vhich lhey used lo lie lhen up in IegaI
knols. IIIegaIIy occupying an ofhciaI posl iefeiied
lo a 2OO9 incidenl in vhich Xu and Wang pelilioned al
lhe CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission, lul as soon as lhey
gol lheie veie aiiesled ly Hainan ofhciaIs, senl lack
lo Lingao, and delained foi 24 days, hnanciaI fiaud
vas aII aloul Xu and Wang eslalIishing a iegisleied
Seivice Cenlei foi DisalIed Veleians in Lingao Coun-
ly, vhich vas designed lo heIp veleians vilh nedicaI
insuiance paynenls (in lhe Iellei lhey piovided lhe
iegislialion nunlei). When Xu ciled slale vioIalions
of ils ovn ieguIalions, lhe secuiily ofhcei ciyslaIized
lhe cuiienl viev of lhe iegine: We |slale secuiilyj
donl caie aloul lhe enfoicenenl of disalIed veleian
poIicy, you having gone lo vai has nolhing lo do vilh
us. In lhe end, lhe poIice conpiIed a case againsl
374
hin and foivaided il lo lhe counly piocuialoi. The
piocuialoi, hovevei, did nol aulhoiize aiiesl on lhe
giounds of insufhcienl evidence. Inslead, lhe counly
pulIic secuiily luieau pIaced hin undei hone sui-
veiIIance (Seplenlei 2OO9). Xu escaped, and vas, al
lhe line of his posling, a fugilive leggai in eijing. He
allached nuIlipIe docunenls: his iap sheel, hospilaI
foins, laiI ieIease, and olheis lo denonsliale his voi-
lhiness of suppoil. Olhei veleians had access lo his
case lhiough lhe MiIilaiy Spiiil luIIelin loaid.
2O
SeveiaI lhings sland oul in lhis case, vhich is nol
aII lhal unusuaI in lhe Voice of Veleian hIes.
21
The
IRCs veleians poIicy is enledded in Iaigei sliuclui-
aI changes in lhe econony (Iayoffs, piivalizalion, and
deveIopnenl of lhe Inleinel) and is cIoseIy lied lo pasl
conicls as veII~lhe case oved fion his disaliIily,
age, and inaliIily lo secuie slalIe enpIoynenl. We
can aIso see lhe iegines viIIingness lo lake decisive
aclion againsl iepealed pelilioneis, no nallei lheii
pasl conliilulions lo nalionaI secuiily. Moieovei,
ve can aIso see vhal happens vhen veleians oiga-
nize lhenseIves and iegislei vilh lhe slale, even on a
snaII scaIe: lhey expose lhenseIves lo pioseculion ly
Ieaving a papei liaiI.
Theie is no dala aloul hov nany veleians pui-
sued individuaI oi snaII gioup soIulions and hov
nany galheied in Iaigei nunleis. olh veie secu-
iily conceins, lecause individuaI veleians, using lIog
siles Iike MiIilaiy Spiiil, couId gel lheii cases oul
in lhe open, lul lhe pulIic piolesls veie diffeienl in
leins of lhe noiaI and poIilicaI Iegilinacy of lhe CCI.
The speclacIe of hundieds of veleians, nosl of lhen
oId, slanding oulside goveinnenl conpounds in lad
vealhei, vas enlaiiassing, vhich is vhy IocaI gov-
einnenls nade a poinl of quickIy dispalching lhen
375
eIsevheie. In Cansu Iiovince, foi inslance, pholos of
a gioup of ioughIy 5O veleians of lhe Laoshan Can-
paign galheied,, veaiing lheii unifoins and nedaIs
vilh lolh sociaIisl and Confucian-inspiied sIogans:
Long Live lhe Spiiil of Laoshan!, Long Live lhe CCI!,
We vanl voik, ve vanl lo eal, ve vanl lo piovide
foi oui eIdeis, ve vanl lo iaise chiIdien.
22
In 2O1O
in Hunans Taoyuan counly, sone 35O iepiesenlalives
of lhe counlys Vielnan Wai veleians pelilioned foi
lellei liealnenl, naking a poinl lo conpIain lhal lhey
gel Iess noney lhan veleians vho pacihed Tilel aflei
lhe iiols lheie (vais on foieign soiI deseive noie con-
pensalion~even foieign counliies do il lhal vay, lhey
aigued), and lhal lhe vai in Vielnan is nol undeislood
oi discussed. Theii piolesl, lhey noled, vas jusl of one
of lhousands occuiiing aII aiound lhe counliy in lhe
Iasl seveiaI yeais.
23
Sonelines piolesleis fion lhe vai
nighl galhei in lhe lhousands, connecling vilh each
olhei via lheii QQ oi L| accounls. Accoiding lo
lhe Hong Kong Infoinalion Seivice foi Hunan Righls
and Denociacy:
aiound 1,OOO IRC veleians vho foughl in lhe Viel-
nan Wai slaged a denonslialion in CuiIin in Cuangxi
Iiovince on 26 Decenlei (lhe 118lh anniveisaiy of lhe
liilhday of Mao Zedong), denanding lhal lhe govein-
nenl gianl lhen a 3OO yuan nonlhIy sulsidy, vhich
is nuch Iovei lhan lhe sulsidy lheii counleipails in
eijing and Shanghai ieceive.
24

This denonslialion vas olseived ly lhousands of
peopIe vho passed ly, lul il is highIy unIikeIy lhal
onIookeis veie alIe lo piessuie lhe goveinnenl in
any neaningfuI vay.
376
A case invoIving Vielnan Wai veleians, as veII as
veleians fion Koiea and nucIeai veapons piojecls, in
Shalang ViIIage in eiIiu Cily in Cuangxi Iiovince is
an exceIIenl exanpIe of civiI-niIilaiy ieIalions in lhe
Hu eia. Like lheii counleipails aiound lhe counliy,
eiIiu veleians fion diffeienl viIIages soughl lo gel
logelhei. In lheii usuaI 04,+- 4A'%&/,), IocaI secuiily
ofhciaIs al lhe lovnship, feaiing a pelilion effoil, liied
lo slop lhen lhiough pievenlalive delenlion. SeveiaI
incuiied sofl-lissue injuiies as lhey veie pushed inlo
a poIice van.
Aflei lhis, lhe eiIiu Cily Coniade-in-Ains
Sociely,look aclion. They hIed a Iav-
suil againsl lhe aulhoiilies undei lhe piovisions of
lhe Adninislialive Liligalion Lav (ALL, olheivise
knovn as [). They secuied lhe assislance of
Mou Cuangyu, a Vielnan veleian hinseIf, vho vas
a Iavyei in neaily Yuzhou Disliicl lo iepiesenl lhen
in couil in eiIiu Cily. UnsuipiisingIy, given lhe sul-
seivience of IocaI couils lo lhe goveinnenl in China,
lhe eiIiu couil iefused lo lake lhe case, aiguing lhal
il did nol salisfy lhe condilions foi Iiligalion undei
lhe ALL. Lavyei Mou appeaIed lo lhe YuIin Cily
Inleinediale Couil, vhich, suipiisingIy, oideied lhe
eiIiu Cily couil lo accepl and iegislei lhe case. y
lhis line, veleian velsiles veie alIaze vilh lIog
enliies aloul lhe case and noliIized lo suppoil lhe
pIainliffs. A phologiaph shovs veleians Iined in neal
iovs of lhiee, 15 deep, naiching lo lhe heaiing, vilh
one veaiing lhe sign OId Wai Veleians Repiesenla-
live (,||,). On lhe MiIilaiy Spiiil sile,
an enliy fion May 11, 2O11, noled lhal lhe liiaI did nol
Iasl Iong, lul vas allended ly a lhousand peopIe fion
nany cilies and lhe piovinces. Aflei lhe liiaI, veleians
seened oplinislic lhal soneone fion lhe secuiily sei-
vices and IocaI poIilicians vouId le heId accounlalIe.
377
On Oclolei 1O, 2O11, lIoggeis on MiIilaiy Spiiil
posled an updale aloul lhe veidicl undei lhe headei
Devaslaled (])). Moie lhan a lhousand peopIe,
incIuding Vielnan and Koiean Wai veleians, velei-
ans invoIved in nucIeai povei and uianiun nining,
as veII as iepiesenlalives of nailyis and niIilaiy fan-
iIies (,|,), congiegaled in fionl of lhe couil
and eIecled 6O peopIe lo olseive lhe liiaI (1O veie
Koiean Wai veleians, sone veie conlalanls fion
lhe 1974 Xisha |IaiaceIj IsIands navaI lallIe, lul nosl
veie Vielnan Wai veleians). HoIding lanneis, lhey
sal and vailed foi lhe announcenenl. In ils veidicl,
posled onIine, lhe eiIiu couil iuIed lhal lhe pIain-
liffs had nol denonslialed a diiecl causaI conneclion
lelveen lhe defendanls and lheii injuiies (liuises,
and a loin shiil). This, in facl, vas nol aII lhal sui-
piising lecause lhe pIainliffs did nol have vilnesses
oi olhei evidence. The veleians voved lo appeaI lo
lhe YuIin Inleinediale Couil, hoping lhal ofhciaIs
fion lhe Cuangzhou MiIilaiy Region vouId send
a iepiesenlalive lo heIp lhen. If lhis did nol voik,
lhe veleians voved lo caiiy Liao lo eijing and Iel
lhe CenliaI goveinnenl decide.
25
As nany of lhen
suieIy ieaIized, eijing secuiily poIice vouId le quile
piepaied foi lheii aiiivaI. Veleian piolesls, as lhis
case shovs, nighl legin vilh snaII cIains foi noie
noney, lul lhe secuiily appaialus, ly using pieven-
lalive delenlion and exlensive suiveiIIance, can unin-
lenlionaIIy cause lhen lo escaIale inlo lhe hundieds
and lhousands.
378
*@;+!'i%*U >A$ @OO'(%#! $+* "?% !"$"%
In lhe naleiiaIs I have coIIecled lhus fai, lhe nosl
vocaI and oiganized veleians vho piolesl againsl lhe
paily (al aII IeveIs) have leen a 64W6/, of ILA ofh-
ceis and senioi slaff nenleis, piolalIy senioi NCOs,
vhose ciicunslances undei Hu-eia poIicies have
changed lhe nosl dianalicaIIy. Ioi lhe nosl pail,
lhese veie ILA peisonneI vho, duiing lhe Mao yeais
and lhioughoul lhe 198Os and eaiIy-199Os, veie de-
noliIized inlo indusliiaI unils as slale cadies M+/P6+&/
(&/B+ (|) oi Q)1' (+4M)& (&/B+]
lul have essenliaIIy Iosl lheii poIilicaI slalus and lhe
lenehls as indusliiaI unils iesliucluied. Hundieds of
lhousands of lhese veleians nov cIain lo have slalus
no highei lhan an oidinaiy unenpIoyed voikei. In
lheii piolesls and pelilions, lhey enjoy seveiaI assels:
age (nosl aie nol inhin), heaIlh, and insidei knovI-
edge of hov lhe slale voiks. Whal pushed lhen inlo
opposilion, hovevei, vas sinpIy lad Iuck~hundieds
of lhousands of lheii foinei coniades-in-ains vho
veie denoliIized lo slale (]) and inslilulionaI (
) unils couId le conlenl vilh lheii Iol and have no
ieason lo piolesl. IndusliiaI-unil ofhceis, ialhei lhan
ofhceis in a noie geneiaI sense, have leen lhe deepesl
lhoin in lhe side of lhe secuiily-olsessed Hu iegine
since lhe gap lelveen lheii expeclalions and lheii
piesenl ciicunslances has leen lhe videsl.
Iion lhe veiy hisl yeais of lhe Hu eia, M+/P6+&/
(&/B+ have nade lheii piesence knovn. In 2OO5, an
eyevilness accounl fion eijing iepoiled lhal aloul
2,OOO ieliied nenleis of lhe IeopIes Lileialion
Ainy, veaiing lheii oId unifoins, galheied oulside
lhe ILAs CeneiaI IoIilicaI Depailnenl, vhich is
cIose lo Tianannen Squaie. These foinei ILA nen-
379
leis, iepiesenling sone 2O piovinces, veie noslIy
ofhceis, incIuding foinei division connandeis.
AIvays oideiIy, lhey sal in iovs in oidei lo expiess
giievances aloul pension lenehls and posl-ieliienenl
jols. As lhe iepoilei accuialeIy noled, lhe decIine of
lhe slale-enleipiise syslen neans lhal nanagenenl
jols foi foinei ofhceis aie scaice.
26
In }uIy 2OO9,
seveiaI hundied veleians fion Weifang in Shandong
galheied lo pelilion in eijing. A iepoilei inleivieved
a foinei ofhcei, vho poinled oul lhal:
We cane lo eijing lo pelilion lo denand lhal cen-
liaI poIicy le enfoiced, M+/P6+&/ (&/B+ poIicy is nol
enfoiced IocaIIy, lhe cenliaI goveinnenl sends dovn
docunenls ieIevanl lo oui silualion lul nolhing is
inpIenenled. Those vho aie heie pelilioning nov aie
aII M+/P6+&/ cadies vhose enleipiises have changed
lheii slalus.
Anolhei said, We no Iongei gel lhe lenehls of a slale
cadie and have lecone ieguIai enpIoyees oi ieliied
enpIoyees so ve have lo pelilion.
27
The occasion of lhe nass liilules lo lhe 8Olh An-
niveisaiy of lhe ILA in 2OO7 vas an oppoilune line
foi veleians lo piolesl lhe gap lelveen lhe piopagan-
da and lheii ciicunslances. In a iepoil enlilIed, OId
SoIdieis Iading Avay, lhe iepoilei noled lhal sone
deconnissioned ofhceis feeI lhey have IillIe lo ceI-
eliale and lhal nolody is Iislening lo lheii giievances.
These foinei cadies leIieve lhey have faIIen lhiough
lhe ciacks caused ly lhe nainIands seisnic econonic
and sociaI changes. One ofhcei, foineiIy lased in
eijing, noled lhal, We veie oiiginaIIy paily cadies,
lul nov ve aie Iefl vilh nolhing. LocaI goveinnenls
veie lIaned~lheii enlilIenenls lo housing, nedi-
caI lenehls and pensions veie nol leing honoied
38O
IocaIIy despile specihc goveinnenl oideis. Theie
vas noie lhan jusl noney invoIved, hovevei. They
sensed, peihaps accuialeIy, lhal lheii pIighl geneiales
IillIe lo no synpalhy. Accoiding lo a foinei navaI of-
hcei (47 yeais oId):
Theie is no one lo heIp us asseil oui iighls. And once
ve visil goveinnenl depailnenls, ve aie IaleIed a
'deslaliIizing eIenenl.faineis, voikeis, even lhe
honeIess, gel Iooked aflei. ul ve donl have anyone
lo sland up foi us.
In lhe nonlh piioi lo lhe 8Olh Anniveisaiy (velei-
ans noslIy iefiained fion piolesl duiing lhe annivei-
saiy yeai 2OO7-O8 il seens), nass piolesls lioke oul
in eijing, Cuangdong, and Shandong, incIuding one
in Yanlai (Shandong) invoIving as nany as 2,OOO de-
connissioned ofhceis.
28
LillIe appeais lo have changed poIicy-vise le-
lveen 2OO7 and 2OO9. On May 14, 2OO9, in Luoyang
and ils vaiious counlies, accoiding lo a iepoil fion
lhe Hong Kong Infoinalion Cenlei foi Hunan Righls
and Denociacy, aloul 2,OOO ieliied ILA ofhceis
and seivicenen . . . legan denonslialing oulside lhe
nunicipaI goveinnenl al 9 AM yesleiday. These ie-
liied ofhceis and seivicenen denanded lhal a seiies
of issues conceining lheii voik and IiveIihood le ie-
soIved. Theii nain goaI, accoiding lo lhe iepoil, vas
lo neel vilh goveinnenl ofhciaIs lo aii lheii giiev-
ances, convinced, Iike nany olhei gioups in China,
lhal highei IeveI aulhoiilies aie unavaie of on-lhe-
giound ieaIilies lecause IocaI ofhciaIs hIe nisIeading
and and/oi palenlIy faIse iepoiling.
29

In lheii effoils lo iesloie lheii slalus, M+/P6+&/ vel-
eians have nol Iiniled lhenseIves lo denonslialions.
In 2OO7, a gioup of Yanlai veleians viole an open Iel-
381
lei diiecled lo 17 ILA geneiaIs pIeading foi lheii in-
leivenlion in lhe NalionaI IeopIes Congiess.
3O
In an-
olhei laclic, lhey laigeled one agency vhose poIicies
diev lhe nosl iie~lhe Hunan Resouices and SociaI
Secuiily Minisliy. In a cIass aclion Iavsuil hIed (lul
nol accepled) in lhe #2 Inleinediale Couil in eijing,
162,183 veleians fion aII ovei China sued lhe ninis-
lei, Yi Weinin, foi vioIaling Adninislialive Lav and
lhe iighls of veleians vho veie assigned ly lhe slale
lo enleipiises. MuIlipIe Iavs veie ciled as lhe lasis
foi lheii suil, incIuding lhe ALL (AilicIe II, CIauses
11, 5, 8), lhe MiIilaiy Seivice Lav (AilicIe 2), Ofhceis
Lav, lhe CeneiaI RuIes of CiviI Lav ([,]),
AilicIe 75, Seclion 2, and lhe NalionaI Defense Lav,
AilicIe 61. Theii denands veie quile specihc: ieslo-
ialion of lheii slalus and lenehls lhey deseive and
hnanciaI conpensalion (foi exanpIe, 48O,OOO inl foi
a geneiaI). The luIk of lhe Iavsuil, hovevei, focused
on issues ovei lhe Ioss of dignily. The ofhceis, accus-
loned lo a ceilain IeveI of defeience and iespecl, veie
veiy upsel vhen lhe Iaily iesponded lo IavfuI pe-
lilioning ly IaleIing lhen as an iIIegaI oiganizalion
lhal inciled and coIIuded vilh foieign hosliIe foices,
and alliiluled lheii piolIens onIy lo a ninoiily vilh
uIleiioi nolives and an ax lo giind. The Hunan Re-
souices and SociaI Secuiily Minisliy, lhe veleians feIl,
goes ils ovn vay, ignoiing nalionaI poIicy aloul vel-
eians, aII lhe vhiIe lIaning lhe iefoins foi lhe piol-
Iens, nol lad poIicies.
31
In 2O1O, veleians cIaining lo
iepiesenl 2O,OOO foinei ofhciaIs in Zhejiang posled an
open Iellei cIaining lhal one-fouilh of aII posl-1949
ofhceis had lheii iighls expiopiialed, and liaced lhis
deveIopnenl lo lhe eaiIy-199Os (vhen indusliiaI ie-
foin legan).
32

382
Ioinei ofhceis in China have leen ciled ly ofh-
ciaIs and aclivisls as a highIy sensilive secloi of lhe
popuIalion vho nighl sving a lide of pulIic opinion
in lheii favoi and againsl lhe iuIing Connunisl Iai-
ly.
33
Many veleians, I vouId aigue, vouId nol idenlify
vilh lhis ioIe al aII. As noled in an open Iellei posled
ly a gioup of ofhceis in Hunan piolesling oulside lhe
piovinciaI paily conpound:
in peaceline ve aie lhe gioup lhal is foigollen aloul,
sluck in a nook in a ienole coinei and onIy lhoughl
aloul vhen lhe counliy and peopIe need us, ve aie
veakei lhan lhe nosl vuIneialIe gioup (j,),
and ve discovei lhis onIy aflei ve have laken off oui
unifoin and ieenlei sociely.
In pail, lhis vas lecause lhe nedia does nol daie
inleiviev lhen and Iavyeis do nol daie lake lheii
cases. olh of lhese, as ve knov, aie key eIenenls of
lhe Hu-eia inleinaI secuiily poIicy.
34

O)AAR(@)#" >#%!!U "?% "@@A!
@O #%>#%!!'@+
Moie lhan anylhing, in lhe Iong hisloiicaI viev lhe
Hu eia viII IikeIy le ienenleied foi vhal I vouId
caII ils Confucian fascisl poIilicaI slyIe~ils lIend of
piopaganda aloul a hainonious sociely vilh viilu-
aIIy unIiniled capacily lo squash oiganized and sus-
lained dissenl lhanks lo ils liuIy gaiganluan secuiily
ludgel. Wilh iegaid lo veleians, lhe iegine puisues
a slialegy of Iiniled loIeiance foi pelilioning, onIine
conpIaining, and poIilicaI galheiing lo aIIov peopIe
lo Iel off slean (aIa Hundied IIoveis). Ils scallei-
shol (gueiiiIIa) poIicy slyIe lovaid veleians~seen in
lhe vide iange of ieguIalions, Iavs, and docunenls
383
affecling lhen~pionoles conpelilion and jeaIousIy
lelveen lhen. Cioups can noliIize lul cannol insli-
lulionaIize lheii denands via a nalionaI oiganizalion.
The Hu iegine aIso enpIoys a iange of laclics fion
lhe Mao yeais, as veII as lhose inpiovised lo handIe
pelilioneis aiound goveinnenl ofhces. AII lhis is done
undei lhe piogian of pievenlalive secuiily oi slaliI-
ily nainlenance (!')!'/ ||j heieaflei), cIoseIy as-
socialed vilh foinei IulIic Secuiily Minislei Zhou
Yongkang.
As seen in lhe veiy Iiniled nunlei of ailicIes on
veleian pelilioning in lhe ofhciaI piess,
35
lhe Hu ie-
gine has leen veiy effeclive Iiniling nedia covei-
age of veleian pelilioning and piolesl, pailicuIaiIy
lhe Iaigei ones. On lhe olhei hand, lhe goveinnenl
has nol shul dovn veleian lIogs and luIIelin loaids,
piolalIy, nainIy, lecause lhe audience foi lhese is
Iiniled lo peopIe aIieady in lhe knov, il piovides a
usefuI channeI foi popuIalion nanagenenl and inleI-
Iigence aloul veleians pIans and aclivilies~I an suie
goveinnenl agenls have inhIlialed lhese discussion
gioups, as lhey have paliiolic velsiles~and nuch of
il does nol suggesl inninenl coIIeclive aclion.
The slale has olhei soflei nelhods of nainlain-
ing sliicl civiIian conlioI ovei ils foinei niIilaiy
peisonneI. Ioi exanpIe, in Xuzhou in }iangsu Iiov-
ince, a poIicenan naned Sun Quanxin, a veleian
hinseIf, vas decIaied a candidale foi nodeI slalus
foi pievenling olhei veleians fion going lo eijing
lo pelilion and olheivise doing good !')!'/ voik.
36

Nevspapeis aIso heaped piaise on IocaI ofhciaIs
vho H-<.2,1J/=: deaIl vilh veleian piolIens ialhei
lhan aIIoving lhen lo deveIop inlo piolesls and pe-
lilions.
37
As pail of a siniIai canpaign in 2OO8, in
Daxing AnIing Disliicl in HeiIongjiang Iiovince,
384
IocaI ofhciaIs oiganized a speciaI lioulIeshooling
neeling foi iesoIving conliadiclions anong velei-
ans, vhich pievenled aII pelilioning incidenls.
38
A
docunenl posled ly lhe CiviI Affaiis uieau on lhe
velsile of Haikou Cily on Ieliuaiy 29, 2O12, noled a
speciaI !')!'/ voik neeling focused on noniloiing
lhe aclivilies of veleians vho eilhei have veIfaie and
iesellIenenl piolIens, denand iecognilion of hav-
ing pailicipaled in lallIe, oi foinei civiIian voikeis
[and peopIes niIilia peisonneI vho veie in
lhe Xisha (IaiaceI) NavaI lallIe vho seek lenehls.
When veleians such as lhese Ieave oui juiisdiclion,
lhe docunenl insliucled, ofhciaIs had lo liack lhen
dovn in nan-on-nan coveiage vhenevei and vhei-
evei lhey venl.
39

These iepoils, enphasizing Mao-eia nodeIs,
canpaign-slyIe noliIizalion aiound ceilain poIilicaI
caIendai evenls (Ainy Day) and giass-iools cadies
luisls of aclivisn on lehaIf of veleians, IaigeIy iepie-
senl lhe soflei side of Hu }inlaos sociaI nanagenenl
piogian, and lheiefoie lhe side noie IikeIy lo le ie-
poiled in lhe ofhciaI piess. Quile a diffeienl peispec-
live can le seen in lhe nuneious posls ly veleians
vho veie invoIved in vaiious foins of individuaI and
coIIeclive aclion. In lhese posls, convincing veleians
lo ieluin hone, liacking, and nan-lo-nan coveiage
aie euphenisns foi an enliie syslen of suiveiIIance
(ieaI voiId and onIine), phone lapping, lealings,
delenlions, and foiced educalion of lhe lype lhal ie-
suIled in lhe dealh ly slaivalion of Xu Lingjun, lhe
veleians case discussed al lhe leginning of lhis chap-
lei. Ioi exanpIe, a veleian naned Ieng Cuansheng
fion Shandong vas delained iecenlIy foi 17 days jusl
foi nenlioning pIans lo join sone of lhe 9Olh Annivei-
saiy ceIelialions |of lhe CCIj on }uIy 1sl onIine. The
385
poIice, he said, had hin undei suiveiIIance foi high-
Iighling sone of lhe inequaIilies and injuslices in lhe
liealnenl of veleians, and noled lhal anolhei velei-
an fion Wuhan had his conpulei conhscaled aflei he
liaveIed lo Henan piovince lo neel vilh olhei foinei
ILA peisonneI.
4O
In a lovn undei lhe juiisdiclion of
Chengdu, seven veleians veie having lea one sun-
nei day in 2O11 vhen lhey veie appioached ly an
ofhciaI vilh 3O pIaincIolhes poIicenen vho iequesled
lhal lhe veleians go vilh lhen. The veleians asked,
Is having lea iIIegaI` We aie vai veleians, and
Cive us a foinaI sulpoena. One cop said, If ve did
lhal, youd aIieady le goneis (||), and lhen
look lhen avay. Al lhe Wannianchang poIice slalion
in Chengdu, one veleian, hoping lhal his niIilaiy
ciedenliaIs vouId heIp hin, said, We aie vai velei-
ans, lo vhich lhe poIicenan iepoiledIy said, Youve
foughl in a vai, vhals so gIoiious |aloul lhalj` The
veleians veie indignanl and ieloiled, If iepeIIing a
foieign invasion isnl gIoiious, vhal is` Coiiuplion`
Hiiing pioslilules` If ve venl lo vai ly nislake, ask
lhe goveinnenl lo lake us lo lhe peopIe of Vielnan
and apoIogize. This siIenced lhe poIice on lhal issue,
lul lhey sliII vanled inleIIigence: Whal veie you
guys laIking aloul` Whal aie you pIanning on lhe
28lh` Aflei lhis oideaI, lhe lea-line veleians posled
lheii expeiience onIine and cIained lo have ieceived
iesponses fion coniades aII aiound lhe counliy vho
vanled lhe goveinnenl lo denand an expIanalion foi
vhal happened.
41
As aIieady discussed in lhe pievious seclions,
lheie I.J/ W//7 piolesls invoIving veleians lhiough-
oul lhe Hu eia, and even as iecenlIy as Iale-Ieliuaiy
2O12, vhen foinei ofhceis fion lhe ainy and navy
slaged a piolesl oulside ILA headquaileis in eijing,
386
sone caIIing foi lhe niIilaiy lo slep in lo hghl poIili-
caI coiiuplion (vhich lhey lIane foi lheii Iack of pen-
sion incone) and olheis cIaining conpensalions foi
injuiies ieceived vhiIe on duly on lhe ILAs ieseaich
and lesling unils.
42
lciucn is nol skin lighl. ul vhal
happens vhen veleians aiiive in eijing, piovinciaI
capilaIs, and lovnship ofhces denanding lellei lieal-
nenl` Does niIilaiy seivice cul lhen a lieak vhen
deaIing vilh lhe secuiily appaialus` Repoils hIed ly
veleians suggesl lhal pelilioning .6 . J/,/-.7 is nol
veiy diffeienl lhan pelilioning as an oidinaiy peison
aflei lhe ciackdovn in nass pelilioning in 2OO6. In
a lovn neai Shenzhen, a Vielnan Wai veleian sui-
naned Li cIained in a viillen iepoil posled on lhe
MiIilaiy Spiiil sile, lhal he vas lealen ly lhe paily
secielaiy, vho aIso foiced his vife lo gel an aloilion
and lulaI Iigalion, aflei he legan pelilioning (lecause
il nade lhe paily secielaiy Iose face). He vas aIso
pIaced undei suiveiIIance. Li nay have leen pai-
licuIaiIy lioulIesone lecause, aflei lhe vai he couId
nol do agiicuIluiaI Ialoi, and vas invoIved in a IocaI
Veleians Iiiendship Associalion lhal pushed foi
noie assislance vilh nedicaI expenses. Accoiding
lo lhe veleians iecoIIeclion of lheii conveisalion, lhe
paily secielaiy noled lhal veleians piolIens leIong
lo lhe pievious goveinnenl and have nolhing lo do
vilh hin.
43

SiniIai aluses can aIso le seen al lhe counly IeveI.
In May 2O1O, 3O unenpIoyed and disalIed veleians
veie vailing al a liain slalion in Sichuan vhiIe on
lheii vay lo pelilion in eijing. ul lhey veie nol
aIone. Tiacked ly ofhciaIs in lheii hone connu-
nily, lhey veie pushed oul of lhe vailing ioon ly
lhe paily secielaiy of lhe IoIilicaI-LegaI Connillee
of Zhongjiang Counly and olheis vho did nol have
387
cIeai idenlihcalion. The veleians cIained lhal lhey
veie lealen al lhe lickel inspeclion aiea. The veleians
pouied oul lheii fiuslialions, conpIaining lhal lhey
have enduied iidicuIe, coId liealnenl, inlinidalion,
lhieals, and lealings ly IocaI ofhciaIs. Aie ve no-
lodies ()|)` Whal nislakes have ve connilled`
Sociely! Hov did disalIed veleians end up in lhis
liagic slale` Coveinnenl! Hov have lhe heioes of
lhe pasl lecone youi luidensone nuisance and vic-
lins of loday`
44
We cannol knov hov nany veleians slailed lheii
jouiney lo eijing fion lhe piovinces and nevei nade
il lheie lecause of lhese IocaI IeveI secuiily opeialions.
AcluaIIy naking il lo lhe capilaI is no snaII achieve-
nenl. ul escaping lhe IocaIily is no guaianlee of an
anonynous aiiivaI. Il appeais lhal veleians aie cIose-
Iy liacked ly counly and piovinciaI iepiesenlalive
ofhces in eijing, and lhese iepiesenlalives aie un-
dei inlense piessuie (undei a quola syslen) lo nake
suie lhal lheii veleians do nol ienain foi Iong. In a
Iong Iellei viillen ly a foinei Aii Ioice coIoneI fion
Changsha (Liu Nanzheng, joined ILA in 1968 and
CCI in 197O, a ievoIulionaiy nailyis son) lo Iieniei
Wen }ialao, ve can see hov lhis voiks. On }anuaiy
12, 2O1O, Liu, vilh 1OO olhei ofhceis fion his counly,
venl lo lhe Slale CounciIs Lelleis and Visils Ofhce lo
iepoil aloul veleian ofhceis piolIens. Aflei lheii pe-
lilioning vas ovei, lhe Changsha eijing Ofhce look
hin and his coniade, vho had aIieady leen lealen
ly lhe Xicheng Disliicl IulIic Secuiily uieau on a
pievious pelilioning iun, lo lhe eijing Anyuanding
Secuiily Iiin, vheie lhey ienained in cuslody foi 3
days. WhiIe in delenlion, lhey nel olhei ofhceis vho
had leen svepl up, incIuding one fion Shaanxi vho
pieviousIy had leen heId al lhe Shaanxi eijing Ofhce.
efoie lhey veie senl lack lo lheii iespeclive piov-
388
inces (couilesy of lhe Lelleis and Visils ofhciaIs in lhe
iepiesenlalive ofhces), lhe ofhceis liied lo hguie oul
lhe delenlion syslen ly asking lheii guaids, noslIy
2O-yeai-oId nen. Theii guaids veie Ioose-Iipped, and
loId lhe ofhceis lhal lhey veie noslIy enIisled soI-
dieis vilh lhe CenliaI Cuaids uieau, lul olhei such
hins enpIoyed soIdieis of lhe secuiily slaffs of ninis-
liies and connissions. The Anyuanding hin, vhich
vas a piivale enleipiise lhal enpIoyed ioughIy 3,OOO
peopIe and eained U.S.$3.1 niIIion in 2OO8, voiked
veiy cIoseIy vilh lhe eijing IulIic Secuiily uieau
and Lelleis and Visils Ofhce~lhe unil sone pelilion-
eis lhink viII heIp lhen oul. Theii speciaIly vas guaid
voik, especiaIIy liinging pelilioneis in eijing lack
lo lheii hone lovns. The foinei ofhceis assessed lhe
nolives and opeialions: IocaI ofhciaIs vanl lo nake
peopIe disappeai so lhal lhe exislence of pelilioneis in
eijing viII nol danage lheii caieeis, and lhey pay foi
lhe seivice of exliacling pelilioneis, Ieaving lhe Iogis-
lics lo lheii iepiesenlalive ofhces. IoIIoving lhe hnan-
ciaI liaiI heie is difhcuIl~counly goveinnenls pay a
secuiily hin lhal hiies soIdieis~lul disceining lhe
Iaigei pallein is nol easy.
45
The paianoid concein vilh
sociaI slaliIily and hainony has enpoveied secuiily
foices lhal opeiale vilhoul nuch iegaid foi ieguIa-
lions, poIicies, oi lhe Conslilulion, Ieaving nany vel-
eians in lhe sane loal as olhei vuIneialIe popuIalions
in conlenpoiaiy China.
(@+(A)!'@+! $+* >@A'(E 'D>A'($"'@+!
O@# "?% )+'"%* !"$"%!
Looking al veleians piolesls and pelilioning and
hov lhey aie liealed ly civiIian ofhciaIs, lhis chap-
lei has aigued lhal lhey occupy a faiiIy piecaiious
389
posilion in lhe IRCs poIilicaI syslen, as veII as in
lhe econony (since nany aie nol veII-off, lhe Iallei
suieIy inpacls lhe foinei). CiviIian aulhoiilies hoId
lhe liunp caids. Diffeienl goveinnenl oigans issue
ieguIalions, opinions, and guideIines lhal, vhen nol
confusing eveiyone, seive lo pievenl sliong oiganiza-
lionaI cohesion~ofhceis aie nainIy hghling foi lhen-
seIves, nol enIisled nen~naking inleiesl aggiegalion
quile chaIIenging. Of couise, lheie aie veleians vho
I.J/ found voik aflei lheii denoliIizalion, and lheii
inleiesls viII diveige fion lhose of lhe piolesleis.
Divide-and-iuIe, oi vhal lhe hisloiian Chen Yung-
fa caIIed conlioIIed poIaiizalion, is veiy effeclive in
pievenling a uniled fionl. To dale, veleian oiganiza-
lions opeiale al lhe IocaI IeveI and aie vuIneialIe lo
slale penelialion and iepiession. The goveinnenl has
Iiniled lhe capacily of couils, Iavyeis, and lhe nedia
fion chanpioning lheii cause, and oidinaiy civiIians
do nol appeai lo le pailicuIaiIy enanoied of lheii he-
ioic conliilulions. The secuiily appaialus is poveifuI,
iich and viiluaIIy unaccounlalIe.
The piecaiious poIilicaI and econonic slalus of
niIilaiy peisonneI in China is nol Iosl anong Chinas
youlh, vho nighl le quile pioud of Chinas gioving
slienglh lul vho aIso shov exlieneIy IillIe inleiesl
in niIilaiy affaiis oi a niIilaiy caieei. In a sludy of
ieciuilnenl piolIens in 9&$)4/&2 ?'H'/-' (]|) naga-
zine, Liu Wei, Can Mou, and Ma Zengfei found lhal aII
lhe piolIens affecling veleians nake il difhcuIl lo al-
liacl peopIe lo lhe ILA. Anong ieasons ciled foi Iack
of inleiesl veie hnanciaI Ioss, insufhcienl lenehls,
pooi conpensalion, and neagei aIIovances and saIa-
iies. Moieovei, upon dischaige, gelling a jol is veiy
difhcuIl. Wei, Mou and Ma nole lhal in eveiy aiea il
is connonIy iepoiled lhal lhe nunlei of veleians
gelling jols gels Iovei yeai-lo-yeai, and lhal lhe phe-
39O
nonenon of gelling a jol lhen Iosing il is a connon
occuiience. TeIIingIy, and in conliasl lo lhe hypeiloIe
of slieel piolesleis, lhe aulhois sliessed a veaken-
ing defense consciousness anong diafl-age youlh,
vho soughl lo puisue advanced sludies, gel a jol~
and peihaps aflei lhis join lhe ILA. In a queslionnaiie
of 1O,OOO iecenlIy giadualed youlh in one cily, Iess
lhan 5 peicenl nighl even considei joining lhe ainy
(_j).
46
Veleians olseivalions lhal lhe
pooi liealnenl neled oul lo lhen vouId have seiious
consequences in leins of noiaIe and suppoil foi lhe
ILA in sociely appeai lo have leen on lhe naik.
These hndings have seveiaI poIicy inpIicalions foi
lhe Uniled Slales. Iiisl, lhe Uniled Slales shouId le
caiefuI nol lo oveieslinale lhe Chinese pulIics sup-
poil foi lhe ILA, oi conicl, lased on liansienl, ne-
dia-saluialed evenls, Iike anli-Aneiican oi }apanese
piolesls, oi caIIs foi loycolls on nalionaIisl velsiles.
AIlhough lheie is a popuIai eIenenl in lhese aclivi-
lies, lheie aIso is a Iaige degiee of slale oicheslialion,
inlended lo gain Ieveiage in negolialions (as in ve
cannol conpionise lecause of oui paliiolic pulIic
opinion). We sinpIy do nol knov vhich faclions
aie noliIizing vhich piolesleis, and vhy peopIe aie
oul on lhe slieel (in lhe iecenl piolesls againsl }apan,
I heaid lhal nany piolesleis veie chiIdien of dovn-
sized veleians and pensioned off voikeis vho veie
noie upsel aloul lheii Iife ciicunslances lhan aloul
lhe Diaoyu IsIands, lhe sanclioned piolesls gave lhen
an opening lo speak oul). Noi do ve have a handIe
on hov nany paliiolic lIoggeis gel paid ly lhe gov-
einnenl pei chaiaclei lhey viile. My chaplei, lheie-
foie, uiges a consideialion of Chinese niIilaiisn oi
paliiolisn fion lhe peispeclive of on-lhe-giound in-
leiaclions and lehaviois, nol inageiy, piopaganda oi
foinaI poIicy.
391
Second, lhe Uniled Slales shouId aIvays keep in
nind lhe exlieneIy conpIex naluie of Chinese feeI-
ings aloul lhe ILA and CCI. In conliasl lo lhe nedia
accounls, lolh in China and lhe Uniled Slales, vhich
lend lovaid a nonochionalic and fiequenlIy nega-
live depiclion of Chinese vievs lovaid us, }apan, and
aieas of dispule such as lhe Diaoyus,
47
I vouId aigue
lhal Chinese fiequenlIy disagiee vilh anli-Aneiican
goveinnenl piopaganda, conlesl lhe ofhciaI Iine
aloul lhe Iegilinacy of ils vais, and lend lovaid a
high degiee of piagnalisn vhen you dig a lil undei
lhe suiface. (Ioi exanpIe, lheie is no evidence lhal ap-
pIicalions foi U.S. visas lo sludy heie has decIined).
If lheie aie signihcanl cosls lo a niIilaiy exchange,
one lhal viII inpacl liade, cause unenpIoynenl and
uniesl, diveslnenl, and iesliicled access lo Aneiican
inslilulions of highei educalion, I an dulious lhal
lhe goveinnenl oi lhe pulIic viII suppoil il. In lhis
iespecl, concein vilh doneslic slaliIily is an inleinaI
luIvaik againsl iash niIilaiy advenluiisn.
IinaIIy, Chinese poIicynaking needs lo le undei-
slood lhiough lhe piisn of fiagnenlalion, decenliaI-
izalion, conpelilion lelveen faclions, and uncIeai
Iines of aulhoiily~veiy nuch conliaiy lo lhe inage
piesenled ly lhe Chinese goveinnenl lo lhe voiId al
Iaige. In lhe case of veleians, ve can see lhal lhe ILA
has veiy IillIe cIoul in piolecling lheii foinei peison-
neI fion aluse, IocaI goveinnenls ignoie nalionaI
poIicy al IillIe cosl lo lhen, and piivalizalion of slale
funclions~even pulIic secuiily~nakes il haid lo hg-
uie vho is iesponsilIe foi poIicynaking and inpIe-
nenlalion. Aneiicans shouId nevei luy inlo lhe auia
of cohesiveness lhal lhe Chinese slale piojecls lovaid
ils doneslic and foieign audiences.
392
%+*+@"%! R (?$>"%# b
1. See [j,)[ji;[
(An InauguiaI Open Lellei lo lhe Zhejiang Iiovince ly lhe As-
socialion of Reliied Ofhceis of Zhejiang Lnleipiises), avaiIalIe
fion o|cg.ocxun.ccn/ncrc/201107/tcicccftc|cran/63_1.sn|n|.
2. See Chiislophei odeen, Ovei 2,OOO ex-soIdieis iiol in
Noilh China ovei iaiIvay liaining~HK Iapei, Associaled Iiess
Aichive, Seplenlei 11, 2OO7, HK Iapei: DenoliIized SoIdieis-
5+%/',-Sludenls in HeiIongjiang CIash vilh IoIice, ;)/( E&4
(Inleinel veision), lcr|d Ncus Ccnncc|icn dalalase, Nevs Ldge
Docunenl Nunlei 2OO7O9151477.1_5229O238d22f2c6d, Seplen-
lei 15, 2OO7.
3. Ivan Zhai, Reliied Ainy Lngineeis Slage RaIIy ovei
Iension, 88C lcr|duidc Mcni|cring-Asia Pacijc, Decenlei 19,
2OO8. AilicIe oiiginaIIy appeaied in lhe #4+$6 @6)/& ;4%/)/(
E4-$ velsile.
4. P,|;)jL;]{ (Aloul One Hundied
ILA Veleians fion Weifang, Shandong Cane lo Tianannen),
C&,)4 F%'' >-)&, }uIy 21, 2OO9.
5. See o|cg.ocxun.ccn/ncrc/201108/tcicccftc|cran/17_1/sn|n|.
6. (j,||,[ (In Cuangxi
1,OOO Vielnan vai-eia oId soIdieis naiched lo denand econonic
assislance), C&,)4 F%'' >-)&, Decenlei 27, 2O11.
7. To le suie, veleian piolesls and pelilions aie, Iike aII pio-
lesl novenenls, ninoiily phenonena~nosl Afiican-Aneiicans,
aflei aII, did nol naich in SeIna, AL, oi Washinglon, DC, and
nosl of lhose did nol viile aloul lheii expeiience. The najoi-
ily of Aneiicans did nol join Occupy WaII Slieel oi viile aloul
il. This, hovevei, does nol nean lhal lhe piolesls did nol ieveaI
sonelhing nuch Iaigei occuiiing in poIilics and sociely: lhe CiviI
Righls piolesleis caIIed allenlion lo ieaI and videspiead iacisn
and Occupy WaII Slieel lo signihcanl and ieaI incone inequaIily.
8. LnlilIenenl gioup has leen used ly Maik LdeIe in his
exhauslive sludy of Soviel veleians. See his #4G)'$ U'$'%&/- 4H $6'
393
Scccnd lcr|d lar. A Pcpu|ar Mctcncn| in an Au|ncri|arian Sccic|q,
1941-1991, Oxfoid, UK: Oxfoid Univeisily Iiess, 2OO8, p. 185.
9. .B),., p. 187.
1O. See Chang-lai Hong: Maos Iaiades: Slale Specla-
cIes in China in lhe 195Os, 56' @6)/& O+&%$'%21, No.19O, }une
2OO7, pp. 417-418.
11. This seclion ieIies heaviIy upon ny hndings in NeiI }. Dia-
nanl, |noa|||cd G|crq. Vc|crans, Mi|i|arq |ani|ics and |nc Pc|i|ics cf
Pa|ric|isn in Cnina, 1949-2007, Lanhan, MD: Rovnan and LillIe-
heId, 2OO9.
12. Vicloi Shih, Wei Shan, and Mingxing Lu, The CenliaI
Connillee Iasl and Iiesenl: A Melhod foi Quanlifying LIile i-
ogiaphies, Iapei piesenled al lhe Woikshop on Melhods and
Souices in Chinese IoIilics, Ann Ailoi, MI, Univeisily of Michi-
gan, Novenlei 3-5, 2OO6.
13. Shandong xinzheng gonglao (Shandong IiovinciaI
Aichives, }inan), Decenlei 1954, p. 13.
14. See LdeIe, p. 162.
15. See MichaeI Weisskofl: 3,OOO Veleians Said lo RevoIl
in Iiolesl Ovei Tiealnenl, Tnc lasning|cn Pcs|, Decenlei 12,
1981, Diananl, Chaplei 8. Weisskofl caIIs lhen lhe DisiIIusioned
Ainy.
16. See Selaslian HeiInann and LIizalelh }. Ieiiy, eds., Macs
./G)-)B2' :&/,= 56' E42)$)*&2 F4+/,&$)4/- 4H >,&A$)G' L4G'%/&/*' )/
@6)/& , Canliidge, MA: Haivaid Univeisily Iiess, 2O12.
17. Chang-lai Hung, OiI Iainlings and IoIilics: Weaving a
Heioic TaIe of lhe Chinese Connunisl RevoIulion, @40A&%&$)G'
#$+,)'- )/ #4*)'$1 &/, :)-$4%1, VoI. 49, No. 4, Oclolei 2OO7, p. 784.
Lnphasis ly lhis aulhoi.
18. See LiIy Qu, Nev Ainy ReguIalions Undeiscoie lhe
IIighl of lhe Chinese Ainy, @6)/&-*4A', Oclolei 2OO5, p. 19.
19. See Diananl, Chaps. 2 and 3.
394
2O. See )[;).+;,)j1]||,
| (Xu Kaishengs appeaI: A fugilive legging in ei-
jing, I aIso vanl lo conlinue lo piolecl ny iighls), avaiIalIe fion
o|cg.ocxun.ccn/ncrc/201106/tcicccftc|cran/26_1.sn|n| /.
21. See, foi inslance, ]])|jjL;,[
)|[|,)] (An open Iellei lo Mayoi Liu fion veleians
enpIoyed ly lhe LaoIong Hailoi uieau of Heyuan Cily, Cuang-
dong), avaiIalIe fion o|cg.ocxun.ccn/ncrc/201107/tcicccftc|cr-
an/12_1.sn|n|.
22. |]j,|,], (Iholos of Vielnan veleians
pelioning in Cansu), avaiIalIe fion o|cg.ocxun.ccn/ncrc/201107/
tcicccftc|cran/45_1.sn|n|.
23. ]]|]35O(|j|,|,|
|[| (35O veleians fion lhe vai lo Suppoil Vielnan and
Resisl lhe Uniled Slales in Taoyuan Counly, Hunan, sliongIy ie-
quesl lhe liealnenl ve deseive), avaiIalIe fion o|cg.ocxun.ccn/
ncrc/201107/tcicccftc|cran/44_1.sn|n|.
24. Iosled on WoiId Nevs Conneclion, via Infoinalion Cen-
lei foi Hunan Righls and Denociacy, Decenlei 29, 2O11.
25. Ioi lhe eaiIy pail of lhe case, see j),
;[][,];}||(Conlal veleians
Liang Cuangfa and Liu HaiIin veie lealen ly poIice vhiIe pe-
lilioning in eiIiu Cily, Cuangxi),[),
` (The giievance of coniades-in-ains in YuIin Cily), avaiI-
alIe fion o|cg.ocxun.ccn/ncrc/201107/tcicccftc|cran/49_1.sn|n|.
The veidicl is avaiIalIe fion B2-H1"*6)/&*4+%$"4%(3A+B2)*3A&A'%G)'!"
pnp?id=703196.
26. Hanish McDonaId, Veleians piolesl unsellIes eijing,
56' >(', ApiiI 16, 2OO5.
27. P,|;) (Aloul One Hundied ILA Veleians
fion Weifang, Shandong), C&,)4 F%'' >-)&, }uIy 21, 2OO9.
28. Ng Tze-vei and Minnie Chan: OId SoIdieis Iade Avay,
#4+$6 @6)/& ;4%/)/( E4-l, Augusl 3, 2OO7.
395
29. Mass piolesls iepoiled in Chinas Henan, Shandong and
Tianjin, 88C Mcni|cring Asia-Pacijc, May 23, 2OO9.
3O. |+_!) (Yanlai
P6+&/1' (&/B+ seek lo expiess lheii posl-denoliIizalion pIighl al
lhe 17lh NIC), C&,)4 F%'' >-)&, Augusl 23, 2OO7.
31. ]162,183 ([||;)| (A
Iavsuil hIed ly 162,183 P6+&/1' (&/B+ fion aiound lhe counliy
againsl lhe Hunan Resouices Minisliy), avaiIalIe fion B24("
ocxun.ccn/ncrc/201106/tcicccftc|cran/14_1.sn|n|. Ioi anolhei cIass
aclion Iavsuil (iejecled on lhe giounds of juiisdiclion in ALL
cases) in Hulei, hIed in lhe IiovinciaI Supiene Couil ly 6,823
veleian ofhceis, see ]j|;[,||[]j6823
(!|;])|[]]| (Silualion iepoil
aloul Hulei Supiene Couils iefusaI lo accepl lhe Iavsuil hIed
ly 6,823 P6+&/1' (&/B+ in indusliy againsl lhe Hunan Resouices
Minisliy), avaiIalIe fion o|cg.ocxun.ccn/ncrc/201107/tcicccftc|-
cran/19_1.sn|n|.
32. AvaiIalIe fion uuu.|ncgrca|ua||.ccn.cn/puo|ic/indcx.
pnp?C_|D=33835c8_|D=11174cac|icn=C_cdi|.
33. CaII foi Ainy lo Iighl Ciafl, Ieliuaiy 23, 2O12.
34. jL;1!]] (Veleians and P6+&/1'
soIdieis and ofhceis venl lo lhe Hunan Iaily Connillee), avaiI-
alIe fion o|cg.ocxun.ccn/ncrc/201106/tcicccftc|cran/19_1.sn|n|.
35. I have conducled a ooIean seaich of lhe CNKI dalalase of
lhe IRC piess (lhe Iaigesl in lhe voiId) foi jL;,/)
;, (veleians pelilioning) and cone up aInosl enply handed.
36. See n.a. ,)](jj|,];j, (An-
nouncenenl of lhe deeds of Xuzhous second iound of candidales
foi nodeIs of noiaI lehavioi) J+P64+ %)B&4, Ieliuaiy 1O, 2O11.
37. See n.a. |||j (Advance lhe Tvo
Suppoils~piefeienliaI liealnenl foi niIilaiy dependenls and
nailyi faniIies and veleian iesellIenenl), J+&/*6'/( %)B&4,
Ieliuaiy 26, 2OO8.
396
38. See n.a. ][|) (My disliicls 'nuluaI
suppoil voik), avaiIalIe fion uuu.dxa|ro.ccn/ncus_ticu.
asp?ncus|D=15052.
39. ])[|j]|)[)jL;|
[ (Uigenl nolihcalion of lhe Haikou Cily, uieau of
CiviI Affaiis iegaiding slaliIily nainlenance voik anong velei-
ans duiing lhe nalionaI congiesses) avaiIalIe fion !!!"6&)I4+"
gct.cn/rcc|9/0112/201202/|20120229_469810.n|n. Ioi a siniIai
docunenl issued ly lhe IulIic Secuiily uieau of lhe Zhanjiang
loidei disliicl in Cuangdong, see j|[[352(
j,jL;+, (352 veleians fion lhe Zhenjiang
oidei ConlioI Delachnenl aiea of conlioI have leen pelililion-
ing foi lhiee conseculive yeais) avaiIalIe fion !!!"0A-"(4G"*/3
n16/n80254/n1126657/2388971.n|n|. Accoiding lo lhis iepoil, lhis
aiea had 352 veleians, IaigeIy fion lhe Vielnan Wai. Sevenly-
foui peicenl of lhe veleians veie faineis. In 2OO5 and 2OO6, lhey
pelilioned on 16 sepaiale occasions, and in May 2OO6, 2O venl lo
eijing and quielIy sal in Tianannen Squaie.
4O. Veleians Iiolesl Ovei WeIfaie, C&,)4 F%'' >-)&, }une
29, 2O11.
41. j_(j,||| (Seven oId Vielnan
veleians fion Chengdu veie delained vhiIe diinking lea),
avaiIalIe fion o|cg.ocxun.ccn/ncrc/201106/tcicccftc|cran/7_1.sn|n|.
42. CaII foi Ainy lo Iighl Ciafl, C&,)4 F%'' >-)&, Ieliuaiy
23, 2O12.
43. The .jpg docunenl vas copied lo lhe Voice of Veleians
sile fion MiIilaiy Spiiil. See ,),|||)
(OId conlal veleians fion Shenzhen veie foicilIy ieluined
hone), avaiIalIe fion o|cg.ocxun.ccn/ncrc/201106/tcicccftc|cr-
an/5_1.sn|n|.
44. See )j[)]|_;|`j|j,'
|| (UnenpIoyed disalIed veleians lealen and iepiessed ly
IocaI goveinnenl ofhciaIs in Zhongjiang counly, Deyang Cily,
Sichuan), avaiIalIe fion o|cg.ocxun.ccn/ncrc/201106/tcicccftc|-
cran/13_1.sn|n|.
397
45. This secuiily hin has since leen shul dovn, peihaps le-
cause of lhese ofhceis conneclions, aflei exposes in @&)M)/( and
#4+$6'%/ ;'$%4A42)$&/ ?&)21. See Andiev }acols, China Invesli-
gales Iiin Linked lo 'Iack }aiIs, Ncu Ycr| Tincs, Seplenlei
27, 2O1O.
46. See Liu Wei, Can Mou, and Ma Zengfei ([, ,,
): j|[[/({,_, (IiolIens in Re-
ciuilnenl Woik and Thoughls aloul Counleineasuies), L+4-
H&/( (9&$)4/&2 ?'H'/-'), No. 5, 2O11, pp. 22-23.
47. The ofhciaI viev of }apans foieign poIicy is ailicuIaled
in lhe Slale CounciIs Infoinalion Ofhces The Diveisihed Ln-
pIoynenl of Chinas Ained Ioices, ApiiI 2O13. }apan is nak-
ing lioulIe ovei lhe issue of lhe Diaoyu IsIands. The Uniled
Slales vas nol nenlioned ly nane, lul vas accused lo incieas-
ing lensions in lhe iegion ly slienglhening ils niIilaiy aIIianc-
es and expanding ils piesence in lhe iegion. See '/("04,"(4G"*/3
TcpNcus/2013-04/16/ccn|cn|_4442750.n|n.
399
(?$>"%# ML
"@;$#* !"#$"%&'( A%$*%#!?'>U
(?'+%!% (@DD)+'!" >$#"E >%@>A%B!
A'C%#$"'@+ $#DE #%A$"'@+!
'+ "?% ?) %#$
"19<,I: #8 ?/.,I
The vievs expiessed ly lhis aulhoi aie his ovn and do
nol necessaiiIy ieecl lhe ofhciaI poIicy oi posilion of
lhe U.S. Iacihc Connand, lhe Depailnenl of Defense,
oi lhe Uniled Slales Coveinnenl.
The aulhoi vouId Iike lo iecognize }ohn Coilell foi
seiving as discussanl and foi his invaIualIe heIp in
ievieving diafls of lhis chaplei. The aulhoi is aIso
gialefuI foi insighlfuI connenls fion Chad Sliagia,
Lonnie HenIey, MichaeI Chase, and IauI MancineIIi.
D$'+ $#&)D%+"
The CCIs decision lo dehne ilseIf as a goveining
paily al lhe slail of lhe Hu }inlao eia iepiesenled a
ciilicaI shifl in lhe dynanics undeipinning lhe pailys
Ieadeiship of lhe niIilaiy. Duiing lhe eia of Hu }in-
lao, lhe Chinese Connunisl Iaily (CCI) deepened
iefoins lhal loIsleied ils aliIily lo Iead a piofession-
aIizing niIilaiy. The iefoins ained lo slienglhen lhe
CCI as an oiganizalion, iendei paily-niIilaiy ieIa-
lions noie funclionaI and iesiIienl, and inpiove lhe
CCIs aliIily lo piovide slialegic Ieadeiship. These
changes have enalIed a giealei degiee of dynanisn
and exiliIily in lhe CCIs Ieadeiship of lhe IeopIes
Lileialion Ainy (ILA). Hovevei, lhe iefoins have
aIso encouiaged a fiagnenlalion of paily aulhoiily
4OO
aIong nalionaI and niIilaiy Iines. This fiagnenlalion
of aulhoiily, exaceilaled ly lhe peisislence of veak
slale and niIilaiy inslilulions and lhe CCIs oveiaII
poIilicaI vuIneialiIilies, inlioduces nev chaIIenges lo
ensuiing paily Ieadeiship of lhe niIilaiy.
>@A'(E 'D>A'($"'@+!
- Refoins designed lo inpiove lhe effecliveness
of paily Ieadeiship vilhoul suiiendeiing con-
lioI of lhe niIilaiy aie IikeIy lo conlinue undei
Xis CCI Ieadeiship. These iefoins have iesuIl-
ed in a noie exilIe, conpelenl CCI iegine
capalIe of Ieading lhe niIilaiys peaceline ac-
livilies. So Iong as lhe CCI conlinues lo nake
necessaiy adjuslnenls lo ils Ieadeiship slyIe,
lhe ILA has consideialIe ioon lo giov as a
piofessionaI foice even as il ienains a paily-
Ied niIilaiy.
- The Iong-lein suivivaI of lhe ILA as a paily-
Ied niIilaiy, hovevei, is Iess cIeai. The Iong-
lein piospecls foi lhe pailys evoIving slyIe
of Ieadeiship uIlinaleIy depends on lhe CCIs
viIIingness lo adopl changes lhal louch on fun-
danenlaI piincipIes of Leninisl iuIe, such as
neasuies lhal Iinil paily penelialion and con-
lioI of aII oiganizalions.
- Despile lhe iefoins, lhe ILA conlinues lo suf-
fei fion lhe CCIs lioadei piolIens of poIili-
caI veakness and fiagnenlalion of aulhoiily.
These vuIneialiIilies aie IikeIy lo exaceilale
piolIens of connand and conlioI in unanlici-
paled silualions. Undeislanding lhe conpIex-
ily of lhe ieIalionship lelveen nalionaI CCI
and ILA Ieadeiship can heIp U.S. poIicynakeis
4O1
navigale secuiily-ieIaled foieign poIicy ciises
vilh eijing.
'+"#@*)("'@+
The ioIe of paily Ieadeiship in lhe iefoin-eia ILA
has leen anaIyzed fion nany peispeclives. Sone
schoIais have expIoied lhe chaIIenge lhal a piofes-
sionaIizing ILA has posed lo liadilionaI nechanisns
of paily conlioI.
1
Olheis have noled lhe gioving slale
piesence, posiling a paily-slale-niIilaiy.
2
Yel sliII olh-
eis have sludied paily-niIilaiy ieIalions vilhin lhe
conlexl of eIile poIilics.
3
Mosl of lhese sludies agiee
lhal lhe ILA has evoIved inlo a unique syslen fea-
luiing eIenenls of lolh a poIilicaI and piofessionaI
niIilaiy.
4
Hovevei, as lhe CCI discaids even lhe nosl lasic
lenels of Maixisl oilhodoxy in puisuil of a noie ex-
ilIe, piagnalic ideoIogy, queslions foi lhe posl-Mao
ILA have gained a nev sense of uigency. Whal does
connunisl Ieadeiship of a niIilaiy nean vilhoul lhe
pailys connilnenl lo connunisn` Can a poIilicaI
niIilaiy opeiale apail fion ils oiiginaI poIilicaI iden-
lily` This chaplei viII aigue lhal lhe CCIs decision
lo dehne ilseIf as a goveining paily al lhe slail of
lhe Hu }inlao eia iepiesenled a ciilicaI shifl in lhe
dynanics undeipinning lhe pailys Ieadeiship of lhe
niIilaiy. Il viII expIoie lhis shifl ly hisl pioviding an
oveiviev of paily niIilaiy ieIalions and lhen high-
Iighling eIenenls of lhe ILAs evoIulion in poIilicaI
idenlily. Tuining lo lhe Hu eia, lhe chaplei viII aigue
lhal poIilicaI iefoins lo inpiove lhe CCIs poIilicaI
effecliveness have piofoundIy shaped lhe paily-niI-
ilaiy ieIalionship, ciealing a noie exilIe, dynanic
foin of Ieadeiship lellei suiled lo lhe needs of a iap-
idIy nodeinizing ILA. Hovevei, lhe ieIalionship
4O2
caiiies signihcanl vuIneialiIilies, slenning piinaiiIy
fion difhcuIlies Iinked lo lhe CCIs inconpIele lian-
silion lo a noie slalIe foin of singIe paily iuIe.
@\%#\'%; @O >$#"ERD'A'"$#E #%A$"'@+!
The ILA seives lhe CCI. As such, il sveais uIli-
nale aIIegiance lo lhe CCI, nol lo lhe slale, aIlhough
il seives sinuIlaneousIy as lhe niIilaiy of lhe IeopIes
RepulIic of China (IRC). Aulhoiilalive viilings in
luin dislinguish lelveen lhe CCIs H<=1,12.= =/.5/-R
6I1H and 2<99.75 .4,I<-1,:. The ILAs C'(+2&$)4/-
cn Pc|i|ica| lcr| expIains, foi exanpIe, lhal uIlinale
Ieadeiship aulhoiily iesls vilh lhe CCI CenliaI
Connillee, vhiIe connand aulhoiily iesls vilh
lhe Iailys CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission (CMC).
5

The dislinclion lelveen lhe funclions of lhe pai-
lys nalionaI and niIilaiy Ieadeiship is ciilicaI lo un-
deislanding lhe ILAs poIilicaI naluie. The IaigeIy
civiIian paily Ieadeiship al lhe nalionaI IeveI piovides
oveiaII poIilicaI and slialegic guidance, vhiIe lhe niI-
ilaiys Ieadeiship piovides Ieadeiship foi lhe ained
foices in accoidance vilh lhe viII of lhe nalionaI Iead-
eiship. A liief ieviev of lolh IeveIs of Ieadeiship nay
heIp iIIuninale hov lhe lvo inleiacl.
+.,1<7.= ((> A/.5/-6I1H8
The CCI is oiganized aIong Leninisl piincipIes,
one of lhe nosl inpoilanl of vhich is lhe idea of paily
penelialion of oiganizalions. The CCI exisls piinaii-
Iy as an exlensive nelvoik of hieiaichicaIIy oiganized
poIilicaI oigans, oi ceIIs, lhal aie enledded in, and
conlioI, decisionnaking foi viiluaIIy aII najoi sociaI,
econonic, poIilicaI, cuIluiaI, and niIilaiy oiganiza-
4O3
lions in lhe Chinese poIily, lo incIude slale luieaucia-
cies, and nonofhciaI oiganizalions. The paily oigans
lypicaIIy consisl of lhe nosl inpoilanl decisionnakeis
in lheii iespeclive oiganizalions and aie designed lo
ensuie lhal poIilicaI, oiganizalionaI, and opeialionaI
decisions aie consislenl vilh lhe diieclives of lhe na-
lionaI Ieadeiship. NoloiiousIy slovepiped, lhe Iailys
vaiious syslens aie funclionaIIy inlegialed piinaiiIy
al lhe highesl IeveIs.
6

In lheoiy, lhe highesl IeveI of nalionaI paily Iead-
eiship is lhe NalionaI Iaily Congiess, vhich neels ev-
eiy 5 yeais. The CCI Conslilulion deIegales aulhoiily
lelveen congiesses lo lhe CenliaI Connillee, vhich
seives as lhe piinaiy Ieadeiship lody.
7
In ieaIily, lhe
CenliaI Connillee deIegales day-lo-day aulhoiily
lo lhe IoIilicaI uieau, vilhin vhich iesides lhe su-
pieneIy poveifuI IoIilicaI uieau Slanding Connil-
lee (ISC). Lach of lhese lodies pIays a speciaIized
ioIe in appioving aulhoiilalive docunenls, issuing
guidance, and pioviding Ieadeiship.
8
Ioi lhis ieason,
lhis chaplei viII invoke lhe lein CCI nalionaI Iead-
eiship lo iefei piinaiiIy lo lhe ISC, lul vilh lhe
avaieness lhal lhe IoIilluio, CenliaI Connillee, and
NalionaI Iaily Congiess augnenl and conpIenenl
lhe aulhoiily and povei of lhe ISC and aie inlegiaI
pails of lhe Iailys nalionaI IeveI Ieadeiship as veII.
D1=1,.-: A/.5/-6I1H"
The ILAs poIilicaI syslen is designed lo ensuie
lhe niIilaiy ieIialIy execules lhe viII of lhe CCI na-
lionaI Ieadeiship. WhiIe nol aII ILA nenleis aie
CCI nenleis, aII ofhceis and olhei inpoilanl deci-
sionnakeis leIong lo lhe paily. The nosl inpoilanl
Ieadeiship lody in lhe niIilaiy is lhe pailys CMC,
4O4
vhich aIso seives as lhe dupIicale, IaigeIy iedundanl,
slale CMC. Hovevei, lhe piinacy of paily Ieadeiship
is echoed lhioughoul lhe niIilaiy. AII niIilaiy unils
aie penelialed and conlioIIed ly paily oiganiza-
lions. Iaily connillees () supeivise highei IeveI
connands, vhiIe paily lianches () supeivise
Iovei IeveI ones. These oiganizalions exeicise poIili-
caI, oiganizalionaI, and opeialionaI aulhoiily vilhin
ILA unils.
Miiioiing ils opeialion lhioughoul lhe Chinese
poIily, lhe niIilaiys paily oiganizalions consisl of lhe
nosl inpoilanl decision-nakeis such as connand-
eis, lechnicians, and speciaIisls in lhe pailys voik
(caIIed poIilicaI voikeis). The ILAs poIilicaI voik-
eis pIay an especiaIIy inpoilanl ioIe in cuIlivaling lhe
niIilaiys IoyaIly lo lhe Iaily lhiough indocliinalion,
piopaganda, liaining, and lhe conlioI of pionolion
and olhei lenehls. Hovevei, il is voilh highIighling
lhal lhese poIilicaI voikeis aie nol inseiled inlo lhe
ILA fion oulside ly CCI aulhoiilies~inslead, lhey
aie liained piofessionaIs diavn fion lhe ianks of lhe
niIilaiy.
9

The facl lhal paily Ieadeiship in lhe ILA is IaigeIy
idenlicaI lo lhe niIilaiys Ieadeiship iaises lhe ciilicaI
queslion of IoyaIly. Hov does lhe CCI nalionaI Iead-
eiship ensuie lhal niIilaiy Ieadeis aie IoyaI, alove aII,
lo lhe CCI, and onIy secondaiiIy lo lhe niIilaiy as an
inslilulion` The ansvei liadilionaIIy has iesled in lhe
ILAs idenlily as a poIilicaI niIilaiy focused on po-
IilicaI goaIs. The syslen of Iaily Ieadeiship lhal suf-
fuses lhe ILA vas oiiginaIIy designed lo suppoil a
connunisl paily connilled lo a piogian of poIilicaI
ievoIulion. A piogian of poIilicaI ievoIulion, aflei aII,
piovided lhe nosl conpeIIing juslihcalion foi poIili-
caI Ieadeiship of lhe niIilaiy. The pieniun on poIili-
4O5
caI skiII and expeilise necessaiy lo ieaIize ievoIulion-
aiy goaIs aIso loIsleied lhe aulhoiily of paily Ieadeis.
WhiIe lhe V<-9 of lhe ILA as a poIilicaI niIilaiy has
ienained IaigeIy consislenl ovei line, lhe CCIs
giaduaI luin avay fion ievoIulionaiy poIilics lovaid
a noie piagnalic slance has piofoundIy shaped lhe
2<7,/7, of ils aulhoiily vilhin lhe ILA. A fuII hisloiy
of Chinas paily-niIilaiy ieIalionship is leyond lhe
scope of lhis chaplei, lul a liief sunnaiy nay pio-
vide a sense of lhe evoIulion.
In lhe eia of Mao Zedong, lhe CCIs connilnenl
lo ievoIulionaiy ideaIs and Maoisl ideoIogy shaped
a highIy poIilicized niIilaiy lhal sliongIy iesenlIed
lhe cIassic nodeI foi connunislic niIilaiies. The ILA
inleivened in doneslic poIilics and in luin nalionaI
CCI Ieadeis liied lo shape lhe niIilaiy lo confoin
lo connunisl ideaIs. The Ieadeiship of lhis eia vas
chaiacleiized ly lhe lhoiough inleipenelialion of po-
IilicaI and niIilaiy eIiles, vilh nany niIilaiy Ieadeis
having exlensive expeiience vilh poIilicaI ievoIulion,
and nany poIilicaI Ieadeis having exlensive niIilaiy
expeiience.
1O
As Deng Xiaoping Ied lhe CCI avay fion lhe ex-
cesses of Maoisn and lovaid iefoin and opening up,
he sel lhe ILA onlo a palh of nodeinizalion. Hovevei,
ieecling lhe Iov IeveI of inslilulionaIizalion and lech-
nicaI conpelence of Iaily ofhciaIs, lhe ILAs oveiaII
inslilulions and slandaids of piofessionaI conpelence
ienained Iov conpaied lo indusliiaIized counliies.
The ILA occasionaIIy inleivened in doneslic poIilics,
as il did in Tianannen in 1989. Again niiioiing lhe
CCIs focus on iapid econonic giovlh, lhe ILA in-
neised ilseIf in conneiciaI aclivilies lo conliilule
lo lhal giovlh. The inleiIocking diiecloiale faded
vilh lhe dealh of so nany aging ievoIulionaiies, lul
4O6
Deng ienained al lhe nexus of lhe paily and niIilaiy
Ieadeiship.
11
IoIIoving Dengs passing, }iang Zenin consoIi-
daled lhe liend in lolh lhe CCI viil Iaige and lhe
ILA lovaid giealei lechnicaI conpelence, speciaIiza-
lion, and connilnenl lo nodeinizalion. }iang Ied lhe
CCI Ieadeiship lo enacl fuilhei naikel iefoins and
inpiove ils piofessionaI conpelence as goveining au-
lhoiilies. ConcuiienlIy, lhe ILA focused on exleinaI
iesponsiliIilies and piofessionaI deveIopnenl, ended
ils conneiciaI focus, and ieduced fuilhei ils lendency
lo inleivene in doneslic poIilics. AIlhough iuIe of Iav
ienained veak, lhe CCI Ieadeiship al vaiious IeveIs
nade iniliaI effoils lo deIinil and inslilulionaIize ils
poIilicaI aulhoiily, deveIopnenls vhich lhe niIilaiy
iepIicaled in ils ovn donain. The inleiIocking diiec-
loiale disappeaied ly lhis line, as }iang lecane lhe
hisl CMC chaii lo Iack niIilaiy expeiience and lhe
ILA unifoined piesence on lhe senioi decisionnak-
ing lodies decIined.
12
This liief discussion iIIusliales lvo inpoilanl
liends. Iiisl, lhe CCIs decIining inleiesl in ievoIu-
lionaiy poIilics ovei line has coiiesponded vilh lhe
ILAs decIining iequiienenl lo suppoil ievoIulionaiy
poIilicaI aclivily. Second, lhe CCIs gioving focus on
deveIoping piofessionaI conpelence in goveinance
has siniIaiIy coiiesponded vilh lhe ILAs gioving
iequiienenl lo cuIlivale piofessionaI conpelence.
The Iink in lhe liends lelveen lhe CCI and ILA is
nol suipiising, given lhe facl lhal lhe ILA exisls as
a suloidinale ained ving of lhe CCI. Hovevei,
lhese liends do iaise queslions aloul lhe convenlionaI
undeislanding of paily-niIilaiy ieIalions in China, a
ieIalionship lhal has onIy giovn noie conpIex foI-
Ioving key poIilicaI deveIopnenls in lhe Hu eia.
4O7
((>R>A$ #%A$"'@+! '+ "?% ?) %#$U
>@A'"'($A (@+"%Q"
On lhe eve of Hus accession lo lhe posl of Cen-
eiaI Secielaiy, lhe CCI Ieadeiship nade a nonenlous
decision. Il adopled a nev concepluaI fianevoik, oi
paiadign, lhal concIusiveIy ieIegaled lhe idea of lhe
CCI as a ievoIulionaiy paily lo lhe dusllin of hisloiy.
The 16lh Iaily Congiess Woik Repoil, issued in 2OO2,
lecane lhe hisl lo slale lhal lhe CCI nov iegaided
ilseIf as a goveining paily (||) oiienled lo-
vaid addiessing lhe pulIics fundanenlaI inleiesls
(7]).
13

In sone vays, lhis decision cIaiihed and iehned
lhe idea, evidenl in lhe pieceding paily congiess
voik iepoil, lhal iefoin and opening up poIicies iep-
iesenled a luin lovaid a noie scienlihc appioach
lo ieaIizing connunisn lhiough incienenlaI, piag-
nalic adjuslnenls.
14
Al a deepei IeveI, hovevei, il
iepiesenled a decisive luin avay fion lhe Iingeiing
iennanls of connunisl ideaIisn lo vhich lhe Iaily
Ieadeiship ienains connilled in nane onIy. In dehn-
ing sociaIisn as lhe nanagenenl and ieaIizalion
of lhe inleiesls of lhe peopIe and nalion,

lhe CCI
has inslead enliaced a funclionaIisl viev lhal shaies
noie in connon vilh advanced (capilaIisl) indusliiaI
nalions lhan connunisl slales. In nany vays, lhis
nev concepluaI fianevoik piovides a hinei inleIIec-
luaI foundalion foi lhe Iailys anlilion lo evoIve inlo
a highei IeveI of lechnicaI conpelence. Ioi lhis ieason,
lhis decision vas aigualIy lhe Iailys nosl inpoilanl
since il adopled a poIilicaI and ideoIogicaI slance ane-
nalIe lo iefoin and opening up al lhe Thiid IIenun
of lhe 11lh Iaily Congiess in 1978.
4O8
The signihcance of lhe CCIs adoplion of lhe gov-
eining paily paiadign nay le seen in lhe vay lhal
ils adoplion has coincided vilh poIilicaI iefoins de-
signed lo giaduaIIy ialionaIize viiluaIIy aII Iaily func-
lions. The puipose lehind lhe pailys poIilicaI iefoins
nay le sunnaiized as lhe ,-.76V<-9.,1<7 <V ,I/ ((>
17,< . 6,.W=/X 2<9H/,/7,X -.,1<7.= W4-/.42-.,12 .2,<-
2.H.W=/ <V /VV/2,1J/=: 0<J/-7170 .7 172-/.6170=:
H<Z/-V4=X ,/2I7<=<012.==: .5J.72/5X H-<6H/-<46 7.R
,1<7 Z1,I 0=<W.= 17,/-/6,6.
The concepl of ialionaIizalion is an inpoi-
lanl one and iequiies dehnilion. This lein iefeis lo
lhe liansfoinalion of a piocess, aclivily, oi syslen
of lhoughl chaiacleiized ly incieased funclionaIily,
effecliveness, and efhciency in accoidance vilh ia-
lionaIIy dehned oljeclives. The concepl enphasizes
quaIilies of slandaidizalion, piediclaliIily, syslenali-
zalion, and scienlihc conlioI. AIlhough lhe Chinese do
nol use lhe void ialionaIizalion, lhey do use leins
lhal coIIecliveIy evoke lhis concepl, such as scienlihc
nanagenenl (|), syslen luiIding (_
|), ieguIaiizalion (|), and inslilulion-
aIizalion (][).
15
WhiIe an evaIualion of poIilicaI iefoins in Iine
vilh lhis paiadign is leyond lhe scope of lhis chap-
lei, a fev highIighls nay iIIusliale lhe liend. Duiing
lhe Hu eia, lhe CCI soughl lo slienglhen ilseIf as an
oiganizalion lhiough effoils lo inslilulionaIize pioce-
duies, inpiove ieciuilnenl and liaining of peisonneI,
and olhei neasuies.
16
Il soughl lo cIaiify and ialionaI-
ize lhe CCIs ieIalionship vilh lhe slale and sociely,
piinaiiIy lhiough lhe pionuIgalion of paily and slale
Iavs and ieguIalions, inpIenenlalion of noins foi
leins of seivice, and lhe slienglhening of slale insli-
lulions.

LaslIy, lhe iegine soughl lo enhance ils aliIily
4O9
lo deIivei slialegic Ieadeiship ly syslenalizing and
ialionaIizing ils ideoIogy lo lellei seive lhe needs of
poIicynaking.
17
Despile difhcuIlies in inpIenenlalion, lhe iefoins
have succeeded enough lo enalIe lhe CCI nalionaI
Ieadeiship lo guide Chinas giovlh in a conpIex eia of
gIolaIizalion. The Ieadeiship has successfuIIy guided
lhe nalions econony lo lecone lhe second Iaigesl in
lhe voiId, one lhoioughIy inlegialed vilh lhe gIolaI
econony.
18
This peiiod has aIso coincided vilh con-
sideialIe slaliIily in eIile poIilics. AIlhough lhe CCI
ieIies heaviIy on a nassive slale secuiily appaialus lo
nainlain slaliIily, il has nade incienenlaI piogiess
in incieasing lhe exiliIily vilh vhich il handIes do-
neslic piolIens, as evidenced ly ils handIing of lhe
uniesl in Wukan in 2O1O.
19
Such iapid giovlh has gen-
eialed a vaiiely of inlense doneslic piessuies, lul lhe
CCIs posilion neveilheIess does nol seen seiiousIy
lhiealened. Lven accounling foi lhe o XiIai conlie-
lenps, lhe iegine seens secuie.
Hovevei, lhe adoplion of lhe goveining paily
paiadign is nol vilhoul peiiIs. The exlensive coiiup-
lion peivading lhe iegine is synplonalic of deepei
piolIens of ideoIogicaI denoiaIizalion and lhe in-
adequacy of slale inslilulions independenl of paily
conlioI lhal aie necessaiy foi effeclive goveinance.
Caughl in a liansilion lelveen a disciediled Mao-
isl pasl and lhe possiliIily of a noie slalIe poIilicaI
syslen, lhe CCI ienains poIilicaIIy vuIneialIe. Il cai-
iies aII lhe laggage associaled vilh lhe disasleis of
Maoisn lul vilh IillIe of lhe Iegilinacy lhal couId le
gained ly successfuI liansilion lo a noie slalIe nodeI
of conpelenl goveinance. WhiIe lhe CCIs successes
in ieaIizing lhiee decades of giovlh nay have eained
il a ciedil of goodviII anong lhe pulIic, vilhoul sus-
41O
lained piogiess in iefoins, shoilfaIIs in peifoinance
couId geneiale syslenic ciisis.
#%O@#D'+& "?% >A$B! >@A'"'($A
A%$*%#!?'>
These poIilicaI iefoins have deepIy inuenced
lhe pailys Ieadeiship of lhe niIilaiy. Wilh lhe CCIs
poIilicaI nission nov dehned in leins of lhe nan-
agenenl of lhe nalions inleiesls, lhe niIilaiy ly deh-
nilion is leconing one vhose piinaiy iesponsiliIily
conceins lhe nalions inleiesls. Iul anolhei vay, lhe
ILA is evoIving inlo lhe funclionaI equivaIenl of a
nodein, nalionaI niIilaiy even as il ienains one oi-
ganized aIong Leninisl piincipIes. ?<Z/J/-X ,I/ 91=1R
,.-:B6 A/71716, V/.,4-/6 .-/ 7<, 47.VV/2,/5 W: ,I16
H-<2/668 "I/ 9<5/-71].,1<7 <V ,I/ 91=1,.-:X =1[/ ,I/
9<5/-71].,1<7 <V ,I/ 0<J/-7170 .HH.-.,46X -/j41-/6
. S9<5/-71].,1<7T <V ,I/ ((>B6 A/71716, 6,-42,4-/ 17
<-5/- V<- ,I/ H.-,: ,< 9.17,.17 H<Z/-" The key po-
IilicaI innovalion in lhe Iale }iang and Hu eias is lhe
CCIs adaplalion of ils Leninisl sliucluie lo noie ef-
fecliveIy acconnodale, and guide, lhe nodeinizalion
of lhe slale, econony, sociely, and lhe niIilaiy.
The piocess ly vhich lhe paily is caiiying oul lhis
adaplalion vilh iegaid lo lhe niIilaiy consisls of ie-
foins lo: 1) slienglhen lhe Iaily as an oiganizalion
vilhin lhe niIilaiy, 2) ialionaIize lhe CCIs ieIalion-
ship vilh lhe ILA, and 3) inpiove lhe CCIs aliIily
lo piovide slialegic Ieadeiship lo lhe niIilaiy. Lach of
lhese Iines of effoil is expIoied in giealei delaiI leIov.
411
!,-/70,I/7 ,I/ >.-,: @-0.71].,1<7 17 ,I/ >A$8
As pail of lhe lioadei effoil lo ievilaIize lhe Iaily,
lhe niIilaiys Ieadeiship, Ied ly lhe CMC, has puisued
neasuies lo slienglhen paily aulhoiily in lhe ILA ly
deepening effoils lo: 1) caiiy oul poIilicaI canpaigns
lo enhance paily cohesion, 2) inpiove lhe quaIily of
CCI peisonneI in lhe ILA, 3) ieluiId lies vilh lhe
iank and hIe, and 4) conlioI coiiuplion.
(.--: @4, ><=1,12.= (.9H.10768
The CMC duIy caiiied oul ils iesponsiliIilies
as pail of lhe lioadei Advanced Naluie canpaign
Iaunched ly lhe CenliaI Connillee lo slienglhen
inleinaI cohesion and aIign lhe CCI vilh lhe nev
iequiienenls as a goveining paily.
2O
Wilhin lhe niIi-
laiy, lhe Advanced Naluie canpaign concIuded vilh
lhe issuance of an Opinion ly lhe CeneiaI IoIilicaI
Depailnenl (CID) ained al consoIidaling gains fion
lhe canpaign. The CID inlioduced specihc piovisions
oulIining lhe oljeclives, iequiienenls, and lhe nain
conlenl foi liaining, as veII as neasuies lo slienglhen
oiganizalionaI Ieadeiship.

The CID aIso aIigned pei-
foinance ievievs of paily cadies lo accoid vilh lhe
fiequenl luinovei of nosl niIilaiy posilions.
21

'9H-<J/ g4.=1,: <V >.-,: D/9W/-6 17 ,I/ >A$8
Iaily Ieadeis vilhin lhe niIilaiy have ievised
ieguIalions lo inpiove lhe quaIily of ils nenleiship.
In Maich 2OO4, lhe CMC issued lhe second ievision
lo lhe Rcgu|a|icns cn Par|q Mcnocr Rccrui|ncn| oq P|A
Par|q Organiza|icns. The puipose vas lo inciease lhe
piofessionaI quaIily of nenleis and slandaidize pio-
412
ceduies foi ieciuilnenl.
22
In Ieliuaiy 2OO9, lhe CID
issued ieguIalions lo slandaidize lhe piocess ly vhich
paily cadies aie ieciuiled and enpIoyed. Il oulIined
pioceduies, sleps, and neasuies foi lhe seIeclion and
pionolion and noninalions of cadies, soIicilalion of
popuIai feedlack, and pioceduies foi ieIevanl deci-
sionnaking al paily connillee neelings, incIuding
foi laIIol voling.
23
The ILA has aIso eslalIished a
lioad vaiiely of ieciuilnenl piogians al coIIege can-
puses and olhei venues lo inciease lhe quaIily of of-
hceis and lechnicaI peisonneI.
24
The niIilaiy has announced nev liaining inilia-
lives lo inpiove lhe quaIily of peisonneI in Iine vilh
lhe ILAs desiie foi Ieadeis and lechnicians capalIe
of hghling and vinning hi-lech vai. MiIilaiy lop-
ics aie incieasingIy connon foi liaining paily Iead-
eis. As one exanpIe, in 2O1O lhe CID announced a
3-yeai sludy pIan foi senioi and nid-ianking cadies
lo enhance lolh poIilicaI and piofessionaI niIilaiy
educalion.
25

#/W41=5 "1/6 Z1,I #.7[ .75 O1=/8
The niIilaiy Ieadeiship has incieased effoils lo
shoie up lhe CCIs ieIalionship vilh lhe iank and hIe.
In 2OO5, lhe CMC issued ils hisl sel of ieguIalions on
Iaily lianches. Designed lo enhance lhe conneclion
of lhe Iaily lo lioops, lhe ieguIalions slandaidized
guidance on lhe oiganizalion, iesponsiliIilies, and
lasks of lhe paily lianches. The CMC aIso oulIined ie-
quiienenls foi Iaily connillees lo caiiy oul face-lo-
face neelings vilh lhe iank and hIe lo lellei addiess
lheii conceins.
26
413
(<7,-<= (<--4H,1<78
Coiiuplion lhioughoul lhe peiiod ienained a fes-
leiing piolIen, as vilnessed ly lhe dovnfaII of ILA
Navy Depuly Connandei Wang Shouye in 2OO6.
27

To conlal coiiuplion, lhe CMC in 2O1O issued lhe
hisl sel of ieguIalions slandaidizing lhe voik of lhe
DiscipIine Inspeclion Connission. The ieguIalions
iepoiledIy slipuIale iequiienenls foi nenleiship,
pioceduies, and specihc iesponsiliIilies foi connis-
sion nenleis.
28
The CMC has aIso issued ieguIalions
lo noie lighlIy govein lhe lehavioi of ils nenleis
vilhin lhe niIilaiy. In 2O11, il issued a niIilaiy vei-
sion of lhe Iailys ieguIalions on lhe elhicaI inlegiily
of ils Ieadeis. The ieguIalions piohilil ofhciaIs fion
accepling gifls, feasls, oi olhei enleilainnenl oi ai-
iangenenls lhal couId inpaii lhe aliIily of lhe ofhciaI
lo caiiy oul his dulies inpailiaIIy.
29
Iending dianalic
piogiess in lhe CCIs oveiaII effoil lo conlioI coiiup-
lion, hovevei, il ienains uncIeai hov nuch inpacl
lhese ieguIalions have had.
$66/669/7,8
The ILA has enjoyed incienenlaI piogiess in ils
effoils lo slienglhen lhe CCI as an oiganizalion vilh-
in lhe niIilaiy. Indiiecl evidence of inpioved paily
Ieadeiship nay le seen in lhe anecdolaI iepoils of
piogiess in iesloiing noiaIe and discipIine foIIoving
lhe poIilicaI sliife chaiacleiislic of lhe Iasl }iang yeais.
Repoils of videspiead ILA indiscipIine, denoiaI-
izalion, and decIining piohciency connon in Hong
Kong piess in lhe Iale-199Os had dininished consid-
eialIy ly lhe end of Hus lenuie, piolalIy ieecling
lellei Ieadeiship, as veII as inpioved condilions of
414
seivice.
3O
Weslein schoIais have noled sone piogiess
in Chinese effoils lo inpiove lhe quaIily of liaining
and ieciuilnenl of paily/niIilaiy cadies and peison-
neI oveiaII, lul evidence of success in neeling aII of
lhe ILAs oljeclives ienains Iess cIeai.
31
Hovevei, ie-
poiling suggesls Iiniled piogiess in lhe ILAs effoils
lo conlioI coiiuplion.
32
Moieovei, lhe iefoins have
onIy sonevhal niligaled lhe CCIs lioadei piolIens
of poIilicaI aliophy.
33

#.,1<7.=1]/ >.-,:RD1=1,.-: #/=.,1<768
}usl as lhe CCI has caiiied oul iefoins lo iendei
noie funclionaI and efhcienl ils Ieadeiship of lhe slale
and sociely, lhe ILAs Ieadeiship has inilialed ie-
foins in lhe niIilaiy lo: 1) slienglhen lhe ioIe of paily
Ieadeiship lodies in lhe ILA, 2) focus paily voik lo
enhance lhe niIilaiys conlal effecliveness, and 3)
ieguIaiize paily aclivilies.
!,-/70,I/7 ,I/ #<=/ <V >.-,: A/.5/-6I1H C<51/68
As oiganizalions conpiising lhe nosl essenliaI de-
cisionnakeis in any niIilaiy unil, paily connillees
and lianches have eneiged as especiaIIy ciuciaI looIs
lo nainlain paily Ieadeiship. To enhance lhe Ieadei-
ship ioIe of paily connillees, lhe CMC has pionoled
lhe slandaidizalion of ils aclivilies and lellei ieciuil-
nenl. ReguIalions ievised in 2O11 deIinealed lhe
iesponsiliIilies of paily connillees, slanding con-
nillees, secielaiies, and nenleis. The ieguIalions
oulIine pioceduies and piincipIes foi decisionnaking,
hoIding neelings, and lhe foinuIalion of iesoIulions.
Miiioiing lhe CCIs focus on piofessionaI eIiles, ILA
paily connillees nov ieciuil heaviIy fion niIilaiy
piofessionaIs and lechnicaI expeils.
34

415
An ailicIe in a ILA nevspapei iIIusliales hov
lhe paily connillees guide effoils lo inpiove lhe
niIilaiys peifoinance. In iesponse lo piolIens vilh
caiiying oul joinl liaining, a paily connillee in Nan-
jings aii foice deveIoped a nechanisn foi caiiying
oul syslen-vide foice-on-foice exeicises. The paily
connillee aIso oiganized vaiious eIenenls such as
connand and infoinalion syslens lo inpiove lhe
effecliveness of opeialionaI unils.
35
The niIilaiy aIso
ieIies on paily connillees lo oveisee opeialionaI and
lechnicaI connands. In lhe escoil nissions in lhe CuIf
of Aden, lhe ILA appoinled poIilicaI connissais and
sel up ad hoc paily connillees. Ioi lechnicaI lasks
such as veapons deveIopnenl, lhe paily connillee
diev fion Ieading connands al high IeveIs, nanu-
facluieis, lechnicaI peisonneI, and lasked unils lo
exeicise concenlialed and unihed Ieadeiship.
36
O<246 >.-,: ;<-[ ,< %7I.72/ ,I/
D1=1,.-:B6 (<9W., %VV/2,1J/7/668
The CCIs alandonnenl of ievoIulionaiy poIilics
has seveieIy veakened lhe liadilionaI ialionaIe foi lhe
ILAs poIilicaI connissais, paily oigans, and pio-
paganda nachineiy. The ILA has iesponded lo lhis
deveIopnenl ly iepuiposing nany of lhese insliu-
nenls lo suppoil lhe niIilaiys focus on conlal effec-
liveness. The poIilicaI voikeis nov piovide seivices
lo enhance noiaIe and veIfaie, peisonneI adninis-
lialion and olhei conlal seivice suppoil lo niIilaiy
unils. The ILA conlinues lo undeigo poIilicaI liain-
ing, lul lhe conlenl of lhal liaining has incieasingIy
fealuied piaclicaI and niIilaiy-ieIaled lopics.
37
The CMC has diiecled nany olhei aspecls of ils
poIilicaI voik lo suppoil niIilaiy nodeinizalion and
416
opeialions. The 2OO3 ievision lo Pc|i|ica| lcr| in |nc
P|A expIicilIy focused poIilicaI voik lo luiId a niIi-
laiy capalIe of vinning hi-lech vaifaie. The ieguIa-
lions expanded seclions on aclivilies lo enhance lhe
conlal funclion of poIilicaI voik, such as pulIic
opinion, psychoIogicaI, and IegaI vaifaie as veII as
aclivilies lo nuiluie lhe hghling spiiil of lhe ained
foices.
38

#/04=.-1]/ >.-,: $2,1J1,1/68
Iaily Ieadeis vilhin lhe niIilaiy have inlioduced
a seiies of ieguIalions lo slandaidize viiluaIIy aII
CCI aclivilies in lhe niIilaiy. Regaiding peison-
neI, lhe niIilaiys Iaily Ieadeiship has slandaidized
iouline pionolion and ieliienenl pioceduies of key
Iaily Ieadeis, incIuding lhose in lhe CMC since al
Ieasl 1997.
39
Noins have leen inlioduced foi niIilaiy
nenleis vho pailicipale in Iaily congiesses.
4O
Iaily
Ieadeis vilhin lhe niIilaiy have legun lo slandaid-
ize decisionnaking pioceduies. In 2OO4, lhe CMC is-
sued ieguIalions foi paily connillees lhal oulIined
pioceduies foi decisionnaking, voling, hIing iepoils,
and hoIding neelings.
41
The Pc|i|ica| lcr| Rcgu|a|icns
siniIaiIy slienglhened piovisions foi discipIine and
inspeclion oigans, and slandaidized lhe fiequency
and lineIiness of iepoiling iequiienenls vilhin Iovei
IeveI paily unils.
42
$66/669/7,8
The CCI has seen incienenlaI piogiess in ils effoil
lo ialionaIize ils aulhoiily vilhin lhe niIilaiy. Despile
pioIihc pulIicalion of ieguIalions, lhe peisislence of
coiiuplion and olhei aluses suggesls lhal enfoice-
417
nenl ienains inconsislenl al lesl. The veak Ieadei-
ship aliIily of lhe nonconnissioned ofhcei (NCO)
coips suggesls lhe ILA conlinues lo sliuggIe vilh
suslaining inslilulions capalIe of exeicising decision-
naking povei fiee fion paily inleifeience.
43
Hov-
evei, lheie appeais lo le sone piogiess in inslilu-
lionaIizing noins foi peisonneI aclions, as seen in lhe
incieasingIy piediclalIe palleins foi ieliienenl and
pionolion.
44
Moieovei, lhe oveiaII incieased lechni-
caI conpelence and capaliIilies of lhe ILA suggesl
lhal lhe niIilaiy has succeeded in slandaidizing and
ieguIaiizing nany aclivilies ieIaled lo nodeinizalion
and opeialions.
%7I.72/ $W1=1,: ,< >-<J15/ !,-.,/012 &415.72/8
A ciilicaI ingiedienl of lhe pailys effoil lo in-
piove ils Ieadeiship of lhe ILA consisls of iefoins lo
inpiove lhe CCIs aliIily lo piovide slialegic Iead-
eiship. Iaily Ieadeis al lhe nalionaI IeveI and vilhin
lhe niIilaiy have inlioduced iefoins designed lo en-
hance lhe aliIily lo foinuIale, inpIenenl, and enfoice
slialegic guidance lo lhe niIilaiy. Of lhese, lhe nosl
inpoilanl aie: 1) lhe foinuIalion of lhe hisloiic nis-
sions concepl, 2) lhe ialionaIizalion of Iaily lheoiy lo
guide nodeinizalion and opeialions, and 3) neasuies
lo ensuie conpIiance.
?16,<-12 D1661<76 <V ,I/ $-9/5 O<-2/68
The signihcance of lhe concepl foi paily-niIilaiy
ieIalions is lhiee-foId. Iiisl, il aIigns lhe niIilaiys fun-
danenlaI nissions vilh lhe pailys. Second, il expIic-
ilIy aIigns lhe niIilaiys poIilicaI posluie lo suppoil
lhe goveining paily paiadign. Thiid, il iepiesenls lhe
oveiaII liend lovaid lhe ialionaIizalion of ideoIogy.
418
Hu }inlao issued lhe hisloiic nissions in 2OO4,
ioughIy 7 yeais aflei lhe 15lh Iaily Congiess idenli-
hed lhe CCIs hisloiic lasks in 1997 as piopeIIing
lhe nodeinizalion diive, achieving ieunihcalion, and
pionoling voiId peace.
45
IoIilicaI consideialions
IikeIy diove lhe deIay. efoie issuing lhe nev nissions
lo lhe ILA, paily Ieadeis hisl had lo gain consensus
on lhe queslion of vhelhei lo adopl lhe lheoielicaI
concepls and poIilicaI iefoins associaled vilh lhe
goveining paily paiadign, such as lhe aulhoiizalion
of CCI nenleiship lo capilaIisls, enliepieneuis, and
olhei lusiness and lechnicaI eIiles. Repoiling al lhe
line desciiled consideialIe iesislance, fion noslIy
Ieflisl paily Ieadeis, lo lhe nany of lhe poIilicaI and
ideoIogicaI iefoins pionoled ly }iang Zenin. Il look
yeais of poIilicaI voik, lo incIude puiges and olhei
discipIinaiy neasuies, lo oveicone lhe Ieflisl opposi-
lion and secuie consensus vilhin lhe paily Ieadeiship
lo caiiy oul lhe poIilicaI and ideoIogicaI iefoins.
46
The CCI Ieadeiship achieved lhis consensus ly
lhe line of lhe 16lh Iaily Congiess in 2OO2, vhen il
endoised lhe Thiee Repiesenls concepl, a key lheoiel-
icaI idea lhal juslihed and undeipinned lhe goveining
paily paiadign. IoIilicaI sensilivilies suiiounding
lhe Ieadeiship liansilion piolalIy fuilhei deIayed lhe
issuance of addilionaI inpoilanl slialegic concepls,
such as lhe hisloiic nissions, unliI aflei Hu had as-
suned conlioI of lhe niIilaiy in Seplenlei 2OO4. y
Decenlei, hovevei, Hu had consoIidaled his conlioI
ovei lhe niIilaiy enough lo issue lhe hisloiic nissions.
IoinaIIy knovn as lhe hisloiic nissions of lhe ained
foices in lhe nev cenluiy in lhe nev peiiod, lhese
consisl of foui iequiienenls: 1) piovide a secuiily
guaianlee foi lhe CCI lo consoIidale ils goveining po-
silion, 2) piovide a secuiily guaianlee foi lhe peiiod
419
of slialegic oppoilunily, 3) piovide sliong slialegic
suppoil foi lhe defense of nalionaI inleiesls, and 4)
pIay an inpoilanl ioIe in liinging aloul voiId peace
and connon deveIopnenl.
47
These niIilaiy nissions suppoil and expand on lhe
Iailys hisloiic lasks, ieecling lhe fiuil of addilionaI
anaIysis duiing lhe inleivening yeais. Ioi exanpIe,
lhe niIilaiys second nission piovides a lioad expan-
sion of lhe Iailys hisl lask of piopeIIing nodeiniza-
lion. Ioi lhe niIilaiy, lhis appeais lo iequiie lhe ILA
lo piovide a slalIe inleinaI and exleinaI secuiily envi-
ionnenl lhal can enalIe lhe CCIs focus on nalionaI
deveIopnenl.
The niIilaiys lhiid nission expands on lhe Iaily
lask of achieving ieunihcalion ly diiecling lhe niIi-
laiy lo suppoil lhe Iailys effoil lo secuie a nuch
lioadei aiiay of inleiesls, incIuding conlesled leiii-
loiiaI and soveieignly cIains, and olhei secuiily and
econonic inleiesls leyond IRC loideis. Hovevei,
lhe facl lhal lhis concepl is luiIl aiound lhe CCIs in-
peialive lo achieve ieunihcalion suggesls lhal lhis ie-
nains lhe paianounl secuiily piioiily foi lhe niIilaiy
as veII. The fouilh nission, neanvhiIe, diieclIy sup-
poils lhe Iailys lask of pionoling voiId peace and
connon deveIopnenl, vhich nay le undeislood lo
nean shaping a favoialIe inleinalionaI enviionnenl
foi Chinas iise.
The onIy nission of lhe ILA lhal does nol diieclIy
suppoil a Iaily hisloiic lask is lhe hisl one, lhal of
pioviding a secuiily guaianlee foi lhe Iaily lo con-
soIidale ils goveining posilion. The signihcance of
lhis nission is seveiaI-foId. Mosl olviousIy, lhis nis-
sion lasks lhe niIilaiy vilh defealing effoils ly aII
enenies, foieign and doneslic, vho nay lhiealen lhe
Iaily and ils effoils lo govein China. Hovevei, lhe
42O
nission is aIso caiefuIIy phiased lo ensuie lhe niIi-
laiys suppoil foi lhe CCI nalionaI Ieadeiships focus
on 19H-<J170 1,6 0<J/-7170 2.H.21,:. Il lhus caiiies
lhe unslaled poIilicaI coioIIaiy lhal iuIes oul niIilaiy
suppoil foi disaffecled eIenenls vilhin lhe Iaily lhal
iejecl lhe goveining paily paiadign.
IinaIIy, lhe hisloiic nissions concepl is anolhei ex-
anpIe of lhe Iailys incieasingIy scienlihc funclionaI
syslen of ideoIogicaI slialegic concepls lhal guide poI-
icynaking. The hisloiic nissions is a najoi eIenenl of
lhe Iailys niIilaiy guiding lheoiy and adds a degiee
of consislency of Ianguage and cIaiily of lhoughl nol
olseived in funclionaI equivaIenls issued ly pievious
Ieadeis.
>.-,:B6 D1=1,.-: &415170 "I/<-:8
Iaily Ieadeiship vilhin lhe niIilaiy has soughl lo
iefoin ils ideoIogy lo faciIilale ils slialegic Ieadeiship
vilhin lhe niIilaiy lhiough lhe foinuIalion of a niIi-
laiy guiding lheoiy. The Iailys niIilaiy guiding lhe-
oiy ains lo piovide aulhoiilalive lheoielicaI guidance
foi lhe nosl signihcanl aspecls of niIilaiy Iife, such
as ils nission, docliine, and nodeinizalion. Il consisls
of lhe sludy of lhe Iavs and guiding palleins of vai-
faie and nalionaI defense as expounded ly Maix, and
iehned ly LngeIs, Lenin, and CCI Ieadeiship Ied ly
Mao, Deng, }iang, and Hu. The lheoiy aIso incIudes
ideas and concepls diavn fion anaIysis of foieign
niIilaiies, hisloiicaI deveIopnenls, and niIilaiy sci-
ence ieseaich. The ILA conpIeled a najoi ieseaich
piojecl lhal syslenalized lhe Iailys niIilaiy guiding
lheoiy in 2OO5.
48
421
D/2I.71696 V<- (<9H=1.72/8
The CMCs nain nechanisn foi ensuiing lhe con-
pIiance of niIilaiy poIicies vilh lhe pailys slialegic
guidance consisls of ieguIalions and adninislialive
neasuies lo hoId cadies accounlalIe. A key necha-
nisn is lhe iequiienenl lhal aII ieIevanl Iavs, poIicies,
and ieguIalions le ievised as necessaiy lo confoin lo
lhe slialegic guidance foIIoving any najoi changes lo
lhe Iailys Maixisl lheoiy. This pallein can le seen
in lhe ievision of viiluaIIy aII foins of poIilicaI voik
ieguIalions foIIoving lhe 16lh Congiess, vhich incoi-
poialed lhe Thiee Repiesenls inlo ils lheoiy, and lhe
17lh Congiess, vhich adopled lhe Scienlihc DeveIop-
nenl Concepl.
49
Iaily Ieadeiship in lhe niIilaiy has aIso enacled
adninislialive pioceduies lo enfoice conpIiance. Il
has inpIenenled a cadie assessnenl and evaIualion
pioceduies siniIai lo lheii nonniIilaiy counleipails.
Iaily connillees pIay an especiaIIy inpoilanl ioIe
in oveiseeing inpIenenlalion lhiough neelings de-
signed lo hoId ofhciaIs accounlalIe. The CMC aIso
enpIoys liadilionaI nechanisns such as indocliina-
lion, sludy sessions, and piopaganda lo pionole niIi-
laiys conpIiance vilh paily guidance.
5O
$66/669/7,8
Refoins have inpioved lhe iegines aliIily lo pio-
vide slialegic Ieadeiship, lul aIso exaceilaled poIili-
caI vuIneialiIilies. In syslenalizing and ialionaIizing
ils ideoIogy, lhe CCI Ieadeiship ieinvigoialed ils po-
IilicaI lheoiy, shoied up ils faIleiing Maixisl ideoIogy,
and inpioved lhe uliIily of lhe pailys poIilicaI Ian-
guage foi anaIyzing piolIens and ailicuIaling guid-
422
ance. The CCIs deIegalion of noie aulhoiily lo lu-
ieaucialic syslens such as lhe ILA has aIso enhanced
ils exiliIily and effecliveness. Indiiecl evidence of
successfuI adaplalion nay le seen in lhe CCI nalionaI
Ieadeiships deIegalion of aulhoiily lo niIilaiy Ieadeis
vho oveisee opeialions fai fion Chinese soiI, as seen
in ILA pailicipalion in lhe nany Uniled Nalions-Ied
peacekeeping opeialions aiound lhe voiId.
The ialionaIizalion of paily ideoIogy is nol vilh-
oul diavlacks, hovevei. The focus on a scienlihc,
funclionaI appioach lo ils poIilicaI lheoiy delaches
lhe CCI fion ils Maixisl heiilage and fuilhei eiodes
ils poIilicaI ciediliIily. The CCIs liansfoinalion of
ils ideoIogy fion a looI of noliIizing lhe popuIalion
againsl piiviIeged eIiles inlo one of noliIizing poIi-
cynaking eIiles lo nanage lhe popuIalion undeiculs
lhe pailys nass appeaI and fuilhei veakens ils lase
of popuIai suppoil. IinaIIy, lhe peisislenl veakness
of slale and niIilaiy inslilulions inpedes lhe CCIs
aliIily lo liansIale ils guidance inlo consislenl poIicy.
"@;$#* $ +%; )+*%#!"$+*'+&
@O >$#"ERD'A'"$#E #%A$"'@+!
The evoIulion of paily-niIilaiy ieIalions can pei-
haps le iIIuslialed ly conliasling lvo veisions of an
anaIogy of diiving and navigaling a cai. The eaiIy-
nodeI veision iepiesenls lhe paily-niIilaiy ieIalion-
ship in lhe Mao eia. Inagine a 195Os eia cai, vhich
seals lvo peisons: lhe passengei iepiesenls lhe pailys
nalionaI Ieadeiship, vhiIe lhe diivei iepiesenls lhe
niIilaiys Ieadeiship. The cai is a piinilive one chai-
acleiized ly nininaI aulonalion~lhis is lhe niIilaiy.
AIlhough lhe diivei and lhe navigaloi each has sIighl-
Iy noie expeiience lhan lhe olhei in his iespeclive du-
423
lies, lolh aie fuIIy capalIe of laking luins diiving and
navigaling. The cIose ieIalionship lelveen lhe diivei
and passengei and Iov IeveI of lechnicaI conpIexily
of lhe cai in lhe anaIogy evokes lhe Mao-eia CCIs
focus on ievoIulionaiy poIilics, lhe inleipenelialion
of nalionaI and niIilaiy Ieadeiship, and lhe nalionaI
Ieadeiships deep faniIiaiily vilh lhe opeialionaI and
laclicaI delaiIs of lhe Iov-lech ILA. The void con-
lioI is appiopiiale lo desciile lhe pailys ieIalion-
ship lo lhe niIilaiy in lhis nodeI, as lhe ILA in lhis
eia seived piinaiiIy as a looI of lhe CCIs poIilicaI
endeavois.
A Iale-nodeI veision of lhe sane anaIogy iIIus-
liales lhe advances lhal had appeaied ly lhe Hu eia.
This line, lhe cai is high peifoinance, highIy aulo-
naled, inhaliled ly a singIe occupanl~lhe diivei.
Hovevei, lhe diivei is onIy vagueIy avaie of lhe
deslinalion and ioule. He is inslead guided lo his
deslinalion via conlinuous viieIess connunicalions
ly a ienole dispalchei. Moieovei, lhe cai is inleIIi-
genl enough lo fealuie a conpulei navigalion aid
lhal suggesls possilIe ioules, vhich lhe diivei nay
negoliale vilh lhe dispalchei. Reecling lhe speciaI-
izalion of paily aulhoiily, lhe diivei iepiesenls lhe
niIilaiys Ieadeiship, vhiIe lhe dispalchei iepiesenls
lhe pailys nalionaI IeveI Ieadeiship. The high peifoi-
nance, aulonaled cai iepiesenls lhe oveiaII highei
capaliIilies and lechnicaI sophislicalion of a nodein-
izing niIilaiy. }usl as lhe dispalchei and diivei in lhe
iIIuslialion aie piinaiiIy conceined vilh supeivising
and coiieclIy sleeiing lhe cai, so lhe pailys nalionaI
IeveI and niIilaiy Ieadeiship aie piinaiiIy conceined
vilh supeivising and guiding lhe nodeinizalion and
opeialionaI aclivilies of lhe niIilaiy. Heie lhe void
Ieadeiship seens a noie appiopiiale lein lo de-
424
sciile lhe CCIs ioIe in lhe niIilaiy. The niIilaiy is a
Iess sinpIe looI lhan a seni-aulononous nachine lhal
is sel in nolion and guided ly lhe valchfuI nalionaI
and niIilaiy Ieadeiship.
The anaIogy gives sone sense of lhe advanlage and
disadvanlage of lhe evoIving slyIe of paily Ieadeiship
in lhe niIilaiy. On lhe one hand, lhe incieased lech-
nicaI expeilise and ialionaIizalion of paily aulhoiily
offeis lhe possiliIily of supeiioi peifoinance al lhe
nalionaI IeveI in leins of inpioved slialegic pIanning
and poIicynaking. Il aIso offeis lhe possiliIily of a
supeiioi niIilaiy peifoinance, in leins of enhanced
opeialionaI capaliIilies. IiopeiIy nanaged, lhe CCI
nalionaI Ieadeiship can vieId lhe niIilaiy as an insliu-
nenl of poIicy lo veisaliIe ends fai leyond lhe capa-
liIilies of a Mao eia ILA. ul lhe dovnside is cIeai as
veII~lhe nalionaI paily Ieadeiship, fuilhei ienoved
fion lhe niIilaiy, is Iess avaie of ils innei voikings.
The IaigeIy civiIian nalionaI Ieadeiship loday has Iess
expeiience vilh lhe niIilaiy al a line vhen lhe niIi-
laiy is deveIoping incieasingIy speciaIized lechnicaI
capaliIilies and ils ovn dislincl piofessionaI cuIluie.
Moieovei, lhe niIilaiys piofessionaIizalion exacei-
lales queslions of IoyaIly and idenlily anong niIilaiy
Ieadeis. The ILAs nissions, veaponiy, liaining, doc-
liine, unifoins, and oiganizalion aII appeai incieas-
ingIy siniIai lo lhal of olhei nodein, nalionaI niIilai-
ies. As piofessionaIisn conlinues, ILA peisonneI aie
IikeIy lo le lenpled lo viev lhenseIves piinaiiIy as
niIilaiy nenleis vho happen lo leIong lo lhe paily,
ialhei lhan as paily nenleis vho happen lo seive in
lhe niIilaiy.
The pailys adaplalion of ils Leninisl sliucluie lo
suppoil and guide lhe niIilaiys nodeinizalion de-
hnes lhe essence of lhe paiadoxicaI piofessionaI poIil-
425
icaI niIilaiy lhal is lhe ILA loday. The piocess of ad-
aplalion is lolh pioaclive and ieaclive: lhe paily lolh
diiecls and guides lhe piocess of niIilaiy nodeiniza-
lion, and il aIso acconnodales lhe ILAs denands foi
slandaidized, consislenl, conpelenl aulhoiily genei-
aled ly lhe piocess of niIilaiy nodeinizalion. Thiee
deveIopnenls associaled vilh lhis poIilicaI liansfoi-
nalion aie voilh highIighling: 1) lhe CCIs changing
Iocus of Iegilinacy as a diivei of niIilaiy piofession-
aIizalion, 2) lhe fiagnenlalion of paily aulhoiily, and
3) lhe gioving inpoilance of inslilulions and lhe slale
foi paily Ieadeiship.
Iiisl, lhe shifling Iocus of Iegilinacy diives lhe
CCI Ieadeiships denand foi a piofessionaI niIilaiy.
The CCI nalionaI Ieadeiships incieasing focus on
lhe nanagenenl of nalionaI inleiesls as lhe Iocus of
Iegilinacy diives ils iequiienenl foi a piofessionaI,
nodein niIilaiy capalIe of secuiing lhose inleiesls.
Iai fion sulveiling conlioI, lhe piofessionaIizalion
of lhe ILA diieclIy suppoils eijings agenda. The
CCI suppoils piofessionaIizalion lecause lhe Iaily
iequiies a ILA capalIe of defending a gioving ai-
iay of secuiily inleiesls essenliaI foi Chinas iise as a
gieal povei. Moieovei, lhe CCIs puisuil of inslilu-
lionaIized poIilicaI piocesses suggesls lhal il no Ion-
gei desiies niIilaiy inleivenlion in doneslic poIilics.
IiofessionaIizalion is alliaclive lo lhe CCI nalionaI
Ieadeiship pieciseIy lecause il keeps lhe ILA focused
on niIilaiy, nol poIilicaI, lopics. The ILA in luin sup-
poils lhe idea of lhe CCIs deveIopnenl inlo a gov-
eining paily lecause such iefoins pionise lo iesuIl
in a noie slalIe, piediclalIe, ialionaI luieaucialic
iegine lhal can ensuie sociaI slaliIily and piospeiily,
lhus fieeing lhe niIilaiy fion lhe need lo inleivene
in doneslic poIilics. A conpelenl CCI iegine is aIso
426
noie IikeIy lo le capalIe of iesouicing and effecliveIy
guiding lhe ILAs nodeinizalion.
Second, paily aulhoiily is fiagnenling aIong lu-
ieaucialic Iines. The paily-niIilaiy ieIalionship in-
cieasingIy fealuies lvo IeveIs of Ieadeiship uniled ly
lhe connilnenl lo uphoId Connunisl Iaily aulhoi-
ily and ils slialegic oljeclives. WhiIe al a veiy geneiaI
IeveI lhis chaiacleiizalion nay le said lo have leen
liue of lhe CCI-ILA ieIalionship in lhe pasl, lhe diiv-
ing focus on ievoIulionaiy poIilics and Iov IeveI of
lechnicaI speciaIizalion iequiied of lhe ILA in eaiIiei
eias enalIed a nuch highei degiee of unily lelveen
paily and niIilaiy aulhoiily.
The fiagnenlalion of paily aulhoiily aIong lhe
Iines of luieaucialic expeilise has cIaiihed ovei line.
Al lhe nalionaI IeveI, lhe CCI Ieadeiship nov ovei-
sees lhe foinuIalion, disseninalion, and inpIenen-
lalion of slialegic guidance foi lhe nalion. The CCI
Ieadeiship aIso deveIops and iehnes lhe lheoielicaI
assessnenls and concepls lhal undeipin ils slialegic
guidance. The ILA Ieadeiship, neanvhiIe, focuses on
foinuIaling, disseninaling, and inpIenenling niIi-
laiy ieIaled oljeclives and guidance lo suppoil lhe
nalionaI Ieadeiships agenda. The ILAs paily Iead-
eiship aIso deveIops and iehnes lhe secuiily-ieIaled
assessnenls and eIaloiales lhe niIilaiy appIicalion of
lhe pailys lheoielicaI concepls. The lvo IeveIs of pai-
ly aulhoiily inleiacl conlinuaIIy, vilh lhe CCI Ieadei-
ship pioviding lop dovn guidance, and lhe ILA Iead-
eiship pioviding expeil inpul lo iehne lhal guidance.
This speciaIizalion of aulhoiily offeis seveiaI ad-
vanlages lo lolh nalionaI paily and niIilaiy Ieadei-
ship. Lnpoveiing niIilaiy Ieadeis lo piovide delaiIs
on hov lo appIy paily concepls and guidance gives
lhe niIilaiy noie of a slake in suppoiling lhe CCI
427
nalionaI Ieadeiships agenda. Il aIso aIIovs lhe CCI
nalionaI Ieadeiship lo Ieveiage expeilise vilhin lhe
niIilaiy foi ils ends. Ioi lhe ILA, iesponsiliIily foi
eIaloialing lhe niIilaiy appIicalion of paily concepls
and guidance offeis an inslilulionaIized nechanisn
lo Ieveiage paily guidance lo denand iesouices and
inuence poIicy.
Thiid, effeclive CCI Ieadeiship of lhe niIilaiy
incieasingIy hinges on lhe successfuI inslilulionaIiza-
lion of ieIalions lelveen paily, niIilaiy, and slale.
One of lhe nosl signihcanl synplons of lhe evoIu-
lion of lhe paily niIilaiy ieIalionship is lhe gioving
ioIe of lhe slale, as noled ly nany olseiveis.
51
Con-
nenlalois have queslioned lhe Iong-lein vialiIily of a
iolusl slale piesence in lhe niIilaiy, given lhe CCIs
fundanenlaI Leninisl incIinalion lo peneliale, co-opl,
and conlioI aII foins of aulhoiily and povei. Hov-
evei, lhe CCIs adoplion of conpelenl goveinance
as lhe Iocus of ils Iegilinacy has chaIIenged lhe as-
sunplions undeipinning lhe liadilionaI undeisland-
ing of lhe Leninisl fealuies of CCI iuIe. ecause lhe
CCIs evoIving slyIe of Ieadeiship is fundanenlaIIy
pienised on lhe ialionaIizalion of poIilicaI piocesses,
lhe nosl IogicaI vay foi lhe CCI lo consoIidale ils au-
lhoiily is lo deepen lhe ialionaIizalion of ils poIilicaI
povei. Alove aII, lhis neans lhe deveIopnenl and
enfoicenenl of paily, slale, and niIilaiy Iavs, noins,
and inslilulions lo slaliIize, slandaidize, and iendei
noie efhcienl decisionnaking and luieaucialic pio-
cesses lo faciIilale lhe snoolh opeialion of lhe paily,
slale, and niIilaiy.
The CCI nalionaI Ieadeiship appeais lo have
ieached siniIai concIusions. Since as eaiIy as 2OOO,
lhe CCI nalionaI Ieadeiship has incieasingIy enpha-
sized lhe inpoilance of ciealing a consislenl, piedicl-
428
alIe, and faii syslen of paily and slale Iavs and in-
slilulions lo suslain econonic giovlh, faciIilale sociaI
slaliIily, and consoIidale paily iuIe. SiniIaiIy, ovei
lhe pasl decade, lhe ILA has oveiseen an exlensive
giovlh in paily and slale Iavs, iuIes, and ieguIalions
ained al enalIing lhe paily Ieadeiship lo focus on a
highei IeveI of slialegic Ieadeiship.
52
As conceived
ly paily Ieadeis, lhe giovlh of inslilulions and slale
povei conpIenenls lhe CCIs evoIulion as a Iead-
eiship lody lhal speciaIizes in foinuIaling and en-
foicing slialegic guidance. One ]icfangjun 8ac ailicIe
expIained lhal syslens aie noie fundanenlaI, con-
piehensive, slalIe, and Iong lein. uiIding a syslen
of paily iuIes and ieguIalions is of lienendous sig-
nihcance in ensuiing lhe pailys alsoIule Ieadeiship
ovei lhe niIilaiy.
53
SiniIaiIy, lhe ILA has soughl
lo slienglhen niIilaiy inslilulions such as lhe NCO
coips lo inpiove conlal effecliveness.
54
IionicaIIy,
lhe ILAs conlinualion as a poIilicaI niIilaiy nay veII
depend on lhe aliIily of lhe CCI lo ieduce fuilhei lhe
poIilicaI chaiaclei of lhe niIilaiy.
(?$AA%+&%!
The CCI appeais lo have nade sufhcienl adjusl-
nenls lo ils oveiaII poIilicaI posluie, ideoIogy, and
oiganizalion lo enalIe il lo Iead lhe ILA effecliveIy
in ils peaceline nodeinizalion aclivilies foi lhe foie-
seealIe fuluie. Hovevei, lhe ILA faces lhiee najoi
chaIIenges in ils puisuil of a noie nodein, conpelenl
slyIe of poIilicaI Ieadeiship. Olscuied in peaceline,
lhe vuIneialiIilies nay le exaceilaled in lines of
ciisis. WhiIe none of lhese chaIIenges aie inheienlIy
insuinounlalIe, effeclive iesoIulion nay iequiie
iefoins lhal louch on lhe nosl lasic piincipIes of
Leninisl iuIe.
429
Iiisl, lhe fiagnenlalion of paily Ieadeiship opens
aieas of polenliaI fiiclion. The CCIs alandonnenl
of ils ievoIulionaiy posluie has inpioved ils effec-
liveness and adaplaliIily, lul aIso ienoves lhe nosl
conpeIIing juslihcalion foi lhe ILAs aulonalic ole-
dience. On lhe conliaiy, lhe CCIs cIain lo lase ils
Iegilinacy on conpelenl peifoinance as a goveining
paily inviles sciuliny ly olheis, incIuding lhe ILA.
Moieovei, lecause conpelenl goveinance depends
so heaviIy on speciaIized expeilise, lhe CCI nalionaI
Ieadeiships Iov IeveI of niIilaiy expeilise nakes
secuiily-ieIaled poIicy a key aiea of polenliaI fiic-
lion vilh lhe niIilaiy. The veII-knovn phenonena
of ILA ofhceis pulIicIy aiiing lheii diffeiences vilh
secuiily-ieIaled foieign poIicy decisions nay le iead
as a synplon of lhis dynanic. AIlhough evidence ie-
nains eIusive lhal lhe ILA has had a decisive inpacl
on any najoi foieign poIicy decision, lhese voices can
shape lhe poIilicaI enviionnenl in vhich Chinas poIi-
cynakeis opeiale.
55

This phenonenon is exaceilaled ly lhe facl lhal
lhe ILAs enhanced aulonony and cohesion has in-
cieased ils insuIaiily and luieaucialic povei. Al lhe
nalionaI IeveI, lhis has iesuIled in inslances of pooi
poIicy cooidinalion vilh olhei eIenenls of lhe IRC
goveinnenl. The Hu yeais sav a spale of incidenls
such as lhe canceIIalion of a scheduIed poil caII ly lhe
USS V)$$16&!I in 2OO7, lhe anli-saleIIile lesl in 2OO7
and lhe }-2O lesl in 2O11. These incidenls lypicaIIy in-
voIved sone niIilaiy opeialion oi aclivily lhal giealIy
inpacled Chinas slialegic oi foieign poIicy inleiesls,
oflen vilh vhal appeais lo le IillIe cooidinalion oi
even avaieness ly senioi civiI aulhoiilies.
56
ecause
lhe niIilaiy in each case did nol chaIIenge CCI au-
lhoiily, il vouId le inaccuiale lo chaiacleiize lhese
43O
evenls as exanpIes of disoledience oi dehance. Il
is peihaps noie accuiale lo viev lhese incidenls as
synplonalic of lhe niIilaiys gioving insuIaiily and
piofessionaI aulonony and lhe consequences of veak
secuiily expeilise anong nalionaI IeveI paily aulhoii-
lies. Il aIso denonsliales lhal lhe ILAs opeialions
and aclivilies aie having a giealei foieign poIicy in-
pacl lhan evei, due in pail lo lhe geogiaphic ieach of
ils noie advanced pIalfoins and Chinas iising poIili-
caI piohIe. Hovevei, piolIens of cooidinalion aie nol
insuinounlalIe. Indeed, lheie aie signs lhal lhe CCI
nalionaI Ieadeiship is aIieady inpioving ils cooidina-
lion lelveen lhe ILA and olhei luieauciacies.
57

Second, lhe conlinalion of lhe CCIs poIilicaI
veakness and lhe ILAs incieased cohesion iaises
lhe iisk of eioding niIilaiy IoyaIly lo lhe paily. Wide-
spiead coiiuplion, popuIai disaffeclion, and a heavy
inciease in inleinaI secuiily poinl lo fundanenlaI
poIilicaI veaknesses of lhe CCI lhal have peisisled
lhiough lhe Hu yeais. Iuilheinoie, China conlinues
lo Iack sliong slale inslilulions vhich couId heIp ad-
ninislei lhe niIilaiy and niligale sone of lhe CCIs
veakness. MeanvhiIe, lhe ILAs incieased aulonony,
cohesion, and piofessionaI conpelence has iaised lhe
niIilaiys pulIic iepulalion and noiaIe. An incieas-
ingIy poveifuI ILA opeialing undei a veakened CCI
vilhin lhe conhnes of an olsoIele nodeI of Iaily-niI-
ilaiy ieIalions is nol a iecipe foi Iong-lein slaliIily.
ILA connenlalois ieguIaiIy hinl al sone IeveI of
lension lelveen lhe niIilaiys poIilicaI Ieadeiship and
lhe ILAs nodeinizalion effoils. A lypicaI connen-
laiy noled lhe gaps lelveen lhe CCIs capacilies in
lhe niIilaiy and lhe niIilaiys puisuil of nodeiniza-
lion. Il vained lhal iesoIving lhese gaps diieclIy leais
on lhe ILAs aliIily lo execule ils nissions. Anong
431
conceins ciled in lhe ailicIe aie piolIens of CCI oi-
ganizalionaI veakness, pooi giasp of niIilaiy lopics,
and coiiuplion.
58
The incessanl diun leal in niIilaiy
piess iegaiding lhe pailys alsoIule Ieadeiship of lhe
niIilaiy is siniIaiIy signihcanl if foi no olhei ieason
lhan lhal lhe niIilaiy Ieadeiship appaienlIy feeIs
conpeIIed lo iepealedIy and enphalicaIIy highIighl
lhis lasic facl.
59

The CCIs poIilicaI veakness, lhe Iack of sliong
inslilulions, and lhe niIilaiys cohesive seni-aulono-
ny incieases lhe iisk lhal lhe niIilaiys IoyaIly couId
eiode ovei line. Il is nol inconceivalIe lhal Ieadeiship
in lhe ILA nay lecone co-opled ly lhe niIilaiy in-
slilulion in sone silualions. Repoils lhal Lieulenanl
CeneiaI Cu }unshan iesisled effoils ly lhe nalionaI
CCI Ieadeiship lo inpose discipIine aie a disluiling
poilenl of possilIe lioulIes lo cone. SignihcanlIy, lhe
iepoils slaled lhal paily aulhoiilies vilhin lhe niIi-
laiy faiIed lo enfoice discipIine againsl lhe poveifuI
geneiaI.
6O
The iepoiled iecepliveness of al Ieasl sone
in lhe niIilaiy lo o XiIais slyIe of Ieadeiship siniIaiIy
ieecls lhe dangei lhal a noie cohesive niIilaiy couId
pose if aIienaled fion lhe nalionaI paily Ieadeiship.
WhiIe lhe nunlei of lioops invoIved appeaied snaII
and lhe lhieal easiIy conlained, lhe dangei of poIili-
caI disaffeclion vilhin lhe ILA couId giov shouId lhe
CCI nalionaI Ieadeiship faIlei in ils peifoinance.
61

Thiid, lhe peisislenl veakness of inslilulions un-
deiculs lhe ILAs liansilion lo a noie slalIe foin
of paily Ieadeiship. The facl lhal lhe CCI has nade
so IillIe piogiess in inpIenenling a liue iuIe of Iav
and ciafling vialIe inslilulions despile yeais of effoil
poinls lo lhe innense chaIIenge facing eijing in ils
quesl foi a noie slalIe nodeI of one paily iuIe. Ioi aII
lhe piogiess lhal lhe CCI has nade in inpioving ils
432
Ieadeiship slyIe in sociely and lhe niIilaiy, lhe lians-
foinalion ienains deepIy inconpIele. Synplonalic
of lhe difhcuIlies is lhe pailys conlinued heavy ieIi-
ance on paily connillees lo piovide Ieadeiship and
oveisighl of lhe nany of even lhe nosl iouline aclivi-
lies in lhe niIilaiy.
Having giasped lhe Iov hanging fiuil of ia-
lionaIizing Iess conlioveisiaI pioceduies, iuIes, and
noins, lhe ILA faces haid voik ahead as il giappIes
vilh lhe noie inliaclalIe piolIens such as conlioI-
Iing coiiuplion and deveIoping lhe nechanisns lhal
can nediale lhe exeicise of poIilicaI povei al lhe high-
esl IeveIs. Alove aII, lhe CCIs insislence on nain-
laining accounlaliIily onIy lo ilseIf fundanenlaIIy
undeiculs effoils lo pionole inslilulionaIizalion and
iuIe of Iav in Chinas poIily and vilhin lhe niIilaiy.
The 18lh Iaily Congiess Woik Repoils highIighling
of lhe inpoilance of consoIidaling poIilicaI inslilu-
lions (][) and syslens (_) suggesls lhal aulhoii-
lies iecognize lhe uigency of lhe piolIen.
62
Hovevei,
vilhoul najoi iefoins lhal louch on lhe veiy naluie
of lhe Leninisl sliucluie of lhe paily~especiaIIy lhe
piincipIe of paily penelialion and poIilicaI conlioI of
aII oiganizalions~lhe ILA viII conlinue lo sliuggIe
lo deveIop lhe inslilulions upon vhich ils success as a
piofessionaI niIilaiy incieasingIy depends.
>@A'(E 'D>A'($"'@+!
The anaIysis in lhis chaplei suggesls lhal lhe ILA
has nade lhe ciilicaI adjuslnenls necessaiy lo enalIe
lhe paily lo conhdenlIy Iead lhe peaceline nodeiniza-
lion of lhe niIilaiy foi lhe foieseealIe fuluie. ecause
lhe iefoins aie designed lo inpiove lhe effecliveness
of paily Ieadeiship vilhoul suiiendeiing conlioI, lhe
433
CCI Ieadeiship Ied ly Xi is IikeIy lo conlinue lhese
iefoins. Hovevei, lhe Iong-lein success of lhis ap-
pioach uIlinaleIy depends on lhe CCIs viIIingness
lo adopl iefoins lhal louch on sone of lhe nosl fun-
danenlaI piincipIes of Leninisl iuIe, especiaIIy lhe
piincipIe of paily penelialion and conlioI of aII oiga-
nizalions. This caiiies inpIicalions foi deaIing vilh
lhe ILA in peaceline and foi deaIing vilh lhe Chi-
nese Ieadeiship in ciises.
The facl lhal Hu nade IillIe piogiess in eslalIish-
ing a liue iuIe of Iav and vialIe inslilulions shouId
nol olscuie lhe niIilaiys inpoilanl poIilicaI voik in
lhis peiiod. IncienenlaI piogiess lovaid lhe slienglh-
ening of lhe paily as an oiganizalion, lhe slandaid-
izalion and inslilulionaIizalion of lhe pailys ioIe in
lhe niIilaiy, and lhe ialionaIizalion of paily ideoIogy
lo lellei acconnodale luieaucialic inpeialives have
iesuIled in a noie exilIe, conpelenl CCI iegine
capalIe of caiiying oul ils piinaiy iesponsiliIily of
guiding and Ieading lhe niIilaiys peaceline aclivi-
lies. So Iong as lhe CCI conlinues lo nake necessaiy
adjuslnenls lo ils Ieadeiship slyIe, lhe ILA has con-
sideialIe ioon lo giov as a piofessionaI foice even as
il ienains a paily Ied niIilaiy.
Hovevei, lhe veiy adjuslnenls lhal have inpioved
lhe CCIs aliIily lo caiiy oul Iong-lein, peaceline
slialegic Ieadeiship of lhe niIilaiy have opened vuI-
neialiIilies lhal couId le exposed in nonenls of ciisis.
The pailys peisislenl poIilicaI veakness, inadequacy
of ils iuIe of Iav and inslilulions, heavy ieIiance on
anliqualed syslens such as lhe paily connillees foi
Ieadeiship, and lhe fiagnenlalion of paily aulhoiily
aie IikeIy lo exaceilale piolIens of connand and
conlioI in unanlicipaled silualions. In a secuiily-ieIal-
ed foieign poIicy ciisis, U.S. poIicynakeis nay hnd
434
conicled and confused decisionnaking in eijing.
Undeislanding lhe difhcuIlies inheienl in lhe connec-
lion lelveen IRC nalionaI IeveI poIicynaking and ils
niIilaiy couId heIp poIicynakeis noie accuialeIy in-
leipiel Chinese poIicy decisions in such a ciisis.
%+*+@"%! R (?$>"%# ML
1. LIIis }offe, The MiIilaiy and Chinas Nev IoIilics: Tiends
and Counlei-Tiends, }anes MuIvenon and Richaid Yang, eds.,
Tnc Pccp|cs |iocra|icn Arnq in |nc |nfcrna|icn Agc, Sanla Monica,
CA: RAND 1999, pp. 22-47.
2. Andiev ScoleII, Chinas LvoIving CiviI-MiIilaiy ReIa-
lions: Cieeping L+4M)&6+&, >%0', F4%*'- &/, #4*)'$1, Winlei 2OO5,
pp. 227-243.
3. MichaeI Svaine, 56' C42' 4H $6' @6)/'-' ;)2)$&%1 )/ 9&$)4/&2
#'*+%)$1 E42)*10&I)/(, Sanla Monica, CA: RAND, 1996.
4. Nan Li, Chinese CiviI-MiIilaiy ReIalions in lhe Iosl-Deng
Lia, @6)/& ;&%)$)0' #$+,)'-, No. 4, Nevpoil, RI: U.S. NavaI Wai
CoIIege, 2O1O.
5. Revised 'ReguIalions foi IoIilicaI Woik foi lhe IeopIes
Lileialion Ainy, [|,[ (!!!"&22PQ"*40"*/), 2O1O.
6. Kennelh LieleilhaI, L4G'%/)/( @6)/&= F%40 C'G42+$)4/
$6%4+(6 C'H4%0, Nev Yoik: W. W. Noilon, 1995, p. 171.
7. ]);| (Conslilulion of Chinese Connunisl
Iaily), '[ (uuu.xinnuanc|.ccn), Oclolei 24, 2OO7.
8. LieleilhaI, p. 177.
9. Dennis Iasko, 56' @6)/'-' >%01 54,&1= 5%&,)$)4/ &/, 5%&/--
fcrna|icn fcr |nc 21s| Ccn|urq, Nev Yoik: RoulIedge, 2OO6, pp. 5-6.
1O. LIIis }offe, 56' @6)/'-' >%01 >H$'% ;&4, Canliidge, MA:
Haivaid Univeisily Iiess, 1987, p. 4.
435
11. Thonas ickfoid, A Reliospeclive on lhe Sludy of Chi-
nese CiviI-MiIilaiy ReIalions Since 1979: Whal Have We Leained`
Wheie Do We Co` #''I)/( 5%+$6 F%40 F&*$-, Sanla Monica, CA:
RAND, 2OO1.
12. Iiedeiick Teives, NoinaI IoIilics vilh Chinese Chaiac-
leiislics, Tnc Na|urc cf Cnincsc Pc|i|ics frcn Mac |c ]iang, Ainonk,
NY: M. . Shaipe 2OO2, p. 239, Thonas ickfoid, ReguIaiizalion
and lhe Chinese IeopIes Lileialion Ainy, >-)&/ #+%G'1, VoI. 4O,
No. 3, May-}une 2OOO, pp. 456-474.
13. ]);]]]|,|j (Repoil lo lhe
16lh NalionaI Iaily Congiess), '[ (uuu.xinnuanc|.ccn),
Novenlei 17, 2OO2.
14. ]);]]]|,|j (Repoil lo lhe
15lh NalionaI Iaily Congiess), '[ (uuu.xinnuanc|.ccn),
Seplenlei 21, 1997.
15. These leins aie oflen seen in key guiding paily docu-
nenls, such as lhe paily congiess voik iepoils oi lhe IRC ?'H'/-'
lni|c Papcrs.
16. David Shanlaugh, Cninas Ccnnunis| Par|q. A|rcpnq and
>,&A$&$)4/, Washinglon, DC: Woodiov WiIson Iiess, 2OO8, p. 142.
17. Zhao Cheng, Li in, and Liu Zheng, Iive Yeais of CIoiy
and Iive Yeais of Iiogiess~Lxpeils Inleipiel Majoi Lvenls Since
lhe 16lh CCI NalionaI Congiess, J)/6+&, Onlaiio Secuiilies
Connission (OSC) CII2OO71OO9136O11, Oclolei 9, 1997, Toion-
lo, Onlaiio, Canada.
18. China Oveilakes }apan lo lecone Second Laigesl Lcono-
ny, 88C, Ieliuaiy 14, 2O11.
19. Chiis uckIey, China OfhciaI Says Wukan Iiolesl Shovs
Righls Denands on lhe Rise, C'+$'%-, Decenlei 26, 2O12.
2O. Ding Haining (]|), ,|/|),/))
{,{ [1, (Cuo oxiong, Cao
Cangchuan, Cu Xaihou HoId Ioiuns RespecliveIy lo Lislen lo
Vievs and Suggeslions on lhe Woik of lhe CenliaI MiIilaiy Con-
nission), j| (P|A Dai|q), Maich 1, 2OO5.
436
21. Sai Zanglao (,), |[[j|
(Cive Sliong Inpelus lo uiIding lhe Iailys Advanced Naluie
in lhe MiIilaiy), j| (P|A Dai|q), Augusl 17, 2OO6.
22. Tang Wu (jy) and Sai Zanglao (,), )]]
j)[L[j,j (Lnsuie Iaily Menlei Unils Re-
lain Advanced and Iuie Naluie), j| (ILA DaiIy), Maich
9, 2OO4.
23.

Zhang }ianguo (]), |[|j
|{| (,|), CID Issues ReguIalions (TiiaI) foi Woik
Iioceduies foi Appoinlnenl of MiIilaiy Cadies, j|
(P|A Dai|q), Ieliuaiy 4, 2OO9.
24.

Kiislen Cunness and Iied VeIIucci, Refoining lhe Ofhcei
Coips: Keeping lhe CoIIege Ciads in, lhe Ieasanls Oul, and lhe
Inconpelenl Dovn, Roy Kanphausen, Andiev ScoleII, Tiavis
Tannei, ed., Tnc Pccp|c in |nc P|A, CaiIisIe, IA: Slialegic Sludies
Inslilule, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, Seplenlei 2OO8.
25.

2O1O-2O12 +[|| (2O1O-2O12
Sludy IIan foi Senioi, Mediun-LeveI MiIilaiy Cadies), j
| (P|A Dai|q), }une 3, 2O1O.
26. }ie Zhu (), [[|[j_[,)
(SuccessfuI Iiaclices and Inspiialions fion Iaily uiIding in
lhe MiIilaiy Since 16lh Iaily Congiess), j| (ILA DaiIy),
Oclolei 11, 2OO7.
27.

}onalhan Walls, Misliess Tuins in 'Coiiupl Chinese Vice
AdniiaI, 56' L+&%,)&/, }une 14, 2OO6.
28.

Sai Zanglao (,), ,/|,|j|[
, ][|, (DeepIy InpIenenl lhe Scienlihc DeveI-
opnenl Concepl, Iionole lhe InslilulionaIizalion and Slandaid-
izalion of lhe Woik of lhe DiscipIine Inspeclion Connission,)
j| (P|A Dai|q), Seplenlei 29, 2O1O.
29.

j[)|,)|[)] (An In-
poilanl Measuie foi Iionoling LlhicaI Coveinance of Leading
Cadies vilh Iaily Menleiship,) j| (P|A Dai|q), }une
1, 2O11.
437
3O. CCI MiIilaiy Connission Lanenls Lov MoiaIe Anong
lhe Seivice Menleis, @6'/( ;)/(, OSC: CII2OOOO8O2OOOO61,
Augusl 1, 2OOO. See aIso WiIIy Wo-Lap Lan, AilicIe on Iiol-
Iens elveen CCI, Ainy, #4+$6 @6)/& ;4%/)/( E4-$, OSC:
ITS19991O2OOOOO95, Oclolei 2O, 1999.
31. Kiislen Cunness and Iied VeIIucci, p. 217.
32. }ohn Cainaul, Rolling fion Wilhin, F4%')(/ E42)*1, ApiiI
16, 2O12.
33. Shanlaugh, p. 175.
34. ILA Issues CiicuIai Uiging InpIenenlalion of
ReguIalions on Iaily Connillees Woik, J)/6+&, OSC:
CII2O11O2O9O71OO2, Ieliuaiy 9, 2O11.
35. Si Yanven ()[), ].[j|| (Cuaid-
ing lhe Sea: Sliong Ioices Make a IiIIov of Theii Speai Wailing
foi Daylieak,) j| (P|A Dai|q), Maich 2O, 2O1O.
36. Liu Xiaojiang ([|), ||(j
(Cive IuII IIay lo lhe RoIe of Iaily Connillees as Leadeiship
Coie,) j| (P|A Dai|q), }uIy 24, 2O1O.
37. |]|]`|{{ (ILA IoIilicaI
Depailnenl Head Inleivieved on Anendnenl lo IoIilicaI Woik
ReguIalions), j| (P|A Dai|q), Decenlei 26, 2OO3.
38. .B),.
39. AIice MiIIei, Hu }inlao and lhe ILA iass, Cnina |cadcr-
-6)A ;4/)$4%, No. 21, Sunnei 2OO7.
4O. Zhu.
41. CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission IionuIgales 'ReguIalions
(foi liiaI inpIenenlalion) on lhe Woik of CCI Connillees in lhe
Ained Ioices, J)/6+&, OSC: CII2OO4O5O9OOOO19, May 9, 2OO4.
42.|]|]`|{{(CeneiaI IoIili-
caI Depailnenl Leadei Ansveis Queslions Regaiding Anend-
438
nenls lo ReguIalions on ILA IoIilicaI Woik,) j| (P|A
?&)21), Decenlei 26, 2OO3.
43. Kevin McCauIey, Refoining lhe ILAs Nonconnis-
sioned Ofhcei Coips and Consciipls, Oclolei 28, 2O11, Chi-
na iief velsile, avaiIalIe fion !!!"M&0'-$4!/"4%(3A%4(%&0-3
*6)/&B%)'H3.
44.

Kennelh AIIen vilh }ohn Coilell, Iiedicling ILA Leadei
Iionolions, Andiev ScoleII and Laiiy WoilzeI, eds., Citi|-Mi|i-
|arq Cnangc in Cnina. ||i|cs, |ns|i|u|cs, and |dcas Af|cr |nc 16|n Par|q
@4/(%'--, CaiIisIe, IA: Slialegic Sludies Inslilule, U.S. Ainy Wai
CoIIege, 2OO4.
45. }anes MuIvenon, Chaiinan Hu and lhe ILAs 'Hisloiic
Missions, Cnina |cadcrsnip Mcni|cr, No. 27, Winlei 2OO9.
46. Zhu Rongji Rescues }iang Zenin fion a Siege in lhe
Ainy, @6'/( ;)/(, No. 254, OSC: ITS199812O8OO1844, Decen-
lei 1, 1998, SliuggIe elveen }iang Zenin, Li Ieng, Zhu Rongji
al eidaihe Meeling Vieved, Kai |ang, OSC CII2OOOO918OOOO69,
No. 165, Seplenlei 5, 2OOO, pp. 9-11.
47. }ia Yong, Cao Zhi, and Li XuanIiang, Advancing in ig
Sliides fion a Nev HisloiicaI Slailing Ioinl~Recoid of Lvenls
on Hov lhe Iaily CenliaI Connillee and lhe CenliaI MiIilaiy
Connission Iionole Scienlihc DeveIopnenl in NalionaI De-
fense and Ainy uiIding, J)/6+&, OSC CII2OO7O8O7338OO4,
Augusl 7, 2OO7.
48. Ma Hongvei (), ])|
] (Chinas Modein MiIilaiy IdeoIogy and lhe
Sinicizalion of Maixisl MiIilaiy Theoiy,) ;[| (Pccp|cs Dai-
21), }une 24, 2OO5.
49. Tinolhy Healh, Whal Does China Wanl` Disceining lhe
IRCs NalionaI Slialegy, >-)&/ #'*+%)$1, VoI. 8, Issue 1.
5O. }ie Zhu.
51. ScoleII, p. 227.
439
52. To IoIIov Thiough lhe Requiienenls of lhe 'Thiee Rep-
iesenls, We Musl CoiieclIy Undeisland and HandIe lhe ReIalion-
ship in SeveiaI Respecls, ]icfangjun 8ac, OSC: CII2OOOO83OOOOO55,
Augusl 3O, 2OOO.
53. }ie Zhu.
54. Kevin McCauIey, Nonconnissioned Ofhceis and lhe
Ciealion of a VoIunleei Ioice, Seplenlei 3O, 2O11, China iief
velsile, avaiIalIe fion !!!"M&0'-$4!/"4%(3A%4(%&0-3*6)/&B%)'H3.
55. MichaeI Svaine, Chinas Asseilive ehavioi Iail Thiee:
The RoIe of lhe MiIilaiy in Ioieign IoIicy, Cnina |cadcrsnip Mcni-
$4%, No. 36, Winlei 2O12.
56. Andiev ScoleII, Is Theie a CiviI-MiIilaiy Cap in Chinas
IeacefuI Rise` E&%&0'$'%-, Sunnei 2OO9.
57. }anes MuIvenon, Lvidence of Leaining` Chinese Slia-
legic Messaging IoIIoving lhe MissiIe Defense Inleicepl Tesl,
Cnina |cadcrsnip Mcni|cr, No. 31, Winlei 2O1O.
58. A Majoi IoIilicaI ResponsiliIily of lhe WhoIe MiIi-
laiy~Iiisl Connenlaiy on lhe Spiiil of lhe Iouilh IIenun
of lhe 17lh CCI CenliaI Connillee, ]icfangjun 8ac, OSC:
CII2OO9O9217O2OO1, Seplenlei 21, 2OO9.
59. MichaeI Chase, Ainy Day Coveiage Sliesses ILA Con-
liilulions and Iaily ConlioI, Novenlei 17, 2O12, China iief
velsile, avaiIalIe fion !!!"M&0'-$4!/"4%(3A%4(%&0-3*6)/&B%)'H3.
6O. Cainaul.
61. }eieny Iage and LingIing Wei, os Ties lo Ainy
AIained eijing, la|| S|rcc| ]curna|, May 17, 2O12.
62.

Tinolhy R. Healh, The 18lh Iaily Congiess Woik Repoil:
IoIicy Iuepiinl foi lhe Xi Adninislialion, Novenlei 3O, 2O12,
China iief velsile, avaiIalIe fion !!!"M&0'-$4!/"4%(3A%4(%&0-3
*6)/&B%)'H3.
441
(?$>"%# MM
"#%+*! '+ >%@>A%B! A'C%#$"'@+ $#DE
'+"%#+$"'@+$A '+'"'$"'\%!
)+*%# ?) F'+"$@
G/77/,I $==/7
The aulhoi vouId Iike lo lhank Susan Lavience foi
leing lhe discussanl duiing lhe confeience and pio-
viding vaIualIe suppoil in ediling lhe chaplei. Thanks
aIso lo }ohn Coilell, Kevin IoIIpelei, Chiis IuIlz, and
Iiank MiIIei foi lheii edils.
Nole: Conceining exeicises lelveen niIilaiies of lvo
oi noie counliies, vhiIe lhe ILA uses lhe lein joinl,
vhich il aIso uses lo dehne inleiaclion lelveen lvo oi
noie seivices, foieign niIilaiies use lhe lein con-
lined. As a iesuIl, lhioughoul lhis chaplei, lhe au-
lhoi uses lhe lein joinl vhen ciling ILA Iileialuie
and conlined vhen ciling foieign Iileialuie.
D$'+ $#&)D%+"
MiIilaiy dipIonacy undei Hu }inlao cIeaiIy ex-
panded in scope and achieved noie inleinalionaI vis-
iliIily, indicaling lhal lhe IeopIes Lileialion Ainy
(ILA) is doing a lellei jol of inuencing hov foieign
counliies viev and inleiacl vilh il. The puipose of lhis
chaplei is lo idenlify and assess inleinalionaI inilia-
lives ly lhe ILA fion lhe line Hu }inlao lecane lhe
Chaiinan of lhe Chinese Connunisl Iailys (CCIs)
CenliaI Connillees MiIilaiy Connission (CenliaI
MiIilaiy Connission |CMCj) in Seplenlei 2OO4, af-
lei having seived as one of lhe lhiee Vice Chaiinen
since 2OO2, unliI Xi }inping, vho had seived as a Vice
442
Chaiinan since Oclolei 2O1O, iepIaced hin duiing
lhe 18lh Iaily Congiess in Novenlei 2O12. Xi aIso ie-
pIaced Hu as lhe Chaiinan of lhe Slale CMC duiing
lhe 12lh NalionaI IeopIes Congiess (NIC) in Maich
2O13. WhiIe il is difhcuIl lo deleinine vhich specihc
inleinalionaI inilialives can le diieclIy alliiluled lo
Hu, il appeais lhal enpIoying niIilaiy dipIonacy lo
enhance Chinas sofl povei vas cIeaiIy inpIenenled
as a concepl undei Hu, and lhal lhe ILA legan lo le-
cone acliveIy invoIved in inleinalionaI hunanilaiian
assislance and disaslei ieIief (HA/DR) and niIilaiy
opeialions olhei lhan vai (MOOTW) aclivilies as a
diiecl iesuIl of Hus foui hisloiic nissions. In addi-
lion, lhe ILA cIeaiIy inpioved lianspaiency undei
Hu. Looking foivaid, lhe ILA viII IikeIy conlinue lo
expand lhe scope of ils gIolaI invoIvenenl undei Xi
}inping, lheiely sIovIy leconing noie conhdenl and
piepaiing foi fuluie conicl al oi leyond ils loideis8
>@A'(E 'D>A'($"'@+!
- ShouId lheie le civiI uniesl in counliies vheie
Chinese aie Iiving and voiking, lhe ILA viII
nosl IikeIy lecone noie acliveIy invoIved in
heIping lo evacuale lhen lo safely. Chinas in-
cieasing focus on HA/DR viII iequiie specihc
lechnoIogicaI deveIopnenls, incIuding equip-
nenl, infoinalion lechnoIogy, and Iogislics and
nainlenance suppoil. AIlhough lhese capaliIi-
lies vouId le necessaiy lo suppoil an innedi-
ale need, such as a naluiaI disaslei, lhey vouId
aIso enhance lhe ILAs aliIily lo suppoil niIi-
laiy opeialions leyond ils loideis. Ioi lhe ILA
Navy (ILAN), lesides Ieaining hov lo ienain
al sea foi Ienglhy peiiods of line, incieased
443
depIoynenls alioad have slienglhened lhe
ILANs foieign ieIalions.
- The lianspaiency of Chinas niIilaiy has in-
pioved in iecenl yeais undei Hu. Hovevei,
lheie ienains deep inleinalionaI unceilainly
aloul key aieas of lhe ILAs foice conposilion
and gioving capaliIilies.
- Looking foivaid lo lhe ioIe of niIilaiy dipIo-
nacy undei Xi }inping, lhe ILA viII nosl Iike-
Iy conlinue lo expand ils gIolaI invoIvenenl in
HA/DR aclivilies and conlined exeicises vilh
foieign counliies, as veII as send noie deI-
egalions alioad lo Ieain fion and aloul olhei
counliies niIilaiies. Al lhe sane line, lhe ILA
conlinues lo piovide sone liaining foi foieign
niIilaiies in China.
!@)#(%!
The piinaiy souices foi lhis chaplei incIude ai-
licIes fion lhe ILA Acadeny of MiIilaiy Sciences
(AMS) linonlhIy peiiodicaI @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*',
incIuding a seiies of ovei 2O ailicIes on sepaiale lopics
duiing 2O1O and 2O11 undei lhe geneiaI lilIe Reseaich
on Hu }inlaos Inpoilanl Insliuclions on NalionaI
Defense and Ainy uiIding. Olhei souices incIude
ailicIes fion P|A ?&)21 (j|),
1
P|A Pic|cria| (
j|), @6)/& >%0', F4%*'- (][), @6)/& >)%
F4%*' (]), Iue ook on ./$'%/&$)4/&2 #)$+&$)4/
and Cninas |crcign Affairs (][),1]',
), lhe Inleinel (J)/6+& al *6)/&0)2"*40, and lhe Min-
isliy of NalionaI Defense |MNDj velsile), lhe China
NalionaI KnovIedge Infiasliucluie (CNKI) dalalase,
and lhe lienniaI Cninas Na|icna| Dcfcnsc (][]|),
vhich is lellei knovn as lhe Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr (]
444
|)).
2
IinaIIy, MiIilaiy Lxchanges vilh Chinese
Chaiacleiislics: The IeopIes Lileialion Ainy Lxpeii-
ence vilh Ioieign ReIalions, ly Heidi HoIz and Ken-
nelh AIIen, vhich vas pulIished in 2O1O in Tnc P|A
a| Hcnc and Aorcad. Asscssing |nc Opcra|icna| Capaoi|i-
|ics cf Cninas Mi|i|arq, and vaiious chapleis in |carn-
ing oq Dcing. Tnc P|A Trains a| Hcnc and Aorcad pio-
vide a lase foi exanining lhe ILAs foieign ieIalions
piogian.
3

The IeopIes Lileialion Ainy nusl acliveIy caiiy oul
niIilaiy dipIonacy, vhich pIays an inpoilanl ioIe in
acceIeialing lhe nodeinizalion of oui ained foices
and piepaialion foi niIilaiy sliuggIe.
CMC Chaiinan Hu }inlao, 2OO9
4
MiIilaiy dipIonacy is an inpoilanl pail of lhe conpo-
silion of oui counliys dipIonacy, and il nusl hinIy
caiiy oul lhe counliys najoi poIicies, guideIines, and
foieign poIicies. Theiefoie, il has a veiy sliong sliale-
gic naluie, poIicy naluie, and sensilivily. Al lhe sane
line, niIilaiy dipIonacy is aIso lhe peacefuI appIica-
lion of niIilaiy slienglh. Il nol onIy has a sofl aspecl,
lul aIso has iigid chaiacleiislics.
MND Ioieign Affaiis Ofhce, Sep 2O12
5
C#'%O ?'!"@#E @O D'A'"$#E *'>A@D$(E
AIlhough lhe ILAs niIilaiy dipIonacy
6
did nol
legin undei Hu }inlao, il cIeaiIy expanded in scope
and ieceived noie inleinalionaI visiliIily undei hin.
As a iesuIl, lhe ILA is appaienlIy doing a lellei jol of
inuencing hov foieign counliies viev and inleiacl
vilh il.
445
To undeisland vhal occuiied undei Hus Ieadei-
ship, lhis hisl seclion piovides a liief lackgiound of
lhe ILAs niIilaiy dipIonacy since 1949. This is foI-
Ioved ly lhe second seclion, a sunnaiy of lhe giovlh
of ILA niIilaiy allache ofhces alioad and foieign al-
lache ofhces assigned lo China. The lhiid seclion dis-
cusses lhe liend in senioi ILA visils alioad undei Hu.
!1Y,: E/.-6 <V >A$ D1=1,.-: *1H=<9.2:8
To ceIeliale lhe 6Olh Anniveisaiy of lhe IeopIes
RepulIic of China (IRC) in 2OO9, @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*'
pulIished an ailicIe ly Iiofessoi Chen Zhiyong fion
lhe Nanjing IoIilicaI Acadeny lhal piovides a lieak-
dovn of lhe ILAs niIilaiy dipIonacy since 1949 inlo
lhe foIIoving hve peiiods:
7

1. 1949 lhiough lhe 195Os: Duiing lhis peiiod, Chi-
nas inleinalionaI slialegy vas lased on a Ieaning lo
one side (j]) slialegy lhal noved China lovaid
lhe Soviel Union and avay fion lhe Uniled Slales.
As such, China eslalIished niIilaiy allache ofhces in
seveiaI sociaIisl counliies, incIuding lhe Soviel Union,
IoIand, CzechosIovakia, uIgaiia, Noilh Koiea, and
Vielnan. The ILA uliIized lhose ieIalions lo gain ex-
peiience fion lheii niIilaiies, inpoil veapon syslens
and equipnenl, and liain Chinese niIilaiy peisonneI
oveiseas.
2. 196Os: In lhis peiiod, Sino-Soviel ieIalions dele-
iioialed, and China shifled ils Ieaning lo one side
slialegy lo an anli-inpeiiaIisl and anli-ievisionisl
(]) inleinalionaI uniled fionl slialegy. As a
446
iesuIl, Chinas niIilaiy dipIonacy shifled fion a focus
on ieIalions vilh lhe Soviel Union and Lasl Luiopean
sociaIisl counliies lo suppoiling Asian, Afiican, and
Lalin Aneiican counliies independence and Iileia-
lion novenenls.
3. 197Os: In lhe 197Os, lhe Soviel Union lecane Chi-
nas piinaiy secuiily lhieal, and Mao Zedong liied lo
cieale a uniled fionl againsl hegenonisn (). The
IRC aIso lecane a peinanenl nenlei of lhe Uniled
Nalions (UN) Secuiily CounciI and legan lo eslalIish
niIilaiy ieIalions, especiaIIy vilh Weslein nalions.
ReIalions vilh lhe Uniled Slales aIso legan lo lhav,
and dipIonalic ieIalions veie eslalIished in }anuaiy
1979 jusl lefoie Chinas loidei vai vilh Vielnan.
4. 198Os: Duiing lhe 198Os, China pul foilh lhe
concepl of peace and deveIopnenl. IoIIoving Chinas
iefoin and opening up, niIilaiy dipIonacy and ex-
changes expanded iapidIy voiIdvide.
5. 199Os lo 2OO9: Duiing lhis peiiod, lhe gIolaI se-
cuiily silualion changed, and lhe IRC pul foilh lhe
nev secuiily concepl of equaIily (`), nuluaI liusl
(]]), nuluaI lenehl (]]), and coopeialion (]).
As a iesuIl, niIilaiy dipIonacy vas cIoseIy Iinked
vilh Chinas foieign poIicy and lhe ;)2)$&%1 #$%&$'()*
L+),'2)/'- H4% $6' 9'! E'%)4, (issued in 1993). MiIilaiy
exchanges invoIved opening up and lianspaiency, as
veII as high-IeveI exchanges, slialegic diaIogue, liIal-
eiaI and nuIliIaleiaI secuiily foiuns, opening of lai-
iacks and exeicises lo olseiveis, ship poil visils, and
conlined exeicises.
"I/ "<H "/7 O1-6,6 17 D1=1,.-: *1H=<9.2:8
In Seplenlei 2O12, lhe P|A Dai|q pulIished an ai-
licIe enlilIed Top Ten Iiisls of Chinese MiIilaiy Di-
447
pIonacy fion 2OO2 lo 2O12, vhich aie Iisled leIov
and shov a cIeai dislinclion of vhal happened undei
}iang and Hu. Sone of lhe delaiIs aie discussed in
sepaiale seclions in lhe chaplei.
8
1. 2OO2: Iiisl inpIenenlalion of inleinalionaI
hunanilaiian ieIief. In conpIiance vilh UN iesoIu-
lions, China dispalched lvo ILA Aii Ioice (ILAAI)
lianspoil aiiciafl lo deIivei nuch-needed nedicine,
nedicaI equipnenl, and olhei assislance suppIies lo
Afghanislan on Maich 25, 2OO2. Il vas lhe hisl line
foi lhe Chinese niIilaiy lo lake on inleinalionaI hu-
nanilaiian suppIy and ieIief nissions.
9
2. 2OO2: Iiisl ILAN lask foice aiound-lhe-voiId
voyage. A lvo-ship lask foice consisling of lhe O)/-
(,&4 guided nissiIe deslioyei and lhe 5&)*&/( con-
piehensive suppIy ship conducled a 132-day voyage
(May 15 lo Seplenlei 23) aiound lhe voiId lhal liav-
eIed 33,OOO naulicaI niIes and visiled 1O poils in 1O
diffeienl counliies acioss hve conlinenls.
3. 2OO2: Iiisl Sino-foieign joinl niIilaiy exeicise.
China and Kyigyzslan successfuIIy heId a joinl anli-
leiioiisn niIilaiy exeicise fion Oclolei 1O-11, in lhe
loidei aieas lelveen lhe lvo counliies. Thal vas lhe
hisl line foi lhe Chinese lioops heId a joinl exeicise
vilh foieign counleipails.
4. 2OO5: Iiisl opening of lhe Headquaileis of lhe
ILA Second AiliIIeiy Ioice (ILASAI) lo foieign niIi-
laiies. U.S. Secielaiy of Defense DonaId RunsfeId vis-
iled lhe headquaileis on Oclolei 19. He vas lhe hisl
foieign guesl lo enlei lhe headquaileis. Aflei lhal,
lhe ILASAI Headquaileis vas opened lo lhiee olhei
foieign niIilaiies.
5. 2OO6: Iiisl Iaunching of Sino-foieign joinl naii-
line palioIs. The ILAN and Vielnanese Navy oi-
ganized lhe hisl joinl naiiline palioI in ApiiI in
448
accoidance vilh lhe Agieenenl lelveen China and
Vielnan on }oinl IalioI in lhe eilu CuIf, signed in
eijing ly lhe lvo counliies in Oclolei. Thiileen joinl
palioIs have leen heId since lhen.
6. 2OO8: Iiisl opening of diiecl leIephone Iine lo
MND. MND and lhe Minisliy of Defense of lhe Rus-
sian Iedeialion opened a diiecl phone Iine lelveen
lhen on Maich 14. This vas lhe hisl diiecl phone
connunicalion channeI lelveen MND and ils foi-
eign counleipails.
7. 2OO8: Iiisl inlioduclion of nevs spokespeison of
lhe MND. On May 18, MND heId a piess confeience
lo inlioduce ILA and IeopIes Ained IoIice (IAI)
invoIvenenl in lhe Wenchuan eailhquake disaslei
ieIief opeialions. Thal vas lhe delul of MNDs nevs
spokespeison al lhe piess confeience.
8. 2OO8: Iiisl dispalch of vesseIs lo pailicipale in
inleinalionaI escoil nissions. The ILAN senl lhe hisl
navaI lask foice on Decenlei 26 lo caiiy oul escoil
nissions in lhe CuIf of Aden and lhe valeis off lhe
SonaIi coasl in accoidance vilh lhe iesoIulions nade
ly lhe UN Secuiily CounciI.
9. 2OO9: Iiisl oiganizalion of nuIlinalionaI navaI
and aii foice evenls. On ApiiI 23, a lolaI of 21 vai-
ships fion 14 counliies joined 25 ILAN ships and
31 aiiciafl duiing a ieviev lhal ceIelialed lhe 6Olh
anniveisaiy of lhe founding of lhe ILA Navy. This
vas lhe hisl nuIlinalionaI naiiline paiade heId ly
China. Iion Novenlei 6-7, lhe ILAAI heId lhe hisl
Iaige-scaIe inleinalionaI foiun, in vhich aii foice deI-
egales fion 34 counliies veie piesenl lo ceIeliale lhe
ILAAIs 6Olh anniveisaiy.
1O. 2O11: Iiisl dispalch of lioops lo evacuale pei-
sonneI oveiseas. The ILAAI dispalched foui IL-76
niIilaiy lianspoil aiiciafl lo Lilya fion Ieliuaiy 28
449
lo Maich 4 lo pick up and lianspoil Chinese peison-
neI in Lilya. Al lhe sane line, lhe J+P64+ fiigale of
lhe 7lh Chinese navaI escoil lask foice vas oideied
lo head foi lhe valeis off Lilya lo lhe foieign ships
lhal veie evacualing Chinese peisonneI in Lilya. This
vas lhe hisl line foi China lo uliIize niIilaiy foice lo
evacuale Chinese peisonneI oveiseas.
;I., 16 >A$ D1=1,.-: *1H=<9.2:P
In Seplenlei 2O12, lhe Diiecloi of lhe MND Ioi-
eign Affaiis Ofhce, Majoi CeneiaI Qian Lihua, dis-
cussed lhe foIIoving key aspecls of lhe ILAs niIilaiy
dipIonacy duiing an inleiviev vilh ILA DaiIy.
10
- MiIilaiy dipIonacy is an inpoilanl pail of lhe
conposilion of Chinas dipIonacy, and il nusl
hinIy caiiy oul lhe counliys najoi poIicies,
guideIines, and foieign poIicies. Theiefoie, il
has a veiy sliong slialegic naluie, poIicy naluie,
and sensilivily. Al lhe sane line, niIilaiy di-
pIonacy is aIso lhe peacefuI appIicalion of niIi-
laiy slienglh. Il nol onIy has a sofl aspecl, lul
aIso has iigid chaiacleiislics. Il pIays a unique
ioIe in piolecling lhe counliys good and safe
enviionnenl. In iecenl yeais, lhe conlacl and
inleiaclion lelveen niIilaiy dipIonacy and
poIilicaI dipIonacy has lecone cIosei.
- When facing conpIicaled and changealIe in-
leinalionaI secuiily silualions, niIilaiy dipIo-
nacy nainIy pIays lhe foIIoving dislincl ioIes
in ciealing a safe enviionnenl foi lhe counliy:
Slienglhening nuluaI niIilaiy liusl, enhancing
ciisis nanagenenl and conlioI, avoiding slia-
legic nisjudgnenls, and deepening ieIalions
lelveen counliies.
45O
- MiIilaiy dipIonacy is caiiied oul accoiding lo
lhe counliys dipIonalic depIoynenl, and lhe
chaiacleiislics of oui counliys niIilaiy ieIa-
lions vilh olhei counliies can le sunnaiized
in foui key leins: 1) MiIilaiy ieIalions vilh
Iaige counliies: SlalIe (|), 2) MiIilaiy ieIalions
vilh neighloiing counliies: Cood (), 3) MiIi-
laiy ieIalions vilh deveIoping counliies: Iiac-
licaI (), and 4) MuIliIaleiaI secuiily diaIogues
and coopeialion: Aclive (,).
- }oinl exeicises and joinl liaining lelveen China
and foieign counliies aie an inpoilanl vay foi
inpioving lhe IeveI of niIilaiy liaining. In ie-
cenl yeais, appioxinaleIy 1O joinl exeicises and
joinl liaining evenls veie heId each yeai. ased
on piolIens found duiing joinl exeicises and
joinl liaining, unils have deveIoped neasuies
lo inpiove lhenseIves.
- In lhe Iasl decade, oui ained foices acliveIy
pailicipaled in inleinalionaI peacekeeping
nissions, naiiline escoils, and hunanilaiian
iescues, lo incIude sending a hospilaI ship lo
liaveI aiound lhe gIole lo give nedicaI lieal-
nenl and lo piovide ninesveeping suppoil. In
addilion, aflei lhe eailhquake occuiied in Haili
in }anuaiy 2O1O, China iesponded lo a iequesl
fion lhe UN foi HA/DR suppoil.
- In iecenl yeais, Chinese ained foices vigoi-
ousIy enhanced exleinaI piopaganda. Conse-
quenlIy, ienaikalIe piogiess vas nade in lhe
ained foices aliIily lo caiiy oul sofl povei,
especiaIIy lhiough lhe use of niIilaiy dipIona-
cy. As such, niIilaiy dipIonacy is an inpoilanl
vindov foi dispIaying lhe inage of lhe ained
foices. When Chinese niIilaiy Ieadeis visil foi-
451
eign counliies, lhey use nuIlipIe occasions lo
give speeches, accepl inleivievs, hoId neel-
ings foi connunicalion, inlioduce lhe nalionaI
defense poIicy and silualion of ainy luiIding,
and aIso acliveIy iespond lo lhe conceins of lhe
oulside voiId. As such, peopIe and nedia in
foieign counliies have spoken highIy of Ieadeis
in lhe ained foices.
"I/ &-<Z,I 17 D1=1,.-: $,,.2Ik6
., ?<9/ .75 $W-<.58
Chinas exchange of niIilaiy allaches vilh olhei
counliies has expanded giealIy in lhe Iasl 25 yeais
and conlinued lo giov undei Hu }inlao.
11
Iion 1988
lo 2O12, lhe nunlei of Chinese niIilaiy allache ofhces
alioad neaiIy doulIed fion 58 lo 1O9, and lhe nun-
lei of foieign counliies vilh niIilaiy allache ofhces
in eijing has noie lhan doulIed fion 44 lo 1O3. As
shovn Ialei, hve of lhe eighl nalionaI Dcfcnsc lni|c
E&A'%- pulIished ly China since 1998 have given
pioninenl nenlion lo lhe nunlei of allache ofhces
lhal China has aiound lhe voiId and lhe nunlei of
foieign allache ofhces in China. ased on infoinalion
fion lhe lienniaI While Iapeis, TalIe 11-1 piovides
lhe nunlei of counliies vilh vhich lhe ILA has es-
lalIished niIilaiy ieIalions, lhe nunlei of counliies
in vhich lhe ILA has allache ofhces, and lhe nunlei
of counliies lhal have niIilaiy allache ofhces in Chi-
na.
12
Nole lhal lhe ILA does nol have an allache ofhce
in eveiy counliy vilh vhich il has niIilaiy ieIalions.
13

Ioi exanpIe, even lhough lhe ILA does nol have an
allache in Uganda, and vice veisa, foinei Defense
Minislei Liang CuangIie visiled KanpaIa, Uganda, in
Novenlei 2O11 and pIedged $2.3 niIIion lo suppoil
452
lhe Uganda IeopIes Defense Ioice (UIDI) in ils vai
effoils againsl SonaIias AIshalal niIilanls.
14
".W=/ MMRMU >A$ .75 O<-/107 D1=1,.-:
Attach Ofccs.
Accoiding lo a 2O11 Pccp|cs Dai|q ailicIe, lhe ILAs
allaches iange in iank fion coIoneI lo najoi geneiaI
(e.g., ieginenl Ieadei lo coips depuly Ieadei IeveI) and
noinaIIy seive 3 lo 4 yeais in a pailicuIai enlassy.
16

esides lhe senioi NalionaI Defense Allache (]|y
), vho is noinaIIy caIIed lhe MiIilaiy Allache, sone
IRC enlassies aIso have allaches vho iepiesenl lheii
individuaI seivices (e.g., Ainy |ILAAj, ILAN, and
ILAAI), as veII as lechnicaI ofhceis (|Z) and
assislanl allaches (y). The allaches have lhe foI-
Ioving iesponsiliIilies:
17
- Repiesenl Chinas ained foices alioad and
nainlain dipIonalic conlacl vilh lhe hosl
counliys niIilaiy lo aiiange iecipiocaI visils,
- Suppoil oi nanage niIilaiy assislance, niIi-
laiy liaining, niIilaiy pioducls liade, niIilaiy-
civiI coopeialion, and niIilaiy lechnoIogy
liansfei, and,
>.,6( !#;(0
319$60,(- T,6. T.,7. 3.,$#
.#- U,",6#0I V("#6,1$-
!WG G66#7.X
IHras kbroad
K10(,+$ U,",6#0I G66#7.X
IHras In 6hIna
1OO8 1OO+ OO+ GO
2OOO ho normation ho normation ho normation
2OO2 1OO+ 1OO+ 7O+
2OO4 15O+ 1OO+ 85
2OOG 15O+ 1O7 85
2OO8 15O+ 1OO O8
2O1O ho normation ho normation 1O8
15
2O12 ho normation ho normation ho normation
453
- LegaI coIIeclion of niIilaiy inleIIigence lhiough
diiecl oi indiiecl conlacl lhal is iepoiled lo lhe
ieIevanl depailnenl in China.
The najoiily of Chinas niIilaiy allaches alioad
aie Ainy ofhceis, nosl of vhon aie caieei inleIIi-
gence ofhceis. This is in Iaige pail a ieeclion of lhe
ILAs giound-foice doninaled cuIluie. In eaiIy-2OO9,
lhe ILAN had navaI allache liIIels in onIy lhiee coun-
liies (Uniled Slales, Uniled Kingdon (UK), and Cei-
nany) and lhe ILAAI had allache liIIels in onIy lvo
counliies (Uniled Slales and UK).
18
Il appeais, hov-
evei, lhal lhe nunlei of Aii Ioice allaches alioad
has expanded. Accoiding lo discussions in Taivan in
Iale-2O11, lhe ILAAI nov has allaches in seveiaI ad-
dilionaI, unidenlihed counliies.
19
In addilion, accoid-
ing lo Lieulenanl CoIoneI Chiis IuIlz, vho iecenlIy
seived in MongoIia as an Assislanl Ainy Allache, lhe
ILAAI nov has an allache of Uighui descenl fion
Innei MongoIia vho is assigned in MongoIia.
2O
On lhe
olhei hand, aloul 2O counliies cuiienlIy have aii foice
and navy allaches in China.
21

Lven lhough seveiaI counliies have navaI and aii
foice allaches in eijing, lhey do nol necessaiiIy have
lhe oppoilunily lo inleiacl vilh ILAN and ILAAI of-
hceis on a ieguIai lasis. NoinaIIy, lhe onIy oppoilu-
nily lhal foieign navaI and aii allaches have lo inleiacl
vilh ILAN oi ILAAI ofhciaIs is vhen lhey escoil a
visiling deIegalion oi vhen lhey aiiange foi a ILAN
oi ILAAI deIegalion lo visil lheii counliy.
454
?4 F17,.<B6 "-.J/= $W-<.58
As CeneiaI Secielaiy of lhe Connunisl Iaily,
Iiesidenl of lhe IRC, and Chaiinan of lhe CCI and
Slale CMCs, Hu }inlao liaveIed alioad veaiing one
oi noie hals. Accoiding lo a iecenl look, }iang Zenin
liaveIIed lo 7O counliies fion 1989 lo 2OO2, vhich is
an aveiage of aloul hve counliies pei yeai.
22
ased
on infoinalion fion a IRC goveinnenl velsile
23
and
a ieviev of lhe Inleinel, Hu liaveIed alioad 35 lines
since 2OO4, vhich vas aIso an aveiage of hve visils pei
yeai. olh }iang and Hu cIeaiIy exceeded any liaveI
ly lheii piedecessois. Hus visils can le oiganized
inlo lhe foIIoving foui calegoiies: 1) Lcononic sun-
nils, incIuding C8, C2O, iaziI, Russia, India, China,
and Soulh Afiica (RICS), and Asia Iacihc Lcononic
Coopeialion (AILC),
24
2) Shanghai Coopeialion Oi-
ganizalion (SCO) sunnils, vhich legan in 2OO1, 3)
NucIeai Secuiily Sunnils, vhich legan in 2O1O, and,
4) DipIonalic visils lo seveiaI counliies.
AIlhough }iang and Hu occasionaIIy nel vilh foi-
eign defense ninisleis such as lhe U.S. Secielaiy of
Defense in eijing and on liips alioad, a ieviev of lhe
naleiiaI foi each of his foieign visils found onIy one
inslance vheie a senioi niIilaiy ofhcei acconpanied
lhen oi pailicipaled in any of lhe neelings, incIuding
lhe nucIeai secuiily sunnils. Thal visil occuiied in
Seplenlei 2OO1, vhen }iang Zenin visiled Noilh Ko-
iea and vas acconpanied ly CeneiaI Cuo oxiong,
vho al lhal line vas lhe Lxeculive Depuly Chief of
lhe CeneiaI Slaff.
25
AIlhough an occasionaI pholo
shoved a niIilaiy ofhcei in lhe lackgiound, lul lhey
aie nosl IikeIy niIilaiy allaches.
26

The ieason foi lhis is nol cIeai, lul one expIanalion
nay le lhal his senioi niIilaiy ofhceis, incIuding lhe
455
CMC vice chaiinen, Defense Minislei, and Chief of
lhe CeneiaI Slaff (COCS) iepiesenl China al sepaiale
defense and secuiily neelings, such as lhose heId ly
lhe SCO and lhe secuiily neelings discussed in lhe
nexl seclion. Of nole, hovevei, Chinas nev Defense
Minislei, CeneiaI Chang Wanquan, acconpanied
Xi }inping duiing his visil lo Russia in Maich 2O13,
vhich nay indicale a change undei Xi.
27
Ioi conpaii-
son puiposes, senioi U.S. defense ofhciaIs have onIy
occasionaIIy acconpanied lhe Iiesidenl of lhe Uniled
Slales alioad. Ioi exanpIe, in 1998, AdniiaI }oseph
Iiuehei, connandei of lhe U.S. Iacihc Connand
(IACOM), acconpanied Iiesidenl iII CIinlon lo
a China Sunnil. In 2OO7, Secielaiy of Defense Roleil
Cales and Secielaiy of Slale HiIIaiy CIinlon accon-
panied Iiesidenl Ceoige ush lo Iiaq. In addilion,
lhe Assislanl Chief of lhe }oinl Slaff, a lhiee-slai gen-
eiaI, usuaIIy liaveIs vilh lhe Secielaiy of Slale and, if
iequiied, vilh lhe Iiesidenl.
28
!/71<- >A$ A/.5/- \161,6 $W-<.58
A ieviev of senioi ILA ofhcei visils alioad
lhiough Iale-2OO8 indicaled lhal lhose senioi ILA of-
hceis vho liaveI alioad do so an aveiage of once pei
yeai.
29
In leins of lhe nunlei of liips alioad, onIy lhe
Defense Minislei and lhe COCS have aveiaged noie
lhan one liip alioad pei yeai. The Defense Minislei,
vho aveiaged lvo lo lhiee liips annuaIIy, liaveIed
noie lhan any olhei ofhceis. TypicaIIy, he has pai-
licipaled in each of lhe SCOs annuaI defense ninis-
leis confeiences since 2OO1 and has laken al Ieasl lvo
olhei liips annuaIIy. WhiIe lhe COCS aIso aveiaged
lvo liips pei yeai, lhe lvo CMC vice chaiinen onIy
liaveIed a conlined lolaI of hve lines lo a lolaI of 1O
456
counliies fion 2OO1 lhiough 2OO8. Mosl olhei senioi
ofhceis did nol liaveI alioad each yeai oi liaveIed
onIy once pei yeai.
A ieviev of infoinalion fion 2OO9 lhiough Iale-
2O12, hovevei, shovs lhal, aIlhough lhe pallein foi
lhe Defense Minislei and COCS has ienained con-
slanl, lhe lvo CMC Vice Chaiinen conlined neaiIy
liipIed lhe lolaI nunlei of liips alioad lo doulIe lhe
nunlei of counliies since 2OO9. SpecihcaIIy, in lhe 4
yeais fion 2OO9 lhiough 2O12, Vice Chaiinan Cuo
oxiong nade seven liips lo 13 diffeienl counliies,
vhiIe Vice Chaiinan Xu Caihou nade six liips lo 11
diffeienl counliies, as shovn leIov.
3O
AIlhough lhe
vice chaiinen visiled counliies in Asia, lhe Aneiicas,
Luiope, and lhe MiddIe Lasl, lhey did nol visil any
Afiican counliies. One expIanalion foi lhe inciease in
lheii liips is lhal lhey lolh ieliied al lhe 18lh Iaily
Congiess, so lhey vanled lo lake advanlage of lhe op-
poilunily lo liaveI. Yel anolhei expIanalion is lhal lhe
ILA is cIeaiIy expanding ils inleiaclion vilh foieign
counliies acioss lhe loaid. Il viII le inpoilanl lo see
if lhis pallein conlinues undei Xi }inping.
- CMC Vice Chaiinan CeneiaI Cuo oxiong:
~ May 2OO9: Tuikey, Ceinany, IinIand
~ Novenlei 2OO9: Russia
~ May 2O1O: AusliaIia, Nev ZeaIand,
and Indonesia
~ Oclolei 2O1O: Noilh Koiea
~ ApiiI 2O11: Vielnan
~ Seplenlei 2O11: Russia
~ Oclolei-Novenlei 2O11: Cula,
CoIonlia, and Ieiu
- CMC Vice Chaiinan CeneiaI Xu Caihou:
~ Oclolei 2OO9: Uniled Slales
~ Novenlei 2O1O: Uniled Aial Lniiales
(UAL), Syiia, and }oidan
457
~ May 2O11: Myannai
~ Seplenlei 2O11: uIgaiia, Seilia, and
Cioalia
~ May 2O12: MongoIia
~ }uIy 2O12: eIoiussia and Lilhuania
- Defense Minislei CeneiaI Liang CuangIie:
~ Seplenlei 2OO9: SIovakia, Seilia, and
uIgaiia
~ Novenlei 2OO9: }apan
~ May 2O1O: Iakislan, Tuiknenislan,
Kazakhslan
~ Augusl 2O1O: Mexico, CoIunlia, and iaziI
~ Oclolei 2O1O: Vielnan (Associalion of Soulh
Lasl Asian Nalions |ASLANj Defense
Minisleis Meeling)
~ Maich 2O11: Kazakhslan (SCO Defense
Minisleis Meeling), Uzlekislan
~ May 2O11: Singapoie (Shangii-La DiaIogue),
Indonesia, and lhe IhiIippines
~ Novenlei 2O11: Visil lo Chana, Uganda,
and lhe SeycheIIes
~ May 2O12: Uniled Slales, IoIand, and Lalvia
~ }uIy 2O12: Canlodia (ASLAN Defense Min-
isleis Meeling)
~ Seplenlei 2O12: India, Sii Lanka, and Laos
31
- Chief of lhe CeneiaI Slaff CeneiaI Chen ingde
~ Oclolei 2OO9: AusliaIia (12lh Defense and
Slialegic ConsuIlalions) and Iapua Nev
Cuinea
~ May 2O1O: Nanilia, Tanzania, and AngoIa
~ Novenlei 2O1O: VenezueIa, Lcuadoi, and
Ieiu
~ Maich 2O11: NepaI
~ May 2O11: Uniled Slales, vhich foIIoved Hu
}inlaos visil in }anuaiy 2O11
458
~ Augusl 2O11: Russia, Ukiaine, and IsiaeI
~ Novenlei 2O11: Myannai
~ May-}une 2O12: Uzlekislan, Tuiknenislan,
Tajikislan (SCO Defense Meeling lo discuss
lhe Ieace Mission 2O12 Lxeicise)
!"#$"%&'( >$#"+%#!?'>!X *'$A@&)%!X
$+* (@+!)A"$"'@+!
AIlhough China legan eslalIishing slialegic ie-
Ialions vilh vaiious counlies in lhe Iale-199Os undei
}iang Zenin, lhe nunlei and lypes of ieIalions in-
cieased undei Hu. Chinas appioaches aie laiIoied
lo lhe diffeienl slialegic piioiilies, inpoilance, and
ieIalionships, aII deaIing vilh a high degiee of allen-
lion lo piolocoI and iespecl vhiIe highIighling lhe
inpoilance of lhe vaiious ieIalionships. This seclion
discusses lhe lypes of ieIalions ciealed, as veII as
pioviding sone lackgiound on lhen and lhe cuiienl
silualion. Il aIso discusses olhei secuiily nechanisns
lhal China lecane invoIved in undei Hu.
WhiIe }iang and Hu allended vaiious neelings
lhal ciealed sone of lhe secuiily diaIogues, lhe ILAs
and Minisliy of Ioieign Affaiis senioi Ieadeis have
iepiesenled lhe IRC al sulsequenl neelings depend-
ing on lhe lype of diaIogue. Appendix 11-A piovides
a Iisl of lhe counliies vilh vhon China has eslal-
Iished slialegic pailneiships (|), diaIogues (),
and consuIlalions ({]), as veII as vhich senioi IRC
and ILA Ieadeis allended lhe neelings. AIlhough lhe
piesidenl allended lhe hisl neeling lo eslalIish lhe
ieIalionship, lhe foIIoving neelings veie allended ly
lhe pieniei, foieign ninislei, one of lhe vice foieign
ninisleis, lhe COCS, oi one of lhe depuly chiefs of
lhe geneiaI slaff (DCOCS), vho is usuaIIy lhe depuly
459
vilh lhe foieign affaiis poilfoIio. Of nole, lhe defense
ninislei has appaienlIy nol iepiesenled China in any
of lhen.
C41=5170 . "I-//R"1/-/5 !,-42,4-/8
China has luiIl a lhiee-lieied sliucluie foi slia-
legic ieIalions~slialegic pailneiships, slialegic
diaIogues, and slialegic consuIlalions~vilh ceilain
counliies lo discuss key issues such as nonpioIifeia-
lion, counleileiioiisn, and liIaleiaI niIilaiy and se-
cuiily coopeialion.
32
Olhei lopics incIude disaslei
ieIief, peacekeeping, naiiline safely, loidei joinl
palioIs, and nonpioIifeialion.
33
These lhiee lieis aie
cIeaiIy inleilvined and have diffeienl conlinalions
as shovn leIov:
- slialegic pailneiship (,[|)
- slialegic diaIogue (,[)
- secuiily consuIlalion ({])
~ Chief of lhe CeneiaI Slaff diaIogue (,
)
~ defense and secuiily consuIlalion (|
{]/ |{])
~ defense and slialegic consuIlalion (|,
[{])
~ defense consuIlalion (|{])
~ defense slialegic consuIlalion (|,[
{])
~ neelings (,)
~ niIilaiy coopeialion diaIogue ({
)
~ secuiily consuIlalion ({])
~ secuiily diaIogue and coopeialion(
{)
~ slialegic and secuiily consuIlalion (,[
{])
46O
~ slialegic consuIlalion (,[{])
~ slialegic defense consuIlalion (,[|
{])
C.2[0-<4758
In lhe Iale-199Os, China legan lo eslalIish vhal
il caIIs slialegic pailneiships vilh seveiaI counliies,
incIuding Russia, iaziI, India, Kazakhslan, and lhe
IhiIippines, as veII as vilh inleinalionaI oiganiza-
lions, incIuding lhe ASLAN and lhe Luiopean Union
(LU). These pailneiships have leen announced dui-
ing neelings of lhe piesidenls and aie lhe highesl-Iev-
eI ieIalionship lelveen China and lhe olhei counliies
and seive as a fianevoik foi liIaleiaI ieIalions acioss
lhe specliun, incIuding niIilaiy ieIalions.
In lhe nid-2OOOs, China legan lo luiId on ils slia-
legic pailneiships and cieale vhal il caIIs slialegic
diaIogues vilh seveiaI counliies lo pionole nuluaI
liusl and coopeialion.
34
In 2OO5, China and lhe Unil-
ed Slales ciealed vhal China caIIed lhe China-U.S.
Slialegic DiaIogue, and lhe Uniled Slales caIIed lhe
U.S.-China Senioi DiaIogue. Thal diaIogue vas Ied ly
Chinas slale counciIoi foi foieign affaiis and a U.S.
depuly secielaiy of slale. In 2OO6, China and lhe Unil-
ed Slales ciealed a Slialegic Lcononic DiaIogue, Ied on
lhe Chinese side ly lhe vice pieniei foi foieign liade
and on lhe U.S. side ly lhe Secielaiy of lhe Tieasuiy.
In }anuaiy 2OO8, lhe hisl niIilaiy iepiesenlalives~a
ILA iepiesenlalive, a depuly diiecloi of lhe Minisliy
of NalionaI Defenses Ioieign Affaiis Ofhce, and a
U.S. assislanl secielaiy of defense~pailicipaled in lhe
hflh neeling of lhe China-U.S. Slialegic DiaIogue/
Senioi DiaIogue.
35
In }uIy 2OO9, lhe slialegic/senioi
diaIogue vilh lhe Uniled Slales vas neiged vilh lhe
461
Slialegic Lcononic DiaIogue lo lecone lhe slialegic
and econonic diaIogue (S&LD). In 2O11, al lhe lhiid
iound of lhe S&LD, lhe lvo counliies ciealed a Slia-
legic Secuiily DiaIogue (SSD) undei lhe S&LD, as a
vay lo liing niIilaiy voices inlo lhe S&LDs slialegic
discussions. China vas iepiesenled ly a depuly chief
of lhe geneiaI slaff.
36

Chinas lhiid liei is slialegic consuIlalions, vhich
usuaIIy invoIves diaIogue and niIilaiy coopeialion
lelveen lhe ILAs CeneiaI Slaff Depailnenl (CSD)
(usuaIIy lhe DCOCS vho aie iesponsilIe foi foieign
ieIalions and inleIIigence) and lhe CSDs counleipail
oiganizalion. y lhe end of 2O1O, China had eslal-
Iished slialegic consuIlalion and secuiily diaIogue
nechanisns vilh 22 counliies.
37
Sone of lhese coun-
liies incIude Russia, India, Ceinany, and Nev Zea-
Iand, as veII as lhe SCO. Ioi exanpIe, al a neeling
of SCO Ieadeis in Augusl 2OO8, Hu }inlao slaled lhal
SCO nenleis shouId slienglhen lhe slialegic dia-
Iogue, soIidify poIilicaI nuluaI liusl, and slep up slia-
legic consuIlalion on inpoilanl sensilive issues lhal
affecl lhe secuiily, slaliIily, and deveIopnenl of lhe
nenleis and lhe iegion, cooidinale oui slances in a
lineIy vay, and lake effeclive neasuies.
38
(4--/7, !1,4.,1<78
These lypes of discussions legan undei }iang Ze-
nin, lul conlinued undei Hu }inlao. Accoiding lo lhe
Slialegic ConsuIlalions and DiaIogues (,[{]1
) seclion in lhe IRCs 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, China
heId exlensive slialegic consuIlalions and diaIogues
duiing 2OO9 and 2O1O vilh ieIevanl counliies in lhe
heId of secuiily and defense lo enhance nuluaI un-
deislanding and liusl, and lo slienglhen connunica-
462
lion and cooidinalion.
39
To dale, China has eslalIished
nechanisns foi defense and secuiily consuIlalion and
diaIogue vilh 22 counliies. The slialegic and coopeia-
live pailneiship lelveen Russia and China conlinues
lo le conpiehensiveIy and vigoiousIy ieinfoiced.
The lvo niIilaiies eslalIished a slialegic consuIlalion
nechanisn in 1997. The 13lh iound of slialegic con-
suIlalions lelveen lhe lvo geneiaI slaff headquaileis
in 2O1O iesuIled in consensus on lhe inleinalionaI slia-
legic silualion, issues in Noilheasl Asia, CenliaI Asia
and Soulh Asia, and coopeialion lelveen lhe lvo
niIilaiies. The 15lh iound vas heId in Augusl 2O12 in
Iikulsk, Russia. The ILAs DCOCS, CeneiaI Ma Xiao-
lian, and AIexandei Ioslnikov, DCOCS of lhe Ained
Ioices of lhe Russian Iedeialion, co-chaiied lhe con-
suIlalion. The lvo sides ieached a consensus on such
issues as liIaleiaI coopeialion lelveen lhe lvo niIi-
laiies as veII as inleinalionaI and iegionaI secuiily
silualions of connon concein.
4O
WhiIe lhe lvo sides
have leen discussing lhe sane issues since lhe hisl
diaIogue, one of lhe nosl inpoilanl aspecls is lhal lhe
lvo niIilaiies aie neeling on a ieguIai lasis al senioi
IeveIs, vheie lhey aie alIe lo discuss a vide iange of
liIaleiaI issues.
China and lhe Uniled Slales nainlain consuIlalions
on such issues as nonpioIifeialion, counleileiioiisn,
and liIaleiaI niIilaiy and secuiily coopeialion. The
lvo counliies eslalIished a nechanisn of defense
consuIlalion lelveen lhe lvo defense ninisliies in
1997, and heId lhe 1Olh and 11lh Defense ConsuIla-
live TaIks (DCT) on issues of connon concein in }une
2OO9 and Decenlei 2O1O, and lhe 5lh and 6lh Defense
IoIicy Cooidinalion TaIks (DICT) in Ieliuaiy and
Decenlei 2OO9. Accoiding lo a iepoil viillen foi lhe
U.S. Congiess:
463
y 2O11, lhe ILA seened lo dovngiade lhe DICT as
neieIy 'voiking-IeveI laIks lelveen lhe U.S. Depuly
Assislanl Secielaiy of Defense and lhe Diiecloi of lhe
ILAs Ioieign Affaiis Ofhce. The piaclice vas al odds
vilh lhe ieafhinalion duiing Secielaiy of Defense
Roleil Cales visil in eaiIy 2O11, vhen Defense Min-
islei Liang CuangIie agieed lhal lhe DCT, DICT, and
MiIilaiy Maiiline ConsuIlalive Agieenenl (MMCA)
veie inpoilanl laIks. China allaches gieal inpoilance
lo defense and secuiily consuIlalions vilh neighloi-
ing counliies.
41

China has eslalIished nechanisns foi defense and
secuiily consuIlalion and poIicy diaIogue vilh neigh-
loiing counliies incIuding MongoIia, }apan, Vielnan,
lhe IhiIippines, Indonesia, ThaiIand, Singapoie, India,
and Iakislan, and has heId ieguIai consuIlalions and
diaIogues al diffeienl IeveIs vilh ils neighlois, vhich
focus on Asia-Iacihc secuiily, liIaleiaI niIilaiy ieIa-
lions, and iegionaI ashpoinl issues. The 2010 Dcfcnsc
lni|c Papcr slales lhal such consuIlalions and dia-
Iogues pIay a posilive ioIe in pionoling nuluaI un-
deislanding, consoIidaling good neighloiIiness and
fiiendship, deepening nuluaI liusl and coopeialion,
and nainlaining iegionaI peace and slaliIily.
On lehaIf of China, lhe ILA has conducled exlen-
sive slialegic consuIlalions and diaIogues vilh olhei
counliies. The neelings heId duiing 2OO9 and 2O1O aie
shovn in TalIe 11-2.
42
464
Q#6( 319$60I Q,#"1+9(
March 2OOO hew Zealand 2nd Strategic 0ialogue
Setember 2OOO Cermany
4th 0eense Strategic
Consultations
0ctober 2OOO Australia
12th 0eense Strategic
Consultations
February 2O1O bnited Kingdom 0eense Strategic Consultations
June 2O1O hew Zealand 8rd Round, Strategic 0ialogue
hovember 2O1O South Arica 4th 0eense Commission Meeting
".W=/ MMRKU !,-.,/012 (<764=,.,1<76 .75 *1.=<04/6
?/=5 54-170 KLLbRML8
China has aIso eslalIished nechanisns foi defense
(coopeialion) connission neelings vilh Lgypl, foi
high-IeveI niIilaiy coopeialion diaIogue vilh Tui-
key, and foi defense consuIlalions vilh lhe UAL, aII
of vhich have lioadened defense exchanges lelveen
China and MiddIe Laslein counliies.
43

D4=,1=.,/-.= !/24-1,: *1.=<04/6 D/2I.716968
AIlhough China has hisloiicaIIy chosen lo deaI
vilh counliies liIaleiaIIy, accoiding lo lhe 2O1O ?'-
fcnsc lni|c Papcr, China undei Hu legan lo acliveIy
pailicipale in nuIliIaleiaI secuiily neelings vilhin
lhe fianevoik of lhe ASLAN RegionaI Ioiun (ARI),
ASLAN IIus One (China), and ASLAN IIus Thiee
(China, }apan, and lhe RepulIic of Koiea |ROKj). Ini-
lialed ly China, lhe ARI Confeience on Secuiily IoIi-
cies vas ofhciaIIy slaged in 2OO4, and has deveIoped
465
inlo a diaIogue nechanisn foi lhe highesl ianking
senioi defense ofhciaIs vilhin lhe ARI fianevoik.
44

In Oclolei 2O1O, China allended lhe hisl ASLAN De-
fense Minisleis Meeling IIus (ADMM+). In iecenl
yeais, lhe ILA has hosled lhe China-ASLAN Defense
and Secuiily DiaIogue (CADSD), lhe ASLAN IIus
Thiee Ioiun on Non-liadilionaI Secuiily Coopeialion
lelveen Ained Ioices, and lhe ARI voikshop on
foinuIaling IegaI iuIes foi ained foices pailicipalion
in inleinalionaI disaslei ieIief opeialions. In addilion,
lhe ILA has leen invoIved in oi hosled lhe foIIoving
nuIliIaleiaI secuiily diaIogues:
- The Zhongshan Ioiun, vhich vas inilialed in
2OO9. The 2O12 Zhongshan Ioiun vas heId in
}uIy 2O12 al lhe Nanjing Ainy Connand CoI-
Iege, vheie noie lhan 3OO ofhceis and expeils
fion 87 counliies galheied lo discuss foieign
niIilaiy opeialion lheoiy sludy.
45
- The ILA Navy has leen a nenlei of lhe Wesl-
ein Iacihc NavaI Synposiun (WINS) lhal vas
eslalIished in 1987 lo discuss naiiline affaiis
in lhe iegion and lhe possiliIily of coopeialion
anong WINS nenleis. The 2O12 synposiun
vas heId in }akaila, Indonesia, lo discuss envi-
ionnenlaI issues.
46
- The ILA has allended lhe Shangii La DiaIogue
since 2OO7, vhich has leen hosled ly lhe UKs
Inslilule foi InleinalionaI Slialegic Sludies
(IISS) in Singapoie since 2OO2.
47
- In 2O1O, lhe China MiIilaiy Sciences Sociely
(CMSS) legan hosling an annuaI Xiangshan
Ioiun in eijing. The lhene foi lhe Oclolei
2O12 foiun vas lhe LvoIulion of InleinalionaI
Slialegic Iallein and Asia-Iacihc Secuiily,
vheie noie lhan 1OO iepiesenlalives fion se-
466
cuiily and defense ieseaich inslilules and ex-
peils and schoIais fion 19 counliies incIuding
China, Russia, lhe Uniled Slales, UK, |Iienchj,
Ceinany, and }apan allended.
48
)+ >/.2/[//H170 @H/-.,1<768
WhiIe China legan laking an aclive ioIe in UN
peacekeeping opeialions (UNIKO) undei lhe Iead-
eiship of }iang Zenin, Chinas, and in pailicuIai lhe
ILAs, pailicipalion expanded consideialIy undei
Hu.
49
Accoiding lo lhe UNIKO velsile, since UN
peacekeeping legan in 1948 vhen lhe UN Secuiily
CounciI aulhoiized lhe depIoynenl of UN niIilaiy
olseiveis lo lhe MiddIe Lasl, 67 peacekeeping opeia-
lions have leen depIoyed ly lhe UN, incIuding 54
since 1988. Ovei lhe yeais, hundieds of lhousands of
niIilaiy peisonneI, as veII as lens of lhousands of UN
poIice and olhei civiIians fion noie lhan 12O coun-
liies have pailicipaled in UNIKO.
5O
Accoiding lo lhe
2012 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, vhich vas hnaIIy pulIished
in ApiiI 2O13:
To dale, lhe ILA has dispalched 22,OOO niIilaiy pei-
sonneI lo 23 UN peacekeeping nissions, of vhich
lhiee ofhceis and six enIisled peisonneI have leen
kiIIed. As of Decenlei 2O12, a lolaI of 1,842 ILA ofh-
ceis and nen veie inpIenenling peacekeeping lasks
in nine UN nission aieas. Anong lhen, 78 veie niIi-
laiy olseiveis and slaff ofhceis, 218 veie engineeiing
and nedicaI peisonneI foi lhe Uniled Nalions Oigani-
zalion SlaliIizalion Mission in lhe Denocialic Repul-
Iic of lhe Congo (MONUSCO), 558 veie engineeiing,
lianspoilalion and nedicaI peisonneI foi lhe Uniled
Nalions Mission in Lileiia (UNMIL), 335 veie engi-
neeiing and nedicaI peisonneI foi lhe Uniled Nalions
Inleiin Ioice in Lelanon (UNIIIL), 338 veie engi-
467
neeiing and nedicaI peisonneI foi lhe Uniled Nalions
Mission in lhe RepulIic of Soulh Sudan (UNMISS),
and 315 veie engineeiing peisonneI foi lhe Afiican
Union/Uniled Nalions Hyliid Opeialion in Daifui
(UNAMID).
51

AIlhough lhe 2012 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr slales lhal
China is lhe liggesl lioop and poIice conliiluloi
anong lhe hve peinanenl nenleis of lhe UN Secu-
iily CounciI, olhei counliies lhal aie nol peinanenl
nenleis of lhe UN Secuiily CounciI have dispalched
noie peisonneI. Ioi exanpIe, vheieas lhe Uniled
Slales had onIy 15O peisonneI invoIved in IKO aclivi-
lies al lhe end of }uIy 2O12, China vas 16lh oul of 119
counliies in leins of lhe lolaI nunlei of IKO lioops
dispalched al lhal line.
52
The IRCs 2O1O and 2O12 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcrs slale
lhal Chinas invoIvenenl in peacekeeping opeialions
(llO{]1|) legan in 199O vhen il senl hve
niIilaiy olseiveis lo lhe UN Tiuce Supeivision Oiga-
nizalion (UNTSO).
53
Since lhen, il has conducled lhe
foIIoving aclivilies:
- 1992: Dispalched an engineeiing coips of 4OO
ofhceis and enIisled peisonneI lo lhe UN Tian-
silionaI Aulhoiily in Canlodia (UNTAC),
vhich vas lhe hisl line China had senl an oi-
ganic unil on a peacekeeping nission.
- 2OO1: LslalIished lhe Ieacekeeping Affaiis Of-
hce in lhe MND.
- 2OO1: LslalIished lhe Ieace Opeialions Tiain-
ing Inslilule (IOTI), vhich is aIso caIIed lhe
Ieacekeeping Tiaining Cenlei, on lhe canpus
of lhe IAI Acadeny in Langfang, Helei Iiov-
ince, foi liaining poIicenen.
54
- 2OO2: }oined lhe UN Sland-ly Aiiangenenl
Syslen.
468
- 2OO9: LslalIished a Ieacekeeping Cenlei in ei-
jing undei lhe MND foi liaining inleinalionaI
IKO peisonneI.
ased on a ieviev lhe UN IKO nissions lhal Chi-
na pailicipaled in fion 199O lhiough 2OO8, Chinese
foices seived in Afiica, lhe MiddIe Lasl, Soulheasl
Asia, Soulh Asia, Lalin Aneiica, and Laslein Luiope.
55

No infoinalion vas found lo indicale lhal China has
chosen nol lo pailicipale in any pailicuIai iegion oi
counliy.
MNDs Ieacekeeping Affaiis Ofhce (1[,
) lhal vas ciealed lo nanage aII IKO opeialions vas
iniliaIIy idenlihed as lhe CSD Ieacekeeping Ofhce (
1[,) in 2OO3, and has appaienlIy since leen
upgiaded lo a luieau.
56
The uieau is slaffed vilh
appioxinaleIy 5O peisonneI, vho geneiaIIy have ad-
vanced degiees and exlensive oveiseas expeiience,
incIuding peacekeeping depIoynenls. The luieaus
senioi ofhceis, vho speak uenl LngIish, fiequenlIy
olseive peacekeeping exeicises al lhe vaiious iegion-
aI liaining cenleis, such as lhe one in MongoIia.
57
This
is anolhei exanpIe of MNDs use as lhe vindov foi
lhe ILA lo conducl ils foieign ieIalions.
As noled eaiIiei, China has ciealed lvo peace-
keeping liaining cenleis. IOTI, vhich vas ciealed in
2OO1 undei UN auspices, coveis 7O,OOO squaie neleis
and is Iocaled on lhe canpus of lhe IAI Acadeny in
Langfang, Helei Iiovince. Accoiding lo Iiank MiIIei,
vho visiled lhe faciIily in Maich 2O1O, IOTI liains po-
Iicenen fion China and olhei counliies vho aIieady
have al Ieasl 5 yeais of expeiience.
58
In 2O1O, il vas
liaining 18O peisonneI al a line lul vouId le alIe lo
liain 3OO peisonneI aflei a second phase of consliuc-
lion vas conpIeled. Iion 2OO1 lo 2O1O, IOTI had con-
469
ducled 33 IKO Tiaining Couises and giadualed 1,7OO
peacekeepeis.
In 2OO9, MND eslalIished a Ieacekeeping Cenlei
(1() in eijing foi liaining inleinalionaI IKO
peisonneI.
59
The 16,OOO-squaie-nelei faciIily, vhich
cosl 2OO niIIion yuan (U.S.$29 niIIion) lo luiId, aIso
seives as a venue foi inleinalionaI exchanges in peace-
keeping, incIuding inleinalionaI confeiences and
liaining peacekeepeis foi olhei counliies. Wilh 2O
cIassioons, incIuding sinuIalion ioons foi shooling
and diiving, lhe cenlei offeis piofessionaI couises on
peacekeeping nissions as veII as LngIish-Ianguage
cIasses. Il aIso offeis liaining faciIilies foi peacekeep-
ing skiIIs, incIuding sinuIaled UN peacekeeping
canps and de-nining liaining giounds, as veII as
svinning and diiving venues.
The diiecloi of lhe IKO Ofhce is one of lhe dep-
uly diieclois of lhe CSDs InleIIigence (Second) De-
pailnenl, vhich indicales lhe ofhce is suloidinale
lo 2ILA.
6O
The ofhce has suloidinale oiganizalions
([1[,) in al Ieasl lhe foIIoving lhiee
niIilaiy iegions (MRs):
- The eijing MR, vhich liains nedicaI peison-
neI foi IKO opeialions,
61
- The Lanzhou MR, vhich liains engineeis and
nedicaI peisonneI foi IKO opeialions,
62
- The }inan MR, vhich liains engineeis, lians-
poilalion peisonneI, and nedicaI peisonneI
foi IKO opeialions.
63
The diiecloi of lhe }inan
MR ofhce is aIso lhe diiecloi of lhe }inan MR
Handovei Cioup (]][|).
64
AIlhough nosl of lhe iniliaI aclivily legan undei
}iang Zenin, lhe nunlei of peisonneI pei yeai and
lhe counliies vheie Chinese IKO peisonneI have op-
47O
eialed giev undei Hu. SpecihcaIIy, accoiding lo lhe
2004 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, fion 199O lo 2OO4, China senl
3,362 niIilaiy peisonneI lo 13 UN peacekeeping nis-
sions.
65
Accoiding lo lhe 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, lhe
ILA had 1,955 ofhceis and enIisled peisonneI seiving
in nine UN nission aieas. In addilion, fion 199O lo
Decenlei 2O1O, China dispalched 17,39O niIilaiy pei-
sonneI lo 19 UN peacekeeping nissions. AIlogelhei,
nine peisonneI had Iosl lheii Iives on duly ly lhe end
of 2O1O. Of nole, fion }anuaiy lhiough }uIy 2O12, lhe
P|A Pic|cria| pulIished nine ailicIes aloul hov ILA
peacekeeping lioops (175 engineeis and 43 nedicaI
peisonneI) liained vilh Uiuguayan peacekeeping
lioops in lhe easlein seclion of lhe Denocialic Re-
pulIic of lhe Congo (UNMONUC). A }uIy 2O12 P|A
E)*$4%)&2 ailicIe aloul lhe 14lh gioup of peacekeepeis
aiiiving in lhe Congo slaled lhal, aIlogelhei, China
has pailicipaled in a lolaI of 23 nissions and cuiienlIy
has peisonneI seiving in 11 nissions.
66
Accoiding lo
lhe U.S. Depailnenl of Defenses (DoD) 2O12 Repoil
lo Congiess, lhe ILA has had lvo ofhceis vho have
leen appoinled as lhe niIilaiy Ieadei of a UN Ieace-
keeping Ioice foi a Ienglhy peiiod of line.
67
D1=1,.-: @H/-.,1<76 @,I/- "I.7 ;.-8
AIlhough lhe ILA has aIvays heIped vilh dones-
lic disaslei ieIief effoils, lhe concepl of ILA MOOTW
((,|) oulside Chinas loideis can cIeaiIy
le alliiluled lo Hu }inlao as a iesuIl of his foui his-
loiic nissions, discussed in DanieI Hailnells Chap-
lei 2. SpecihcaIIy, lhe hisl line lhis lein vas used in
a Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr vas 2OO8. The MNDs velsile
aIso has a speciaI seclion devoled lo MOOTW aclivi-
lies.
68
The 2008 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr slales lhal lhe ILA
471
is allaching noie inpoilance lo MOOTW liaining in
counleileiioiisn, slaliIily nainlenance, eneigency
iesponse, peacekeeping, eneigency iescue, and disas-
lei ieIief.
69

Accoiding lo lhe 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, China
has incieased ils defense expendiluies lo inpiove ils
MOOTW capaliIilies in suppoiling eailhquake iescue
and disaslei ieIief opeialions, escoil opeialions in lhe
CuIf of Aden and valeis off SonaIia, ood conlioI
and eneigency iescue opeialions, and inleinalionaI
iescue opeialions.
7O
Nexl, noie infoinalion is piovided aloul each of
lhe lhiee inleinalionaI conponenls of MOOTW, in-
cIuding 1) escoil opeialions in lhe CuIf of Aden and
valeis off SonaIia, 2) inleinalionaI iescue opeialions
foi Chinese cilizens, and 3) hunanilaiian assislance
and disaslei ieIief (HA/DR) opeialions.
P|A Natq An|i-Piracq |sccr| Opcra|icns
)/ $6' L+2H 4H >,'/8
One of lhe nosl visilIe MOOTW aclivilies, coveied
on an aInosl daiIy lasis in Chinas piess and onIine,
legan in Decenlei 2OO8, vhen lhe ILAN depIoyed
ils hisl of 12 lask foices lo dale lo lhe CuIf of Aden,
vhich is sonelines idenlihed in ailicIes aloul lhe de-
pIoynenls as lhe Aialian Sea oi lhe Hoin of Afiica.
As Mingjiang Li poinled oul in a China iief ailicIe in
}anuaiy 2OO9:
71
OveiaII, Chinas handIing of lhe CuIf of Aden nis-
sion has leen quile sophislicaled and skiIIfuI. Chinas
decision lo enlaik on lhe nission signaIs lhe poIicy-
nakeis gioving avaieness of lhe necessily of using
niIilaiy neans foi lhe pioleclion of Chinese connei-
ciaI inleiesls on lhe seas. The piaclicaI consideialion
472
of laking advanlage of lhe oppoilunily lo gain navaI
lallIe expeiience aIso pIayed a lig ioIe in lhe decision.
IoIilicaI and niIilaiy conhdence nolvilhslanding,
il is aIso nolalIe lhal China acled vilh consideialIe
caulion lefoie lhe ofhciaI decision vas nade pulIic,
vhich ieecls Chinas concein lhal such navaI aclion
nighl le inleipieled ly olhei poveis, especiaIIy ie-
gionaI slales, as a hailingei of Chinese asseiliveness.
The caulion is denonslialed in Chinas piole foi inlei-
nalionaI iesponses lefoie lhe ofhciaI announcenenl
of lhe decision and lhe high-piohIe pulIic ieIalions
canpaigns lhal acconpanied il. The Chinese sliale-
gic connunily hisl nade lhe pioposaI in lhe Chinese
nedia lo lesl hov olhei pailies vouId iespond. Then
Chinese dipIonals lo lhe Uniled Nalions foIIoved up
vilh a slalenenl lhal China vas consideiing lhe pos-
siliIily of using ils navaI foice lo sliike dovn piiacy in
lhe CuIf of Aden. Having sensed a ieIaliveIy caIn ie-
aclion fion olhei slales and even encouiaging signaIs
fion lhe Uniled Slales, eijing ofhciaIIy nade lhe an-
nouncenenl and foIIoved up vilh high-piohIe pulIic
ieIalions canpaigns. Spokesnen al lhe Ioieign Minis-
liy and Defense Minisliy and pioninenl Chinese ana-
Iysls slienuousIy allenpled lo juslify Chinas decision
on lhe giound of inleinalionaI Iav (lhe UN Secuiily
CounciI iesoIulions in pailicuIai), China leing viclins
of lhe SonaIi piiales, Chinas conneiciaI inleiesls,
inleinalionaI naiiline secuiily, and lhe opeialions of
olhei counliies. A nolalIe poinl lhal China conslanlIy
enphasized vas lhal lhe navaI aclion signihes Chinas
inlenlion and lehavioi lo le a iesponsilIe povei. AII
lhese ained al foieslaIIing any negalive inleinalionaI
opinion on Chinas navaI expedilion lo lhe iegion.
Ioi a good sunnaiy of lhe hisl 1O depIoynenls,
see Reai AdniiaI MicheI McDevills ILA NavaI Lx-
eicises vilh InleinalionaI Iailneis in |carning oq Dc-
ing. Tnc P|A Trains a| Hcnc and Aorcad. As he poinls
473
oul, The anli-piiacy nission enliaced ly lhe ILAN
has leen a dianalic 'acceIeianl in lhe deveIopnenl
of lhe ILAN inlo a genuine open ocean gIolaI navaI
foice.
72
Andiev Liickson and Auslin Sliange aIso
piovide a good oveiviev of lhe hisl 11 depIoynenls in
lheii ailicIe enlilIed Sc|jsn Supcrpcucr Nc |cngcr`
73

As of Decenlei 2O12, lhe Chinese navy has dis-
palched, in 13 lask gioups, 34 vaiships, 28 heIicopleis,
and 91O SpeciaI Opeialions Ioice (SOI) soIdieis, es-
coiling 4,984 ships in 532 lalches. Anong lhen, 1,51O
veie Chinese nainIand ships, 94O Hong Kong ships,
74 Taivan ships, and one Macao ship. The lask foices
aIso iescued lvo Chinese ships fion piiales vho had
loaided lhen, and 22 Chinese ships vhich veie leing
chased ly piiales.
74
Lach lask foice has aveiaged lhiee
vesseIs, incIuding a conlinalion of one iepIenishnenl
ship aIong vilh eilhei one deslioyei (DDC) and one
fiigale (IIC) oi lvo IICs, and aloul 8OO ofhceis and
enIisled peisonneI. In addilion, one Ianding pIalfoin
dock (LID) pailicipaled in a depIoynenl, aIong vilh
a DDC. Lach lask foice has ienained on slalion foi
appioxinaleIy 3 lo 4 nonlhs. Depending on vheie
lhe lask depails fion, each lask foice lakes aloul 3
veeks lo aiiive in lhe guIf. Ioi exanpIe, lhe 12lh Task
Ioice depailed Zhoushan Suppoil ase in Zhejiang
Iiovince (Lasl Sea IIeel) on }uIy 3, 2O12, and nel lhe
11lh Task Ioice on }uIy 26 lo luin ovei lhe nission.
75

AIlogelhei, as of Iale-}uIy 2O12, lhe hisl 11 lask foices
had escoiled 4,734 vesseIs and piolecled 41 of lhen
fion piiale allacks.
76
esides Ieaining hov lo ienain al sea foi Ienglhy
peiiods of line, vhich is an anonaIy foi lhe ILAN,
and deaIing vilh aII of lhe Iogislics, nainlenance, and
peisonneI issues lhis enlaiIs, lhe depIoynenls have
slienglhened lhe ILANs foieign ieIalions. WhiIe lhe
474
ILAN has enhanced Chinas inage in sone counliies,
India conlinues lo see lhe ILAN as a neai- lo Iong-lein
naiiline lhieal. Mosl Indian viileis focus on vhal In-
dia consideis lhe ILANs slialegy in lhe Indian Ocean
lo defend ils sea Iines of connunicalions (SLOCs) ly
adopling lhe sliing of peaiIs slialegy (i.e., a seiies
of dipIonalic and niIilaiy neasuies ained al acquii-
ing access and slialegic lases aIong noie lhan 1O,OOOO
kiIoneleis of sea Ianes.)
77
In Novenlei 2O11, an In-
dian Navy ofhcei and ieseaich feIIov, Connandei
KanIesh Kunai Agniholii, pulIished an ailicIe lhal
did nol discuss lhe sliing of peaiIs, lul did sun-
naiize vhal lhe ILAN had done in lhe niIilaiy dipIo-
nacy ieaIn in addilion lo escoiling ships lhiough lhe
piiales Iaii:
78
Theie have leen nany posilive lenehls foi lhe ILAN
on accounl of vaiious naiiline and dipIonalic aclivi-
lies vhich veie eilhei associaled vilh oi conpIenenl-
ed lhe piesence of ils ships in lhe CuIf of Aden. These
vaiships have leen visiling vaiious Indian Ocean
IilloiaI counliies incIuding India, Iakislan, Sii Lan-
ka, Myannai, MaIaysia, Singapoie, and ThaiIand on
goodviII visils, vhiIe liansiling lhese valeis foi lhe
anli-piiacy nission. The ILANs ships even ciossed
lhe Suez, venluied inlo lhe Medileiianean and visiled
poils in Lgypl, IlaIy and Cieece duiing Augusl 2O1O.
These ships, vhiIe on depIoynenl, have ieguIaiIy vis-
iled poils in Onan, UAL, Yenen, and Djilouli, eilhei
foi opeialionaI luinaiound, iesl and ieciealion oi lo
evade lad vealhei. The IIC Xuzhou (Type O54 ]iang-
|ai-|| cIass) vas diveiled fion lhe anli-piiacy lask lo
lhe Lilyan coasl al lhe end of Ieliuaiy 2O11 lo assisl
in lhe vilhdiavaI of Chinese cilizens fion lhe ciisis
sliuck Lilya and voiked in landen vilh lhe ILAAI
and civiI avialion evacualion effoil.
475
Since lhe Novenlei 2O11 ailicIe, lhe ILANs 11lh
Lscoil Task Ioice, vhich incIuded lhe O)/(,&4 DDC,
Yan|ai IIC, and lcisnannu iepIenishnenl ship, ex-
panded lhe ILANs niIilaiy dipIonacy foolpiinl. Ioi
exanpIe, al lhe end of lheii 4-nonlh depIoynenl in
Augusl 2O12, lhe O)/(,&4 and lcisnannu visiled Haifa
Ioil in IsiaeI.
79
MeanvhiIe, lhe Yan|ai paid a poil visil
lo Ronania and uIgaiia.
8O
Lach of lhe lhiee visils vas
lhe hisl evei lo lhose counliies foi a ILAN vesseI.
In addilion, seveiaI of lhe lask foice connand-
eis have had lhe oppoilunily lo inleiacl vilh lhe
connandeis of olhei counliies vesseIs in lhe guIf
ly eilhei hosling lhen oi visiling lheii vesseIs. Ioi
exanpIe, on Augusl 8, 2O12, Reai AdniiaI }ong An
Ho (ROK), connandei of lhe Conlined Task Ioice
(CTI) 151, vhich is one of lhe inleinalionaI anli-piiacy
foices in lhe CuIf of Aden, and his paily of hve peopIe
visiled lhe Yiqang IIC and Reai AdniiaI Zhou Xun-
ing, vho vas lhe connandei of lhe 12lh Task Ioice.
81

He aiiived via heIicoplei fion lhe ROKs lang Gccn
deslioyei. MeanvhiIe, IIIinois Senaloi Maik Kiik vis-
iled lhe 8lh ILAN Lscoil Task Ioice in ApiiI 2O11.
82

Accoiding lo Liickson and Sliange, lhe ILAN lask
foices have opeialed faiiIy independenlIy inslead of
vilh olhei nalions, hovevei, lhey have conducled a
fev joinl escoils vilh Russian vesseIs, and lhey have
conducled joinl anli-piiacy exeicises vilh Iakislan
and Soulh Koiea.
83
Coopeialion inilialives aie aIso unfoIding vilhin
China. A synposiun hosled ly lhe ILAN in Iale-Iel-
iuaiy 2O12 lioughl logelhei navaI ofhciaIs of 2O coun-
liies vilh anli-piiacy aclivilies in lhe CuIf of Aden. Al
lhe synposiun, lhe ILAN piovided each pailicipanl
nalion vilh ils delaiIed escoil scheduIes. Addilion-
aIIy, lhe ILAN slaled il viII legin lo coopeiale vilh
476
Indian and }apan navaI vesseIs in lhe iegion lo lhe ex-
lenl lhal aII lhiee navies aie alIe lo adjusl each olheis
scheduIes. Hovevei, lhe pIan lo coopeiale vilh lhe
}apanese Maiiline SeIf-Defense Ioice (}MSDI) nighl
le deIayed oi canceIIed as a iesuIl of lhe ongoing dis-
pule aloul lhe Diaoyu/Senkaku IsIands.
|n|crna|icna| Rcscuc Opcra|icns fcr Cnincsc Ci|izcns8
AIlhough lhe ILAAI aIvays has conducled do-
neslic disaslei ieIief opeialions, such as lhe 2OO8
Sichuan eailhquake, il has conducled onIy a fev in-
leinalionaI HA/DR effoils, aII of vhich appeai lo le
a iesuIl of Hus foui hisloiic nissions. Accoiding lo
J)/6+&:
Since lhe evacualion fion lhe iiols in Lasl Tinoi in
2OO6, lhe Chinese goveinnenl has ioIIed oul dozens of
oveiseas evacualion opeialions, exlending lineIy ies-
cues lo lens of lhousands Chinese nalionaIs liapped in
dangei. Thal effoil lecane especiaIIy inpoilanl aflei
lhousands of Chinese nalionaIs in lhe lioulIed Noilh
Afiican counliy of Lilya veie iolled and a dozen
veie vounded as lhey liied lo ee lhe vioIence.
84

The F)/&/*)&2 5)0'- slaled lhal lhe Lilya evacu-
alion, vhich invoIved 32,OOO peopIe ovei a 1-veek
peiiod, vas lhe IRCs Iaigesl evei.
85
Xinhua noled
lhal lhe svifl evacualion aIso lenehled fion Chinas
gioving nalionaI povei and lhe aliIily lo noliIize aII
of lhe necessaiy iesouices needed. Iuilheinoie, lhe
evacualion shovs lhal lhe Chinese goveinnenl has
paid noie and noie allenlion lo lhe safely and inlei-
esls of lhe giassiools Chinese.
86
Duiing lhe evacualion, lhe Chinese goveinnenl
chaileied seven ships, senl 15 civiIian ighls a day,
477
and depIoyed niIilaiy aiiciafl lo liing 32,OOO Chinese
voikeis oul of Lilya in jusl 1 veek. In addilion lo lhe
Chinese voiking in oiI and gas heIds ian ly Chinas
lhiee lig slale-ovned oiI conpanies, lens of lhou-
sands of olheis veie luiIding iaiIioads, povei pIanls,
aiipoils, cenenl facloiies, apailnenl lIocks, and of-
hciaI luiIdings.
87

ased on specihc guidance fion Hu }inlao, in Iel-
iuaiy lo Maich 2O11, lhe ILAAI senl foui IL-76s lo
evacuale Chinese civiIians fion Lilya. AIlogelhei, lhe
aiiciafl ev 1,655 Chinese fion Lilya lo Khailoun,
Sudan, and lhen lioughl 287 lack lo China.
88
As noled eaiIiei, lhe J+P64+ IIC vas diveiled
fion lhe anli-piiacy lask lhiough lhe Suez CanaI lo
lhe Lilyan coasl al lhe end of Ieliuaiy 2O11 lo assisl
in lhe evacualion of Chinese cilizens fion lhe ciisis-
sliuck Lilya, vheie il voiked in landen vilh lhe
ILAAI and civiI avialion evacualion effoil. AIlhough
lhe J+P64+ did nol caiiy any evacuees, il did escoil a
Cieek passengei Iinei caiiying 2,142 Chinese oul of
Lilya lo lhe isIand of Ciele, vheie lhey veie ovn
lack lo China on chaileied Chinese civiIian aiiciafl.
89

Aflei lhe Xuzhou hnished ils escoil nission, il de-
pIoyed aIong vilh lhe N64+-6&/ IIC lo Duilan, Soulh
Afiica, foi a poil caII.
9O
As Cale CoIIins and Andiev
Liickson poinl oul:
The Xuzncus nission naiks an inpoilanl niIeslone
lecause, lo lhe lesl of oui knovIedge, lhis vas lhe
hisl evei dispalch of a ILA niIilaiy pIalfoin specih-
caIIy assigned lo heIp piolecl a non-conlalanl evacu-
alion opeialion (NLO) lo heIp IRC cilizens liapped
in an aclive conicl zone. Chinese poIicynakeis nov
have a piecedenl foi fuluie niIilaiy opeialions in ai-
eas vheie lhe Iives and piopeily of expaliiale IRC
cilizens cone undei lhieal. We expecl lhal lhe Chi-
478
nese peopIes popuIai suppoil foi lhe nission viII le
high.
91
IoilunaleIy, lhe Xuzhou vas aIieady in lhe CuIf of
Aden, vhich vas onIy a fev days avay fion Lilya.
As one Chinese schoIai slaled:
Chinas Lilya nission is a niIeslone foi lhe ILAN. The
aclion has upgiaded and expanded lhe navys nission
lo a nev IeveI in Iine vilh Iiesidenl Hus enphasis
foi il lo le piepaied foi conlingencies in dislanl ie-
gions lo piolecl Chinas nalionaI inleiesls. This is nol
sinpIy a navaI nission lul noie inpoilanlIy is a iis-
ing poveis slialegy lo use niIilaiy assels lo iespond
lo ils cilizens needs. Il seives lo denonsliale hov an
independenl counliy is conhdenl enough in ils capac-
ily lo piolecl ils nalionaIs oveiseas, aclion vhich aIso
luiIds a posilive inage. Il is inpoilanl lo nole lhal lhe
ILA navaI ship vas on a nission lo soIve a hunani-
laiian ciisis and nol a pIoy ly China lo vieId poIilicaI
and niIilaiy inuence in lhe MiddIe Lasl.
92
As China expands ils lusiness aclivilies lo noie
counliies vheie civiI uniesl occuis, cilizens al hone
and alioad viII expecl even noie suppoil on a lineIy
lasis, especiaIIy if foieign counliies aie nol avaiIalIe
oi viIIing lo heIp. As CoIIins and Liickson concIude,
We lhink such conlingencies aie veiy IikeIy as Chi-
nas expaliiale voikeis conlinue seeking lheii foi-
lunes in polenliaIIy voIaliIe iegions such as Afiica.
93
Hunani|arian Assis|ancc and Disas|cr Rc|icf Opcra|icns8
Undei Hu }inlao, China lecane acliveIy invoIved
in inleinalionaI hunanilaiian assislance and disaslei
ieIief (HA/DR) opeialions. In ApiiI 2OO1, lhe IRC cie-
aled lhe China InleinalionaI Seaich and Rescue Tean
479
(CISAR/]][]|[), vhich is conposed of nen-
leis of lhe ILAs engineeiing coips and lhe IAIs
CeneiaI HospilaI. Since 2OO2, lhe ILA has undeilaken
36 uigenl inleinalionaI hunanilaiian aid nissions,
and lianspoiled ieIief naleiiaIs voilh noie lhan 1.25
liIIion ienninli (RM) lo 27 disaslei-sliicken coun-
liies.
94
Since May 2OO3, CISAR has joined six inleina-
lionaI iescue opeialions, incIuding Indonesia lvice,
Iian, AIgeiia, Haili, and Iakislan, and has lecone lhe
UNs 12lh ceilihed inleinalionaI heavy iescue lean.
95

In 2O1O, Chinese ained foices piovided a delaiIed ai-
licIe aloul lhe Haili ieIief effoils foIIoving a nagni-
lude-7 eailhquake.
96
Ioi exanpIe, vilhin 4 days of lhe
eailhquake, lhe ILAs CeneiaI Logislics Depailnenl
had aIieady iequisilioned and dispalched lo Haili
lhe hisl aiiciafl vilh ieIief suppIies, incIuding valei,
food, geneialois, and eneigency Iighling equipnenl.
Accoiding lo lhe U.S. DoDs 2O1O annuaI iepoil lo
Congiess on lhe ILA:
Chinas incieasing focus on hunanilaiian assislance
and disaslei ieIief nissions viII iequiie a unique sel
of lechnoIogicaI deveIopnenls and aiiciafl acquisi-
lions, incIuding slialegic aiiIifl, lo suppoil lhese nis-
sions. AIlhough lhese capaliIilies vouId le necessaiy
lo suppoil an innediale need, such as an eailhquake
oi olhei naluiaI disaslei, lhey vouId aIso enhance ils
aliIily lo suppoil niIilaiy opeialions aIong and le-
yond ils loideis.
97
>A$ $1- O<-2/ ?$d*# @H/-.,1<768
One of lhe hisl ILAAI disaslei ieIief effoils
alioad occuiied in eaiIy-May 1991, vhen il senl lvo
MI-8 heIicopleis lo angIadesh foi a nonlh lo piovide
suppoil aflei a lyphoon.
98
One of lhe hisl opeialions
ly ILAAI lianspoils occuiied in Maich 2OO2, vhen
48O
a singIe lianspoil ev 4OO lons of suppIies lo KaluI,
Afghanislan, foIIoving an eailhquake.
99
The ILAAI
did nol conducl any fuilhei foieign HA/DR suppoil
effoils unliI 2O11. Al lhal poinl, lhose effoils, Iike lhe
Lilya evacualion, veie nosl IikeIy guided ly Hu }in-
laos hisloiic nissions.
In Seplenlei 2O11, foui IL-76s fion lhe 13lh Aii
Division in lhe Cuangzhou MRAI look suppIies lo
Iakislan foIIoving seveie ooding, and in Oclolei
2O11, lhiee IL-76s look suppIies lo ThaiIand foIIoving
ooding lheie.
1OO
Accoiding lo a @6)/& >)% F4%*' ailicIe,
lhe ILAAIs aiiciafl lianspoiled 3O niIIion Rennin-
li voilh of ieIief suppIies fion Uiunqi lo Iakislan,
vhich vas 3,OOO kiIoneleis avay.
1O1
AIlogelhei, lhe
aiiciafl caiiied 39O lons of suppIies, consisling of 7,OOO
ilens. In Oclolei, lhiee IL-76s caiiied aloul 1OO lons
of ieIief suppIies lo ThaiIand.
1O2

The facl lhal lhe ILAAI is nov using ils IL-76s
foi foieign evacualion and HA/DR nissions is sig-
nihcanl nol onIy foi ils doneslic and inleinalionaI
inpIicalions, lul aIso lecause lhese aiiciafl aie leing
used even lhough lhe ILAAI does nol have enough
lo suppoil lhe 15lh Aiiloine Coips oi ils depIoynenl
of nev-geneialion aiiciafl aiound China oi lo foi-
eign counliies foi exeicises. Today, lhe ILAAI onIy
has aloul 2O IL-76s, puichased fion Russia slailing
in lhe eaiIy-199Os vilh lhe piinaiy ain of suppoiling
lhe ILAAIs 15lh Aiiloine Division.
1O3
The 2OO3 DoD
iepoil slaled lhal:
The ILAs aliIily lo piojecl foice leyond Chinas Iand
loideis, vhiIe inpioving, ienains Iiniled due lo a
shoilage of anphilious ships, heavy caigo caiiying
aiiciafl, Iong-iange lianspoils, and olhei IogislicaI
shoilconings.
1O4

481
AIlhough lhe ILAAI legan negolialions lo pui-
chase up lo 3O noie IL-76s in 2OO5 lo augnenl and/
oi iepIace lhe hisl gioup of aiiciafl, vhich aie gel-
ling oIdei and iequiie noie nainlenance, lhey hnaIIy
signed a conliacl in 2O1O vilh Rosoloionexpoil and
lhe IIyushin Avialion Conpany lo puichase 1O used
II-76MD niIilaiy lianspoil pIanes. The hisl aiiciafl
veie deIiveied in }anuaiy 2O13.
1O5
The 2O11 DoD
iepoil slaled:
The ILAs nev nissions aie aIso diiving discussions
aloul lhe fuluie of lhe ILAAI, vheie a geneiaI con-
sensus has eneiged lhal piolecling Chinas gIolaI
inleiesls iequiies an inciease in lhe Aii Ioices Iong-
iange lianspoilalion.
1O6
>A$ +.J: ?$d*# @H/-.,1<768
IoIIoving lhe lsunani lhal hil Indonesia in 2OO4,
lhe ILAN vas unalIe lo piovide any lype of HA/DR
suppoil, especiaIIy conpaied lo vhal lhe U.S. Navy
did. As a iesuIl of lhal enlaiiassnenl and a iesponse
lo Hu }inlaos hisloiic nissions, lhe ILAN legan
designing lhe E'&*' >%I (1`)) hospilaI ship in
2OO5, vhich lecane opeialionaI in 2OO8.
1O7
The E'&*'
>%I, vhich is a conveiled passengei ship, has 3OO
leds, eighl opeialing ioons, and nuIlipIe ioons foi
olhei nedicaI issues. The ship is piinaiiIy slaffed ly
peisonneI fion lhe ILANs CeneiaI HospilaI, 411lh
HospilaI, and 413lh HospilaI. This ship opeiales oul
of Zhoushan, Zhejiang Iiovince (Lasl Sea IIeel). In
Seplenlei 2O1O, lhe E'&*' >%I enlaiked on a 3-nonlh
Hainonious Mission (1;|) 2O1O voyage lo lhe
CuIf of Aden vilh a lolaI of 428 ofhceis, incIuding
1OO nedicaI voikeis. WhiIe en ioule, lhe ship visiled
and piovided nedicaI liealnenl lo peopIe of Djilouli,
482
Tanzania, Kenya, lhe SeycheIIes, and angIadesh.
1O8

In Seplenlei 2O11, lhe ship depIoyed foi Haino-
nious Mission 2O11, vhich Iasled 1O5 days and in-
cIuded visils lo Cula, }anaica, Tiinidad and Tolago,
and Cosla Rica.
1O9
In addilion, fion 2OO9 lo 2O11, ILA
nedicaI leans heId lhe Ieace AngeI joinl opeialions
foi hunanilaiian nedicaI assislance in Calon and
Ieiu, and pailicipaled in a disaslei-ieIief exeicise of
lhe ARI in Indonesia.
11O
The ILA heaIlh seivice lean
slaged a joinl exeicise on hunanilaiian assislance and
disaslei ieIief code-naned Coopeialion Spiiil ({
|) 2O12 vilh ils counleipails of AusliaIia and
Nev ZeaIand in Oclolei 2O12.
(<9W17/5 %Y/-216/68
Ioi aII piaclicaI puiposes, one can say lhal lhe is-
sue of conlined exeicise (e.g., vilh foieign counliies)
cane lo fiuilion undei Hu }inlao. AIlhough China
pailicipaled in a conlined exeicise vilh a foieign
niIilaiy foi lhe hisl line in Oclolei 2OO2 vhen il con-
ducled a joinl anli-leiioiisn niIilaiy exeicise vilh
Kyigyzslan, lhe nunlei, lype, and scaIe of exeicises
cIeaiIy giev vhiIe Hu vas lhe CMC chaiinan.
111
The
2OO9 and 2O11 ILA confeiences al lhe U.S. Ainy Wai
CoIIege and lheii sulsequenl looks~Tnc P|A a| Hcnc
&/, >B%4&, and |carning oq Dcing. Tnc P|A Trains a|
:40' &/, >B%4&,~have coveied lhis lopic in considei-
alIe delaiI. Theiefoie, lhis seclion piovides onIy lhe
highIighls.
Ovei lhe pasl decade, lhe ILA has leen invoIved in
foui lasic lypes of conlined exeicises, vhich incIude
fion one lo aII lhiee of lhe ILAs seivices~Ainy,
Navy, and Aii Ioice. These aie 1) ainy conlined ex-
eicises, 2) naiiline conlined exeicises, 3) SCO exei-
483
cises, and 4) aii foice conlined exeicises. No exeicises
lo dale have incIuded Second AiliIIeiy (ILASAI).
$-9: _>A$$` (<9W17/5 %Y/-216/68
Accoiding lo lhe IRCs 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr,
as of Decenlei 2O1O, lhe ILA had heId 44 joinl niIi-
laiy and liaining exeicises vilh foieign lioops. This
vas conducive lo pionoling nuluaI liusl and coopei-
alion, diaving on usefuI Iessons, and acceIeialing lhe
ILAs nodeinizalion.
112
The 2012 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr
slales lhal joinl ainy liaining is giaduaIIy leing in-
cieased in lieadlh and deplh.
113
Since 2OO7, lhe ILAA
has conducled a nunlei of joinl liaining sessions vilh
ils counleipails of olhei counliies. The ILAA joined
lhe Hand-in-Hand (|) 2OO7 and Hand-in-Hand
2OO8 joinl anli-leiioiisn liaining sessions vilh lhe
Indian ainy, Ieacekeeping Mission (1|)
2OO9 joinl peacekeeping exeicise vilh lhe MongoIian
ainy, Coopeialion ({) 2OO9 and Coopeialion
2O1O joinl secuiily liaining exeicises vilh Singapoie,
Iiiendship Opeialion (j|) 2OO9 and Iiiend-
ship Opeialion 2O1O joinl niIilaiy liaining of noun-
lain lioops vilh lhe Ronanian ainy, and joinl SOI
unil liaining vilh lhe Tuikish ainy. The ILAA spe-
ciaI foices heId lhe Sliike (,t) 2OO7, Sliike 2OO8
and Sliike 2O1O joinl anli-leiioiisn liaining vilh
lheii Thai counleipails, Shaip Knife (]) 2O11
and Shaip Knife 2O12 joinl anli-leiioiisn liain-
ing vilh lheii Indonesian counleipails, Iiiendship
(j) 2O1O and Iiiendship 2O11 joinl anli-leiioi-
isn liaining vilh lheii Iakislani counleipails, Coop-
eialion ({) 2O12 joinl anli-leiioiisn liaining vilh
lheii CoIonlian counleipails, and Coinoianl Sliike
([,|t) 2O12 in Sii Lanka. In Novenlei 2O12, joinl
484
anli-leiioiisn liaining vas heId vilh lhe }oidanian
speciaI foices and a joinl hunanilaiian-assislance and
disaslei-ieIief lalIelop exeicise vilh lhe U.S. Ainy.
D.-1,19/ (<9W17/5 %Y/-216/68
The ILANs inleinalionaI exeicises have piinai-
iIy consisled of seaich and iescue exeicises (SARLX),
connunicalion, foinalion saiIing, diving, and escoil-
ing, lul a fev exeicises have invoIved anli-piiacy and
counleileiioiisn liaining lhal incIuded Iive hiing
againsl suiface laigels. AIlhough lhe ILAN has giad-
uaIIy incieased lhe nunlei of ils inlia-seivice SAR-
LXs, vhich legan in lhe nid-199Os, il has giaduaIIy
added seveiaI SARLX hisls vilh foieign navies:
114

- In Decenlei 1998, a ILAN :4+M)&/-cIass nis-
siIe palioI loal fion lhe Hong Kong Caiiison
pailicipaled foi lhe hisl line in a SARLX oiga-
nized ly Hong Kong and lhe Uniled Slales.
- The joinl SARLX conducled off lhe coasl of
Shanghai in Oclolei 2OO3 vilh a visiling Iaki-
slani navaI vesseI vas lhe hisl SARLX heId in
Chinese leiiiloiiaI valeis vilh a foieign coun-
leipail.
- Duiing lhe visil ly a lask foice lo Soulheasl and
Soulh Asia, lhe ILAN conducled ils hisl SAR-
LX in foieign valeis sepaialeIy vilh Iakislani,
Indian, and Thai navaI foices in Novenlei and
Decenlei 2OO5.
Accoiding lo lhe 2O1O and 2O12 Dcfcnsc lni|c Pa-
A'%-, joinl naiiline exeicises and liaining aie leing
expanded.
115
In iecenl yeais, lhe Chinese navy has
laken pail in lhe Ieace 1`O7, Ieace O9 and
Ieace 11 nuIlinalionaI naiiline exeicises hosled
485
ly Iakislan on lhe Aialian Sea. In 2OO7, lhe ILAN
look pail in lhe joinl naiiline exeicise heId in Singa-
poiean valeis vilhin lhe fianevoik of lhe Weslein
Iacihc NavaI Synposiun. Chinese and Thai naiine
coips heId lhe Iue Sliike (,],t) 2O1O and Iue
Sliike 2O12 joinl liaining exeicises, vhich veie lhe
hisl evei joinl exeicises conducled ly lhe ILANs na-
iines.
116
The 2O1O exeicise Iasled foi 15 days and vas
heId neai Zhanjiang, Cuangdong Iiovince. Iue Sliike
2O12 invoIved 372 ILAN and 126 Thai naiines.
117
The
ILA and Russian navies heId lhe Maiiline Coop-
eialion ]{2O12 niIilaiy diiII in lhe YeIIov
Sea off Chinas easl coasl, focusing on joinl defense of
naiiline liafhc aileiies. Duiing nuluaI poil caIIs and
olhei aclivilies, lhe ILAN has aIso caiiied oul liIal-
eiaI oi nuIliIaleiaI naiiline exeicises and liaining in
such lasks as connunicalions, foinalion novenenl,
naiiline iepIenishnenl, cioss-deck heIicoplei Iand-
ing, hiing al suiface, undeivalei and aii laigels, joinl
escoil, loaiding and inspeclion, joinl seaich and ies-
cue and diving vilh ils counleipails of India, Iiance,
lhe UK, AusliaIia, ThaiIand, lhe Uniled Slales, Russia,
}apan, Nev ZeaIand, and Vielnan.
!I.70I.1 (<<H/-.,1<7 @-0.71].,1<7
(<9W17/5 %Y/-216/68
The SCO vas ciealed in 2OO1 on lhe lasis of lhe
1996 Shanghai Iive oiganizalion and cuiienlIy con-
sisls of six counliies (China, Russia, Kazakhslan,
Kyigyzslan, Tajikislan, and Uzlekislan). China did
nol hoId ils hisl conlined exeicise vilh one of lhe
nenleis (Russia) unliI 2OO5. Accoiding lo lhe 2O1O
and 2O12 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcrs, since 2OO9, lhe SCO
has signed a succession of papeis, such as lhe SCO
486
Counlei-Teiioiisn Convenlion. Iuilheinoie, joinl
counleileiioiisn exeicises conlinue lo le foinaIized,
such as lhe Ieace Mission (1`|) seiies anong
lhe niIilaiies, and lhe Noiak-Anli-Teiioi ()|
) 2OO9 and Saialov-Anli-Teiioi ([||)
2O1O inilialives anong Iav enfoicenenl and secuiily
depailnenls.
118
To dale, China and olhei SCO nen-
lei slales have conducled nine liIaleiaI and nuIliIal-
eiaI niIilaiy exeicises.
Hu }inlao suppoiled lhe oveiaII expansion of lhe
SCOs niIilaiy exeicise conponenl. Ioi exanpIe, in
Augusl 2OO7, Hu and lhe olhei Ieadeis of lhe SCO,
incIuding Russian Iiesidenl VIadinii Iulin, allended
lhe Ieace Mission 2OO7 exeicise lhal foIIoved lheii
SCO sunnil in ishkek, Kyigyzslan.
119
In 2O12, Hu
hosled lhe SCO sunnil and enphasized lhe inpoi-
lance of lhe nuIliIaleiaI niIilaiy exeicises as pail of
lhe oveiaII ieIalionship.
12O
WhiIe seveiaI liIaleiaI exeicises have laken pIace,
lhe Ieace Mission exeicises have leen lhe Iaig-
esl exeicises lo dale. Since 2OO5, lhey have caiiied
oul a seiies of Ieace Mission joinl exeicises al lhe
canpaign IeveI vilh slialegic inpacl. They veie lhe
Ieace Mission 2OO5 China-Russia joinl niIilaiy ex-
eicise, Ieace Mission 2OO7 joinl anli-leiioiisn niIi-
laiy exeicise ly SCO nenleis, Ieace Mission 2OO9
China-Russia joinl anli-leiioiisn niIilaiy exeicise,
Ieace Mission 2O1O joinl anli-leiioiisn niIilaiy
exeicise ly SCO nenleis and Ieace Mission 2O12
joinl anli-leiioiisn niIilaiy exeicise ly SCO nenleis.
These exeicises seived lo vain and delei leiioiisl, se-
cessionisl, and exlienisl foices. The capaliIilies of lhe
SCO nenleis aie conslanlIy leing enhanced lo deaI
joinlIy vilh nev chaIIenges and nev lhieals. So fai,
each counliy excepl Uzlekislan has hosled poilions of
487
lhe exeicise, vhich oflen lakes pIace in phases in lvo
counliies. Iuilheinoie, Uzlekislan has fiequenlIy
chosen onIy lo pailicipale synloIicaIIy ly sending of-
hceis lo lhe connand posl exeicise lecause Tashkenl
has disagieed vilh hov lhe nuIliIaleiaI consensus in
lhe SCO is nanaged.
121
So fai, aII of lhe exeicises have
invoIved lhe Ainy and Aii Ioice, lul onIy lhe hisl
exeicise invoIved lhe Navy.
122
$1- O<-2/ (<9W17/5 %Y/-216/68
Of pailicuIai nole, lhe ILAAIs aiiloine lianch
has leen invoIved in Ieace Mission exeicises, incIud-
ing depIoying lo Russia duiing Ieace Mission 2OO7,
lul has aIso legun lo hoId exeicises oulside lhe Ieace
Mission unlieIIa.
123
Ioi exanpIe, Chinas aiiloine
lioops joined lheii eIaiusian counleipails in lhe joinl
liaining code-naned Divine LagIe (/) 2O11 and
Divine LagIe 2O12, heId iespecliveIy in }uIy 2O11
and Novenlei 2O12.
124
AIlhough ils pievious exei-
cises occuiied vilh counliies on Chinas loidei, lhe
Coopeialion 2O11 exeicise in VenezueIa lhal in-
voIved 21 aiiloine speciaI foices lioops vas a signih-
canl change in lhe nodeI. An eighl-page ailicIe in lhe
nev peiiodicaI, Cninas Air Trafjc Ccn|rc|, piovided
faiiIy delaiIed infoinalion aloul lhe 21-day exeicise,
vhich il desciiled as undeilaking lhe lasks of speciaI
ieconnaissance, suppoiling nain foice opeialions,
inpIenenling unconvenlionaI vaifaie, and pailici-
paling in MOOTW.
125
In addilion, ILAAI Su-27s and
}-11s have leen invoIved in exeicises vilh Tuikey
(AnaloIian LagIe 2O1O) and Iakislan (Shaheen
2O11), iespecliveIy.
126

488
%D>A@E'+& D'A'"$#E *'>A@D$(E
"@ %+?$+(% (?'+$B! !@O" >@;%#
Accoiding lo }oseph S. Nye, }i., ovei lhe pasl de-
cade, Chinas econonic and niIilaiy nighl has giovn
inpiessiveIy, vhich has fiighlened ils neighlois inlo
Iooking foi aIIies lo laIance Chinas inciease in haid
povei. ul if a counliy can aIso inciease ils sofl povei
of alliaclion, ils neighlois feeI Iess need lo laIance ils
povei. Undeislanding lhis, in 2OO7, Iiesidenl Hu }in-
lao loId lhe 17lh Iaily Congiess lhal China needed lo
invesl noie in ils sofl povei iesouices. To acconpIish
lhis, China is spending liIIions of doIIais lo inciease
ils sofl povei. Ils aid piogians lo Afiica and Lalin
Aneiica aie nol Iiniled ly lhe inslilulionaI oi hunan
iighls conceins lhal consliain Weslein aid. The Chi-
nese slyIe enphasizes high-piohIe gesluies, such as
luiIding sladiuns. MeanvhiIe, lhe eIaloialeIy slaged
2OO8 eijing OIynpics enhanced Chinas iepulalion
alioad, and lhe 2O1O Shanghai Lxpo alliacled noie
lhan 7O niIIion visilois. China has aIso ciealed sev-
eiaI hundied Confucius Inslilules aiound lhe voiId
lo leach ils Ianguage and cuIluie. China Radio Inlei-
nalionaI nov lioadcasls in LngIish aiound lhe cIock,
and, in 2OO9-1O, eijing invesled $8.9 liIIion in ex-
leinaI pulIicily voik, incIuding 24-houi calIe nevs
channeIs. ul foi aII ils effoils, China has had a Iiniled
ieluin on ils inveslnenl. A iecenl C poII shovs lhal
opinions of Chinas inuence aie posilive in nuch of
Afiica and Lalin Aneiica, lul piedoninanlIy nega-
live in lhe Uniled Slales, and eveiyvheie in Luiope,
as veII as in India, }apan, and Soulh Koiea. Iuilhei-
noie, in lhe afleinalh of lhe MiddIe Lasl ievoIulions,
China is cIanping dovn on lhe Inleinel and jaiIing
489
hunan iighls Iavyeis, once again loipedoing ils sofl-
povei canpaign.
127
ased on a ieviev of P|A Dai|q and @6)/& ;)2)$&%1
#*)'/*' foi Chinas appIicalion of niIilaiy sofl povei
(), il appeais lhal, aIlhough lhe concepl of
niIilaiy sofl povei vas noled piioi lo 2OO4, il vas
onIy foinaIIy appIied lo lhe ILA undei Hu }inlao.
128

A seaich of P|A Dai|q foi infoinalion aloul sofl pov-
ei found a lolaI of 561 ailicIes, hovevei, onIy nine of
lhen veie pulIished piioi lo Seplenlei 2OO4 vhen
Hu }inlao lecane lhe CMC chaiinan, vhich indicales
lhal al Ieasl lhe concepl of niIilaiy sofl povei vas ini-
lialed undei Hu. Ioi exanpIe, a iepiesenlalive ailicIe
fion }une 2OO7 slaled lhal, in lhe infoinalion age, lhe
ILA nusl cieale a sliong piopaganda syslen lased
on nelicuIous pIanning lhal coveis lhe fuII iange of
niIilaiy dipIonacy lo shov lhe niIilaiys piesence
and inpacl acioss a lioad specliun.
129

The hisl @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*' ailicIe lo cile lhe
lein, pulIished in 2O1O, slales lhal niIilaiy sofl povei
iefeis lo hov niIilaiy cuIluie, niIilaiy spiiil, niIilaiy
inage, niIilaiy dipIonacy, and olhei nonnaleiiaI
foices inuence and shape lhe goveinnenl and niIi-
laiy in oidei lo le alIe lo achieve niIilaiy slialegic
oljeclives.
13O
The second ailicIe, pulIished in 2O11,
slales lhal nalionaI defense sofl povei is one con-
ponenl of nalionaI sofl povei, and, fion a nalionaI
secuiily peispeclive, ieseaicheis nusl focus on slial-
egy and inlegialed nalionaI povei.
131
The hisl ailicIe
slales lhal one aspecl of achieving niIilaiy sofl povei
iequiies deaIing vilh deleiience (|]). Like olhei
counliies, China nov engages in niIilaiy paiades and
conlined-ains, joinl, and conlined niIilaiy exei-
cises as a neans of shaping ils inage of slienglh and
deleiienl capaliIilies anong foieign counliies. Ioi
exanpIe, lhe second ailicIe ciles lvo joinl exeicises~
49O
Slienglhening Tioops ({|) 2OO8 and Sliide (
j) 2OO9~and lvo conlined exeicises~Ieace Mis-
sions (1`|) 2OO5 and 2OO7~as looIs lo heIp
shape foieign vievs of lhe ILA.
132
Of pailicuIai nole,
lolh Hu }inlao and Russias Iiesidenl Iulin olseived
lhe Ieace Mission 2OO7 exeicise in lhe CheIyalinsk
Region of Russia lo pul lheii inpiinl on lhe seiies of
exeicises.
133
The second ailicIe lo cile lhe lein aIso discusses lhe
CMCs aliIily lo enhance Chinas sofl povei lhiough
lhe ciealion of lhe MND (]|) Infoinalion Of-
hce (j) in Seplenlei 2OO7 and a nev MND
velsile, vilh lolh LngIish and Chinese veisions, lhal
cane onIine on Augusl 2O, 2OO9.
134
AIlhough lhe Infoi-
nalion Ofhce vas ciealed undei lhe Ioieign Affaiis
Ofhce ('[,) in 2OO7, diiecloi and spokesnan
Senioi CoIoneI Hu Changning (;|) did nol nake
his delul unliI lhe afleinoon of May 18, 2OO8, al a
piess liiehng conceining lhe Sichuan eailhquake lhal
had jusl occuiied.
135
Since ApiiI 2O1O, Senioi CoIoneI
Ceng Yansheng (]]) has leen lhe diiecloi and
concuiienlIy lhe MND spokesnan (]|
;) al aII piess confeiences.
136
AIlhough lhe diiecloi
of lhe Infoinalion Ofhce aIso seives as lhe piinaiy
spokesnan, lhe depuly diieclois aIso fuIhII lhal func-
lion. Slailing in 2O12, MND piess confeiences have
leen heId nonlhIy ialhei lhan on an ad hoc lasis.
137

Theie sonelines appeais lo le a Iack of cooidinalion
lelveen lhe MND nonlhIy piess confeience and Min-
isliy of Ioieign Affaiis (MOIA) noie fiequenl piess
confeiences. Ioi exanpIe, vhen lhe Uniled Slales
announced lhe iolalion of Maiines lhiough Daivin,
MND lIasled coId vai lhinking, vhiIe MOIA vas
nuch niIdei.
491
One of lhe goaIs of sofl povei is appaienlIy lo heIp
inuence foieign nedia conceining lhe ILA lhiough
lhe use of lhe ILAs piopaganda and pulIicily sys-
len. Ioi exanpIe, lhe 2O1O @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*' ai-
licIe piovided slalislics foi lhe nunlei of dispalches
conceining lhe ILA caiiied ly six foieign nevs agen-
cies in 2OO5 lhal ciled infoinalion fion Chinas of-
hciaI J)/6+& Nevs Agency as a piinaiy souice. The
foieign nevs agencies veie lhe Associaled Iiess (AI),
C'+$'%-, Agence Iiance-Iiesse (AII), ||ar-Tass, V14,4
9'!-, and Taivans CenliaI Nevs Agency (CNA).
AIlogelhei, aloul 5,1OO cilalions fion J)/6+& veie
noled in lhe six nevs agencies dispalches. The foi-
eign dispalches incIuded eilhei lhe fuII J)/6+& ailicIe
oi pails of lhe ailicIe. The @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*' ailicIe
slaled lhal, as pail of gIolaIizalion, lhe incIusion of
J)/6+&s infoinalion vas yel anolhei foin of niIilaiy
sofl povei. AIlhough nol slaled, olhei nedia, such as
niIilaiy speciaIs shovn on CCTV, aie aIso shovn on
foieign lioadcasls and ieceive consideialIe allenlion.
CIoseIy Iinked lo lhe issue of ciealing niIilaiy sofl
povei is lhe Iack of agieenenl conceining niIilaiy
lianspaiency.
In addilion lo lhe ioIe of lhe nedia, lhe ILA has
enphasized lhe inpoilance of lhe ioIe of ils niIilaiy
allaches and ILA deIegalion visils alioad in pionol-
ing niIilaiy sofl povei. Ioi exanpIe, lhe Diiecloi of
MNDs Ioieign Affaiis Ofhce slaled, MiIilaiy dipIo-
nacy is an inpoilanl vindov foi dispIaying lhe in-
age of oui ained foices, and eveiy ofhcei and soIdiei
is an inage anlassadoi duiing foieign exchanges.
138

AIlhough no annuaI hguies aie avaiIalIe, incIuding
in lhe lienniaI Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcrs, Defense Minislei
Liang CuangIie slaled in 2OO8 lhal lhe ILA vas send-
ing al Ieasl 15O niIilaiy deIegalions alioad on visils,
492
and al Ieasl 2OO foieign niIilaiy deIegalions visiled
China.
139
In lhe sane ailicIe, Liang slaled lhal, le-
sides pionoling niIilaiy sofl povei, ILA deIegalions
aIso pionole Chinas nalionaI inleiesls. Ioi exanpIe,
vhen Liang visiled IlaIy in 2OO8, he iepoiled lhal he
vas alIe lo ieceive a connilnenl fion IlaIys Defense
Minislei lhal Tilel vas Chinas inleinaI poIilicaI nal-
lei, and lhal IlaIy did nol inlend lo inleifeie.
14O
DIfcu!tIcs Estab!IshIng Hnt!Incs.
AIlhough China legan negolialing foi holIines
vilh vaiious counliies duiing lhe eaiIy-2OOOs undei
}iang, holIines veie hnaIIy eslalIished undei Hu vilh
lhe Uniled Slales (2OO8) and India (2O1O), hovevei,
lhe iesuIls have leen nininaI.
141
In addilion, eijing
has leen negolialing vilh Tokyo foi seveiaI yeais, lul
a holIine has yel lo le eslalIished lecause of conlinu-
ing naiiline dispules.
142
Conceining lhe U.S.-China holIine, aflei slaff-IeveI
pieIininaiy discussions in 2OO3, lhe DoD foinaIIy
pioposed a holIine foi ciisis nanagenenl and conh-
dence luiIding vilh lhe ILA al lhe DCT in Ieliuaiy
2OO4. Duiing Defense Secielaiy Cales visil lo China
in Novenlei 2OO7, lhe ILA agieed in piincipIe lo sel
up a defense leIephone Iink (DTL) vilh lhe Ienlagon.
The lvo sides signed an agieenenl in Ieliuaiy 2OO8.
Then, in May 2OO8, IACOM Connandei AdniiaI
Kealing used lhe holIine in ils hisl opeialionaI use lo
connunicale vilh ILA DCOCS Lieulenanl CeneiaI
Ma Xiaolian aloul lhe U.S. Aii Ioices use of lvo C-17
lianspoils lo deIivei eailhquake ieIief suppIies lo Si-
chuan. Hovevei, duiing lhe confionlalion in Maich
2OO9 vhen IRC ships aggiessiveIy haiassed lhe U.S.
suiveiIIance ships, Secielaiy Cales loId iepoileis lhal
he did nol use lhe holIine.
143

493
>A$$O %542.,1<7.= %Y2I.70/68
IinaIIy, lhe ILA hosls vaiious couises foi foieign
niIilaiy ofhceis and sends ofhceis alioad foi shoil- oi
Iong-lein couises. This seclion piovides infoinalion
on lhe ILAAI Connand CoIIeges piogian, vhich is
iepiesenlalive of lhe ILA as a vhoIe.
144

The ILAAI Connand CoIIege foins lhe founda-
lion foi aii foice educalionaI exchanges, incIuding
sending sludenls and facuIly alioad and hosling foi-
eign ofhceis. These exchanges aie iapidIy expanding
lo aIIov ILAAI ofhceis, incIuding piIols, lo inleiacl
on a videi iange of issues vilh foieign aii foices.
Lach yeai, a ILAAI depuly chief of slaff Ieads slu-
denls fion lhe coIIeges Canpaign Connand Couise
alioad foi 2 veeks lo aIIov lhen lo gain hisl-hand
knovIedge of foieign aii foices. Ioi exanpIe, aloul
3O sludenls visiled lhe Uniled Slales in }uIy 1998, 41
sludenls visiled AusliaIia and Nev ZeaIand in }une
1999, and 58 sludenls, incIuding eighl najoi geneiaIs,
visiled India in Novenlei 2OO3. The coIIege aIso has
senl facuIly nenleis alioad lo seveiaI counliies, in-
cIuding Russia and IlaIy, lo sludy foi 1 lo 3 yeais. Olh-
ei ILAAI ofhceis have sludied in niIilaiy coIIeges in
iilain, Russia, Iakislan, IlaIy, and Iiance.
In 2OO1, lhe coIIege legan pioviding liaining foi
foieign heId-giade ofhceis. As of eaiIy-2O12, noie
lhan 6OO aii foice ofhceis fion 75 counliies had al-
lended. The couises legan vilh sludenls fion onIy
one counliy, one Ianguage, oi one speciaIly al a line,
lul lhal nodeI vas iepIaced in 2OO9, vheiely sludenls
fion nuIlipIe counliies, Ianguages, and speciaIlies al-
lend logelhei. The nev nodeI aIso incIuded ILAAI
sludenls, incIuding piIols, foi lhe hisl line. Il vas
494
iepoiled lhal 21 foieign sludenls, incIuding 11 piIols,
cane fion 12 counliies such as angIadesh, MaIaysia,
Uganda, Nigeiia, Myannai, Sii Lanka, Lgypl, Singa-
poie, and Tanzania and allended one couise. Lach
ILAAI ofhcei vas paiied vilh a foieign counleipail
duiing lhe couise, and lhey aII spoke LngIish.
Iion Seplenlei 2O11 lo }anuaiy 2O12, lhe coIIege
heId a couise lhal incIuded foieign and ILAAI piIols
vilh a focus on laclics, conlal nelhods, and sinu-
Ialed liaining. esides six ILAAI piIols, a lolaI of 69
ofhceis, incIuding seveiaI piIols, fion 41 counliies
pailicipaled, incIuding VenezueIa, lhe IhiIippines,
Iakislan, ChiIe, Singapoie, and Saudi Aialia. Duiing
lhe liaining, lhe piIols sinuIaled vaiious laclics and
lechniques, incIuding cIose-in engagenenls as veII as
ieconnaissance and counlei-ieconnaissance.
In addilion, lhe coIIege offeis Iongei couises foi
foieign sludenls. On }uIy 15, 2OO5, 88 sludenls fion
25 counliies giadualed foi a 1-yeai couise vilh an un-
idenlihed cuiiicuIun.
"#$+!>$#%+(E
Lvei since lhe Uniled Slales and China eslalIished
dipIonalic ieIalions and ciealed niIilaiy allache of-
hces in 1979, lhe issue of lianspaiency has leen a
soie poinl in lhe oveiaII niIilaiy ieIalionship. The
ILA legan lo aIIov noie lianspaiency undei }iang
Zenin, and incieased lhe IeveI of lianspaiency undei
Hu, nuch of vhich is a diiecl iesuIl of lhe giovlh in
lhe Inleinel and sociaI nedia. In addilion, lhe ILA
has legun lo pulIish noie looks and peiiodicaIs lhal
aie avaiIalIe lo lhe pulIic aloul ils hisloiy, oigani-
zalionaI sliucluie, docliine, peisonneI, and educalion
and liaining. As noled eaiIiei, lhe MND velsile, ils
495
nonlhIy nevs liiehngs, enlassy and consuIai vel-
siles, and a gioving nunlei of ILA-ieIaled ailicIes
on CCTV have aIIoved a giealei undeislanding of lhe
ILA.
To have a lellei undeislanding of each olhei, DoD
and lhe ILA have inleiacled since lhe eaiIy-198Os al
nuIlipIe IeveIs, incIuding senioi-IeveI visils, sliale-
gic laIks, funclionaI exchanges, educalion exchanges,
agieenenls, connissions, liaining, and exeicises.
145

Thal said, hovevei, lhe Uniled Slales and olhei coun-
liies have conlinued lo encouiage lhe ILA lo lecone
even noie lianspaienl ly aIIoving visils lo noie
opeialionaI unils, defense facloiies, and liaining
exeicises.
In essence, DoD has iequesled lhal lhe ILA pio-
vide infoinalion on lhe foIIoving lopics:
- slialegic inlenlions and capaliIilies,
- niIilaiy ludgel and defense expendiluies,
- peisonneI sliucluie lo incIude lhe nunlei of
ofhceis, civiIian cadie, and enIisled peisonneI
in each seivice and lianch ly speciaIly and
iank/giade, and,
- oidei of lallIe, lo incIude lhe nunlei and lypes
of veapons in lhe aclive duly invenloiy and
undei deveIopnenl, as veII as an open Iisl of
niIilaiy oiganizalions using lheii liue unil des-
ignalois (TUDs) ialhei lhan niIilaiy unil covei
designalois (MUCDs).
To dale, DoD has yel lo ieceive vhal il consideis lo
le sufhcienl ansveis lo lhese queslions, even lhough
senioi DoD Ieadeis have visiled pieviousIy Iocalions
lhal veie off Iinils lo aII foieign niIilaiy deIegalions.
Ioi exanpIe, in 2OO5, Secielaiy of Defense DonaId
RunsfeId vas lhe hisl foieign defense Ieadei lo visil
496
Second AiliIIeiy Headquaileis, and, in 2O11, Chaii-
nan of lhe }oinl Chiefs AdniiaI Mike MuIIen sav
a CSS-7 (M-11) shoil-iange laIIislic nissiIe al a Sec-
ond AiliIIeiy unil, sal in a Su-27 hghlei, allended a
counleileiioiisl connand posl exeicise, and visiled a
Yuan-cIass sulnaiine.
146

The 2O11 DoD iepoil lo Congiess sunnaiized lhe
cuiienl silualion ly slaling:
OveiaII, lhe lianspaiency of Chinas niIilaiy and se-
cuiily affaiis has inpioved giaduaIIy in iecenl yeais,
highIighled ly ils pulIicalion of Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcrs,
eslalIishnenl of an MND spokespeison, lhe Iaunch
of an ofhciaI MND velsile, videi nedia coveiage
of niIilaiy issues, and gioving avaiIaliIily of looks
and piofessionaI jouinaIs on niIilaiy and secuiily lop-
ics. Hovevei, lheie ienains unceilainly aloul hov
China viII use ils gioving capaliIilies. The Ialesl vei-
sion highIighls lhe ILAs gioving focus on niIilaiy
opeialions olhei lhan vai, lul oveiaII, lhe docunenl
piesenls onIy incienenlaI nev insighls inlo lhe ILAs
sliucluie, docliine, and capaliIilies. In addilion, esli-
naling acluaI ILA niIilaiy expendiluies is a difhcuIl
piocess due lo lhe Iack of accounling lianspaiency and
Chinas sliII inconpIele liansilion fion a connand
econony. Moieovei, Chinas pulIished niIilaiy lud-
gel does nol incIude najoi calegoiies of expendiluie,
such as foieign piocuienenl.
147
On lhe olhei hand, lhe ILA leIieves lhal il has le-
cone noie lianspaienl, lul lhal lheie shouId le Iinils
lo ils lianspaiency. Ioi exanpIe, lhe 2O11 edilion of
Cnina P|A Mi|i|arq Tcrninc|cgq has a nev enliy foi
niIilaiy lianspaiency lhal slales:
Slialegic inlenl and niIilaiy capaliIilies aie lhe nosl
fundanenlaI and inpoilanl lianspaiency issues, and
lhey aie lhe nosl inpoilanl indicalois of vhelhei a
497
counliy poses a lhieal lo lhe inleinalionaI connu-
nily. Lach counliy nakes ils ovn deleininalion aloul
hov lianspaienl il vanls lo le conceining lhese issues
lased on ils nalionaI inleiesl.
148

These lypes of issues aie aIso coveied in lhe CMCs
P|A #'*+%)$1 C'(+2&$)4/- (j]]), vhich
vas hisl issued in 1963 and has leen updaled foui
lines, incIuding lhe Ialesl veision in 2O11.
149
IoIIov-
ing lhe ieIease of lhe 1998 veision, a Ienglhy P|A ?&)21
ailicIe slaled:
In iecenl yeais, lheie have leen sone shocking cases
of niIilaiy seciels leing Ieaked. Sone peopIe have
laIked lhoughlIessIy aloul lhe designalion of niIilaiy
unils, aclive equipnenl, lhe Iocalion of lheii slalions,
and olhei niIilaiy seciels, and have even ieIeased in-
foinalion invoIving niIilaiy seciels on leIevision and
iadio as veII as in lhe open piess.
15O

Accoiding lo lhe 2O11 ieguIalions, cIassihed nale-
iiaI is divided inlo 13 lypes, vhich can le geneiaIized
as eveiylhing lhal has lo do vilh lhe oiganizalionaI
sliucluie, slialegy, opeialions, laclics, veapons and
equipnenl, peisonneI, ieseaich and deveIopnenl,
ludgels and acquisilion, liaining, inleIIigence, de-
pIoynenls, nissions, poIilicaI voik, noliIizalion,
and connunicalions.
151
The 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr addiessed lianspai-
ency ly slaling:
China allaches gieal inpoilance lo niIilaiy lianspai-
ency, and nakes effoils lo pionole nuluaI liusl vilh
olhei counliies in lhe niIilaiy spheie. Ioi exanpIe,
since 2OO7, China has legun lo iepoil lo lhe UN Slan-
daidized Insliunenl foi Repoiling MiIilaiy Lxpendi-
luies. China gives veighl lo lhe UN Regislei of Con-
498
venlionaI Ains and conlinues lo sulnil dala lo lhe
Regislei on convenlionaI ains liansfei in lhe seven
calegoiies coveied ly lhe Regislei.
Of nole, lhe 2012 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr did nol even
nenlion lhe issue of lianspaiency.
In 2O12, lhe Diiecloi of MNDs Ioieign Affaiis
Ofhce slaled:
MiIilaiy lianspaiency is an issue lhal ve aIvays laIk
aloul duiing exleinaI exchanges. To le fiank, lhe
Uniled Slales has aIvays asked China lo have niIilaiy
lianspaiency. In facl, lhe degiee of lianspaiency lhal
lhe Uniled Slales ained foices have duiing exchanges
vilh us is nol high. Ioi exanpIe, vhen ve visiled a
Uniled Slales Aii Ioice lase, lhe U.S. side ioped off an
I-22 aiiciafl, and lhey did nol aIIov us lo gel cIose lo il.
Hovevei, vhen lhe Chaiinan of lhe U.S. }oinl Chiefs
of Slaff, AdniiaI Mike MuIIen, visiled China in 2O11,
ve nol onIy Iel hin visil lhe Su-27 lul aIso inviled hin
lo sil in lhe cockpil. Lven U.S. iepoileis veie anazed
ly lhe degiee of oui openness. In facl, aII counliies
have lhe iighl lo independenlIy deleinine lhe line,
conlenl, and degiee of niIilaiy lianspaiency lovaid
lhe oulside voiId accoiding lo lheii ovn secuiily in-
leiesls. One inpoilanl lhing is lhal lhe Chinese ained
foices aie sinceie aloul openness. If sone peopIe aI-
vays Iook al lhe Chinese ained foices vilh piejudice
and lias, lhen lhis is lecause sonelhing is viong vilh
lheii posilion. As foi lhis, lheie is no need foi us lo pay
loo nuch allenlion lo il. Inslead, ve shouId ienain
cooI-headed and caIn.
152
AIlhough lhe ILA has nol yel salished DoDs spe-
cihc iequesls foi infoinalion on slialegy, funding,
peisonneI, and oidei of lallIe, il lecane nuch noie
lianspaienl in seveiaI aieas undei Hu }inlao. The
anounl of infoinalion and delaiI aloul lhe ILA in
499
lhe lienniaI Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, vhich vas hisl pul-
Iished in 1998, giev consideialIy undei Hu. Specih-
caIIy, one of lhe key conponenls of lhe lni|c Papcr is
lhe ILAs gioving inleiaclion vilh foieign niIilaiies,
vhich, as discussed eaiIiei, expanded undei Hu. In
addilion, one can seaich lhe Inleinel and hnd sup-
poiling ailicIes pulIished ly J)/6+&, P|A Dai|q, oi
lhe MND foi jusl aloul eveiy delaiI in lhe lni|c Papcr.
esides lhe inlioduclion of lhe MND velsile in 2OO7,
lhe ILA incieased ils pulIicalion of peiiodicaIs and
nevspapeis undei Hu as foIIovs:
- The 8O-page P|A Pic|cria|, vhich has leen in
exislence foi seveiaI decades, is nov pulIished
lvice a nonlh and is avaiIalIe onIine.
- In 2OO9, lhe ILA conponenl of J)/6+& legan
pulIishing a nev 11O-page quaileiIy jouinaI
in Chinese and LngIish enlilIed @6)/& >%0',
F4%*'- (][). Since }anuaiy 2O12, il has
leen pulIished linonlhIy. Of nole, aIlhough
lhis peiiodicaI has had Iead ailicIes viillen ly
lhe defense ninislei, lhe diiecloi of each of lhe
foui geneiaI depailnenls, and lhe connandei
of lhe ILAN, ILAAI, and ILASAI, as veII as
seveiaI MR connandeis, lheie has nol leen a
singIe ailicIe lhiough Iale-2O12 aloul oi viil-
len ly eilhei of lhe lvo unifoined CMC vice
chaiinen. Il is nol cIeai vhy lhis has occuiied
olhei lhan lheii aclivilies aie coveied ly P|A
E)*$4%)&2.
- @6)/& >)% F4%*', vhich legan in 1986 as a
lIack-and-vhile linonlhIy pulIicalion lhal
iaieIy discussed cuiienl evenls, is nov a 1OO-
page nonlhIy pulIicalion vilh coIoi pholos of
veapons and liaining evenls.
5OO
- The ILAs seivice and niIilaiy iegion nevs-
papeis, vhich veie pieviousIy foi inleinaI use
onIy, aie nov openIy avaiIalIe, and lhe nun-
lei of issues has incieased fion lhiee lo foui oi
hve pei veek foi sone of lhen.
- In Seplenlei 2O12, lhe ILA announced a nev
seiies of 1O looks lhal viII le pulIished in lhiee
gioups. The hisl gioup conpiises lhiee looks,
lilIed Cnincsc Pccp|cs |iocra|icn Arnq, P|As
9&G1, and P|As Air |crcc. UnfoilunaleIy, none
of lhese looks have nuch sulslance. The sec-
ond gioup of looks, pulIished in 2O13, viII in-
cIude Tnc P|A Atia|icn Ccrps, Tnc P|A Marincs,
and Tnc P|A Airocrnc |crcc. The lhiid gioup of
looks, lo le pulIished in 2O14, conlains foui
voIunes: 56' @6)/'-' 9&G&2 D-*4%$- )/ >,'/ L+2H,
Cnincsc Pcacc|ccpcrs Otcrscas, 56' @6)/'-' >%01
&/, ./$'%/&$)4/&2 #'*+%)$1 @44A'%&$)4/, and 56'
@6)/'-' >%01 &/, :+0&/)$&%)&/ C'2)'H. They viII
le pulIished in six Ianguages, incIuding Lng-
Iish, Iiench, Russian, Spanish, and Aialic in
haid copy and as e-looks, as veII as audio and
video veisions.
153
- In Seplenlei 2O12, lhe ILA NalionaI Defense
Univeisilys CoIIege of Defence Sludies (]
|||) ciealed a velsile aloul lhe
coIIege and lhe ILA lhal has lals foi hve Ian-
guages (Chinese, LngIish, Russian, Iiench, and
Spanish).
154
AIlhough nosl foieigneis undeisland lhe ILAs
cuiienl iank syslen, lhey do nol undeisland lhe
15-giade syslen. As a iesuIl, one of lhe nosl signih-
canl issues of lianspaiency lhal has occuiied lolh
5O1
inleinaIIy and exleinaIIy since lhe ILA vas foined
in 1949 and ianks veie ieinsliluled in 1988 vas lhe
addilion in 2OO7 of iillons on unifoins lo idenlify lhe
ofhceis giade.
155
The iillons conliilule lo lhe undei-
slanding of lhe ILAs ofhcei sliucluie, and hence lhe
ILAs connand, conlioI, and cooidinalion sliucluie.
The nev unifoins issued in 2OO7 aIso incIuded nane
lags and palches vilh lhe peisons oiganizalion (CSD,
CID, Aii Ioice, Navy, elc.). Taken logelhei, infoina-
lion aloul ofhcei giades, ianks, and posilions avaiI-
alIe in lhe ILAs gioving open souice nedia heIps
anaIysls deleinine lhe ILAs oiganizalionaI sliucluie.
IinaIIy, vhen laken logelhei, lhese pulIicalions
pIus infoinalion avaiIalIe on lhe Inleinel fion lhe
ILA piovides a nuch lioadei undeislanding of lhe
ILA lhan piioi lo vhen Hu lecane lhe CMC chaii-
nan. One of lhe liggesl conpIainls fion lhe U.S.
niIilaiy, hovevei, is lhal nosl of lhe infoinalion is
avaiIalIe in Chinese onIy, and, lheiefoie, il is sliII a
lianspaiency issue. AIlhough lhe sane couId le said
aloul lhe Iack of infoinalion pulIished ly lhe U.S.
niIilaiy in Chinese, one of lhe liggesl diffeiences is
lhal China has a high piopoilion of anaIysls vho can
iead LngIish, vhiIe lhe U.S. niIilaiy has onIy a veiy
snaII peicenlage of anaIysls vho can iead Chinese.
(@+(A)!'@+!
As noled in lhe opening paiagiaph, lhe liggesl
chaIIenge is lo nake a dislinclion lelveen vhal oc-
cuiied undei Hus Ieadeiship and vhal occuiied as a
iesuIl of his peisonaI inilialives. Ioi lhe nosl pail, lhe
diffeiences aie nol evidenl, hovevei, lheie aie cIeai
liends in vhal occuiied undei Hu. WhiIe Hus coIIecl-
ed speeches and viilings viII offei noie infoinalion,
5O2
lhey viII nol le avaiIalIe foi al Ieasl a coupIe of yeais.
Ioi exanpIe, }iang Zenins seIecled voiks veie pul-
Iished in Iale-2OO6 in Chinese and 2O11 in LngIish.
ased on lhe infoinalion avaiIalIe, il appeais lhal
enpIoying niIilaiy dipIonacy lo enhance Chinas
sofl povei vas cIeaiIy inpIenenled as a concepl
undei Hu. In addilion, lhe ILA legan lo lecone ac-
liveIy invoIved in inleinalionaI HA/DR and MOOTW
aclivilies as a diiecl iesuIl of Hus foui hisloiic nis-
sions. AIlhough lhe ILAs invoIvenenl in slialegic
diaIogues and consuIlalions, conlined exeicises, and
UN peacekeeping opeialions legan undei }iang, lhey
incieased undei Hu. IinaIIy, lhe anounl of lianspai-
ency, incIuding lhe ciealion of lhe MND spokesnan,
cIeaiIy expanded undei Hu, even lhough lheie aie
sliII key aieas lhal ienain opaque.
Undei Xi }inping as lhe CMC Chaiinan, lhe ILA
viII nosl IikeIy conlinue lo expand ils gIolaI invoIve-
nenl in HA/DR and conlined exeicises, as veII as
send noie deIegalions alioad lo Ieain fion olhei
niIilaiies. ShouId lheie le civiI uniesl in counliies
vheie Chinese aie Iiving and voiking, lhe ILA viII
nosl IikeIy lecone noie acliveIy invoIved in heIp-
ing lo evacuale lhen lo safely. AII of lhese evenls aie
sIovIy heIping lhe ILA lo lecone noie conhdenl and
lo piepaie foi any lype of fuluie conicl al oi leyond
ils loideis.
5O3
%+*+@"%! R (?$>"%# MM
1. The Chine se veision of P|A Dai|q, vhich is sonelines
idenlihed as |iocra|icn Arnq ?&)21, vas accessed using Lasl Viev
Iiesss onIine dalalase lhal legins in lhe 198Os. The onIine vei-
sion of P|A Dai|q is avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&0)2"*40"*/3, and lhe
LngIish veision is avaiIalIe fion '/(2)-6"*6)/&0)2"*40"*/3.
2. The 2012 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, pulIished in ApiiI 2O13, is
avaiIalIe fion eng.ncd.gct.cn/TcpNcus/2013-04/16/ccn|cn|_
4442750.n|n (in LngIish) and uuu.ncd.gct.cn/affair/2013-04/
16/ccn|cn|_4442839.n|n (in Chinese).
3. Heidi HoIz and Kennelh AIIen, MiIilaiy Lxchanges vilh
Chinese Chaiacleiislics: The IeopIes Lileialion Ainy Lxpeii-
ence vilh Ioieign ReIalions, in Roy Kanphausen, David Lai,
and Andiev ScoleII, eds., Tnc P|A a| Hcnc and Aorcad. Asscssing
|nc Opcra|icna| Capaoi|i|ics cf Cninas Mi|i|arq, CaiIisIe, IA: Slia-
legic Sludies Inslilule, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, }une 2O1O, Roy
Kanphausen, David Lai, and Tiavis Tannei, eds., |carning oq
Dcing. Tnc P|A Trains a| Hcnc and Aorcad, CaiIisIe, IA: Slialegic
Sludies Inslilule, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, 2O12.
4. Hu }inlao Iiesides ovei CenliaI MiIilaiy Connission
Meeling, P|A Dai|q, Ieliuaiy 2, 2OO9, p. 1.
5. Cao }iquan, Minisliy of NalionaI Defense Ioieign Affaiis
Ofhce Diiecloi Qian Lihua Inleivieved on MiIilaiy DipIonacy,
P|A Dai|q onIine, Seplenlei 25, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion 0)2)$&%1"*6)-
na.ccn.cn/2012-09/25/ccn|cn|_26623447.n|n.
6. The ILAs leins foi niIilaiy dipIonacy and niIilaiy ex-
changes aie M+/-6) !&)M)&4 (') and M+/-6) !&)!&/( ('
), iespecliveIy.
7. Chen Zhiyong, Reliospecl and Thinking of lhe 6O Yeais
of MiIilaiy DipIonacy in lhe Nev China, @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*',
No. 5, Issue No. 1O7, 2OO9, pp. 34-39.
8. Li Meng, Top Ten Iiisls of Chinese MiIilaiy DipIonacy
fion 2OO2 lo 2O12, P|A Dai|q, Seplenlei 25, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion
cng|isn.pccp|cdai|q.ccn.cn/90786/7960693.n|n|. The infoinalion
cane fion MNDs Infoinalion Ofhce.
5O4
9. As noled Ialei in lhe chaplei, lhis is nol accuiale. One of lhe
hisl ILAAI disaslei ieIief effoils alioad occuiied in eaiIy-May
1991, vhen il senl lvo MI-8 heIicopleis lo angIadesh foi a nonlh
lo piovide suppoil aflei a lyphoon.
1O. Cao }iquan, Minisliy of NalionaI Defense Ioieign Affaiis
Ofhce Diiecloi Qian Lihua Inleivieved on MiIilaiy DipIonacy,
P|A Dai|q onIine, Seplenlei 25, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion 0)2)$&%1"*6)-
na.ccn.cn/2012-09/25/ccn|cn|_26623447.n|n. AddilionaI infoina-
lion on ILA niIilaiy dipIonacy goaIs can le found in HoIz and
AIIen, MiIilaiy Lxchanges vilh Chinese Chaiacleiislics.
11. Mosl of lhe infoinalion in lhis paiagiaph cones fion
HoIz and AIIen, MiIilaiy Lxchanges vilh Chinese Chaiacleiis-
lics, pp. 435-437. Infoinalion aloul lhe nunlei of allache ofhces
in 1988 cones fion lhe hIes of Kennelh AIIen, vho vas assigned
lo lhe U.S. Defense Allache ofhce in eijing al lhe line. In 1998,
China iepoiledIy had niIilaiy allache ofhces in noie lhan 9O Chi-
nese enlassies alioad, and appioxinaleIy 6O counliies had niIi-
laiy allache ofhces in China. Ioi infoinalion on lhe nunlei of al-
lache ofhces in 1998, see 1998 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, eijing, China:
Infoinalion Ofhce of lhe Slale CounciI of lhe IeopIes RepulIic of
China, }uIy 1998. Ioi a Iisl of lhe foieign niIilaiy allache ofhces in
eijing in 1988 and 1998, see Kennelh W. AIIen and Liic A. McVa-
don, Appendix , Cninas |crcign Mi|i|arq Rc|a|icns, Washinglon
DC: The Heniy L. Slinson Cenlei, Oclolei 1999, p. 95.
12. The infoinalion in lhis lalIe cones fion lhe lienniaI
Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr foi lhe yeais 1998 lhiough 2O12.
13. A Iisl of aII lhe 185 counliies lhal cuiienlIy have enlas-
sies in China is avaiIalIe fion !!!"H0A%*"(4G"*/3*6/3A,-3H!32BH!3
P6!M(0,R2BH!3.
14. Mohaned Aldi, China IIedges MiIilaiy Aid lo Uganda,
Decenlei 1, 2O11, and MicheIIe Canlos, USAIRICOM: China
IIedges $2.3n lo Uganda in MiIilaiy Assislance, Agence-Iiance
Iiess, Novenlei 3O, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion c4ads.crg/|a|cs|/?=p403.
5O5
15. AIlhough lhe 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr did nol have any
slalislics, lased on coiiespondence in nid-2O12 vilh lhe U.S. De-
fense Allache Ofhce in eijing, 1O3 foieign counliies had niIilaiy
allache ofhces in eijing.
16. Of nole, seveiaI ILA allaches have seived foi up lo 5-6
yeais in Washinglon, DC.
17. Su Yincheng, Zhang Yanzhong, and Wu Xu, Augusl 1sl
Voice: Opening lhe Seciel of lhe WoiId of Chinas MiIilaiy Al-
laches, DuaI Idenlilies ShouIdei DuaI Missions, Pccp|cs Dai|q
onIine, Decenlei 2, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion 0)2)$&%1"A'4A2'"*40"*/3
G8/16471538.n|n|.
18. Infoinalion is lased on coiiespondence vilh lhe U.S. Ln-
lassy in eijing.
19. Inleivievs vilh Taivan Aii Ioice peisonneI and a foinei
U.S Assislanl Ainy Allache lo MongoIia.
2O. Discussion vilh Lieulenanl CoIoneI Chiis IuIlz in Oclo-
lei 2O12.
21. Infoinalion is lased on coiiespondence vilh lhe U.S. Ln-
lassy in eijing. Sone of lhe Navy and Aii Ioice allaches aie con-
cuiienlIy lhe Defense Allache, so lhese aie nol necessaiiIy consid-
eied peinanenl Navy and Aii Ioice liIIels as lhe liIIel is iolaled
anong lhe seivices. OnIy a fev counliies have peinanenl navy
and aii foice liIIels in addilion lo lhe defense allache liIIel.
22. |cr a 8c||cr lcr|d. ]iang Zcnins Otcrscas Visi|s (;
:;[,,), eijing, China: WoiId Affaiis Iiess of
China, }uIy 2OO6.
23. See cng|isn.gct.cn/2008-04/03/ccn|cn|_935716.n|n.
24. Infoinalion on lhe Cioup of Lighl (C8), foined in 1975, is
avaiIalIe fion cn.ui|ipcdia.crg/ui|i/G8. AIlhough China is nol an
ofhciaI nenlei, il has allended lhe annuaI neelings since 2OO5 as
pail of a giouping knovn as lhe C8+5. Infoinalion on lhe Cioup
of Tvenly (C2O), ciealed in 2OO8, is avaiIalIe fion '/"!)I)A',)&"
crg/ui|i/G-20_najcr_cccncnics. Infoinalion on RICS, foined in
5O6
2OO9, is avaiIalIe fion cn.ui|ipcdia.crg/ui|i/8R|CS. Infoinalion on
lhe AILC foiun, foined in 1989 and vhich China joined in 1991,
is avaiIalIe fion !!!"&A'*"4%(3.
25. |cr a 8c||cr lcr|d. ]iang Zcnins Otcrscas Visi|s, pp. 568-573.
26. Ioi exanpIe, a pholo of Hu aiiiving in IlaIy foi lhe 2OO9
C-8 Sunnil shovs an Ainy coIoneI slanding lehind hin vilh an
allache aiguiIIelle on his shouIdei. Infoinalion is avaiIalIe fion
cng|isn.pccp|cdai|q.ccn.cn/90001/90776/90883/6693481.n|n|.
27. Russia shovs Chinese defence ninislei possilIe inpacl
of US nissiIe shieId, C, Maich 24, 2O13, avaiIalIe fion !!!"
acccssnq|iorarq.ccn/ar|ic|c-1G1-323487635/russia-sncus-cnincsc-dc-
H'/*'"6$02.
28. The infoinalion conceining defense peisonneI liaveIing
vilh lhe Iiesidenl cane fion discussions vilh foinei U.S. Cov-
einnenl ofhciaIs.
29. The infoinalion in lhis paiagiaph foi liaveI lhiough nid-
2OO9 cones fion HoIz and AIIen, MiIilaiy Lxchanges vilh Chi-
nese Chaiacleiislics, }une 2O1O, p. 441.
3O. Infoinalion since nid-2OO9 is fion individuaI voIunes
of Qu Xing, ed., |n|crna|icna| Si|ua|icn and Cninas |crcign Affairs,
eijing, China: Shijie Zhishi Chulanshe. Lach voIune has a sepa-
iale seclion on ILA foieign dipIonacy. AddilionaI infoinalion
cones fion Zhang Zhe, Liang CuangIie Visils lhe Thiee Coun-
liies in Aneiica and Luiope, P|A Pic|cria|, Issue 2, }une 2O12,
pp. 4-5, Zhang Zhe, Liang CuangIie Visils Canlodia foi ASLAN
Defense Minisleis Confeience, P|A Pic|cria|, Issue 2, }une 2O12,
Zhang Zhe, Chen ingde Visils Thiee CenliaI Asian Counliies,
P|A Pic|cria|, Issue 1, }uIy 2O12, pp. 32-36, Wu Xiaoyi, Cuo Hng-
lao, and Li Xiaovei, Xu Caihou Visils MongoIia, P|A Pic|cri-
&2, Issue 2, }une 2O12, pp. 4-7, Xu Caihou Visils Tvo Luiopean
Counliies, P|A Pic|cria|, Issue 2, Augusl 2O12, p. 18-2O.
31. India and China lo HoId }oinl MiIilaiy Lxeicises, avaiI-
alIe fion uuu.ooc.cc.u|/ncus/ucr|d-asia-india-19473365#s|crq_
ccn|inucs_1. Liangs visil vas lhe hisl lo India ly a defense ninis-
lei in 8 yeais. China and India legan hoIding conlined exeicises
5O7
in 2OO7, lul lhe exeicises veie pul on hoId aflei 2OO8 foIIoving a
seiies of dipIonalic disagieenenls ovei visa issues.
32. IRC 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
33. The addilionaI lopics veie laken fion a conpiIalion of
nuIlipIe souices.
34. Slale counciIIoi leIIs Negioponle China 'hopes foi heaIlhy
lies vilh US, J)/6+& in LngIish, }anuaiy 7, 2OO9. A seaich of J)-
/6+& ailicIes indicales lhal China has eslalIished slialegic dia-
Iogues vilh al Ieasl lhe foIIoving counliies and oiganizalions:
}apan, lhe Uniled Slales, iaziI, India, Soulh Afiica, Singapoie,
Ceinany, Mexico, Iakislan, Iiance, AusliaIia, lhe UK, lhe ROK,
IsiaeI, and lhe LU. Mosl of lhese veie eslalIished in 2OO8.
35. Iiisl Chinese niIilaiy ofhciaI allends China-US Slialegic
DiaIogue, J)/6+& in LngIish, }anuaiy 17, 2OO8.
36. U.S.-China Slialegic and Lcononic DiaIogue 2O11 Oul-
cones of lhe Slialegic Tiack, U.S. Depailnenl of Slale Media
Nole, Ofhce of lhe Spokesnan, May 1O, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion !!!"
s|a|c.gct/r/pa/prs/ps/2011/05/162967.n|n.
37. IRC 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
38. Chen Hegao and Qian Tong, Hu }inlao Allends, DeIiveis
Speech al SCO Sunnil in Dushanle, Tajikislan, J)/6+& in Lng-
Iish, Augusl 3O, 2OO8.
39. IRC 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr. The 2012 Dcfcnsc lni|c Pa-
A'% did nol discuss slialegic ieIalionships.
4O. Infoinalion avaiIalIe fion !!!",'HA%4"*403/'!-3,'-
|ai|s/38651/.
41. ShiiIey A. Kan, U.S.-China MiIilaiy Conlacls: Issues foi
Congiess, }une 19, 2O12, p. 26, avaiIalIe fion !!!"H&-"4%(3-(A3*%-3
na|scc/R|32496.pdf.
42. IRC 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
5O8
43. .B),.
44. .B),.
45. Dai Ieng and Ieng Cuoxiong, 2O12 Zhongshan Ioiun,
P|A Dai|q, }uIy 4, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion cng.ncd.gct.cn/Mi||arq|x-
cnangcs/2012-07/04/ccn|cn|_4382811.n|n.
46. 14 counliies pailicipale in Weslein Iacihc NavaI Syn-
posiun, >/$&%&/'!-"*40, }une 13, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion !!!"
an|arancus.ccn/cn/ncus/82814/14-ccun|rics-par|icipa|c-in-ucs|crn-
pacijc-nata|-sqnpcsiun.
47. IRC 2OO8 and 2O1O Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcrs.
48. Liu Liqun and Zhou Ieng, The Thiid 'Xiangshan Ioiun
heId in eijing, P|A Dai|q in LngIish, Oclolei 25, 2O12, avaiIalIe
fion cng.ncd.gct.cn/DcfcnscNcus/2010-10/25/ccn|cn|_4203316.n|n.
49. See Chinas Cioving RoIe in UN Ieacekeeping, Asia
Repoil No. 166, Nev Yoik: InleinalionaI Ciisis Cioup, ApiiI 17,
2OO9, foi a delaiIed hisloiy of Chinas ioIe since lhe 196Os.
5O. See !!!"+/"4%(3'/3A'&*'I''A)/(34A'%&$)4/-36)-$4%1"-6$02.
51. 2012 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
52. See uuu.un.crg/cn/pcacc|ccping/ccn|riou|crs/2012/ju|q12_1.
A,H. The olhei 15 counliies ahead of China veie (aIphalelicaIIy):
angIadesh (nosl lioops vilh 9,O98), iaziI, LI SaIvadoi, Llhiopia,
Chana, India, Indonesia, }oidan, NepaI, Nigeiia, IaIau, Rvanda,
SenegaI, Soulh Afiica, and Uiuguay.
53. IRC 2O1O and 2O12 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcrs.
54. The inslilules velsile, !!!"A'&*'4A-$%&)/)/("4%(3A4$)3, has
lals foi Chinese, LngIish, Spanish, Iiench, Russian, and Aialic.
55. Chinas Iailicipalion in UN Ieacekeeping Opeialions
(199O-2OO8), avaiIalIe fion uuu.cnina-un.crg/cng/z|/un/|534321.
6$0.
5O9
56. Chinese Ieacekeepeis in lhe Afiican WiIdeiness Can
Suif lhe Inleinel, Ieliuaiy 14 2OO3, avaiIalIe fion !!!"**$G"
ccn/ncus/c|ncr/20030214/100287.sn|n|, The Second Cioup of
Chinese Ieacekeepeis in lhe Sudan egin Tiaining in eijing,
}uIy 31, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion uuu.ncd.gct.cn/djxu/2012-07/31/
ccn|cn|_4388129.n|n.
57. Infoinalion on lhe luieaus peisonneI is lased on an in-
leiviev vilh U.S. Ainy Allache, Lieulenanl CoIoneI Chiis IuIlz,
vho seived in MongoIia fion 2O11 lo Iale-2O12 and had lhe op-
poilunily lo inleiacl vilh lhe ILA peacekeeping ofhceis.
58. Accoiding lo CoIoneI Iiank MiIIei (USA Reliied), lhe
liiefei duiing lhe visil noled lhe acadeny vas eslalIished in 1981
and iepoils lo lhe Minisliy of IulIic Secuiily.
59. China opens 1sl peacekeeping liaining cenlei, J)/-
6+&, }une 25, 2OO9, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&,&)21"*40"*/3*6)-
na/2009-06/25/ccn|cn|_8324367.n|n, Minisliy of NalionaI Defense
Ieacekeeping Cenlei Inauguialed in eijings Huaiiou Disliicl,
avaiIalIe fion fcrun.ncnc.ncus.cn/|nrcad/68174850/1.n|n|.
6O. See uuu1.c|zg.cn/xinucn/2007-07/30/ccn|cn|_829610_2.
n|n, gc.curgc.ccn/8os/sncu|cpic-15158.aspx and !!!"04,"(4G"*/3
djxu/2012-07/05/ccn|cn|_4382945.n|n.
61. See ncus.qq.ccn/a/20090222/007495.n|n.
62. See ncus.163.ccn/11/0729/15/7A51SU2600014]85.n|n|.
63. See ncus.sina.ccn.cn/c/2007-09-20/060712601700s.sn|n|.
64. See cnn.cninani|.ccn.cn/un/2011-12/12/ccn|cn|_4739
389.n|n.

65. IRC 2004 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
66. Cheng }inglin and Zhang Yao, Lake Kivu: Chinas Iue
HeInels ConpIele Theii 13lh Rolalion, P|A Pic|cria|, Issue 2,
}uIy 2O12, pp. 6O-61. The ailicIe slales lhal lhe 14lh gioup vas ie-
pIacing lhe 13lh gioup, and lhal, lased on an agieenenl vilh lhe
UN, each gioup ienained on slalion foi 8 nonlhs.
51O
67. >//+&2 C'A4%$ $4 @4/(%'--= ;)2)$&%1 &/, #'*+%)$1 ?'G'24A-
ncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina 2012, Ofhce of lhe
Secielaiy of Defense, p. 4.
68. The MOOTW conponenl of MNDs velsile is avaiIalIe
fion cng.ncd.gct.cn/Da|aoasc/MOOTl/indcx.n|n.
69. IRC 2008 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
7O. IRC 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
71. Mingjiang Li, Chinas CuIf of Aden Lxpedilion and Maii-
line Coopeialion in Lasl Asia, }aneslovn Ioundalions @6)/&
8ricf, VoI. 9, Issue 1, }anuaiy 12, 2OO9. The aulhoi is a Ih.D. Assis-
lanl Iiofessoi of lhe S. Rajaialnan SchooI of InleinalionaI Sludies
al Nanyang TechnoIogicaI Univeisily in Singapoie.
72. MichaeI McDevill, ILA NavaI Lxeicises vilh Inleina-
lionaI Iailneis, Roy Kanphausen, David Lai, and Tiavis Tannei,
eds., |carning oq Dcing. Tnc P|A Trains a| Hcnc and Aorcad, CaiI-
isIe, IA: Slialegic Sludies Inslilule, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, 2O12.
73. Andiev Liickson and Auslin Sliange, SeIhsh Supei-
povei No Longei` :&%G&%, >-)& O+&%$'%21, VoI XIV, Nos. 1&2,
Spiing/Sunnei 2O12, pp. 92-1O2.
74. ILA 2012 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*6)/&-
dai|q.ccn.cn/cnina/2012-07/31/ccn|cn|_15634801.n|n.
75. China lo send 12lh escoil eel lo SonaIi valeis, L24B-
&2 5)0'-, }une 28, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion !!!"(24B&2$)0'-"*/3*4/-
|cn|/717717.sn|n|, and Tvo Chinese navaI escoil laskfoices neel
in CuIf of Aden, Pccp|cs Dai|q, }uIy 26, 2O18, avaiIalIe fion '/(-
|isn.pccp|cdai|q.ccn.cn/90786/7888110.n|n|.
76. .B),., China lo send 12lh escoil eel lo SonaIi valeis,
L24B&2 5)0'-, }une 28, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion !!!"(24B&2$)0'-"*/3*4/-
|cn|/717717.sn|n|.
77. A good exanpIe of lhis lhinking is found in an ailicIe ly
Indian Navy ofhcei Caplain Anlony Ceoige, DepIoynenl of ILA
Navy Ships in lhe CuIf of Aden foi Counleiing Iiiacy: Ranihca-
511
lions foi India, VoI. 7O, Indian Navys 9&G&2 ?'-A&$*6, Seplenlei
2O1O, avaiIalIe fion uuu.irfc-nauscna.nic.in/Nata|_Dcspa|cn_2010.
A,H. Al lhe line he viole lhe ailicIe, Caplain Ceoige vas lhe Con-
nand Anlisulnaiine Waifaie (ASW) Ofhcei in lhe Laslein NavaI
Connand.
78. KanIesh Kunai Agniholii, MiIilaiy Opeialions Olhei
Than Wai: ILA Navys RoIe in IeacefuI DeveIopnenl of China,
./,)&/ ;)2)$&%1 C'G)'!, Novenlei 2O11, avaiIalIe fion 0&%)$)0')/-
dia.crg/ar|ic|c/ni|i|arq-cpcra|icns-c|ncr-uar-p|a-natqs-rc|c-pcaccfu|-
dctc|cpncn|-cnina. Al lhe line he viole lhe ailicIe in Iale-2O11,
Connandei Agnioholii vas a Reseaich IeIIov vilh lhe China
CeII of lhe NalionaI Maiiline Ioundalion in Nev DeIhi, India.
79. 11lh Chinese navaI escoil laskfoice aiiives in IsiaeI foi
visil, P|A Dai|q, Augusl 14, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion '/("04,"(4G"*/3
Mi||arq|xcnangcs/2012-08/14/ccn|cn|_4391961.n|n.
8O. Chinese fiigale legins hve-day goodviII visil lo Ro-
nania, J)/6+&, Augusl 2, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion '/("04,"(4G"*/3
Mi||arq|xcnangcs/2012-08/02/ccn|cn|_4388520.n|n, and Chinese
vaiship viaps up hisl visil lo uIgaiia, P|A Dai|q, Augusl 1O,
2O12, avaiIalIe fion cng.ncd.gct.cn/Mi||arq|xcnangcs/2012-08/10/
ccn|cn|_4391089.n|n.
81. Chinese navaI escoil lask foice connandei neels vilh
counleipail of US-AIIies Task Ioice 151, P|A Dai|q, Augusl 1O,
2O12, avaiIalIe fion cng.ncd.gct.cn/Mi||arq|xcnangcs/2012-08/10/
ccn|cn|_4391087.n|n. The Conlined Maiiline Ioices (CMI) es-
lalIished Conlined Task Ioice 151 (CTI-151) on }anuaiy 8, 2OO9,
specihcaIIy foi counleipiiacy opeialions. CTI 151 is piesenlIy
connanded ly lhe Thai navy. Il has pieviousIy leen connand-
ed ly lhe Dennaik navy, Koiean navy, Iakislan navy, Tuikish
navy and lhe U.S. Navy. The connand slaff is conpiised of pei-
sonneI fion a nunlei of coaIilion counliies and nanages daiIy
opeialions fion aloaid RIA F4%$ U)*$4%)&. Infoinalion avaiIalIe
fion uuu.natq.ni|/suoni|/disp|aq.asp?s|crq_id=41687 and !!!"
cusnc.natq.ni|/cnf/151/indcx.n|n|. Reai AdniiaI Zhou Xuning is
one of lhe depuly chiefs of slaff of lhe Lasl Sea IIeel.
82. Liickson and Sliange, p. 98.
512
83. .B),., p. 98.
84. Chinas Lilya evacualion highIighls IeopIe-Iiisl naluie
of goveinnenl, J)/6+&./'$, Maich 3, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion /'!-"
Xinnuanc|.ccn/cng|isn2010/indcp|n/2011-03/03/c_13759953.n|n.
85. LesIie Hook and Ceoff Dyei, Chinese oiI inleiesls al-
lacked in Lilya, F)/&/*)&2 5)0'-, Ieliuaiy 24, 2O11, avaiIalIe
fion uuu.f|.ccn/cns/s/0/ccf58d52-3fc2-11c0-811f-00144fcaodc0.n|n|
#axzz2AX|rDZn|.
86. Chinas Lilya evacualion highIighls IeopIe-Iiisl naluie
of goveinnenl.
87. Lilya uniesl lesls Chinas inleiesls in lhe MiddIe Lasl,
@6%)-$)&/ #*)'/*' ;4/)$4%, Maich 2, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion !!!"*--
ncni|cr.ccn/lcr|d/Asia-Pacijc/2011/0302/|ioqa-unrcs|-|cs|s-Cnina-
s-in|crcs|s-in-|nc-Midd|c-|as|.
88. Hu, Wen oidei 'aII-oul effoils lo secuie Iife of nalionaIs,
J)/6+&, Ieliuaiy 22, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion '/(2)-6"-)/&"*403*6)-
na/2011/0222/361035.n|n|. AddilionaI infoinalion is avaiIalIe fion
uuu.cninadai|q.ccn.cn/cnina/2011-03/02/ccn|cn|_12103843.n|n,
uuu.cninadai|q.ccn.cn/cnina/2011-03/05/ccn|cn|_12121535.n|n,
and cng|isn.pccp|cdai|q.ccn.cn/90001/90776/90883/7308966.n|n|.
89. China conlinues lo evacuale nalionaIs fion Lilya, avaiI-
alIe fion usa.cninadai|q.ccn.cn/cnina/2011-03/01/ccn|cn|_12099707.
6$0 and uuu.ni|i|arqpnc|cs.nc|/fcruns/sncu|nrcad.pnp?196307-Tc-
daq-s-Pnc|cs-Mcndaq-Apri|-4|n-2011.
9O. See uuu.ni|i|arqpnc|cs.nc|/fcruns/sncu|nrcad.pnp?196307-
Tcdaq-s-Pnc|cs-Mcndaq-Apri|-4|n-2011.
91. Cale CoIIins and Andiev Liickson, China dispalches
vaiship lo piolecl Lilya evacualion nission: Maiks lhe IRCs
hisl use of fionlIine niIilaiy assels lo piolecl an evacualion nis-
sion, @6)/&-)(/A4-$"*40, Ieliuaiy 24, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion !!!"
cninasignpcs|.ccn/2011/02/24/cnina-dispa|cncs-uarsnip-|c-prc|cc|-
|ioqa-ctacua|icn-nissicn-nar|s-|nc-prcs-firs|-usc-cf-frcn||inc-
ni|i|arq-assc|s-|c-prc|cc|-an-ctacua|icn-nissicn/.
513
92. Cai Ienghong, Lilya Rescue Mission and lhe Iiospecls
of US-China Coopeialion foi Non-liadilionaI Secuiily al Sea,
Maich 14, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion uuu.cninausfccus.ccn/pcacc-sccuri-
|q/|ioqa-rcscuc-nissicn-and-|nc-prcspcc|s-cf-us-cnina-cccpcra|icn-fcr-
ncn-|radi|icna|-sccuri|q-a|-sca/. Cai is Senioi IeIIov al lhe Inslilule
foi Asia Iacihc Sludies and Diiecloi of lhe AILC Reseaich Cen-
lei, Shanghai Acadeny of SociaI Sciences.
93. CoIIins and Liickson, China dispalches vaiship lo pio-
lecl Lilya evacualion nission.

94. ILA 2012 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
95. Cninas |n|crna|icna| Rcscuc Opcra|icns, InleinalionaI Con-
nunicalion uieau, Minisliy of NalionaI Defense liochuie hand-
ed oul al lhe IRC Lnlassy on lhe ILAs Anniveisaiy in }uIy 2O12.
UnfoilunaleIy, no infoinalion vas found lhal expIains vhal a
ceilihed inleinalionaI heavy iescue lean is, hovevei, one ailicIe
slales lhal CISAR vas lhe 2nd inleinalionaI heavy iescue lean
in Asia and lhe 12lh gioup in lhe voiId lo have secuied ofhciaI
appiovaI fion lhe Uniled Nalions. See !!!"*B)"(4G"*/3!)-'!4%I3
ccn|cn|/111834.n|n|.
96. Tong Shenghai, Chinas Lneigency MiIilaiy Iiocuie-
nenl, @6)/& >%0', F4%*'-, VoI. 5, No. 1, 2O1O, pp. 4O-45.
97. >//+&2 C'A4%$ $4 @4/(%'--= ;)2)$&%1 &/, #'*+%)$1 ?'G'24A-
ncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina 2010, Ofhce of lhe
Secielaiy of Defense.
98. 1991 May-}uIy, @6)/& >)% F4%*', Issue 4, 1991, p. 1,
Chinas IIighl Cievs in angIadesh, @6)/& >)% F4%*', Issue 5,
1991, p. 25.
99. Xu Ieng, Wang Shuo, Iu Ruogui, and Luo Liven, Lx-
lended Iovei: Iocus on lhe DeveIopnenl of lhe Chinese Aii
Ioices Aii Tianspoils, @6)/& >)% F4%*', }uIy 2O12, pp. 12-23.
1OO. Wang Shuo, He }ianlao, and Zhang Xuefeng, IIy lo Ka-
iachi, @6)/& >)% F4%*', Decenlei 2O12, p. 28-31, avaiIalIe fion
cnina-dcfcnsc.o|cgspc|.ccn/2011/10/cnina-air|if|s-|nird-oa|cn-cf-ccd.
6$02, and uuu.dcfcncc.p|/fcruns/ cnina-dcfcncc/130971-cnincsc-air-
fcrcc-i|-76-aircraf|s-pa|is|an-nunani|arian-aid.n|n|.
514
1O1. Wang Shuo '$ &2., @6)/& >)% F4%*', Decenlei 2O12,
pp. 28-31.
1O2. Xu Ieng '$ &2., @6)/& >)% F4%*', }uIy 2O12, pp. 18-19.
1O3. The AMR RegionaI Aii Ioice Diiecloiy 2O12, >-)&/
;)2)$&%1 C'G)'!, Ieliuaiy 2O12.
1O4. >//+&2 C'A4%$ $4 @4/(%'--= ;)2)$&%1 &/, #'*+%)$1 ?'G'24A-
ncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina 2003, Ofhce of lhe Sec-
ielaiy of Defense.
1O5. Infoinalion on lhe nunlei of possilIe fuluie IL-76s
avaiIalIe fion ccn.ui|ipcdia.crg/ui|i/Pccp|cs_|iocra|icn_Arnq_Air_
|crcc, vhich idenlihed ils souice as The AMR RegionaI Aii Ioice
Diiecloiy 2O12, >-)&/ ;)2)$&%1 C'G)'!, Ieliuaiy 2O12, II-76MD
Tianspoil IIane DeIiveied lo China, 56' ;4-*4! 5)0'-, }anuaiy
25, 2O13, avaiIalIe fion !!!"$6'04-*4!$)0'-"*403B+-)/'--3&%$)*2'3
i|-76nd-|ranspcr|-p|anc-dc|itcrcd-|c-cnina/474560.n|n|.
1O6. >//+&2 C'A4%$ $4 @4/(%'--= ;)2)$&%1 &/, #'*+%)$1 ?'G'24A-
ncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina 2011, Ofhce of lhe Sec-
ielaiy of Defense.
1O7. Cuan oIin, Zhou Cuolian, and ai Yun, On lhe Ieace-
fuI Use of Chinese Navy HospilaI Ships, Mcdica| ]curna| cf Cnincsc
Pccp|cs |iocra|icn Arnq, Iioceedings of InleinalionaI Congiess
on MiIilaiy Medicine, VoI. 36, 2O11-1, pp. 16-18, Wang Yueven,
Chen Wei, and }u Zhenhua, An IsIand HospilaIs Voyage, P|A
E)*$4%)&2, Issue 2, ApiiI 2O12, pp. 46-49. ackgiound on lhe 413lh
HospilaI avaiIalIe fion ncspi|a|.zg|u.cn/2282/dcfau||.aspx.
1O8. See uuu.cninadai|q.ccn.cn/s|idcs/2010-09/01/ccn|cn|_
11241842.n|n and ncus.xinnuanc|.ccn/cng|isn2010/cnina/2010-11
/27/c_13624288.n|n.
1O9. See cnina-dcfcnsc.o|cgspc|.ccn/2011/09/p|ans-ncspi|a|-snip
-|c-tisi|-|a|in.n|n| and cng.cninani|.ccn.cn/spccia|-rcpcr|s/2011-12
/30/ccn|cn|_4757252.n|n.
11O. IRC 2012 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
515
111. IRC 2OO2 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
112. IRC 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
113. IRC 2012 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
114. HoIz and AIIen, pp. 45O-451.
115. IRC 2O1O and 2O12 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcrs. Ioi a liief his-
loiy of lhe ILANs poil caIIs, see HoIz and AIIen, MiIilaiy Lx-
changes vilh Chinese Chaiacleiislic. WhiIe lhe nunlei of iegu-
Iai poil caIIs alioad has nol incieased appiecialIy since 2OO9, lhe
ILAN has laken advanlage of ils counleipiiacy lask foice depIoy-
nenls lo visil counliies in lhe iegion.
116. .B),.
117. Qiao Tianfu, China-ThaiIand NavaI Maiine Coips HoId
Conlined Tiaining, P|A Pic|cria|, Issue 2, }une 2O12, pp. 6-7,
Maiine foices of China, ThaiIand hoId joinl liaining, J)/6+&,
May 12, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion cnina-dcfcnsc.o|cgspc|.ccn/2012/05/
pnc|cs-cf-daq-cnina-|nai|and-jcin|.n|n|.
118. IRC 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
119. Russia, China HoId }oinl Wai Canes, Augusl
17, 2OO7, avaiIalIe fion arcnitc.ncusnax.ccn/arcnitcs/ar|i-
c|cs/2007/8/17/82646.sn|n|.
12O. Top Chinese Ieadei Hu }inlao neels SCO heads of
slale, }une 16, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion !!!",)A24/'!-"*403H'',-3
frcc/6_]unc_2012_294.pnp.
121. Rogei McDeinoll, China Shovcases Lxpedilionaiy
MiIilaiy Iovei in Ieace Mission 2O1O, Oclolei 12, 2O1O, avaiI-
alIe fion uuu.ucr|dsccuri|qnc|ucr|.ccn/Cnina-Russia-Asia/
McDcrnc||-Rcgcr/Cnina-Sncucascs-|xpcdi|icnarq-Mi|i|arq-Pcucr-
in-Pcacc-Missicn-2010.
122. IRC 2010 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr. Infoinalion on lhe 2O1O,
2O11, and 2O12 exeicises avaiIalIe fion !!!"-)/4,'H'/*'H4%+0"*403
s|ra|cgic-dcfcnsc/pcacc-nissicn-2010-a-5238.n|n|, G'-$/)II&GI&P&"/'$3
516
ncus/pc|i|ics/21987.n|n|, cng|isn.pccp|cdai|q.ccn.cn/90786/7838414.
6$02, and |ncrcarcncsung|asscs.ucrdprcss.ccn/2011/12/04/|uc-nun-
drcd-and-jrs|-ndr-in-|aji|is|an-run-fcr-ncu-nc|ncds-cf-c|inina|icn-
cf-ni|i|an|s-in-|nc-ncun|ains/.
123. IRC 2012 Dcfcnsc lni|c Papcr.
124. Infoinalion on lhe eIoiussia exeicise avaiIalIe fion
cng|isn.cri.cn/6909/2011/07/19/2821s649394.n|n, IRC 2012 Dcfcnsc
lni|c Papcr.
125. Zhao Qihong, }iang Long, and Wu Iengyu, Lxpedilion
of 'Leishan in Soulh Aneiican }ungIe, Cnina Air Trafjc Ccn|rc|,
Issue 2, Maich 2O12, pp. 94-1O1.
126. AIIen and KeIIy, Assessing lhe Cioving ILA Aii Ioice
Ioieign ReIalions Iiogian, @6)/& >)% F4%*', 2O1O-11, pp. 11-26,
see aIso |p.cninani|.ccn.cn/ncus/2010-10/16/ccn|cn|_4315067.n|n,
uuu.nurriqc|dai|qncus.ccn/n.pnp?n=cnincsc-uarp|ancs-rcfuc|cd-in-
iran-cnrcu|c-|c-|ur|cq-2010-10-11, cng.cninani|.ccn.cn/ncus-cnan-
nc|s/cnina-ni|i|arq-ncus/2011-03/06/ccn|cn|_4396357.n|n, and '/(-
|isn.cri.cn/6909/2011/07/19/2821s649394.n|n.
127. }oseph S. Nye, }i., Chinas Sofl Iovei Dehcil, Tnc la||
S|rcc| ]curna|, May 8, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion cn|inc.usj.ccn/ar|ic|c/S8
10001424052702304451104577389923098678842.n|n|.
128. Accoiding lo a seaich of Lasl Viev Iiesss P|A Dai|q eIec-
lionic dalalase, 561 ailicIes veie found using lhe lein sofl povei
(), 46 foi niIilaiy sofl povei (), and lhiee foi
nalionaI defense sofl povei (]|). Of lhese ailicIes, fevei
lhan 1O of lhe sofl povei ailicIes veie pulIished lefoie Hu }inlao
lecane lhe CMC chaiinan in 2OO4, and aII of lhe olhei calegoiies
veie pulIished aflei he look ofhce. Of nole, lhe 2O11 edilion of
Cninas Pccp|cs |iocra|icn Arnq Mi|i|arq Tcrninc|cgq (];[
j), pulIished ly lhe Acadeny of MiIilaiy Science Iiess,
does nol have an enliy foi any of lhe lhiee leins. The ieason foi
lhis nay le lhal lhe ILA has yel lo codify lhe lasis of ils lheoiy
of niIilaiy sofl povei.
129. Wang Xingsheng and Wu Zhizhong, Discussion on MiI-
ilaiy Sofl Iovei (), P|A Dai|q in Chinese, }une
7, 2OO7.
517
13O. Tian Xiang, Chen Yongqiang, and Ding }un, An AnaIy-
sis of ILAs Inage: uiIding fion lhe Ieispeclive of MiIilaiy Sofl
Iovei, @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*', No. 4, Issue No. 112, 2O1O, pp. 116-
124. The aulhois, vho iange fion hisl Iieulenanls lo najois, aie
giaduale sludenls afhIialed vilh lhe Nanjing Ainy Connand
Acadeny.
131. Xiao }ingnin, A TheoielicaI LxpIoialion inlo lhe Sofl
Iovei in Chinas NalionaI Defense, @6)/& ;)2)$&%1 #*)'/*', No. 3,
Issue No. 117, 2O11, pp. 131-138. The aulhoi is a speciaI lechnicaI
senioi coIoneI assigned as a ieseaichei lo lhe Acadeny of MiIilaiy
Sciences Wai Theoiy and Slialegy Reseaich Depailnenl.
132. See Dennis Iasko, CIaiily of Inlenlions: ILA Tians-
RegionaI Lxeicises lo Defend Chinas oideis, Roy Kanphau-
sen, David Lai, and Tiavis Tannei, eds., |carning oq Dcing. Tnc
P|A Trains a| Hcnc and Aorcad, foi fuilhei infoinalion on each of
lhese exeicises.
133. Iulin, Hu lo neel Aug. 16-17 duiing iegionaI anlileiioi-
isn diiII, C.> 94G4-$), Augusl 1O, 2OO7, avaiIalIe fion '/"%)&/"%+3
ucr|d/20070810/70829110.n|n|.
134. Xiao }ingnin, A TheoielicaI LxpIoialion inlo lhe Sofl
Iovei in Chinas NalionaI Defense, and The Minisliy of Na-
lionaI Defense (MND) viII Iaunch an ofhciaI liIinguaI velsile on
Aug 1, avaiIalIe fion cnina-dcfcnsc.o|cgspc|.ccn/2009/07/ninis|rq-
cf-na|icna|-dcfcnsc-nnd-ui||.n|n|. The IileiaI liansIalion foi lhe In-
foinalion Ofhce is lhe Nevs Seivice uieau, and il is jusl one of
seveiaI MND luieaus.
135. IRC Defense Minisliy Spokesnan Makes Delul al
Nevs iiehng on Lailhquake Rescue, J)/6+&, May 18, 2OO8.
136. See uuu.cninfc360.ccn/xuru/20110428/190902.n|n|. A ie-
viev of P|A Dai|q indicales lhal, since 2O1O, lhiee ofhceis have
seived as lhe MND spokesnan, incIuding Ceng Yansheng (]
]) and lvo depulies, De Like (j) and Yang Yujun
(|). ased on lhe unifoin Ceng is veaiing in his pholo, his
giade is lhal of a division Ieadei ("1), vhich neans lhal is
aIso lhe giade of lhe Infoinalion Ofhce. The Ioieign Affaiis Of-
hce is a coips Ieadei-giade (1) oiganizalion.
518
137. Infoinalion on lhe nonlhIy confeiences, vhich aie usu-
aIIy heId on lhe Iasl Thuisday of lhe nonlh, is lased on a ieviev
of lhe MND velsiles piess liiehngs lal, avaiIalIe fion '/("04,"
gct.cn/Prcss/indcx_3.n|n.
138. Cao }iquan, Minisliy of NalionaI Defense Ioieign Af-
faiis Ofhce Diiecloi Qian Lihua Inleivieved on MiIilaiy DipIo-
nacy.
139. Liang CuangIie, CeneiaI Liang CuangIie Discusses Chi-
nese MiIilaiy Ioieign DipIonacy Is In Slep Wilh lhe Tines, P|A
?&)21 in Chinese, Decenlei 23, 2OO8, avaiIalIe fion /'!-"J)/6+&-
nc|.ccn/ni|/2008-12/23/ccn|cn|_10547367_1.n|n.
14O. .B),.
141. Ioi infoinalion on lhe China-India holIine, hnaIIy eslal-
Iished in 2O1O, see IinaIIy, a holIine lelveen India and China,
NDTV, Novenlei 2, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion !!!"/,$G"*403&%$)*2'3
india/jna||q-a-nc||inc-oc|uccn-india-and-cnina-63893.
142. Ioi infoinalion on lhe China-}apan holIine, see }apan-
China 'holIine unIikeIy in '12, Ycniuri Sninoun, Oclolei 21, 2O12,
avaiIalIe fion uuu.qcniuri.cc.jp/dq/na|icna|/T121020001963.n|n.
143. ShiiIey A. Kan, U.S.-Cnina Mi|i|arq Ccn|ac|s. |ssucs
H4% @4/(%'--, Washinglon, DC: CongiessionaI Reseaich Sei-
vice, }une 19, 2O12, p. 27, avaiIalIe fion HA*"-$&$'"(4G3,4*+0'/$-3
crganiza|icn/194794.pdf. None of lhe IRCs liennia Dcfcnsc lni|c
E&A'%s have nenlioned lhe issue of a holIine.
144. The infoinalion conceining lhe ILAAIs foieign ieIa-
lions cones fion AIIen and KeIIy, Assessing lhe Cioving ILA
Aii Ioice Ioieign ReIalions Iiogian.
145. Ioi an exceIIenl hisloiy of U.S.-China niIilaiy ieIalions,
see Kan, U.S.-Cnina Mi|i|arq Ccn|ac|s.
146. .B),.
147. >//+&2 C'A4%$ $4 @4/(%'--= ;)2)$&%1 &/, #'*+%)$1 ?'G'24A-
ncn|s |ntc|ting |nc Pccp|cs Rcpuo|ic cf Cnina 2011, Ofhce of lhe Sec-
ielaiy of Defense.
519
148. Cninas P|A ;)2)$&%1 5'%0)/424(1 (];[j),
eijing, China: Acadeny of MiIilaiy Science Iiess, Decenlei
2O11, p. 1O64. The 1997 edilion did nol have an enliy foi lianspai-
ency, vhich indicales lhis is a key issue foi lhe ILA. In facl, lhe
2O11 issue has an enliieIy nev MiIilaiy DipIonacy seclion vilh
ovei 5O leins devoled lo lhe suljecl.
149. }iang Zenin Signs IionuIgalion of ILA Secuiily Reg-
uIalions, P|A Dai|q, Maich 27, 1996, P|A Sccuri|q Rcgu|a|icns,
avaiIalIe fion oai|c.oaidu.ccn/ticu/1091425.n|n, Secuiily Con-
nillee, in P|A ;)2)$&%1 5'%0)/424(1, Decenlei 2O11, p. 198. AI-
lhough lhis diclionaiy liansIales B&40) (]) as secuiily, olhei
diclionaiies liansIale il as seciel oi seciecy. See A Ncu |ng|isn-
Cnincsc Cnincsc-|ng|isn Dic|icnarq cf Mi|i|arq Tcrns, eijing, Chi-
na: NalionaI Defense Indusliy Iiess, Oclolei 1999, p. 254. WhiIe
B&40) secuiily coveis cIassihed naleiiaI and ils liansnission fion
one poinl lo anolhei, B&4!') (]) secuiily coveis peisonaI and
faciIilies secuiily.
15O. AilicIe Wains of InleIIigence Thefl, P|A Dai|q,
May 14, 1998.
151. P|A Sccuri|q Rcgu|a|icns (];[j]]),
Maich 13, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion uuu1.dg.gct.cn/ousincss/n|n|j|cs/
dgonj/s10899/201203/479322.n|n.
152. Cao }iquan, Minisliy of NalionaI Defense Ioieign Af-
faiis Ofhce Diiecloi Qian Lihua Inleivieved on MiIilaiy DipIo-
nacy, P|A Dai|q onIine, Seplenlei 25 2O12, avaiIalIe fion 0)2)-
|arq.cnina.ccn.cn/2012-09/25/ccn|cn|_26623447.n|n.
153. Qin Zhongvei, ook seiies seeks lo uniaveI lhe ILAs
nysleiies, @6)/& ?&)21, Seplenlei 1, 2O12, in LngIish, avaiIalIe
fion uuu.cninadai|q.ccn.cn/cndq/2012-09/01/ccn|cn|_15725851.
6$0, and Yan Meng, Iiisl seiies of looks on Chinese Ainy of-
hciaIIy unveiIed, Pccp|cs Dai|q onIine, Seplenlei 1, 2O12, in
LngIish avaiIalIe fion cng|isn.pccp|cdai|q.ccn.cn/90786/7932564.
6$02. A Chinese veision of lhe infoinalion avaiIalIe fion uar.163.
ccn/12/0902/14/8ADDGPH000011MTO.n|n|.
154. The LngIish lal foi lhe velsile avaiIalIe fion !!!"
cdsndu.crg/indcx_cn.n|n.
52O
155. AIlhough lhe ILA ieinsliluled a iank syslen in 1988 aflei
having aloIished il in 1966, aInosl eveiy giade has lvo assigned
ianks, and each iank can have up lo foui giades. As a iesuIl, lvo
najoi geneiaIs vho neel each olhei foi lhe hisl line sliII have
lo ask each olhei vhal lheii giade is so lhal lhey can hguie oul
vheie lhey sland in lhe pecking oidei.
$HH/751Y MMR$
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TalIe 11-A piovides a Iisl of lhe counliies vilh
vhon China has eslalIished slialegic pailneiships
(|), diaIogues (), and consuIlalions ({]),
as veII as vhich senioi IeopIes RepulIic of China
(IRC) and IeopIes Lileialion Ainy (ILA) Ieadeis al-
lended lhe neelings. Sone infoinalion foi vhen lhe
ieIalionships veie eslalIished and vho allended vas
nol found. AIlhough lhe piesidenl allended lhe hisl
neeling lo eslalIish lhe ieIalionship, lhe foIIoving
neelings veie allended ly lhe pieniei, foieign nin-
islei (IM), one of lhe vice foieign ninisleis (VIM), lhe
chief of lhe geneiaI slaff (COCS), one of lhe depuly
chiefs of lhe geneiaI slaff (DCOCS), vho is usuaIIy lhe
depuly vilh lhe foieign affaiis poilfoIio, oi a nenlei
of lhe China Inslilule foi InleinalionaI Slialegic Slud-
ies (CIISS). Of nole, lhe defense ninislei has appai-
enlIy nol iepiesenled China in any of lhen.
319$60I 4(#0 !(0-1$ 4(#0 !(0-1$ 4(#0 !(0-1$
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Forum
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Algeria 2OO4 Fresident
Argentina 2OO4 Fresident
ASEAh 2OO8
Australia 2OO8 Fresident 2OO7 FM 2OO8
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Belarus 2OO7 Fresident
Bra/il 1OO8 Fresident 2OOO vFM
521
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Chile Fresident
0enmark 2OO4 Fremier
Egyt 1OOO Fresident 2OO8 FM
Euroean bnion 2OO7 Fresident 2OO5 FM/
vFM

Finland 2OO8 Fresident
France 2OO4 Fresident 1OO7
Cermany 2OO5 Fresident 2OOG vFM 2OO4
2OO7
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ndia 2OO5 Fremier 2OO7 vFM 2OO7
2OO8
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ndonesia 2OO5 Fresident
srael 2OO7 CSS
taly 2OO4 Fresident
Jaan 2OOO Fresident 2OO5 vFM 2OO8 0C0CS
Jordan 2OO7
Ka/akhstan 2OO5 Fresident
Laos 2OOO Fresident
Malaysia 2OOO Fresident
Mexico 2OO8 Fresident 2OO8 2OO4
Mongolia 2OO8 AC0CS
hew Zealand 2OO7 0C0CS
higeria 2OO4 Fresident 2OO8
Fakistan 2OO5 Fresident 2OOO vFM 2OO8
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523
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Russia 1OOG Fresident 2OO8 C0CS
(Feace
Mission
Exercise)
Saudi Arabia 2OOO Fresident
SC0 2OO8 C0CS
Senegal 2OOG Fresident
Serbia 2OOO Fresident
Singaore 2OO8 0C0CS
South Arica 2OO4 Fresident 2OO8 vFM
South Korea 2OO8 Fresident 2OO8 vFM
Sain 2OO5 Fresident
Syria 2OOO FM
bnited Kingdom 2OO7 Fremier 2OO5 vFM 2OO8
2OO4
bnited States 2OO5 vFM
vene/uela 2OO1 Fresident
vietnam 2OO8 Fresident 2OOO 0C0CS
".W=/ MMR$8 (I17.B6 !,-.,/012 >.-,7/-6I1H6X *1.=<04/6X
.75 (<764=,.,1<768
525
$C@)" "?% (@+"#'C)"@#!
KLNNLTH ALLLN is a Senioi China AnaIysl vilh
Defense Cioup Inc. (DCI), vheie he focuses on Chi-
nas niIilaiy oiganizalionaI sliucluie, peisonneI, edu-
calion, liaining, and foieign ieIalions vilh pailicuIai
enphasis on lhe ILA Aii Ioice. Duiing 21 yeais in
lhe U.S. Aii Ioice (1971-92), he seived as an enIisled
Chinese and Russian Iinguisl and inleIIigence ofhcei
vilh louis in Taivan, eiIin, Ceinany, }apan, Iacihc
Connand Aii Ioice Headquaileis, China, and Wash-
inglon, DC. Iion 1987-89, he seived as an Assislanl
Aii Allache in lhe U.S. Lnlassy in eijing. He vas
inducled inlo lhe Defense InleIIigence Agencys (DIA)
Defense Allache HaII of Iane in 1997. Mi. AIIen hoIds
.A.s fion lhe Univeisily of CaIifoinia al Davis and
lhe Univeisily of MaiyIand and an M.A. in inleina-
lionaI ieIalions fion oslon Univeisily.
WANDA AYUSO is an anaIysl in lhe Asia Iacihc
AnaIysis division al lhe DIA. Wanda joined DIA as
a DoD civiIian in 2OO6. Hei piinaiy expeilise is on
Chinese niIilaiy opeialions, specihcaIIy slialegic nis-
siIes and joinl liaining. Iiioi lo joining DIA, she vas
a conliacloi foi CACI voiking China niIilaiy issues
and aIso seived as an inleIIigence ofhcei in lhe U.S.
Aii Ioice and Aii Ioice Reseive. She has leen no-
liIized in suppoil of Opeialions LNDURINC IRLL-
DOM and IRAQI IRLLDOM. Ms. Ayuso is a giaduale
of lhe }oinl and Conlined Waihghling SchooI and
Aii Connand Slaff CoIIege. She hoIds a .A. in lusi-
ness nanagenenl fion lhe Univeisily of Iueilo Rico
and a M.S. in slialegic inleIIigence fion lhe NalionaI
Defense InleIIigence CoIIege.
526
DLNNIS }. LASKO, a U.S. Ainy (Reliied) Lieulen-
anl CoIoneI, seived 23 yeais as a MiIilaiy InleIIigence
Ofhcei and Ioieign Aiea Ofhcei speciaIizing in Chi-
na. He vas an ainy allache in eijing fion 1992-95
and in Hong Kong fion 1995-96. He aIso seived in
infanliy unils in Ceinany, IlaIy, and Koiea and in
Washinglon al lhe DIA, Headquaileis, Depailnenl of
lhe Ainy (Ofhce of SpeciaI Opeialions), and lhe Na-
lionaI Defense Univeisily Wai Caning and SinuIa-
lion Cenlei. Mi. Iasko has viillen nuneious ailicIes
and chapleis on lhe Chinese niIilaiy and defense
indusliies and is lhe aulhoi of lhe look, 56' @6)/'-'
Arnq Tcdaq. Tradi|icn and Transfcrna|icn fcr |nc 21s|
@'/$+%1, 2nd Ld. (RoulIedge, 2O12). Mi. Iasko is a
giaduale of lhe U.S. MiIilaiy Acadeny and lhe NavaI
Ioslgiaduale SchooI.
MICHALL S. CHASL is an Associale Iiofessoi in
lhe Waifaie AnaIysis and Reseaich Depailnenl al
lhe U.S. NavaI Wai CoIIege in Nevpoil, RI. He aIso
diiecls lhe Wai CoIIeges Mahan Reseaich Cioup, fo-
cusing on slialegic deleiience issues. His nain aieas
of ieseaich incIude Chinese nucIeai poIicy, slialegy,
foice nodeinizalion, U.S.-China ieIalions, Taivans
defense poIicy, and Asia Iacihc secuiily issues. Iio-
fessoi Chase pieviousIy seived as a facuIly nenlei
in lhe Wai CoIIeges Slialegy and IoIicy Depailnenl,
a ieseaich anaIysl al Defense Cioup Inc., and an asso-
ciale inleinalionaI poIicy anaIysl al RAND. Iiofessoi
Chase hoIds a .A. in poIilics fion iandeis Univei-
sily, an M.A. in China Sludies and a Ih.D. in inlei-
nalionaI ieIalions fion lhe }ohns Hopkins Univeisily
SchooI of Advanced InleinalionaI Sludies (SAIS).
527
NLIL }. DIAMANT has leen a piofessoi al Dickinson
CoIIege, CaiIisIe, IA, since 2OO2. He has aIso laughl
al TeI Aviv Univeisily, IsiaeI, and lhe Univeisily of
Iillsluigh, Iillsluigh, IA. Di. Diananl has ieceived
ieseaich and leaching gianls fion IuIliighl, lhe Luce
Ioundalion, lhe Iieenan Ioundalion, lhe Hovaid
Ioundalion, and lhe Chiang Ching Kuo Ioundalion.
He is cuiienlIy sludying veleian poIilics in lhe 21sl
cenluiy as veII as Chinese ConslilulionaIisn in lhe
Mao eia. Di. Diananl is lhe aulhoi of C'G42+$)4/)P)/(
|nc |ani|q. Pc|i|ics, |ctc, and Ditcrcc in Uroan and Ru-
ra| Cnina, 1949-1968 (2OOO) and D0B&$$2', L24%1= U'$-
crans, Mi|i|arq |ani|ics and |nc Pc|i|ics cf Pa|ric|isn in
Cnina, 1949-2007 (2OO9). He has co-ediled, vilh Kevin
}. Oiien and SlanIey Lulnan, |ngaging |nc |au in
Cnina. S|a|c, Sccic|q and Pcssioi|i|ics fcr ]us|icc (2OO5).
His ailicIes have appeaied in 56' @6)/& O+&%$'%21, 56'
]curna| cf |as| Asian S|udics, E42)$)*- &/, #4*)'$1, ;4,'%/
>-)&/ #$+,)'-, lhe |au and Sccic|q Rcticu and lhe ]cur-
na| cf Ccnic| Rcsc|u|icn, anong olheis. Di. Diananl
hoIds a Ih.D. in poIilicaI science fion lhe Univeisily
of CaIifoinia, eikeIey.
DANILL M. HARTNLTT is a Reseaich Scienlisl in
CNAs China Sludies Division. Iiioi lo joining CNA,
he vas lhe Senioi IoIicy AnaIysl foi MiIilaiy and
Secuiily Affaiis al lhe congiessionaIIy nandaled
U.S.-China Lcononic and Secuiily Reviev Connis-
sion. Mi. Hailnell legan his caieei as a Russian and
Seilo-Cioalian Iinguisl in lhe U.S. Ainy, vheie he
enpIoyed his Ianguage skiIIs duiing lhe civiI vai in
osnia. He aIso voiked in lhe Depailnenl of Lneigys
NalionaI NucIeai Secuiily Adninislialion, vheie he
assisled lhe depailnenl in nucIeai nonpioIifeialion
negolialions vilh eijing. An acconpIished Iinguisl,
528
he has allended seveiaI Ianguage schooIs incIuding
lhe Defense Language Inslilule in Monleiey, CA, lhe
Spiachen und DoInelschei Inslilule in Munich, Cei-
nany, and lhe eijing Language and CuIluie Uni-
veisily. His ieseaich inleiesls incIude Chinas secu-
iily and niIilaiy affaiis. Mi. ainell hoIds an M.A. in
Asian sludies fion lhe LIIioll SchooI of InleinalionaI
Affaiis al lhe Ceoige Washinglon Univeisily and a
.A. in Chinese fion lhe Univeisily of Massachusells
al Anheisl. He is cuiienlIy puisuing a Ih.D. in poIili-
caI science al Ceoige Mason Univeisily.
TIMOTHY R. HLATH is Senioi AnaIysl foi lhe U.S.
Iacihc Connand China Slialegic Iocus Cioup. He
has ovei 12 yeais expeiience as a China speciaIisl in
lhe U.S. Coveinnenl. He has pulIished seveiaI aca-
denic ailicIes on lopics ieIaled lo Chinese slialegy,
niIilaiy, and Ieadeiship. Mi. Healh eained his M.A.
in Asian sludies fion Ceoige Washinglon Univeisily.
LONNIL HLNLLY is lhe Senioi Defense InleIIigence
AnaIysl foi China al DIA and a nenlei of lhe De-
fense InleIIigence Senioi LeveI execulive seivice. He
has leen a China speciaIisl since his undeigiaduale
sludies in lhe nid-197Os, incIuding 22 yeais as a U.S.
Ainy niIilaiy inleIIigence and foieign aiea ofhcei
and lhe pasl 12 yeais as a civiIian. His posl-Ainy po-
silions incIude Defense InleIIigence Ofhcei foi Lasl
Asia, Senioi Defense InleIIigence Lxpeil foi Slialegic
Waining, senioi anaIysl al CLNTRA TechnoIogy, Inc.,
Depuly NalionaI InleIIigence Ofhcei foi Lasl Asia
(ODNI Senioi NalionaI InleIIigence Seivice), and his
cuiienl posilion since 2OO8. Mi. HenIey hoIds a lach-
eIois degiee in engineeiing and Chinese fion lhe U.S.
MiIilaiy Acadeny, Wesl Ioinl, and nasleis degiees
529
in Chinese Ianguage fion Oxfoid Univeisily, vheie
he vas a Rhodes SchoIai, in nodein Chinese hisloiy
fion CoIunlia Univeisily, and in slialegic inleIIi-
gence fion lhe NalionaI Defense InleIIigence CoIIege.
ROY KAMIHAUSLN is a ieliied U.S. Ainy Chi-
na Ioieign Aiea ofhcei, Senioi Advisoi foi IoIili-
caI and Secuiily Affaiis al The NalionaI uieau of
Asian Reseaich, and an adjuncl associale piofessoi
al CoIunlia Univeisilys SchooI of InleinalionaI and
IulIic Affaiis.
DAVID LAI is a Reseaich Iiofessoi of Asian Secuiily
Affaiis al lhe Slialegic Sludies Inslilule (SSI) of lhe
U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege. efoie joining SSI, Di. Lai
vas on lhe facuIly of lhe U.S. Aii Wai CoIIege. Having
giovn up in China, Lai vilnessed Chinas CuIluiaI
RevoIulion, ils econonic iefoin, and changes in Chi-
nas foieign ieIalions (lhe nosl inpoilanl of vhich is
U.S.-China ieIalions) ovei lhe yeais. Di. Lais nosl ie-
cenl pulIicalion is Asia Pacijc. A S|ra|cgic Asscssncn|
(2O13). Di. Lai hoIds a lacheIois degiee fion China,
and a nasleis degiee and Ih.D. in poIilicaI science
fion lhe Univeisily of CoIoiado.
NAN LI is an associale piofessoi al lhe China Maii-
line Sludies Inslilule of lhe U.S. NavaI Wai CoIIege.
He has pulIished exlensiveIy on Chinese secuiily and
niIilaiy poIicy. Mi. Nans viilings have appeaied in
#'*+%)$1 #$+,)'-, @6)/& O+&%$'%21, Cnina ]curna|, >%0',
F4%*'- S #4*)'$1, .--+'- &/, #$+,)'-, and nany olheis.
He has conliiluled lo ediled voIunes fion RAND
Coipoialion, CIaiendon Iiess, NalionaI Defense Uni-
veisily Iiess, and M. L. Shaipe. He has aIso pulIished
a nonogiaph vilh lhe U.S. Inslilule of Ieace. He is lhe
53O
ediloi of Cnincsc Citi|-Mi|i|arq Rc|a|icns. Tnc Transfcr-
na|icn cf |nc Pccp|cs |iocra|icn Arnq (RoulIedge, 2OO6).
}OL McRLYNOLDS is a ieseaichei al Defense Cioup
Inc.s Cenlei foi InleIIigence Reseaich and AnaIysis.
His ieseaich inleiesls piinaiiIy cenlei on Chinas
cylei vaifaie capaliIilies and defense science and
lechnoIogy deveIopnenl. He has pieviousIy voiked
vilh lhe CounciI on Ioieign ReIalions and lhe Iacihc
CounciI foi InleinalionaI IoIicy. Mi. McReynoIds is a
giaduale of Ceoigelovn Univeisilys SchooI of Ioi-
eign Seivice and Ciaduale Secuiily Sludies piogians.
}AMLS MULVLNON is Vice-Iiesidenl of Defense
Cioup, Inc.s (DCI) InleIIigence Division and Diiecloi
of DCIs Cenlei foi InleIIigence Reseaich and AnaIy-
sis. Al CIRA, Di. MuIvenon iuns leans of neaiIy 2O
secuiily-cIeaied Chinese, Russian, Aialic, Iashlo,
Uidu, and Daii/Iaisi Iinguisl-anaIysls peifoining
open-souice ieseaich foi lhe U.S. Coveinnenl. A
speciaIisl on lhe Chinese niIilaiy and cylei vaifaie,
Di. MuIvenons ieseaich focuses on Chinese con-
nand, conlioI, connunicalions, conpuleis, inleIIi-
gence, and ieconnaissance, defense ieseaich, deveI-
opnenl, and acquisilion oiganizalions and poIicy,
slialegic veapons piogians (conpulei nelvoik op-
eialions and nucIeai vaifaie), ciyplogiaphy, and lhe
niIilaiy and civiIian inpIicalions of lhe infoinalion
ievoIulion in China.
TRAVIS TANNLR is a Senioi Iiojecl Diiecloi and
Diiecloi of lhe IyIe Cenlei foi Noilheasl Asian Slud-
ies al The NalionaI uieau of Asian Reseaich. Iiioi lo
joining NR, he vas Depuly Diiecloi and Assislanl
Diiecloi of lhe Chinese Sludies Iiogian al The Nixon
531
Cenlei. He aIso voiked as a ieseaich assislanl al lhe
Inslilule foi InleinalionaI Lcononics in Washing-
lon, DC. Mi. Tanneis inleiesls and expeilise incIude
Noilheasl Asian iegionaI secuiily, Chinas econony
and foieign affaiis, and Taivan poIilics. Mi. Tannei
hoIds a .A. fion lhe Univeisily of Ulah in Chinese
Ianguage and Iileialuie and an M.A. in inleinalionaI
ieIalions fion lolh lhe }ohns Hopkins SchooI of Ad-
vanced InleinalionaI Sludies (SAIS) and lhe Hopkins-
Nanjing Cenlei in Nanjing, China.
CHRISTOIHLR I. TWOMLY is a lenuied Associ-
ale Iiofessoi of NalionaI Secuiily Affaiis al lhe Na-
vaI Ioslgiaduale SchooI in Monleiey, CA. In 2OO4,
he joined lhe NIS facuIly, Ialei seiving as Associ-
ale Chaii foi Reseaich and as Diiecloi of lhe Cenlei
foi Conlenpoiaiy Conicl fion 2OO7-O9. Today, he
voiks cIoseIy vilh lhe Depailnenls of Defense and
Slale on a iange of dipIonalic engagenenls acioss
Asia and ieguIaiIy advises Iacihc Connand, Sliale-
gic Connand, and lhe Ofhce of Nel Assessnenl. He
has pieviousIy laughl oi ieseaiched al Haivaid Uni-
veisily, oslon CoIIege, RAND, lhe Chinese Acadeny
of SociaI Sciences, and lhe Univeisily of CaIifoinia
Inslilule on CIolaI Conicl and Coopeialion, and
has leen ieseaichei foi lhe NalionaI uieau of Asian
Reseaich in vaiious capacilies conlinuaIIy since 2O1O.
Di. Tvoneys look, Tnc Mi|i|arq |cns. Dcc|rina| Diffcr-
cnccs and Dc|crrcncc |ai|urc in Sinc-Ancrican Rc|a|icns
(CoineII Univeisily Iiess, 2O1O), expIains hov diffei-
ing niIilaiy docliines conpIicale dipIonalic signaI-
ing, inleipielalions of lhose signaIs, and assessnenls
of lhe laIance of povei. He ediled Pcrspcc|itcs cn Sinc-
>0'%)*&/ #$%&$'()* 9+*2'&% .--+'- (2OO8), and his voik
has appeaied in jouinaIs such as #'*+%)$1 #$+,)'-, ]cur-
532
/&2 4H @4/$'0A4%&%1 @6)/&, >-)&/ #+%G'1, 94/A%42)H'%&-
$)4/ C'G)'!, @4/$'0A4%&%1 #'*+%)$1 E42)*1, >-)& E42)*1,
@+%%'/$ :)-$4%1, and >%0- @4/$%42 54,&1, in addilion
lo a dozen ediled voIunes. Di. Tvoney hoIds a Ih.D.
fion MIT in poIilicaI science.
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