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Rotational Motion ! Rotational equivalent of force = Torque = " Fr sin ! ; r = distance between axis and force !

Rotational equivalent of mass = Moment of inertia = I. TorqueNET = I x angular acceleration! ! - I is always a multiple of mr2 ! ! - Inertia is greater the further the mass is from the axis of rotation.! KE of a rotating body = " KE =

1 2 I! ! 2

1 2 1 2 I! + mvcm ! 2 2 Rotational equivalent of momentum = angular momentum =" L = I! ! !! Angular acceleration = " ! !t
Total KE of a body with translational + rotational movement = " KE = Angular velocity has right hand rule - Closed st, ngers point in direction of rotation, thumb towards direction of angular velocity vector! Dynamics! Friction = f = N; N = normal force! Energy/Work/Power! Us =

1 2 kx ; k = spring constant, x = displacement! 2

Circular motion - minimum speed occurs when tension is zero at the top of the loop! Gravity ! G = constant (6.67 x 10-11)! Force acting on two planets (equal and opposite) separated by distance r: " Fg = G Gravity (when an object moves in a manner that changes g) =" g = G of planet, M = mass of planet!

mM ! r2

M ; r = distance from center r2

Velocity of orbiting satellites = " vorbit = KE = "

GM ! r

1 Fc R ! 2

Elliptical orbit - " T 2 ! r 3 , where T = period of orbit, r = radius in orbit about sun ! ! - i.e. T2 / r3 = constant!

! ! ! !

Keplers Laws:! 1) Planets orbit the sun along an elliptical path where the sun is one of two foci.! 2) The orbiting body moves faster when it is nearer the central body! 3) " T 2 ! r 3 ! Electric elds ! Like charges repel like charges! Field lines point away positive charges, towards negative charges.! Direction is same as direction of force acting on positive charge.! Charge always resides on the surface of a conductor! If a charge is placed into a uniform electric eld, it will experience a force FE (the same way a mass in a gravitational eld experiences mg). ! Field exerted by plane charge = kq!

Fe = qE (positive charge = force in direction of eld E, negative charge = force is opposite eld)!

! ! ! ! !

Point charges - Charges where electric eld is calculated as though it originates from a single point (i.e. electrons, protons, ions). ! ! - Field radiates outwards.! ! - When two charges are brought near each other, they interact ! Magnitude of a electric eld E = " k

q ; k = electrostatic constant 9 x r2

109 Nm2C-2, r is distance from center of charge.! Superposition - Net force = vector sum of forces acting on a particle! Coulombs law (resulting force acting on both charges) = FE = k where r = distance between to charges! Work done to move charge = Fqd = qED.! -When the charge moves a distance r parallel to the electric eld lines, the work done is qEr.! - When the charge moves a distance r perpendicular to the electric eld lines, no work is done.! - When the charge moves a distance r at an angle to the electric eld lines, the work done is qEr cos#.! Conservation of charge - Total charge is always constant. When two spheres touch, their excess charges are neutralised (if same size, each sphere gets total charge/2)!

q1q2 ; r2

Potential energy = " U =

! kq1q2 ! r

Electric Potential ! Magnitude of electric potential at a location in a uniform electric eld =; d is distance from location where is potential is zero. Field point high to low.!

! V = Ed! !
"V = k

Potential of point charges - oriented pointing away from positive charges, has a maximum value at surface of charge, becomes weaker with inverse square of distance rom centre. !

q ; when several point charges surround a pont, the total potential is the sum of the r individual potentials i.e. " VT = V1 + V2 . + ... !

! Potential energy = " U = qV =qEd! ! Moving charges - !V = V " V , V = nal voltage, V = initial voltage! ! Work of Electricity: " W = !K = !U = " q!V ! !
E f i

Conservation of Energy: "

1 2 mvmax = q!V ! 2

Charged plates - Can store excess charge and energy. Capacitance, C, (measured in farads (F)) = ability to store charge. ! C="

Q for any capacitor! !V ! A C = 0 for a parallel plate capacitor. d = distance between two plates, e0 = constant (permittivity d

of free space = 8.85 x 10-12 C2M2N-1), A = area of plates!

! Charge stored in a capacitor = Q = CV. ! !


Energy stored in a capacitor = " UC = negative to positive)!

1 1 QV = CV 2 (energy is required to move charge from 2 2

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

1 1 1 = + (series) Capacitance in a circuit = " Ct C1 C2 ! Ct = C1 + C2 (parallel)


Electricity! Joules Law - Heat (Q) dissipated in a circuit = I2Rt! Brightness of a Lightbulb = PT= I2R (Brightness = Power)! Parallel Resistors receive the same voltage! Magnetic Fields! Fields go from North to south pole. = out of page, x= into page (z axis)! Direction of eld in current carry wire - Right hand rule (point right thumb in direction of current)! Magnitude of magnetic eld (T)= B =

0 I , u0 = constant 4# x 10-7; current = I; distance from 2! r

center of wire to point where eld is measured = r! ! - Strength of eld is proportional to strength of current! ! - Weaker the further it is from the wire! Magnetic force on moving charge (like electrons) = " FB = qVB sin ! ; magnetic eld = B, theta is angle between velocity and eld vector. (When perpendicular, sin theta = 1)!

mv 2 Charges move at a constant speed in uniform circular motion, " = qvB .! r


Charge moving in magnetic eld- ! Right hand rule - Flat palm, thumb = v, ngers = B, Direction palm pushes = FB! Left hand = negative charges! Force acting on current-carrying wires = " FB = ILB sin ! ; L = length of wire inside eld, $ = angle between current and eld! Electromagnetic induction - Generating electricity. Moving magnet induces current to ow through wire. Occurs when amount of eld magnetic ux changes. !

! Flux = " ! = BA , A = area of space that eld passes through.! !

Two parallel wires with the current in the same direction will attract each other.!

Faraday deduced that a changing ux generates an emf. " ! = !

!" *-1= BLv = IR! t

- (Strength can be increased by moving faster, longer bar, stronger eld)!

SHM! Restoring force Fs on a spring = kx! ! - In equilibrium, mg=kx! For a spring mass system, the period = " TS = 2! For a pendulum, period = " TP = 2!

m (only depends on mass and spring constant)! k

! ! "f !

L L = length of string (mass has no effect, only length)! g

Waves! Beats - Superposition of waves that dont have the same frequency doesn't give a sinusoidal pattern. Destructive portions cause a decrease in amplitude at a regular rate, called beats!
beat

= f1 ! f2 !
Constant speed Constant frequency Depends on medium, sound travels faster in dense mediums, light travels slower in dense mediums

Wave travelling in one medium Changing mediums Speed of sound/light

Intensity is inversely proportional to distance!

Geometric Optics! Less Dense medium- Dense - $1 > $2! Dense medium- Less Dense - $2 > $1!

! Dense = high value for n, small angle of refraction = high n !


Pinhole camera - Reection ! Magnication of image = M =

hi d = ! i ; ho = object height, hi = object height do = object ho do

distance from pinhole, di = image distance from pinhole (small, inverted images formed with negative height)!

! Convex lens - formed by the intersection of two spheres. f, focal length = radius R/2! ! !

Converging lenses (i.e. convex lens) bring light together. Where light intersects = where the image is focused. ! ! - Light parallel to the optical axis (radius of circle) converges on far focal point. ! ! - Light that passes through the center of the lens moves in a straight line.!

! Magnication formula also applies.! !

1 1 1 = + , focal length of lens = f, object distance to lens = do, image distance from lens = di! f dO di

If object is ! ! - outside the focus, f, the image is inverted and real.!

! !

! Diverging Lenses spread light out, always forms a small upright virtual image. ! ! ! ! !

- inside f, the image is upright and virtual. ! - at f, no image is formed.!

Spherical Mirrors - Section of a sphere with a reective surface (inside of sphere for concave, outside for convex)! Converging mirrors are concave, diverging mirrors are convex. ! Mirrors form real images on the near side, virtual images on the far side. (Real on far side, virtual on near side for lenses)%

Physical Optics! Diffraction - Shadow region is area where there are no wave fronts.! Double Slit Experiment! Distance between central maximum and maximum bend investigated = xm, spacing between slits = d, m = number of maximum investigated! " xm =

! Color - Object of a certain color is reecting that color, absorbing all other colours. ! ! !

m! L ;" d = m! sin " ! d

Dispersion - Wavelengths of light from the sun can be separated via dispersion. ! Seen using prism. Each color has a slightly different wavelength + angle of refraction, so it bends at a slightly different angle. Short wavelengths have highest index of refraction, bend the most.! Thermal! An object being heated/cooled expands/contract! " !L = ! L0 !T ! & = coefcient of linear expansion! L0 = original length!

! Rectangular area - use twice, once with widht, once with height.! !
Rate of heat transfer - "

Q kA!T = ! !t L

Heat Engine - Converts thermal energy to other forms. Operate between a hot temperature TH and a low temperature TC, heat QH is added to the engine, heat Qc is removed from the engine at low temp. !

! W=Q -Q !
H

C!

QH = input, W = useful work, Theoretical maximum is when W = QH- QC! (TEMP IN KELVIN)!

! ! !

Atomic/Quantum Phenomena! Energy of a photon = " E =

hc = hf ! !

Absorption - Photon energy + Initial electron Energy = New Energy Level, drawn as upward arrow. ! Emission = Light given off by an atom when electrons drop to lover energy levels = difference in energy levels. Drawn with downward arrows. ! ! - All possible energies = all possible drops from a certain energy level! Balmer series - Transitions to n=2, visible light! Lyman series - Transitions to n=1, UV light!

If energy of incoming photons is greater than energy between ground state and edge of atom, electrons are ejected (ionisation). !

! Ionisation energy = $ = |E |! ! When electrons leave, they will be travelling with excess energy (max KE) = E !
ground state

Photon -

$!

Light causing electrical discharge is the photoelectric effect. Light with a minimum threshold frequency can induce the emission of electrons from metal. The emitted electrons can ebe collecte, creating a potential difference (photo cell)! ! - Adjusting the frequency of light results in the release of electrons above a threshold ! ! frequency.! ! - Above this frequency, energy of emitted electrons is proportional to frequency. !

Atomic/Quantum Phenomena!
Particle Alpha Particle Beta Particle Neutrino Symbol
42

Charge +2 -1

Rest Mass (u) 4 0.00055

He

0-1e

ve
0-1'

0 Nearly Zero 0 0

! ! ! ! !

Gamma

Nucleons = (Protons + Neutrons)! Alpha - Nucleus of helium atom without electrons! Beta particle - Electron produced when neutron undergoes transmutation to become a proton i.e. ! 10 n -> 11 p + 0-1 e! Neutrino - Product of radioactive decay/nuclear reactions! Mass defect - Small amount of mass that is converted to energy during nuclear reaction. ! " E = !mc 2 ! Mass - energy equivalence - Under certain conditions, matter may be converted to energy or energy may be converted to matter. ! Alpha decay - Ejection of an alpha particle (subtract 4 from mass no, 2 from atomic number)! Beta decay - Ejection of an beta particle (add 1 to atomic number as nucleon -> proton + electron, electron leaves)! Fission - Large nucleus into smaller nuclei! Fusion - Large nucleus from smaller nuclei! Relativity! An object moving near light speed results in ! Time dilation! - A clock on the object will appear to move slowly, passengers on the object will appear to be in slow motion!

Length contraction (only affects direction of motion)! - Length in direction of the motion will appear to decrease if viewed by a stationary observer! Mass increase! - The mass of a moving object will appear to increase if seen by a stationary observer.!

Special relativity ! - Laws of physics are the same in all intertial reference frames! - Speed of light is a constant regardless of the motion of the observer or light source!

! Historical Figures/Contemporary Physics! ! Newtonian Mechanics! ! !

Galileo ! - Bodies dropped fall with acceleration g, x=0.5gt2! - Principle of Inertia - Natural state of motion is uniform constant velocity! Newton! - 1st Law - Every body continues in a state of rest or uniform velocity unless acted upon by a unbalanced force.! - 2nd Law - F=ma! - 3rd Law -If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal and opposite force on body A.! - Law of gravity - Two masses m1 and m2 at a distance of r attract each other. !

! !

James Watt! - Power! Kepler! - Laws of planetary motion! - Planetary motion is elliptical! - Line drawn from central body to orbiting body will sweep equal areas of space in equal time intervals ! - T2 is proportional to r3!

! Electricity and Magnetism! ! ! ! ! ! !


Ohm! - Ohms law V=IR!

Coulomb! - Two charges will attract/repel eacother!

Faraday! - Electromagnetic elds! - Electromagnetic induction! Lenz ! - Lenzs Law dictates direction of induced current in a loop of conducting material!

Maxwell! - Demonstrates light is an EM wave!

! Waves/Optics! !

Young! - Double slit experiment!

Doppler! - Doppler Shift!

! Thermal! ! ! ! ! ! !

Kelvin! Absolute Zero! Joule! -Heat and work equivalence - both are ways to add energy to a system.! Modern Physics! Michelson/Morley! - Designed a device known as a interferometer to detect the motion of earth through ether, failed to prove its existence! Thomson! - Discovered the electron! Planck! - Founded Quantum theory! Einstein! - Photoelectric effect E=hf! - When EM radiation shines on a metal, the surface of the metal absorbs energy, some electrons y off (photoelectrons).!

"

- Special relativity! - E=mc2 - Mass- energy equivalence!

- KE = hf - (work function) (i.e. y intercept = -w)! - Threshold function - Frequency to !

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

- Binding energy = (mass of nucleons - mass of nucleus)c2 !

Rutherford! - Gold foil! Niels Bohr! - Planetary model of the atom, energy levels! Contemporary Physics! Astrophysics ! - Physics of celestial objects, resolve the origin of the universe! Chaos Theory ! - Explain the behaviour of complex and chaotic systems.! Dark Matter! - Total mass of the universe does not match gravitational effects; matter that cannot be seen accounts for missing mass! Microprocessor! - Single circuit consisting of miniaturised components!

Semiconductor! - Material that can act as either conductor or insulator i.e. silicon! Superconductivity! -Material with 0 resistance below a critical temperature! String theory! - Elementary particles are actually in ear oscillations! Transistor! - Amplify electrical signal, act as a switch! Optics 2! All rays of light that run parallel to the principal axis are reected/refracted through the focal point F (and a ray of light that passes through the focal point will be reected parallel to the axis). Focal length, f, = distance between focal point and vertex.!

Real image - formed by actual rays of light (if you held up a screen, the image would be projected). In front of mirror. ! Virtual image - no light actually forms the image (behind mirror)!

! !

Concave mirrors - ! Behind focal point - real inverted image created. ! In front of focal point - virtual upright image.! Convex Mirror - Focal point is behind mirror, light parallel to principal axis is

reected away from focal point.!

!
Focal length: "

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
1 1 1 + = ! d d' f

Light going towards the focal point Virtual upright image (behind mirror between mirror and focal point)!

d = image, d = object! ! - f>0 - converging, f<0 - diverging! ! - If d is negative, image is virtual, d is positive, image is real ! ! ! - Positive = outgoing light side! ! - if d is positive!

! !
! ! ! !

Magnication: " m =

h ' !d ' = ! h d

- m = magnication ! ! - If |m|>1, image is larger, vice versa! - h= height of object, h = height of image! ! - if h is positive, image is upright, vice versa!

Convex Lens - Behaves like mirror but uses refraction not reection. ! - Ray of light that passes through vertex does not get refracted! - Focal point is behind lens! - d (distance of object from lens)>f - real, inverted, opposite side of lens (opposite side as object)! - d<f, virtual, upright (same side as object)!

Concave Lens - Diverging lens - diverts light away from focal point.! - Image is virtual, appears same side of lens as object, stands upright. !
Instrument Concave Mirror Concave Mirror Convex Mirror Convex Lens Convex Lens Concave Lens Condition d>f d<f any d>f d<f any Real/Virtual Real Virtual Virtual Real Virtual Virtual Upright/Inverted Inverted Upright Upright! Inverted Upright Upright Near/Far Near Far Far Far Near Near

!
"

Double Slit!

! x = d = distance between slits, L = distance between screens, x = distance between d L

maximums

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