The word "syllogism" is given by Greeks

which means 'inference' or 'deduction'. It was

introduced by Aristotle.
An example of a question of syllogism is
given below.
Directions : In the following questions, two
statements are given followed by two
conclusions. You have to study the two
statements and then decide which of the
conclusions follow from the statements.
Mark the right answer from (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5)
Statements : All plants are trees.
No trees are green.
Conclusions : I. Some plants are green.
II. No plants are green.
1) Only I follows
2) Only II follows
3) Both I and II follow
4) Either I or II follows
5) Neither I nor II follows
This is a typical question of syllogism.
Here the choice (2) is true. Later on we can discuss
the method to reach at the answer choice. Now let
us see some definitions related to syllogism.
PROPOSITION
A proposition is a sentence that makes
a statement and gives a relation between two or
more terms.
In logic, any statement is termed a
proposition.
Eg : i) All windows are rods
ii) No cloth is a bay
iii) Some students are members
iv) Some green are not white
The parts of proposition are given below.
i) Subject : A subject is the part of the
proposition about which something is
being said.
ii) Predicate : Predicate is the part of the
proposition denoting that which is affirmed
or denied about the subject.
eg : In the proposition All novels are songs,
something is being said about novels. So novels
is the subject. Songs is the predicate here
because it affirmed about the subject.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSITIONS
i) Uni versal posi ti ve proposi t i on: A
proposition of the form All S are P is called
a universal positive proposition. A
universal positive proposition is denoted
by A.
eg : All girls are disciplined.
All bulbs are lions.
i) Universal negative proposition : A
proposition of the form No S is P is called
a universal negative proposition. It is
usually denoted by E.
eg : No professors is lazy.
No boxes are baskets.
ii) Particular positive Proposition : A
proposition of the form Some S are P is
called a particular positive proposition. It
is usually denoted by I.
eg : Some boys are smarts.
Some boys are cats.
iv) Particular negative proposition :
A proposition of the form Some S are not
P is called particular negative proposition.
It is denoted by the letter O.
eg : Some flowers are not grapes.
Some fans are not black.
In syllogism, there are two types of inferences.
1) Mediate inference :
Here conclusion is drawn from two
propositions. For example, if you are given All
cats are dogs and All dogs are animals, then a
conclusion of the form All cats are animals could
be drawn from it.
LOGICAL REASONING
SYLLOGISM
2) Immediate inference :
Here conclusion is drawn from only one
given proposition. For example if a given
statement is All gates are blue, then based on
this a conclusion could be drawn that Some blue
are gates. This is a case of immediate inference.
Two important cases of immediate
inference is given below.
a) Implications :
If a given proposition is A - type, then it
also implies that the I - type conclusion must
be true. Let us verify it by considering the
proposition, All elephants are big. This statement
naturally implies that the conclusion Some
elephants are big must be true. Similarly we
can prove that an E - type proposition also implies
an O - type conclusion.
b) Conversion
Two steps are to be followed in conversion.
The first step is to change the subject as the
predicate and the predicate as the subject. The
second step is to change the type of the given
proposition to the pattern given in the following
table.
Type of the given Type of the proposition
proposition after conversion
A I
E E
I I
O Cannot be converted
Let us consider the statement Some
posters are good looking. This can be converted
by using the above table as Some good looking
are posters. In the same way, No books are
pencils can be converted as No pencils are
books.
HIDDEN PROPOSITION
You may find it difficult to categorise some
propositions of the form Rahim is brilliant, Every
man talks English, Not a single student passed
the exam, No student except Prem was present,
etc. We shall know, how to find the hidden
propositions in such sentences.
A - type hidden propositions :
All positive propositions beginning with
'each', 'every' and 'any'.
A positive sentence with a particular
person as its subject.
A positive sentence with a very definite
exception.
eg : Each of them plays football.
He should be awarded.
All members except Kavitha have a share
of profit.
E - type hidden proposition
All negative sentences beginning with
'no one', 'none' and 'not a single'
A sentence with a particular person as
its subject but a negative sense.
A negative sentence with a very definite
exception.
An interrogative sentence which is used
to make an assertion.
eg : None can escape from death.
Swathi is not an IAS officer.
No student except Salim has attend the party.
Is there any person who can cheat himself?
I - type hidden propositions :
Positive propositions beginning with words
such as 'most', 'a few', 'mostly', 'generally',
'almost', `frequently', and negative
propositions beginning with words such
as 'few', 'seldom', `hardly', 'scarcely',
'rarely' and 'little'.
A positive sentence with an exception
which is not definite.
eg : Very few writers research before they
write.
Seldom are people not jealous.
All students except five have failed.
O - type hidden propositions :
All negative propositions beginning with
words such as 'all', 'every', 'any' and 'each'.
Negative propositions with words as 'most'
, 'a few', 'mostly', 'generally', 'almost', and
`frequently'.
Positive words beginning with 'few',
'seldom', 'hardly', scarcely', 'rarely' and
little.
A negative sentence with an exception
which is not definite..
e.g. : All men are not honest
Most of the books have not been read.
Girls are usually not brave.
Rarely is a rich man worried.
No students except a few are absent.
EXCLUSIVE PROPOSITIONS
A statement beginning with'only', 'alone',
'none but' or 'none else but' is called exclusive
proposition. Such propositions can be reduced
to A or E or I type.
Only brave men are pilots.
This sentence means that "No coward
man is a pilot" and "All pilots are brave men".
SOLUTION OF SYLLOGISM BY ANALYTICAL
METHOD
There are two steps to be followed for
solving syllogism by analytical method.
A problem of syllogism consists of two
propositions which have one common term. This
common term will be the predicate of the first
proposition and the subject of the second. If this
condition is not satisfied in the given
propositions, they should be aligned accordingly.
eg : Statement : All birds are trees.
Some trees are cows.
Here the common term is 'trees'. Also it
satisfies the above said condition. Hence the
statements are properly aligned.
Let us consider another example.
eg : Statement : All pencils are bottles
All bricks are pencils.
Here the common term is 'pencil'. But it
does not satisfy the given condition. So we have
to align this pair. This can be aligned easily by
changing the order of the statements. The
aligned pair will be
All bricks are pencils.
All pencils are bottles.
eg : Statements : No watch is hat
All pins are hats.
In this pair, the common term is 'hat' and
it is the predicate of both the sentences. So we
have to align the sentences by converting any
of the sentences and changing the order if
needed.
After alignment, the above example will
become
All pins are hats
No hat is watch.
While aligning a given pair of statements,
the priority should be given while converting, to I
- type statements to E-type statements and then
to A - type statement, in that order. That is, the
rule of IEA should be followed.
After aligning the given pair of statements,
the conclusion can be easily drawn by using
the following table.
Statement - I Statement - II Conclusion
A + A = A
A + E = E
E + A = O*
E + I = O*
I + A = I
I + E = O
No definite conclusion can be drawn for
other combinations like A+I, O+A etc, which are
not mentioned in the above table.
For the above given combinations which
are aligned properly, the conclusion is a
proposition whose subject is the subject of the
first statement and whose predicate is the
predicate of the second statements. The
common terms disappears.
In the above table, O* implies that the
conclusion is of type - O, whose subject is the
predicate of the second statement and the
predicate of the conclusion is the subject of the
first statement.
SOLVED EXAMPLES.
1. Statements :All bags are toys.
All toys are keys.
The sentences are already aligned. From
the above given Table, A+A=A. Hence the
conclusion is of type - A whose subject is the
subject of the first proposition and the predicate
is the predicate of the second proposition. So
the conclusion is All bags are keys.
2. Statements : All teachers are readers.
All teachers are writers.
This pair is not properly aligned because
the subject of both the sentences is 'teachers'.
Since both the sentences are of type - A, we
may convert any of them. So the aligned pair is
Some readers are teachers.
All teachers are writers.
Here the conclusion will be of type - I
because I+A=I.
The conclusion is Some readers are
writers.
3. Statements : Some chocolates are toffees.
All chocolates are pastries.
The subject of both the sentences is the
same.By the rule of IEA, we convert the I - type
statement.
So the aligned pair is,
Some toffees are chocolates.
All chocolates are pastries
I+A=I. So the conclusion is
Some toffees are pastries.
4. Statements :All lights are balls
No bats are lights
By changing the order of the statements itself
we can align the sentences. The aligned pair is
No bats are lights.
All lights are balls.
E+A=O*. So the conclusion is,
Some balls are not bats.
5. Statements :Some caps are red.
No clip is red.
Here the common term is 'red' which is
the predicate of both the sentences. By the rule
of IEA, we convert the I - type statement. After
conversion, the given pair becomes,
Some red are caps.
No clip is red.
Now by changing the order of the
statements, we can align the sentences. So the
aligned pair is,
No clip is red.
Some red are caps.
The conclusion is of type O* since
E+I=O*. Hence the conclusion is
Some caps are not clips.
6. Statements : Some powders are not soaps.
All soaps are detergents.
The given pair is properly aligned. But no
definite conclusion can be drawn from this type
because it is a O+A - type combination.
IMMEDIATE INFERENCE
Now let us consider an example which
has two statements as well as two conclusions.
eg. Statements: All novels are stories.
All stories are songs.
Conclusion : (i) All novels are songs.
(ii) Some songs are novels.
First of all let us consider only the
statements . The sentences are already aligned.
Since A+A =A, the conclusion will be All novels
are songs If we convert this conclusion, we get
Some songs are novels.Hence both the
conclutions given in the question are true.
eg: Statements :Some roses are leaves.
Some leaves are throns.
Conclusions : (i) Some roses are thorns.
(II) Some leaves are roses.
We know that for a combination of I+I -
type no conclusion could be drawn. But if we
convert the first statement, we get Some leaves
are roses. Which is conclusion (ii) Also on
converting the second statement, we get some
thorns are leaves. This proposition is not given
in the conclusion part. So in this example,
conclusion (ii) alone is true.
So while solving the problems on
syllogism, we should also take the immediate
inferences of the given statements as well as
the immediate inference of the conclusion drawn
from the table.
COMPLEMENTARY PAIR
Consider the following.
Conclusions :i) Some buses are trucks.
ii) Some buses are not trucks.
We know that either some buses will be
trucks or some buses will not be trucks. Hence
either (i) or (ii) is true. Such pair of statements
are called complementary pairs. So in a
complementary pair, at least one of the two
statements is always true. We can call a pair
as a complementary pair if
i) The subject and predicate of both the
sentences are the same.
ii) They are an I +O - type pair or an A +O
type pair or an I +E - type pair.
Some complementary pairs are given
below.
i) All birds are swans .
Some birds are not swans.
ii) Some tables are watches.
Some tables are not watches.
iii) Some girls are cute.
No girls are cute.
Note : The steps to be followed to do a syllogism
problem by analytical method are mentioned
below.
i) Align the sentences properly
ii) Draw conclusion using the table
iii) Check for immediate inferences.
iv) Check for complementary pair if steps ii
and iii fail.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
1. Statement : No rooms are stones
Some houses are rooms.
Conclusions : i) Some houses are stones
ii) Some houses are not stones.
We can easily align the statements by
changing the order of the sentences. The aligned
pair is :
Some houses are rooms.
No rooms are stones.
I +E =O. So the conclusion is Some
houses are not stones, Hence we obtain a
definite conclusion that conclusion (ii) is correct.
Hence step IV becomes unnecessary.
2. Statements :Some cows are horses
All cows are tigers.
Conclusions : i) Some tigers are horses.
ii) Some tigers are cows.
To align the sentences, it is sufficient to
convert the first statement. So the aligned pair
is
Some horses are cows.
All cows are tigers.
I +A =I. Hence the conclusion will be
Some horses are tigers. If we convert this
conclusion, we get Some tigers are horses which
is conclusion (i). Also if we convert the second
statement, conclusion (ii) is obtained.
Hence both the conclusions given above
should be taken as true. There is no need to
check for complementary pair because definite
conclusion has already been obtained.
3. Statements :Some poets are teachers.
Some teachers are saints
Conclusions : i) Some poets are saints.
ii) Some poets are not saints.
This pair is already aligned. But there is
no definite conclusion for I +I type combinations.
Also none of the given conclusions is the
immediate inference of any of the statements.
So let us check for the complementary pair. The
conclusions given are in the form of 'some' and
'some not'. Hence either conclusion (i) or (ii)
follows.
THREE - STATEMENT SYLLOGISM
This type of syllogism problems consist
of 3 statements which are followed by 4 or more
conclusions.
A typical three - statement syllogism
problem is given below.
Directions : Below are given three statements
followed by several conclusions based on them.
Examine the conclusions and decide whether
they logically follow from the given statements.
You have to take the given statements as true
even if they appear to be at variance with
commonly known facts.
Statements : A) All bags are hats.
B) Some pins are bags.
C) No hats are needles.
Conclusions : I) Some pins are hats.
II) No needles are bags.
III) Some pins are needles.
IV) Some pins are not needles.
(a) Only I and II follow
(b) Only I and IV follow
(c) I, II and IV follow
(d) Either III or IV, and I follow
(e) Either III or IV and I and II follow.
Before solving this example, let us see
the steps in solving a three-statement syllogism
problems.
Step I
i) Consider a given conclusion.
ii) Note the subject and predicate of this given
conclusion.
iii) Now find which of the two given
statements has this subject and
predicate.
iv) a) If there is a common term between the
two statements chosen in the previous
part, then consider only these two
statements.
b) If there is no common term between the
two statements chosen in the previous
part, then we should consider all the three
statements.
Step II
i) If two statements are relevant for a given
conclusion, align them.
ii) If three statements are relevant, write them
as a chain. That is, align them in such a
way that the predicate of the first sentence
and subject of the second are the same,
and the predicate of the second sentence
and the subject of the third sentence are
the same.
iii) Now arrive at the conclusion using the
table.
iv) Now compare the given conclusion with
the conclusion drawn using the tables. If
they match, the given conclusion is true.
If they do not match, it is false.
Step III
i) If a given statement has already been
marked as a valid conclusion after step
II, then leave it. Otherwise check if it is
an immediate inference of any of the
three given statements of the conclusion
derived.
ii) Search for complementary pair :
a) Check if any two given conclusions have
the same subject and the same predicate.
b) If (a) is satisfied, then check whether any
of them has been marked as a valid
conclusion after step II or as an immediate
inference.
c) If none of them has been marked as a
valid conclusion, then they will form a
complementary pair if they are an A - O
or I - O or I - E pair.
d) If they do make a complementary pair,
then mark the choice "either of the two
follows".
If a conclusion is marked as a valid
conclusion after step II, then it is not necessary
to perform step III (i). Again if a given conclusion
has already been accepted in step III (i), then it
is not necessary to perform step III (ii).
The learner should understand these
steps clearly. Now follow the solution to the
example which is already given. Here we have
to check the validity of each and every
conclusions one by one.
Conclusion I : Here the subject is pin and the
predicate is hat. So let us consider (A) and (B)
as our relevant statements because they have
a common term 'bags'.
The second step is to align the sentences.
The aligned pair is,
Some pins are bags.
All bags are hats.
I +A =I. So we arrive at the conclusion,
'Some pins are hats'. So conclusion I is valid.
Conclusion II : Here the subject is 'needles'
and the predicate is 'bags'. Statement C contains
the subject 'Needles'. But 'bags' appears in both
A and B. We should select A because there is
a common term between A and C. This is an
aligned pair and so we arrive at the conclusion
No bags are needles which implies No needles
are bags. Hence conclusion II is valid.
Conclusion III : Here the subject is 'pins' and
the 'predicate' is needles. These words appear
in statements (B) and (C) respectively which have
no term in common. So all the three statements
should be taken as relevant. Now align the
statements as Step II (ii) So we get,
Some pins are bags
All bags are hats.
No hats are needles.
I +A +E =(I +A) +E=I +E =O.
So the conclusion is 'Some pins are not
needles', which is conclusion IV. So conclusion
IV is valid.
Since conclusion III is not valid in step II,
let us perform step III (i). The conclusion, Some
pins are not needles is not an immediate
inference of any of the three given statements.
So the next step is to check the existence of a
complementary pair in the given conclusions.
We see that conclusion III and conclusion
IV form a complementary pair of I - O type. So
the choice "either III or IV follows" could be
selected. But we find that conclusion IV is valid
from the previous step. So conclusion III is not
valid. Hence for this given example, the third
choice which is 'I, II and IV follow' is true.
PRACTICE TEST
Directions (Qs. 1 - 25) : Each of the following
questions contains two statements followed by
two conclusions numbered I and II. You have to
consider the two statements to be true, even if
they seen to be at variance at the commonly
known facts. You have to decide which of the
given conclusions definitely follows from the
given statements.
Give answer ((a) if only I follows ; ((b)
if only conclusion II follows ; ((c) if either I or II
follows; ((d) if neither I nor II follows and ((e) if
both I and II follow.
1. Statement : Some tables are glasses.
All trees are tables.
Conclusions: I.Some trees are glasses
II. Some glasses are trees.
2. Statement : No man is a lion.
Somu is a man.
Conclusions: I. Somu is not a lion.
II. All men are not Somu.
3. Statement : All boys are mothers.
All mothers are fathers.
Conclusions : I. All mothers are boys.
II. All boys are fathers.
4. Statement : All pots are cups.
All cups are bowls.
Conclusions: I. All pots are bowls.
II. All cups are pots.
5. Statement : All students are girls.
No girl is dull
Conclusions : I. There are no boys in the
class
II. No student is dull.
6. Statement : Some cats are kittens.
All goats are kittens.
Conclusions: I. Some cats are goats.
II. Some goats are cats.
7. Statement : All names are houses.
No houses are foxes.
Conclusions : I. All names are foxes.
II. No houses are names.
8. Statement : All pens are dogs.
Some pens are lights.
Conclusions: I. Some dogs are lights.
II. Some lights are not dogs
9. Statement : Some birds are clouds.
Horse is a bird.
Conclusions : I. Some clouds are birds.
II. Horse is not a cloud.
10. Statement : All tables are ants.
Some ants are chairs.
Conclusions: I. All ants are tables.
II. Some chairs are not ants.
11. Statement : All elephants are birds.
Some birds are cows.
Conclusions: I. Some cows are birds.
II.Some elephants are cows.
12. Statement : All papers are pencils.
All pencils are erasers.
Conclusions: I.Some erases are papers.
II. Some pencils are not
papers.
13. Statement : Some trees are horses.
Some ships are trees.
Conclusions: I.Some horses are ships.
II.Some trees are neither
ships nor horses.
14. Statement : All glasses are mirrors.
Some mirrors are red.
Conclusions: I. All mirrors are glasses.
II. Some glasses are red.
15. Statement : Some dogs are horses.
No horse is black.
Conclusions: I. Some dogs are black.
II.Some horses are dogs.
16. Statement : All roads are poles.
No poles are houses.
Conclusions: I. Some roads are houses.
II.Some houses are poles.
17. Statement : Many actors are singers.
All singers are dancers.
Conclusions: I. Some actors are
dancers.
II. No singer is an actor.
18. Statement : Only cats are animals.
No historian is an animal.
Conclusions: I. Some cats are not
historians.
II. Some historians are not
cats.
19. Statement : Some desks are caps.
No cap is red.
Conclusions: I. Some caps are desks.
II. No desk is red.
20. Statement : Some pots are belts.
No belt is white.
Conclusions: I. Some pots are white.
II. Some pots are not white.
21. Statement : Some girls are flowers.
Some flowers are books.
Conclusions: I. Some girls are books.
II. No books are girls.
22. Statement : Some files are ants.
All insects are ants.
Conclusions: I. All files are ants.
II. Some ants are insects.
23. Statement : All players are tall.
Pranesh is tall.
Conclusions: I. Pranesh is a player.
II. Pranesh is not a player.
24. Statement : Some hens are cows.
All cows are horses.
Conclusions : I. Some horses are hens.
II. Some hens are horses.
25. Statement : All business men are hard
working.
No hard working men are
superstitious.
Conclusions: I. No business men are
superstitious.
II. All superstitious are not
businessmen.
Directions (Qs. 26 - 40) : In each question below,
there are two or three statements followed by
four conclusions numbered I, II, III and IV. You
have to take the given statements to be true
even if they seem to be at variance with
commonly known facts and then decide which
of the given conclusions logically follow(s) from
the given statements.
26. Statements: Some boys are girls.
All girls are students.
Conclusions:
I. Some boys are students.
II. Some students are boys.
III. Some students are girls.
IV. All students are girls.
(a) I, II and III follow
(b) II, III and IV follow
(c) I, III and IV follow
(d) I, II and IV follow
(e) All follow
27. Statements: All books are watches.
Some watches are clips.
Conclusions:
I. Some watches are books.
II. No watches are books.
III. Some books are clips.
IV. No books are clips.
(a) I,and III follow
(b) Only I follow
(c) Either I or II follows
(d) Either III or IV and I follow
(e) Either I or II and III follow.
28. Statements: Some chairs are tables.
Some tables are desks.
Conclusions:
I. Some chairs are desks.
II. No chairs are desks.
III. Only desks are chairs.
IV. Only chairs are desks.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only II follows
(c) Either I or II follows.
(d) Either III or IV follows
(e) Either I or II and either III or IV follow.
29. Statements: Some reds are blues.
No greens are blues.
Conclusions :
I. Some reds are not greens.
II. All reds are greens.
III. Some greens are not reds.
IV. All greens are reds.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only III follows
(c) Either I or II follows.
(d) Either III or IV and I follow
(e) I and II follow.
30. Statements :No systems are decks.
All decks are books.
Conclusions:
I. Some systems are books.
II. Some systems are not books.
III. Some books are systems.
IV. Some books are not systems.
(a) Only II follows
(b) Only IV follows
(c) I and IV follow.
(d) II and either III or IV follow
(e) Either I or II and IV follow.
31. Statements :All birds are animals.
Many birds are stones.
Conclusions :
I. Some birds are animals.
II. Some animals are stones.
III. All animals are stones.
IV. Some animals are not stones.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only II follows
(c) Either III or IV follows.
(d) I and II follow
(e) I and II and either III or IV follow
32. Statements :
Some teachers are students.
Some students are boys.
Conclusions:
I. All boys are students.
II. All boys are teachers.
III. Some teachers are boys.
IV. No teachers are boys.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only II and II follow
(c) Either I or III follows
(d) Either I or IV follows
(e) Either III or IV follows
33. Statements: Some girls are teens.
No teens are snakes.
Conclusions :
I. Some teens are girls.
II. Some snakes are no girls.
III. Some girls are not snakes.
IV. All snakes are girls.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Either II or III follows
(c) Only I and III follow
(d) Only I and II follow
(e) Either III or IV follows
34. Statements :No blankets are pillows.
Some beds are blankets.
Conclusions :
I. Some blankets are not pillows.
II. Some pillows are not beds.
III. Some beds are not pillows.
IV. All beds are pillows.
(a) Either III or IV follows
(b) Either I or II follows
(c) I and III follow
(d) Either II or III follows
(e) None of the above
35. Statements: All classes are glasses.
All brasses are glasses.
Conclusions :
I. Some classes are brasses.
II. Some brasses are glasses.
III. Some brasses are classes.
IV. Some classes are glasses.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only II follows
(c) I and II follow
(d) II and IV follow
(e) All follow
36. Statements: All cars are buses.
Some buses are cycles.
Conclusions:
I. All cycles are buses.
II. All cycles are car.
III. Some cars are cycles.
IV. No cars are cycles.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only II and III follow
(c) Either II or III follows
(d) Either I or IV follows
(e) Either III or IV follows
37. Statements: Some singers are rockers.
All rockers are westerners.
Conclusions:
I. Some rockers are singers.
II. Some westerners are rockers.
III. Some singers are westerners.
IV. Some singers are not westerners.
(a) I, II and III follow
(b) I, II and IV follow
(c) II, III and IV follow
(d) I, III and IV follow
(e) All follow
38. Statements: All pigs are elephants.
No pigs are bakers.
Conclusions :
I. Some bakers are not pigs.
II. Some pigs are not bakers.
III. Some elephant are not bakers.
IV. Some bakers are not elephants
(a) I, II and III follow
(b) I, II and IV follow
(c) I, III and IV follow
(d) II, III and IV follow
(e) All follow
39. Statements : All green are blue.
All blue are white.
Conclusions :
I. Some blue are green.
II. Some white are green.
III. Some green are not white.
IV. All white are blue.
(a) Only I and II follow
(b) Only II and III follow
(c) Only I and III follow
(d) Only I and IV follow
(e) All follow
40. Statements: Some soaps are clean.
All clean are wet.
Conclusions :
I. Some clean are soaps.
II. No clean are soaps.
III. Some wet are soaps.
IV. All wet are soaps.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Either I or II follows
(c) Either III or IV follows
(d) Only I and III follow
(e) None of the above
Directions (Qs. 41 - 60) : Below are given three
statements A, B,and C followed by four
conclusions. You have to take the given
statements to be true even if they appear to be
at variance with commonly known facts, and
then decide which of the conclusions logically
follow (s) from the given statements. For each
question, mark out an appropriate answer choice
that you think is correct.
41. Statements:
A. All thieves are men.
B. All men are graduates.
C. No graduates are employed.
Conclusions :
I. Some graduates are thieves.
II. No employed are thieves.
III. Some men are thieves.
IV. Some employed are men.
(a) I, II and III follow
(b) II, III and IV follow
(c) Only I and II follow
(d) Only II and II follow
(e) Only II and IV follow.
42. Statements:
A. Some books are pens
B. All tables are chairs.
C. No pens are tables.
Conclusions:
I. Some books are not tables.
II. Some pens are not chairs.
III. Some books are not chairs.
IV. Some chairs are not pens
(a) I, and IV follow
(b) II, and IV follow
(c) I and III follow
(d) II and III follow
(e) III, and IV follow.
43. Statements :
A. All satellites are planets.
B. No stars are planets.
C. Some cosmos are satellites.
Conclusions:
I. Some cosmos are stars.
II. Some cosmos are planets.
III. Some stars are not cosmos.
IV. Some cosmos are not stars
(a) Only II and III follow
(b) Only II and IV follow
(c) Either I or IV follows
(d) Only IV follows
(e) Either I or IV and III follow
44. Statements:
A. All books are notes.
B. Some notes are pencils.
C. No pencils are papers.
Conclusions:
I. Some notes are books.
II. Some pencils are books.
III. Some books are papers.
IV. No books are papers.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only I and either III or IV follows
(c) Either III or IV follows
(d) Only I and III follow
(e) None of these.
45. Statements :
A. Some cups are utensils.
B. No utensils are buckets.
C. All buckets are plates.
Conclusions:
I. Some cups are buckets.
II. Some utensils are plates.
III. No utensils are plates.
IV. Some cups are plates
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only III follows
(c) Either II or III follows
(d) Either III or IV follows
(e) None of these
46. Statements :
A. Some keys are locks.
B. All locks are doors.
C. Some doors are windows.
Conclusions:
I. Some locks are windows.
II. Some windows are keys.
III. Some windows are doors.
IV. No locks windows.
(a) Either I or IV follows
(b) Only II follows
(c) Only III and IV follow
(d) None follows
(e) None of these.
47. Statements:
A. All pins are staplers.
B. Some staplers are sharpeners.
C. Some sharpeners are stands.
Conclusions:
I. Some staplers are stands.
II. Some sharpeners are pins.
III. Some pins are stands.
IV. Some stands are sharpeners.
(a) Only I and II follow
(b) Only II and IV follow
(c) Only III follows
(d) Only IV follows
(e) None of these
48. Statements:
A. Some oranges are apples.
B. All apples are guavas.
C. No guavas are bananas.
Conclusions:
I. Some guavas are oranges.
II. No apples are bananas.
III. Some oranges are bananas.
IV. Some apples are bananas.
(a) Only I and II follow
(b) Only I and either II or IV follow
(c) Only I, II and IV follow
(d) Only III and either II or IV follow.
(e) None of these
49. Statements:
A. Some streets are roads.
B. Some roads are lanes.
C. Some lanes are highways.
Conclusions :
I. Some roads are not streets.
II. No highways are streets.
III. Some streets are not roads.
IV. Some lanes are not roads.
(a) Only III follows
(b) Only III and IV follows
(c) Either I or III follows
(d) Both I and III follow
(e) None of these
50. Statements :
A. Some pencils are pens.
B. All pens are erasers.
C. All staplers are erasers.
Conclusions:
I. Some pens are not pencils.
II All erasers are pencils.
III. Some staplers are pens.
IV. Some staplers are pencils.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only II follows
(c) Only III follows
(d) Only IV follows
(e) None follows
51. Statements:
A. Some tables are chairs.
B. No cupboards are tables.
C. Some chairs are cupboards.
Conclusions :
I. Some chairs are not tables.
II. All chairs are either tables or cupboards.
III. Some chairs are both tables and cup
boards
IV. All chairs are tables.
(a) Only either I or IV follows.
(b) Only either II or III follows.
(c) Only IV follows.
(d) Either II or III and I follow
(e) None of these.
52. Statements :
A. All birds are animals.
B. Some animals are humans.
C. All humans are mammals.
Conclusions :
I. Some humans are not birds.
II. Some birds are humans.
III. Some animals are not mammals.
IV. All animals are mammals.
(a) Only I and II follow.
(b) Either III or IV follows
(c) Either I or II follows.
(d) Either I or II and either III or IV follow
(e) None of these.
53. Statements :
A. Some leaves are fruits.
B. All branches are fruits .
C. Some roots are branches.
Conclusions :
I. Some roots are fruits.
II. Some branches are leaves.
III. No leaves are branches.
IV. Some leaves are roots.
(a) Either II or III and I follow.
(b) Only I follows
(c) Only either II or III follows
(d) Only I and III follow
(e) None of these.
54. Statements :
A. Some keys are locks.
B. Some locks are stickers.
C. All stickers are pens.
Conclusions :
I Some pens are locks.
II Some stickers are keys.
III. No stickers are keys.
IV. Some locks are keys.
(a) I, IV and either II or III follow
(b) Only I and IV follow.
(c) Only II and III follow.
(e) None of these.
55. Statements :
A. All books are papers.
B. Some papers are journals.
C. Some journals are calendars.
Conclusions :
I. Some journals are books.
II. Some calendars are papers.
III. Some books are journals.
IV. Some books are calendars.
(a) Only II and IV follow
(b) Only II and III follow
(c) Only I and III follow
(d) Only III and IV follow
(e) None follows.
56. Statements :
A. Some answers are questions.
B. Some questions are writers.
C. All writers are poets.
Conclusions :
I Some writers are answers.
II. Some poets are questions.
III. All questions are poets.
IV. Some poets are answers.
(a) Only I and II follow
(b) Only I, II and IV follow
(c) Only II follows
(d) Only II and IV follow
(e) Only III follows.
57. Statements :
A All bottles are boxes.
B. All boxes are bags.
C. Some bags are trays.
Conclusions :
I Some bottles are trays.
II Some trays are boxes.
III. All bottles are bags.
IV. Some trays are bags.
(a) Only I, III and IV follow.
(b) Only II and III follow.
(c) Only I, II and III follow.
(d) Only III and IV follow.
(e) All follow.
58. Statements :
A. Some envelops are gums.
B. All gums are seals.
C. Some seals are adhesives.
Conclusion :
I Some envelops are seals.
II. Some gums are adhesives.
III. Some adhesives are seals.
IV. Some adhersives are gums.
(a) Only I and II follow
(b) Only I and III follow
(c) Only II and IV follow
(d) Only III and IV follow
(e) Only I and IV follow.
59. Statements :
A. All flowers are garlands.
B. All garlands are fruits.
C. All fruits are trees.
Conclusions :
I. All trees are flowers.
II. Not all trees are flowers.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only II follows
(c) Either I nor II follows
(d) Neither I or II follows.
(e) Both I and II follow.
60. Statements :
A. All chairs are apples.
B. Some apples are tables.
C. All tables are cupboards.
Conclusions :
I. Some cupboards are chairs.
II. Some tables are not chairs.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only II follows.
(c) Either I or II follows
(d) Neither I nor II follows
(e) Both I and II follows.
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATI ONS
1. (4) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (e) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8.(a)
9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16.(d)
17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (b) 21.(c) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (e)
25. (e) 26. (a) 27. (d) 28. (c) 29. (d) 30. (e) 31. (e) 32. (e)
33. (c) 34. (c) 35. (d) 36. (e) 37. (a) 38. (a) 39. (a) 40. (d)
41. (a) 42. (a) 43. (b) 44. (b) 45. (c) 46. (e) 47. (d) 48. (a)
49. (e) 50. (e) 51. (a) 52. (d) 53. (a) 54. (a) 55. (e) 56. (c)
57. (d) 58. (b) 59. (b) 60. (d)
1. d. The aligned pair is
All trees are tables
Some tables are glasses.
This is a `A +I - type pair which has no
solution
2. a. Align this pair as Somu is a man and No
man is a lion. A + E = E. So the
conclusion is Somu is not a lion :
I follows
3. b. A +A =A. The conclusion is All boys
are fathers . II follows
5. e. A +E =E. The conclusion is No student
is dull. II follows. Since All students' are
girls, which means No boys are students.'
Hence I also follows.
6. d. Align this pair as All goats are kittens
and Some kittens are goats.
A +I pair has no definite conclusion.
7. d. A +E =E, the conclusion here is No names
are foxes. But this conclusion is not given.
8. a. The aligned pair is Some lights are pens
and All pens are dogs. So the conclusion
is Some lights are dogs which implies
Some dogs are lights.
9. a. The aligned pair is Horse is a bird and
Some birds are clouds. There is no
definite conclusion for A +I - type pair.
But conversion of statement I implies
conclusion I.
10. d. A +I - type has no definite conclusion.
11. a. A +I - type has no definite conclusion.
But immediate inference of Some birds
are cows implies Some cows are birds.
Hence I follows.
12. a. The conclusion is All papers are erasers.
Conclusion I follows from the immediate
inference of this conclusion.
15. b. I +E =O. So the conclusion is Some
dogs are not black. But conclusion II
follows as it is the conversion of the first
statement.
16. d. A +E =E. So the conclusion is No roads
are houses.
17. a. I +A =I. So the conclusion is "Some
actors are dancers".
18. a. The first statement can be converted to
All animals are cats. Now align the pair
by changing the order as
No historian is an animal.
All animals are cats.
E +A =O*. So the conclusion is
Some cats are not historians.
19. a. I +E =O. So the conclusion is Some
desks are not red. This is not given. But
conclusion I is obvious from statement I.
20.b. I +E =O. The conclusion is
Some pots are not white
21. c. I +I pair has no definite conclusion. But
the choice make a complementary pair
when we consider I and the immediate
inference of II. Spot either I or II follows.
22. b. The aligned pair is
All insects are ants.
Some ants are files.
A +I - type pair has no definite solution.
But conclusion II follows directly from
statement II.
23. c. Aligned pair is
Pranesh is tall.
Some tall are players.
A+I - type pair has no definite conclusion.
But Pranesh should either be a player or
a non - player. Hence either of the two
conclusions follows.
24. e. I +A =I. So the conclusion is
Some hens are horses. Again on
conversion, this gives Some horses are hens.
25. e. A +E = E. The conclusion is No
businessmen are superstitious. Also on
conversion, this implies No superstitious
are businessmen. This implies All
superstitious are not businessmen also
must be true.
26. a. I +A =I. The conclusion is Some boys
are students which is I. This can be
converted to Some students are boys,
which is II. Some students are girls follows
from All girls are students.
27. d. A+I pair has no definite conclusion. But
conclusion I follows directly from All
books are watches. III and IV are a
complementary pair.
28. c. I + I pair has no conclusion. But
conclusion I and II form a complementary
pair. Hence either I or II follows.
29. d. The aligned pair is
No greens are blues.
Some blues are reds.
E +I =O. So the conclusion is Some
reds are not greens. Hence I follows. Also
III and IV make a complementary pair.
30. e. E +A =O*. Hence the conclusion is
Some books are not systems. Again, I
and II are a complementary pair.
31. e. Many birds are stones implies Some birds
are stones. The aligned pair is
Some stones are birds.
All birds are animals.
I +A =I. Hence the conclusion is Some
stones are animals. On conversion
conclusion II is obtained. I is obviously
from statement I. Also III and IV make a
complementary pair.
32. e. I +I - type pair has no conclusion. But III
and IV are complementary pair.
33. c. I +E =O. Hence Some girls are not
snakes follows. Also I is obvious from the
first statement.
34. c. I +E =O. So the conclusion is Some
beds are not pillows. Hence III follows.
Also I is obvious from the first statement.
35. d. The aligned pair is
All classes are glasses.
Some glasses are brasses.
A +I - type pair has no solution. But II is
obvious from All brasses are glasses and
IV is obvious from All classes are glasses.
38. a. The aligned pair is
No backers are pigs.
All pigs are elephants.
E +A =O*. Hence the conclusion is
Some elephants are not bakers. Thus III
follows. No pigs are bakers implies that
No bakers are pigs. I is obvious from this
sentence. II follows directly from No pigs
are bakers. Hence I, II and III follow.
41. a. Conclusion drawn from statements A and
B is All thieves are graduates. Conclusion
I is obvious from this sentence. III is
obvious from statement A. Also A +A +
E =A +E =E.
Conclusion drawn from all the three is
No thieves are employed. II is obvious
from this sentence.
42. a. I follows from statements A and C.
IV follows from statements C and B.
No other conclusion is possible
43. b. Statements C +A gives Some cosmos
are planets. So II is valid. By aligning II
and B or by aligning all the three
statements, we get IV.
44. b. Conversion of A gives Some notes are
books. Therefore I follows. For II A and
B are the relevant statements. But A +I -
type pair has no conclusion. So II is not
valid. For III all the statements are
relevant. No definite conclusion can be
obtained from this combination. But
conclusions III and IV form a
complementary pair.Hence either
conclusion III or conclusion IV follows.
45. c. For I, A and B are relevant. But the
conclusion obtained here is Some cups
are not buckets. So I is not valid. II and III
form a complementary pair. For IV, all the
statements are relevant. But no conclusion
is obtained for this combination.
46. e. For I, B and C are relevant. But here no
conclusion is obtained. Similarly IV is not
valid. But I and IV form a complementary
pair. So either I or IV follows. For II all the
three statements are relevant. But no
conclusion follows from them. III is obvious
from C. Hence conclusions III and either I
or IV follow.
47. d. For I, B and C are relevant. But no
conclusion follows from them. For II all
the three statements are relevant. But no
conclusion follows from them. III also not
valid IV is obvious from C.
48. a. A +B gives Some oranges are guavas. I
is obvious from this statement. B +C
gives No apples are bananas. So II is
valid. For III all the three statements are
relevant. But the conclusion arrived here
is Some oranges are not bananas. So III
is invalid. IV is also invalid, since II is valid.
49. e. No conclusion is derived from the given
statements because I +I type pair has
no solution.
No conclusion can be arrived as the
immediate inference of the statements.
There is no complementary pair also. So
none follows.
50. e. No conclusion is derived form the given
statements because (I +A) +I =I +I.
This pair has no solution. Also no
conclusion can be arrived as the
immediate inference of the given
statements and there is no
complementary pair. So none follows.
51. a. I and IV form a complementary pair.
52. d. I and II form a complementary pair and III
and IV form another complementary pair.
53. a. C +B gives I. Also II and III form a
complementary pair.
54. a. B +C gives, Some locks are pens.
I is the conversion of this conclusion.
Also II and III form a complementary pair.
56. c. B +C gives, Some questions are poets.
II is obvious from this.
59. b. The conclusion drawn from these three
statements is All flowers are trees. So I
is invalid. II can be re-written as, Some
trees are flowers. This is obvious from the
derived conclusion.