A

REPORT

ON

‘CDMA Technology’

Submitted

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

In

Electronics & Communication

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Mr. Yogesh Bhomia Sunil Tyagi

HOD B.Tech, final year

Department of Electronics Roll no. : 55

Arya Institute of Engineering and Technology

JAIPUR

Rajasthan Technical University

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With the completion of the training my experience at the firm was excellent. The task of
undertaking the training travelled through a dynamic experience. With the constant
guidance, valuable suggestions, timely help and heart warming encouragement rendered to
me by Mr. Sumit Singh , training Incharge along with all other members of the Installation
and Commissioning (I&C) team the firm served as an excellent learning platform.

During the course of the training I came through the working pattern of the office along with
professionalism. Also the basic practical experience at the site helped a lot. Theoretical
discussions, off-site situation handling and on-site experience are to name a few of the
environments to which I was exposed. Along with it I was given enough opportunities and
encouragement to think independently in various problem solving situations.

I would like to express my deepest sense of gratitude to the whole team of engineers of the
Installation and Commissioning (I&C) department for their support and the knowledge they
endowed upon me.

I would like to express my thanks to all those people who directly or indirectly supported me
throughout my term for the training.

Above all I want to thank Mr.Yogesh Bhomia ,Head of Department ,Electrnonics, Arya
Institute of Engineering & Technology for recommending me to the practical training and for
his support and guidance.

Thanking you sincerely,

Sunil Tyagi
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that the seminar entitled ‘CDMA Technology’ has been
presented by Ankit Soni of Electrnonics and Communication Engineering,
under our supervision Practical Training from 1st May ’2009 to 15th June
‘2009 at our firm; for the course requirement at Arya Institute of Industrial
Technology.

He has completed his training with utmost dedication and sincerity.

We wish him all the best for his future endeavours.

Signature Signature

Company Profile
Mobile TeleSystems OJSC (MTS) is the largest mobile phone operator in Russia and the CIS.
MTS services over 95.03 million subscribers (as of June 30, 2009). MTS provides mobile
communications in Russia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Armenia and Belarus , a territory
with a total population of more than 230 million.

MTS has been listed on the New York Stock Exchange since July 2000 and trades under the
ticker MBT. The company’s shares have been listed locally on Moscow Interbank Currency
Exchange (MICEX) since November 2003 under the symbol MTSI. The free float of the
company’s shares is approximately 46.7%. MTS is 52.8% majority-owned by Sistema, the largest
private sector consumer services company in Russia and the CIS.

In December 2008, MTS extended its brand outside the CIS borders. Sistema Shyam
TeleServices Ltd, a joint venture between Sistema (LSE-SSA) of Russia and Shyam Group of
India, brought the MTS brand into India under a brand license agreement with Mobile
TeleSystems (MTS) OJSC (NYSE: MBT) of Russia. The agreement with MTS does not include
participation of SSTL, for launching MTS products, operations or services in India.

The strength of the MTS brand was recognized internationally in 2008, when it became the first
and only Russian company to enter BRANDZ™ Top 100 Most Powerful Brands, a ranking
published by the Financial Times and Millward Brown, a leading global market research and
consulting firm. The MTS position in the global Top 100 Brand list was reinforced when in 2009
MTS joined the ranks of the most powerful brands in the world, for the second year in a row. The
latest rankings from Millward Brown Optimor (including data from Brandz, Datamonitor and
Bloomberg), feature the upward movement of the MTS brand by 18 spots to become the 71st
most powerful brand globally with a value of $9.2 billion, up from $8.1 billion in 2008.

Currently the MTS brand operates in India in the circles of Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
Kolkata, West Bengal and Bihar and offers mobile telephony services to its subscribers in these
regions.

History of Telecommunications
Radio has been around only for the last 100 years (out of ~6000 years of written human history).
  1680’s: Isaac Newton’s idea of the spectrum
 1830’s: Basic Electricity
 1890’s: First demos of radio by experimenters

Telegraphy:
Early electronic communication was carried only by wires and used only crude on-off signaling
to laboriously spell out the message.
 1837: Samuel Morse patented his telegraph
  1844: First commercial telegraph systems operational
 1857: First trans-atlantic cable put in service

Telephony:

In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell patented his telephone, a device for carrying actual voices over
wires. Initial telephone demonstrations sparked intense public interest and by the late 1890’s,
telephone service was available in most towns and cities across the USA.
Thus, the telecommunications industry, as we know it today, originated in 1876 when Alexander
Graham Bell developed the telephone in an attempt to communicate with his mother and wife,
who were both deaf. Bell filed his patent for the telephone on February 14, 1876, just four hours
before Elisha Grey applied for the same patent. But for that timing, we might have had the Grey
Telephone System instead of the Bell Telephone System. Through legal maneuvering Bell’s
patent was upheld and the Bell Telephone Company, which was formed in 1877, began to expand
across the United States of America and emerged as a near monopoly supplier of telephone
services. In 1880 the company was renamed American Bell.

Frequencies Used by Wireless Systems:

Overview of the Radio Spectrum

Structure of a Typical Wireless System
Wireless Base Stations:

 It provides the radio connection between mobile users and the switch.
 One wireless system in a large metropolitan area may require hundreds of base stations to
deliver unbroken coverage and provide sufficient capacity to handle all potential users.

The Switch:
  Each call involves joining a circuit leading to one customer (usually on the radio side of
the system) and a circuit leading to another person (usually out in the Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN)
 The device that makes the actual physical connection is called the switch
 The switch is also responsible for storing billing records, interpreting dialed phone
numbers, routing calls, and implementing all calling features

The Base Station Controller (BSC):

 The Base Station Controller (BSC) interfaces the Switch and the base stations
 Compresses speech signals for more efficient transmission over the scarce radio spectrum
 Controls the base stations and implements the handoff of calls from one base station to
another as users drive across the system

Home Location Register (HLR):

 The HLR (Home Location Register) is the official database of all customers on a wireless
system
 It can be part of the switch, or held in a server at a central location where multiple
switches can interrogate it

Information held in the HLR:

• current account status/validity
• phone’s technical parameters
• whether the phone is presently turned on, and if so, the identity of switch which is presently
serving the phone
• secret keys for authentication to avoid fraudulent use/cloning
Delivering an Incoming Wireless Call:
 Someone dials a mobile subscriber’s number
1. System checks database for current location of mobile, and pages this area
 Database is kept up-to-date by a process called registration
2. Mobile recognizes page and sends back acknowledgment to the strongest cell
3. System assigns a voice channel to the mobile
 System sends voice channel assignment to mobile on control channel
 mobile acknowledges and jumps to the assigned voice channel
4. Phone rings and mobile subscriber answers call
 Conversation begins

An illustration of the above is given on the following page.

Managing Handoffs:

 As a mobile travels through the service area, it passes from the coverage zone of one base
station into the coverage of another
 Signal strength measurements by the mobile or the base station trigger the BSC and
switch to “hand off” the call from base station to base station, avoiding dropped calls and
interference
 Each wireless technology uses its own methods to implement the handoffs. CDMA can
even “simulcast” to the mobile from multiple base stations to reduce fading effects (this is
called “soft handoff”)
What is Multiple Access?
 Multiple Access is the simultaneous use of a communications system by
more than one user
 Each user’s signal must be kept uniquely distinguishable from other users’ signals, to
allow private communications on demand
 Users can be separated in many ways:
• physically: on separate wires
• by arbitrarily defined “channels” established in frequency, time, or any other variable
imaginable

Wireless Multiple Access Methods

Frequency Division Multiple Access

• A user’s channel is a private frequency

Time Division Multiple Access

• A user’s channel is a specific frequency, but it only belongs to the user during certain time
slots in a repeating sequence

Code Division Multiple Access

• Each user’s signal is a continuous unique code pattern buried within a shared signal, mingled
with other users’ code patterns. If a user’s code pattern is known, the presence or absence of their
signal can be detected, thus conveying information.
TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access

Each user has a specific frequency but only during an assigned time slot. The frequency
is used by other users during other time slots, like a condominium at a beach resort

UNITED STATES VERSIONS:

 IS-54: The original TDMA format, intended for use within existing AMPS systems
 IS-136: Enhanced TDMA with special control channels to allow short message service,
battery life extension, other features
 6 timeslots, three users occupy in rotation

INTERNATIONAL VERSION

 GSM: Groupe Special Mobile

 Developed in Europe, used in roughly 50% of all wireless systems worldwide
 8 timeslots, 7 or 8 users occupy in rotation

CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access

 Each user’s signal is a continuous unique code pattern buried within a shared signal,
mingled with other users’ code patterns. If a user’s code pattern is known, the presence or
absence of their signal can be detected, thus conveying information.
 All CDMA users occupy the same frequency at the same time! Time and frequency are
not used as discriminators
 CDMA interference comes mainly from nearby users
 CDMA operates by using CODING to discriminate between users
 Each user is a small voice in a roaring crowd - but with a uniquely recoverable code
Third Generation Wireless Systems

2G to 3G Migration Paths:
Wireless System Performance Optimization

 Key Performance Indicators and Objectives

• Dropped Calls, Access Failures, system BER, FER
• Handoff Activity Levels
• Capacity and Blocking

 Success comes from managing resources

• Handoff
• Thresholds properly set
• Neighbor lists well-optimized
• RF Coverage: “holes” vs. excessive overlap
• PN or Frequency Planning
• Hardware defects: watch statistics for clues
ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
ANALOG:

Historically, telephone systems were entirely analog circuits. When voice is converted to an
electrical signal through the microphone in a telephone, it provides a continuously varying
electrical wave. The wave matches the pressure pattern of the sound that created it and conveys
loudness which is measured as amplitude, and pitch which is measured as frequency. Because the
tone (pitch) and loudness (amplitude) of voice is unpredictable, the analog signal is also
unpredictable.

The basic shape of an electrical wave used to transmit telecommunications signals is represented
by the sine wave. The rate at which the electrical current alternates is measured in hertz, which
means cycles per second. A voice telephone circuit is designed to handle frequencies from 300 to
4,000 hertz (4 Khz).

As an analog signal travels through a wire, the signal loses strength over distance (attenuation)
and has to be amplified. Unfortunately, when the voice signal is amplified, any noise on the line
is also amplified. After much amplification the line noise component may be larger than the
actual voice signal. Circuit noise can make the conversion unintelligible.

DIGITAL:

Unlike the analog signal, a digital signal is predictable. A digital signal is a series of discrete,
discontinuous voltage pulses. The analog voice signal is sampled at the rate of 8,000 samples per
second, and each sample is transmitted as a binary code. The binary states of 0 and 1 are
represented as discrete levels of voltage.

Digital transmission has higher quality than analog. Like analog signals, digital signals lose
strength over distance. However, with digital transmission, regenerators detect the incoming bit
stream of 0s and 1s and create a new signal that is identical to the original signal.
What is a Transmission Network?
 Area of Telecom Network dealing with transport of data, voice, video and other signals
over long distances is referred to as Transport (Tpt) or Transmission (Tx) Network.
• e.g. - Intercity connectivity between local trunk and tandem exchanges within a city
also falls in the category of ‘Tpt NW’ e.g. Intracity also called Backhaul NW
 Tpt NW - Physically consists of MW, OFC or satellites as a medium (criterion of
selection - Tx rate, distance, protection, cost, reliability, environmental conditions)
 Figurative Rep of a Tpt NW
 NW design - STAR, TREE, RING or MESH topologies (main criterion - connectivity,
protection and cost)

Transport Systems required to carry large data

 2.5 Gbps (1Gb=109b) - 30,000 voice channels, 10 Gbps, 40 Gbps

 Terabits per sec (1 Tb=1012b) - Lucent recently tried 2 Tbps data rate using
DWDM over a single fibre
 Future Data Rates in terms of Petabits per sec (1 Pb=1015b) and Exabits per second
(1 Eb = 1018b)

Transmission systems, since they carry large data rates, must have

 Min “Down Time” (0.003%)

 Low “Bit Error Rates” (BER < 10-9)
 High MTBF (5 years)
 “Self Healing” Ring Structure

Transmission links used are primarily of two types these days:

 Microwave Link
 Optical Fiber Cable (OFC) Link
 Coaxial cable
 VSAT
What is Microwave Radio?
Microwave radio is a point to point fixed link that operates in duplex mode I.e. each radio
frequency channel consists of a pair of frequencies for the transmit and receive directions
respectively. The base band signal which contains the user information occupies a limited
bandwidth depending upon the modulation scheme used. The signal is modulated over an RF
carrier and is transmitted over the air as an electromagnetic waveform. The Microwave Radio
links cover the frequency spectrum from 150 MHz to 60 GHz.

Characteristics of a Radio Link System:

 Signal follows a straight line or line of sight (LOS) path.

 Beam traverses through the Troposphere.
 Microwaves are electromagnetic waves similar to light.
 Propagation is affected by Free Space Attenuation, Reflection, Precipitation, Refraction,
Diffraction, Scattering and Polarization.
 Uses frequencies above 150 MHz.
 Uses angle modulation I.e. Frequency Modulation or Phase Modulation
Advantages of Microwave Radio:

 Microwave radios are cheaper than Satellite or Leased Line Service.

 Do not involve ROW (Right Of Way) Permissions.
 Radios have a stepped cost profile where as fibre has a linear cost profile.
 Radio systems are easy to install.
 Installation of Radios does not impact the intervening terrain since no digging is involved.
 Fast Roll out.
 Better overall reliability.

Free Space Loss

Before you can determine if a link is feasible, you must first calculate the link’s free space
loss. Free Space Loss is the expected attenuation of a signal as it travels away from the
Transmitting device. When a signal radiates from the antenna, it spreads out over an
increasingly larger distance. As the area covered increases, the power density (or the amount
of power per unit area) decreases. The effectively weakens the radio signal.

The radio signal is more concentrated at point A than at Point B. This is similar in principal
to how objects appear in a car’s headlights at night.

Objects closer to the headlights appear brighter than objects further away.

Transmitting source (car head light)

pointA pointB

The loss between the transmitting and the receiving antenna with transmission medium as
vacuum is termed as free space loss. The antenna at each side is isotropic having a gain of 1 or 0
dB.

FSL = 96.6 + 20 log D + 20 log F

Where F = frequency in GHz

D = distance in miles

Receiver Sensitivity Threshold:

The Receiver Sensitivity Threshold (Rx) defines the minimum signal strength required in
order for a radio to successfully receive a signal. A radio can not receive or interpret a signal
that is weaker than the receiver sensitivity threshold.

Receive Signal Level:

The Receive Signal Level (RSL) is the expected strength of a signal when it reaches the
receiving radio. The following formula defines the Receive Signal Level:

O - Lctx + Gatx – Lcrx + Gatx – FSL = RSL

Where,

Po is the output power of the transmitter (in dBm)

Lctx is the cable loss between the transmitter and its antenna (in dB)

Gatx is the gain of the transmitter’s antenna (in dBi)

Lcrx is the cable loss between the receiver and its antenna (in dB)

Gatx is the gain of the receiver’s antenna (in dBi)

FSL is free space loss (in dB)

Link Feasibility Formula

To determine if a link is feasible, we have to compare the calculated Receive Signal

Level with the Receiver Sensitivity Threshold. The link is theoretically feasible if

RSL > = Rx

If the Receive Signal Level is greater than or equal to the Receiver Sensitivity
Threshold, then the link may be feasible since the signal should be strong enough to be
successfully interpreted by the receiver.
The link is not feasible since RSL is less than Rx (-80.5 dB < − 77 dB).

Note: This formula is not a guarantee that a link is viable. It should be used for proof-of-
concept purpose only. The Receiver Signal Level does account for path fading phenomena
that may add addition loss to the radio signal and cause the strength of received signal to fall
below the receiver sensitivity threshold.

Fade Margin and link availability

Fade margin is the difference between the unfaded received signal level and the receive
sensitivity threshold. Each link must have sufficient fade margin to protect against path
fading that weakens the radio signals. Fade margin is directly related to Link Availability,
which is the percentage of time that the link is functional. The percentage of time that link is
available increases as the fade margin increases.

A link will experience fewer system outages with greater Fade Margin. A link with little or
no Fade Margin may experience periodic outages due to path fading phenomena.
Climate condition and path fading

Path fading occurs more frequently in flat, humid environments (like south eastern
U.S.) than in rough, dry location (like Rocky Mountain States). Therefore link in flat and
humid area requires a greater Fade Margin to achieve the same level of Link Availability as a
link in a rocky and dry location.

Path profile

A path profile is a graphical representation of the path traveled by the radio waves between
the two ends of a link. The path profile determines the location and height of the antenna at
each end of the link, and it insures that the link is the link of obstructions, such as hills, and
not subject to propagation losses from radio phenomena, such as multipath reflections.

In addition to terrain elevation ,a Path Profile must consider the effects of several
radio phenomena , including multipath reflections and refraction, and provide adequate
Fresnel Zone clearance.

Fresnel Zone clearance

The endpoints of a radio link must have unobstructed radio line-of-sight. Radio line-of-sight
is not the same optical line-of- sight (that is, the ability to see one end of a link from the
other). Microwaves have a lower frequency than visible light and , therefore, behave
differently in response to environmental conditions. Radio line-of- sight requires more
clearance than optical line-of-sight to accommodate the characteristics of microwave signals.
Figure illustrates a case where a path has optical line-of- sight but not radio line-of-sight.
An electromagnetic wave does not travel in a straight line: the wave spreads out as it
propagates. Also, the individual waves that make up a radio signal do not travel at the same
phase velocity. A French physicist, Augustine Fresnel, defined the propagation of a radio
wave as a three-dimensional elliptical path between the transmitter and receiver.
Fresnel divide the path into several zones based on the phase and speed of the
propagating waves ,as shown in the figure.

The size of each Fresnel Zone varies based on the frequency of the radio signal and the
length of the path. As frequency decreases, the size of the Fresnel Zone increases. As the
length of the path increases, the size of the Fresnel Zone also increases. A Fresnel Zone’s
radius is greatest at the mid point of the path. Therefore, the midpoint requires the most
clearance of any point in the path.

Multipath Reflections

As described earlier in the discussion of Fresnel Zones, a radio signal is composed of

individual waves that travel in different directions as the signal propagates. When a radio
wave hits a physical object, it may penetrate the object, be reflected by the object, or be
absorbed by the object.

A reflected wave causes a phenomenon known as multipath. Multipath means that the radio
signal can travel multiple paths to reach the receiver. Typically, multipath occurs when a
reflected wave reaches the receiver at the same as the direct wave that travels in a straight
line from the transmitter. If the two signals reach the receiver in-phase (that is, both signals
are at the same point in the wave cycle when they reach the receiver), then the signal is
amplified. This is known as an “upfade.” If the two waves reach the receiver out-of-phase
(that is, the two signals are at opposite points in the wave cycle when they reach the
receiver), they weaken the overall received signal. If the two waves are 180° apart when
they reach the receiver, they can completely cancel each other out so that a radio does not
receive a signal at all. A location where a signal is canceled out by multipath is called a
“null” or “downfade”.

Smooth surfaces , such as a body of water, a flat stretch of earth, or a metal roof, reflect
radio signals. In figure below, the body of water reflects a wave that cancels out the direct
signals and brings down the radio link.

To avoid system failures, one should design a path so that the reflected signal is dispersed by
an uneven surface before it reaches the receiver and cancels out the direct wave. In other
words, one should design the path so its reflection point does not fall on a reflective surface.
An RF engineer is to be consulted or use a path profile software program to identify the
location of a path’s reflection point.

Transmitter Receiver

Reflected Signal Cancels Out Direct Signal

If necessary, one can adjust the height or change the position of one or both antennas to move the
reflection point so that it is blocked by an obstruction or strikes an uneven surface. In figure
above, the height of the transmitting antenna has been reduced so that the reflected signal is
dispersed by rocky terrain.
 A Change in the Antenna Height Moves the Reflection Point

Refraction

Radio waves move slower through substances of greater densities. This causes a wave to
bend or refract as it travels through substances of different densities. For example, light
bends when it hits water. Since the density of the earth’s atmosphere decreases as
altitude increases, the bottom of a radio wave travels through a denser atmosphere
and moves more slowly than the top of the wave . This causes the radio signal to
refract or bend towards to earth’s surface following the curvature of the earth.
Refraction varies with environment conditions, such as humidity, temperature, barometric
pressure, and air density. For example, a radio signal bends closer to the earth at night than
during the day due to the increased moisture in the lower atmosphere that results
from condensation. In fact, most path fading caused by refraction occurs between midnight
and 7:00 am.

The refraction index, or K Factor, describes how a radio wave bends in relation to the
earth’s surface. In general, a Path Profile will use K = 4/3 to determine the effects of
refraction on a proposed radio link.

Commonly Used Capacity Configurations in MW Radio

 4 x 2 Mbps or 4 x E1
 8 x 2 Mbps or 8 x E1
 16 x 2 Mbps or 16 x E1
 155 Mbps or STM1

In microwave link there are mainly two types of transmission (Tx) technologies:

 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

Q. What is meant by "Plesiochronous"?

If two digital signals are Plesiochronous, their transitions occur at "almost" the same rate,
 with any variation being constrained within tight limits. These limits are set down in ITU-
T recommendation G.811. For example, if two networks need to interwork, their clocks
may be derived from two different PRCs. Although these clocks are extremely accurate,
there's a small frequency difference between one clock and the other. This is known as a
plesiochronous difference.

Q. What is meant by "Synchronous"?

In a set of Synchronous signals, the digital transitions in the signals occur at exactly the
same rate. There may however be a phase difference between the transitions of the two
signals, and this would lie within specified limits. These phase differences may be due to
propagation time delays, or low-frequency wander introduced in the transmission
network. In a synchronous network, all the clocks are traceable to one Stratum 1 Primary
Reference Clock (PRC).

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

There are three separate standards for PDH:

 CEPT Standards (Committee of European Posts and Telegraph)

 Min packet size is 2Mbps (30 voice channels or 32× 64kbps - 2 channels reserved for
signaling and related Tx info) also called E1
 Further multiples such as 8Mbps (120 channels), 34Mbps (480 channels),
140Mbps(1920 channels) were standardised by ITU-T. These different Tx capacities
are called Tx hierarchies. Each step, apart from data capacity, also contains some info
for handling the data e.g. destination addresses. Higher value systems working at
565Mbps are also available as proprietary equipment

 USA Standards
 Basic packet capacity - 1.5Mbps corresponding to 24 voice calls (also called T1)
 Later extended to 6Mbps (96 channels) and 45Mbps(672 channels)

 Japan’s Standards
 Basic packet capacity - 1.5Mbps (like USA)
 Later expanded to 32Mbps (480 channels), 100Mbps (1,440 channels) and 400Mbps
(5,760 channels) & 1.6Gbps (23,040 channels)

Comparison of Multiplexing Hierarchies

  CEPT & USA Standards are most popular

This multiplexing hierarchy appears simple enough in principle but there are complications.
When multiplexing a number of 2 Mbit/s channels they are likely to have been created by
different pieces of equipment, each generating a slightly different bit rate. Thus, before these 2
Mbit/s channels can be bit interleaved they must all be brought up to the same bit rate adding
'dummy' information bits, or 'justification bits'. The justification bits are recognize as such when
demultiplexing occurs, and discarded, leaving the original signal. This process is known as
plesiochronous operation, from Greek, meaning "almost synchronous". The same problems with
synchronization, as described above, occur at every level of the multipexing hierarchy, so
justification bits are added at each stage. The use of plesiochronous operation throughout the
hierarchy has led to adoption of the term "plesiochronous digital hierarchy", or PDH.

Details of PDH Signals:

Signal Digital Bit Rate Channels

E0 64 kbit/s One 64 kbit/s
E1 2.048 Mbit/s 32 E0
E2 8.448 Mbit/s 128 E0
E3 34.368 Mbit/s 16 E1
E4 139.264 Mbit/s 64 E1
The main limitations of PDH are:

 Inability to identify individual channels in a higher-order bit stream.

 Insufficient capacity for network management

 Most PDH network management is proprietary

 There's no standardised definition of PDH bit rates greater than 140 Mbit/s

 There are different hierarchies in use around the world. Specialized interface equipment is
required to interwork the two hierarchies

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

SDH stands for Synchronous Digital Hierarchy & is an international Standard for a high capacity
optical telecommunications network. It is a synchronous digital transport system aimed at
providing a more simple, economical and flexible telecommunication infrastructure.

Q. What led to SDH development ?

Before SDH, the first generations of fibre-optic systems in the public telephone network used
proprietary architectures, equipment line codes, multiplexing formats, and maintenance
procedures. The users of this equipment wanted standards so they could mix and match
equipment from different suppliers

The primary reason for the creation of SDH was to provide a long-term solution for an optical
mid-span meet between operators; that is, to allow equipment from different vendors to
communicate with each other. This ability is referred to as multi-vendor interworking and allows
one SDH-compatible network element to communicate with another, and to replace several
network elements, which may have previously existed solely for interface purposes.

Traditionally, digital transmission systems and hierarchies have been based on multiplexing
signals which are plesiochronous (running at almost the same speed). Also, various parts of the
world use different hierarchies which lead to problems of international interworking; for example,
between those countries using 1.544 Mbit/s systems (U.S.A. and Japan) and those using the 2.048
Mbit/s system.
Details of SDH Signals:

Bit Rate Abbreviated SDH SDH Capacity

51.84 Mbit/s 51 Mbit/s STM-0 21 E1
155.52 Mbit/s 155 Mbit/s STM-1 63 E1 or 1 E4
622.08 Mbit/s 622 Mbit/s STM-4 252 E1 or 4 E4
2488.32 Mbit/s 2.4 Gbit/s STM-16 1008 E1 or 16 E4
9953.28 Mbit/s 10 Gbit/s STM-64 4032 E1 or 64 E4
39813.12 Mbit/s 40 Gbit/s STM-256 16128 E1 or 256 E4

STM = Synchronous Transport Module

Q. What are the advantages of SDH over PDH?

The increased configuration flexibility and bandwidth availability of SDH provides significant
advantages over the older telecommunications system.

These advantages include:

 A reduction in the amount of equipment and an increase in network reliability.

 The provision of overhead and payload bytes - the overhead bytes permitting management
of the payload bytes on an individual basis and facilitating centralized Fault
sectionalisation, nearly 5% of signal structure allocated for this purpose.

 The definition of a synchronous multiplexing format for carrying lower-level digital

signals (such as 2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s, 140 Mbit/s) which greatly simplifies the interface to
digital switches, digital cross-connects, and add-drop multiplexers.

 The availability of a set of generic standards, which enable multi-vendor interoperability.

 The definition of a flexible architecture capable of accommodating future applications,

with a variety of transmission rates. Existing & future signals can be accommodated.

Various steps in multiplexing?

The multiplexing principles of SDH follow, using these terms and definitions:

Mapping:

A process used when tributaries are adapted into Virtual Containers (VCs) by adding justification
bits and Path Overhead (POH) information.

Aligning:

This process takes place when a pointer is included in a Tributary Unit (TU) or an Administrative
Unit (AU), to allow the first byte of the Virtual Container to be located.

Multiplexing:

This process is used when multiple lower-order path layer signals are adapted into a higher-order
path signal, or when the higher-order path signals are adapted into a Multiplex Section.

Stuffing:

As the tributary signals are multiplexed and aligned, some spare capacity has been designed into
the SDH frame to provide enough space for all the various tributary rates. Therefore, at certain
points in the multiplexing hierarchy, this space capacity is filled with "fixed stuffing" bits that
carry no information, but are required to fill up the particular frame.

1+1 protection:

In 1+1 protection switching, there is a protection facility (backup line) for each working facility
At the near end the optical signal is bridged permanently (split into two signals) and sent over
both the working and the protection facilities simultaneously, producing a working signal and a
protection signal that are identical. At the Far End of the section, both signals are monitored
independently for failures. The receiving equipment selects either the working or the protection
signal. This selection is based on the switch initiation criteria which are either a signal fail (hard
failure such as the loss of frame (LOF) within an optical signal), or a signal degrade (soft failure
caused by the error rate exceeding some pre-defined value).

1:N protection:

In 1:N protection switching, there is one protection facility for several working facilities (the
range is from 1 to 14). In 1:N protection architecture, all communication from the Near End to the
Far End is carried out over the APS channel, using the K1 and K2 bytes. All switching is
revertive; that is, the traffic reverts to the working facility as soon as the failure has been
corrected. In 1:N protection switching, optical signals are normally sent only over the working
facilities, with the protection facility being kept free until a working facility fails.

Standard Network Topologies

  Star
Advantages:
 Optimised cost of paths
 Simple NMS

Disadvantages:
o No Protection Path
o Centre determines the performance of the whole NW
o No optimised BW

 Tree
Advantages:
 Clear Hierarchies
 Simple NMS

Disadvantages:
o No Protection Path
o Failure of one branch separates whole NW parts

 Ring
Advantages:
 High Availability
 Simple NMS

Disadvantages:
o No. of elements depends on ring capacity and traffic relations
o Connected rings increase complexity

 Mesh
Advantages:
 High Availability
 High Flexibility
 Optimised paths
 Optimised BW

Diadvantages:
o Complex NMS
Common Network Architectures

 For N Stations N-1 Links are required

 Nth station depends on N-1 Links

• For N Stations N-1 Links are required

• Each Station depends on Only 1 Link

 For N Stations N Links are required

 Route Diversity is available for all stations
 Each Station is Connected to Every Other
 Full Proof Route Protection

 Typical Network Consist of Rings and Spurs

Network Routes and Route Capacities

 Inter- City routes – Backbone

• Backbone routes are planned at Lower Frequency Bands

• 2, 6 and 7 GHz Frequency Bands are used
• Backbone routes are normally high capacity routes
• Nominal Hop Distances 25 – 40 Km

 Intra – City routes – Access

• Access routes are planned at Higher Frequency Bands

• 15,18 and 23 GHz Frequency Bands are used
• Nominal Hop Distance 1 – 10 Km

Few well known MW Radio Manufacturers:

 ABB Nera
 NEC
 Siemens
 Digital Microwave Corporation
 Fujitsu
 Ericsson
 Alcatel
 Lucent
 Hariss

Cross Connect - Dx -140 Gb/ STM-64

Cross connect is connected with more then one links –each link having capacity STM-64 i.e.
cross connect Equipment must be capable of controlling all of them simultaneously & that
capacity is 140 GB (e.g. A train may be having capacity to carry 1000 passengers but the station
should have capacity - much more than that train - to control many trains at a time). The
backbone transport provides for connectivity between different LDCAs, SDCAs and cities. In
addition interconnect is extended for other NLD, CSP and FSP networks. The core network
comprises fully meshed, 7 primary and 14 secondary nodes. Physical architecture of the Core
Network comprises of two-tier ring network – Express Ring & Collector Ring. Traffic between
major metros and all major node cities is transported on the high capacity transport path – The
Express Ring. Traffic from the other LDCA’s (Long Distance Charging Areas) is transported on
The Collector Ring. The ring topology provides necessary protection to traffic in terms of
alternate path in case of breakage of the optical fibre or equipment failure thus ensuring smooth
undisrupted operation of the network.

The functions of the Core-Backbone Network are as follows:

 Provide connections, either on permanent basis or temporary basis for the transfer of
information in a cost effective, reliable and speedy manner
 Routing – which way to send the information
 Transport – how the information is carried

Ring Elements and Terminologies

In a Ring each node is called an Add-Drop Multiplexer (ADM).

An ADM has grossly three parts:

 Tributary - Interfaces with the non-ring nodes to bring in Traffic

 Payload Manager - Manages multiplexing & de-multiplexing activities
 Aggregate - Interfaces with the OFC Ring

From MCN’s on the NBB, we get Metro Access Rings - like state highways emerging from the
national highways. These MAR carry the traffic to over 1100 cities and town of the country.
Bandwidth of these MAR are in the range of 625 Mbps – 2.5 GBps and upgradeable further with
little change in the infrastructure. Nodes on MAR are known as MAN (e.g. SRM (Parel), Andheri
MIDC, Chembur). From MAN (Metro Access Nodes) on Metro Access Rings, we get Building
Access Rings (like Main Roads inside a City or Town.) These BAR connect various Building
Access Nodes. At the BAN, we have the Central Terminals (CT’s) or the Base Transceiver
Station (BTS). The CT’s connect several (14 as of today) Remote Terminal Units (RTU’s) which
in turn provide Fixed Access. The BTS covers all the Mobile Stations (MS) within it’s radius of
coverage, thus providing Wireless Access. Connection right up to the RTU is - through OFC (this
is therefore called Fiber To The Building), thus providing enormous bandwidth. These networks
are capable of providing both Narrow Band & Broadband services.
Transport element on MAN & BAN is known as ADM.

Ring capacity – FTTB – STM-1, BAR - STM 1 to STM – 4

MAR - STM 4 to STM – 16 NBB - STM - 64

Optical Fiber Cable (OFC) Link

Advantages of Optical Fiber

Distance:

The extremely low losses of modern telecom grade fiber enable distances of 50-100Km between
repeaters to be routinely achieved.

Capacity/Bandwidth:

The information carrying capacity of optical fiber can be enormous. G-652 has capacity
2.5Gbps/fiber/wave length. It can provide the equivalent of 30,000 individual telephone signals of
64kbit/sec and G-655 has capacity 10Gbps/fiber/wavelength (1000GB/sec is now very close to
being achieved).

Security:

Optical fiber systems do not radiate any signal, and hence have almost total immunity to ‘wire
tapping’. It can be done but is very difficult unless access to splices or connectors is possible.

Immunity to Noise:

The glass optical fiber is a dielectric rather than a metal and thus does not act as an antenna in the
way metal conducting elements do. The fiber will not, therefore suffer from inductive
interference such as Radio Interference (RFI), Electromagnetic Interference (EMI),
Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP). This effective immunity to interference makes it possible to use
fibers alongside or even on power lines.

Long Life:

Fiber does not corrode like metal conductors.

Light Weight:

Optical fiber is remarkably light in weight. A 10Km stand of telecom grade fiber on a shipping
spool weighs less than 2kg whereas a 500m reel of co-ax copper cable weighs 30kg.

Environmentally Friendly:

Manufactured from the most abundant material in the earths crust. Comparatively small amounts
of raw material are required therefore energy, transport and process costs are reduced. By using
fiber for communications the world’s copper reserves are saved for other purposes.

Future Proof:

Maybe yes - maybe no. It is impossible to know, however the signs are encouraging. It lasts a
long time –we only use a small amount of its theoretical capacity—as a result it is probably fair to
say that fiber provides our most future proof transmission medium.

Disadvantages:
1. OFC is costlier than Cu-wire.
2. OFC is fragile.
3. OFC are difficult to join.
4. OFC has its own set of losses – dispersion, absorption, etc.

An optical fiber is made of three sections:

 The core that carries the light signals i.e. optic pulse travels in core only
 The cladding that keeps the light in the core serves the purpose of Compound wall
 The coating that protects the glass

Fiber dimensions are measured in μm.

• 1 μm = 0.000001 meters (10-6)
• 1 human hair ~ 50 μm

Refractive Index (n)

• n=c/v
• n ~ 1.468
• n (core) > n (cladding)
• c = 3 x 108 Meter/second
Fiber Geometry

Core:

The core of an optical fiber is a glass rod - denotes the central part of the fiber where the majority
of the light propagates.

Cladding:

The cladding of an optical fiber surrounds the core and has a Refractive Index lower than that of
core. This difference in refractive index allows total internal reflection to occur within the fiber
core and avoids the entry into the Cladding. Total internal reflection is the phenomenon by which
light propagates in optical fiber.

Coating is made up of PVC material-available in different colours as per ITU code.

If we get an optical tunnel where once a light pulse enters at one end can only come out at the
other end, would serve our purpose. An OFC is just that. Transmission through an OFC is like a
light ball traveling down a tunnel. It reflects several times on the “wall” before reaching the end
of the tunnel.

Snell's law is defined as: n1 sinA1 = n2 sinA2,

Where
• n is the refractive index and A the corresponding angles as shown.
• The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a
given medium.
• n1 = C / V
• C = Velocity of light in Vacuum i.e. 3 x 108 metres per second.
• V = Velocity of light in a given medium
So, if the top part of the diagram is CORE & n1 is Refractive Index of the Core material and if
the bottom part is Cladding, n2 is Refractive Index of the Cladding material. When light passes
from one medium to another, the angles & refractive indexes of the media determined the path
that light took. The relationship is a function of the sine of the angles, also known as the “Law of
Sines” (by Descartes).

The phenomenon of total internal reflection was discovered by John Tendel in 1854, when he
filled a can with water, which had a hole at the lowest level. Obviously water started flowing out
of the hole forming a curved projectile path. As Tendell lit a torch at the top of the Can, a portion
of that light would come out of the hole at the bottom. These light rays then experience total
internal reflection because Refractive Index (n) of water is greater than air. Thus these rays would
bend along with the watery projectile path giving rise to the idea that light could travel in a
curved path if the phenomenon of TIR is repeated many times.
Optical Fibre Specifications
Optical Spectrum

The Optical Spectrum can be divided into three regions:

Ultra Violet:

That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in which the longest wavelength is just below the
visible spectrum, extending from approximately 4 nm to 400 nm.

Visible Light:

Electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye; wavelengths of 400-700 nm.

Infrared (IR):

The region of the electromagnetic spectrum bounded by the long wavelength, extreme of the
visible spectrum (about 0.7 μm) and the shortest microwaves (about 0.1 μm).

Nowadays to generate different wavelengths pluggable lasers of different Frequency are

available. In the old days different cards were available for different frequency.

Attenuation
  Attenuation is the measure of the reduction in signal magnitude, or loss, along a length of
fiber.
 Attenuation is one factor which determines the power loss.
 Attenuation in fiber optic cabling is usually expressed in decibels per unit length of cable
(i.e. dB/km) at a specified wavelength.
 Attenuation describes how energy is lost or dissipated.

Loss is the cost of moving something, like charges or particles or light pulses.

Attenuation in fiber optic cabling is usually expressed in decibels per unit length of cable (i.e.
dB/km) at a specified wavelength.

Attenuation = 10 log10 (Iout / Iin)

Where,
Iout = outgoing intensity (intensity is measured in Watt/m-2)
Iin = incoming intensity (Watt/m-2)

Sources of Attenuation in Fibers

Absorption (proportional to 1 / λ)

Caused by impurities in the glass, and any atomic defects in the glass increases dramatically
above 1700 nm. The peak absorption occurs at approximately 1400nmλ.

Scattering (proportional to 1 / λ4)

Scattering is caused by small variations in the density of glass. Loss of optical energy due to
imperfections / in homogeneities (localized density variations). And therefore act as scattering
objects.

Geometric Effects (proportional to λ)

Bending losses increases with increase in wavelength. Effects of 2 cm radius bend at three
wavelengths.

Scattering and Absorption decides suitability of optical fiber for transmission at specific
frequencies only. If a graph of Loss in dB/km is plotted against the wavelength then we observe
that, ‘Attenuation varies with the wave length of light.’ The fiber exhibits minimum attenuation at
wavelength slots, 1310nm, and 1550nm. These are called, second window and third window.

The second and the third windows are in practical use today, i.e. we don't use the 850 nm any
more except for some restricted applications. The 850 nm was in use in the past when the Laser
Diodes available were of 850 nm only.

Bending Losses

Wavelength Multiplexing
In switches connections change from call to call.

Switches are intra-network devices designed to increase performance in client/server networks by

facilitating LAN segmentation. Because switches can be implemented without changing adapters,
cabling, hubs, etc., network investments are preserved. In addition, switches facilitate the creation
and management of virtual LANs, a logical grouping of users, independent of their physical
location. With switches, ad hoc workgroups can be created, managed, and changed by software
rather than hardwiring. Essentially, a LAN switch is a low-latency, multiport bridge that creates
separate segments. Switches are used to provide dedicated bandwidth to specific users or server-
based groups of users in Ethernet and Token Ring and/or to transition to higher-speed
technologies, such as FDDI, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and/or ATM.

Switches can be used to:

• Interconnect elements of a distributed computing system;
• Provide high-speed connections to campus backbones and servers; and
• Scale network bandwidth by adding more switched ports.

Switching technology has three principal advantages: scalable bandwidth, flexibility, and high
performance. For all these reasons, switches have emerged as the industry’s hottest solution for
increasing network bandwidth, providing higher levels of performance, and reducing overall cost
of ownership. The common force driving the need for switching is network growth in clients,
servers, and applications.

There are no hard and fast rules on where to switch and what technologies to use, but there are
some generally accepted guidelines to consider. Switched Ethernet and Token Ring, since they
are 10, 4, and 16 Mbps technologies respectively, are best suited for workgroup and departmental
deployment. They are also the easiest to implement and most cost effective. Fast Ethernet, which
is 100 Mbps, is ideal for connecting servers in workgroups and linking departments to building
backbones. Gigabit Ethernet, with its 1000 Mbps speed, will provide even faster connectivity at
this level and support super-user workgroups. Fast Ethernet is relatively easy to install and is
cost-effective, since it’s based on existing technology and cabling.
However, Fast Ethernet does have distance limitations and lower utilization rates, so it’s not ideal
for backbone implementation. This backbone is for relatively shorter distances.
 Conclusion

Today, the battle between CDMA and GSM is muddled. Where at one point Europe clearly
favored GSM and North America, CDMA, the distinct advantage of one over the other has
blurred as major carriers like AT&T Wireless begin to support GSM, and recent trials even
showed compatibility between the two technologies.

GSM still holds the upper hand however. There's the numerical advantage for one thing: 456
million GSM users versus CDMA's 82 million.

Advantages of CDMA include:

• Increased cellular communications security.

• Simultaneous conversations.
• Increased efficiency, meaning that the carrier can serve more subscribers.
• Smaller phones.
• Low power requirements and little cell-to-cell coordination needed by operators.
• Extended reach - beneficial to rural users situated far from cells.

Disadvantages of CDMA include:

• Due to its proprietary nature, all of CDMA's flaws are not known to the engineering
community.
• CDMA is relatively new, and the network is not as mature as GSM.
• CDMA cannot offer international roaming, a large GSM advantage.
 References

• www.wikipedia.com/cdma

• www.efy.com/mts

• www.google.com/cdma

• www.scribd.com